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Hitler's Messengers: the Hitler Youth and the Propagation of Nazi

CEU eTD Collection Propagation of Nazi Amongst Ethnic Hitler’s Messengers: The and the and Youth Hitler The Messengers: Hitler’s in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. Submitted to the Central European University Department of History University of to Department Central European the Submitted Second Reader: Professor Marsha Siefert Professor Reader: Second Supervisor: Professor Balázs Trencsényi of the Batschka By Caroline E. Mezger , Budapest, 2012 CEU eTD Collection not be made without the written permission of the Author. a part of any made.such copies made copies Further in accordance with may such instructions the Central European Library. Details may be obtained from the librarian. This page must form maypart, be made in only accordancewith instructionsthe givenby Author andthe lodgedin Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either in full or Statement of Copyright i CEU eTD Collection ideological during 1930sand the projects 1940s.The Batschka’s “ populations became embroiled within amultitude of contestations state, by national,greater and Batschka’s early the the century, composition during politics,twentieth ethnic and borders, in fluctuated that in a former Habsburg Located Batschka. of the communities German sources— includingsources— and German ethnographicstudiesand 1940s of range a employing and analysis of micro-levels and meso-, macro-, into Split communities. German of ethnic Batschka’s the identities andnational affiliations, political interactions, communities. within their “conversion” and about National Socialist definitions of formations,“educate” “Hitler werenotmerely youths framework Youth” themselves to of “Germanness,” but Reich also to act as agents of “education” —the hoped toforge an “ ” thatwould bewillingfight to and die “for by were targeted Third the massthrough the “education” which— Reich, of ethnic in Germans , oral oral histories, and propaganda, German-speaking pressfromcontemporaneous Hungary youthand Nazi , interpretations of their own national identities. with,as theBatschka’s ethnic becameconfronted anddefended,Germans conflicting was divisive, impact their masses.” Rather, “totalitarian of the interpretation from a traditional As study this illustrates, “effects”the of programs Nazi youth were manifold andfarremoved andvarious actors perspectives involvedwith the Nazi mobilization “ of and This investigatesthesis creationthe of National Socialistyouth groups within ethnic This study explores Nazi tactics of youth mobilization and their effects on on social the mobilization youth theirand effects of exploresThis Nazi study tactics Führer .” Youthsbecame crucial this scheme.Ideologizedwithin within the Heimatgemeinde Abstract ii -based memoires— this thesis investigates the investigates thesis this memoires— -based Donauschwaben Volksgeschichten ” especially ” youths. , CEU eTD Collection has nourished and sustained me, and whom to thesisthis is dedicated. for several in asIresearcheddays Novi Belgrade.Sad and early twentieth-century Yugoslavia; Dejanand to Luki ; to Iva Mandi Iva to translations; progressed: toBálintTolmar for his continuous feedback, assistance, and language Hungarian well as for providing insights into this topic that made this thesis possible in the first place. encouragementand input I that kindly received from individuals the working there. generously funding months two of research in for this andproject, for the Siefert, for providing me with crucial new perspectives and direction over the past few months. Marsha Professor my youThankto reader, also second progressed. this project feedback as manyguidance past individualsthese of two over years. Thank youThank finally my to friends family,and during support whose these past twoyears Thank you, furthermore, to various friends, without whom this research could nothave Thank you also to my interviewees for sharing their time and experiences with me, as youThank also totheInstitutfür deutsche Kultur for undGeschichte Südosteuropas Thankyou, first of myall, to supervisor, Professor Balázs Trencsényi,for his invaluable The creation of this thesis would nothave been possible without the support and ü for her Serbo- translations and data on schools in schools on data and translations language Serbo-Croatian her for Acknowledgments iii ü , who so kindly, who me andhosted guided CEU eTD Collection WORKS CITED WORKS APPENDIX CONCLUSION FRAGMENTATIONS REFLECTIONS FROMBELOW— ON PAST PERSPECTIVES CURRENT CHAPTER 5: FOLK TRADITION TO “HARBINGERS OF [NAZI] ENLIGHTENMENT” TO SS FODDER. TOSS OF[NAZI] ENLIGHTENMENT” TO“HARBINGERS TRADITION FOLK OF FROMSTUDENTS PERSPECTIVE— FROM ATRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS CHAPTER 4: THE TRANSFORMATION OF THETRANSFORMATION THE BATSCHKA’S CHAPTER 4: OF YOUTHS AS AN INSTRUMENTOF YOUTHS INTERNATIONAL PROPAGANDA OF ANDTHE YOUTH— THEHITLER EMPLOYMENT EVOLUTION, CHAPTER 3: ORIGINS, CHAPTER 2: THE NAZI IMAGINED THENAZIGEOGRAPHY— CHAPTER 2: IMAGINED TOWARDS THE BATSCHKA, 1930S- 1940S CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS THEORETICAL CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.3 1.2 1.1 H T Y O C P P P C R T I T N N L A A T T C C DEOLOGICAL HE UGOSLAVIA ERSPECTIVE ERSPECTIVE ERSPECTIVE UNGARY HE HE ATE ECRUITMENTS HE HE ONCLUSIONS ONCLUSIONS RAL ATIONALIZING THE ATIONAL ONCLUSIONS P W ONCLUSIONS OST F EIMAR H F E B ...... 152 INAL T ORMATION OF THE XPANSION OF ATSCHKA H ITLER HIRD -G ISTORY : ...... 145 LEICHSCHALTUNG T S ...... 166 Y S OCIALISM AS HE : EARS Y R TUDYOF THE ...... 1 A C T T O OUTH EICH N ONTENT AND ...... 143 HREE WO ...... 106 NE E : ...... 99 ...... 71 ...... 50 ...... 21 ...... A VOLUTION OF THE A ...... 109 : : : P LTERNATE B C C ’ C G ROBLEMS WITH THE S RIEF : M HILDREN ONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF THE HILDREN ERMAN C F ASSES WITHIN HILDREN OREIGN H T G B OTALITARIANISM AND ITLER EOGRAPHICAL AND ATSCHKA N D I P ATIONAL NTERESTS IN NTERESTS O ISSEMINATION OFTHE R ATH TO A BSERVE Table of Contents ESIST E Y CTIVITIES NGAGE IN OUTH V OLKSBUND AND THE AND OLKSBUND ...... 37 ...... I NTERSTITIAL N N S N AZI ...... 53 ...... OCIALIST B ATIONALISTIC AZI ATSCHKA ...... 64 ...... S ...... 31 ...... A N OUTHEASTERN CTIVITIES A iv AZI H CTIVITIES ISTORICAL ...... 9 F A S B ASCISM TUDY OF THE TUDY OF CTIVITIES ’ S ATSCHKA S H PACES R ITLER ...... 120 S EUNIFICATION AND ELF ...... 110 D ...... 9 I EUTSCHE ...... 15 ...... NTRODUCTION E -A Y ...... 132 ...... 47 ...... UROPE OUTH WARENESS B ATSCHKA ...... 59 ...... 34 ...... J VOLKSDEUTSCHE UGEND , ...... 31 ...... 9914 ...... 92 ...... 1919-1941 S AMBITIONS ...... 40 ...... WEEPING , 9914...... 74 1919-1944...... 52 ...... SS YOUTH 73 CEU eTD Collection between interviewer and interviewee. and interviewer between 2 32. 1 Reich and its abominable consequences,it is perhaps surprising howfew narratives like month hisreturn. mereone after exist homeland— ahomeland which,for its over 173,000 German inhabitants, on hisjourney opulent and the “glories” of Nazi back inhis Southeastern European engulfed Germany in 1944, Friedrich was to become an emissary for the a seemingly“motherland.” In far setting,from removedutopic horrors the of warthatthe now had the privilege of traveling to Germany,participate in expedition.this Asan active memberof his Hitler local group, Friedrich Youth to see— for the first time in — the chocolate, oranges, and bananas. And they waited for the arrival Adolfof Hitler. ever first their They tasted largestorgan. hear theworld’s to Cathedral Erfurt visited the Spielmannszug splendoramongst baroque of the slept surrounding , ,Weimar, traveled to Germany. For one month, youths these packedhissixteen-year-old bagsand, with Germanthirty other boys and girls from the Interview with Friedrich Fischer* and Caroline Mezger, 24 May *Name2011. changed as percontract signed Zoran Janjetovi Zoran Considering the wealth of research that has been dedicated in past decades to the Thirdinhas the decades to beendedicated that past of Considering wealth research the Friedrich Friedrich itwouldexpected be lifetime. the journey of a InearlyAugust 1944, the Friedrich, born in Bukin in the Batschka, was one of the elect few from the territory to ü , musicians alsostaying on premises,the and readSchiller and Goethe. They Between Hitler and Tito: The Disappearance of the Vojvodina Germans 2 Introduction Schloss 1 Belvedere, sharedstories with various Third Reich (Belgrade: s.n. 2000), 1 longer no would , reporting CEU eTD Collection like the Batschka first “spiritually,” and then physically, as these became part conquer attempted to states evidence therein, ethnic of Largely communities particular due to withincommunities situated became highly by regions nascentvarious nation-states. contested invasions. farmersby (primarily German devastated to“repopulate” Catholic) territories Ottomanthe realm—flourished especially during the eighteenth century, asimperial decrees urged steady trickle of from settlers communities—Germany, especiallywithin these theHabsburg of formed from historiographical Supposedly the contention. twelfth century by onwards a for within itself a minefield decades,hasfoundEurope that, andSoutheastern Central, Eastern, region. the within movements and communities, “ of self-identification national and political the molding in played movement youth Nazi the that role the and Hungary— Southern and Vojvodina the split between now a of the Batschka— German territory enclaves ethnic threads: unexplored “ Institute, HungarianAcademy of Sciences, 1998), 139-142. Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin 4 borders. their for “harnessing” up cause the to 27million ethnic living of Germans outside Germany’s reveals gapsinastonishing relation to one particular topic: the Nazi government’s inefforts and haveEastern Western fronts still attention, considerable received historical scholarship 3 andSS Holocaust, the propaganda, National cult, Socialist Friedrich’s beenhave While heard. issues such as therise of Hitler’s NSDAP,the personality See, for instance Karolyi Kocsis and Eszter Kocsis-Hodosi, “Chapter 5: The of Vojvodina,” in of Vojvodina,” Hungarians 5: The “Chapter Kocsis-Hodosi, Eszter and Kocsis Karolyi instance for See, Z.A.B. Zeman, Z.A.B. Volksdeutsche The first of thread to thisrelates history research of the Germanethnic in communities 3 4 This thesis will explore the topic of Nazi policy towards these so-called these crumbled, as empires periods, II WarWorld and interwar During the Nazi Propaganda ” during theinterwar andWorld War interweaving IIperiods, yetlargely two (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973),71. 2 (Budapest: Geographical Research Geographical (Budapest: Volksdeutsche crimes along the along crimes ” individuals, CEU eTD Collection programs in programs latethe 1930sand early into 1940s, andwasultimately one transformed of the ethnic in Germans 1931, however, warrant separateVolksdeutsche attention. On the one hand, the region WestBanat, respectively. dominated was home to over 173,000 Völkl,Akiko and Shimizu have published about German minorities in Hungary and the into the into in atrocities Zoran like region.the Janjetovi Scholars 5 of in at indoctrination the part also (aimed which “colonial” studied further andthedegreeto Naziinvasion the projects , of have Bergen, Doris and Furber, David Harvey, Elizabeth Connelly, John as such scholars, 1938 Nazi occupation— ultimately infascistindoctrinationresulted and ethniccleansing. Other various ethnic in andlinguistic groups Bohemia, aprocess which— especially inlightof post- the “nationalize” to governments German and Czech both by launched projects into insights recentyears. Gary Cohen, Jeremy King, and Tara Zahra, for instance, have provided interesting in conducted been have War, World Second the during played these that role the and Europe, becamethus afocus for widespread nationalist andpolitical indoctrination and mobilization. individualsEmpire”—seemed toopen, ethnicities of various within multi-ethnic these regions “millennial Third “Aryan” establishment of the and—for an of conquest the Reich, territories for the WorldWar,as the arena Second during the Especially irredenta. of national various Zoran Janjetovic, Zoran Despite this research, however, virtually no inquiries have been made into made been have inquiries no virtually however, research, this Despite Significant studies on ethnic German enclaves of Central, Eastern, andSoutheastern German studies Eastern, of ethnic enclaves on Central, Significant Volksdeutsche of the Batschka specifically. The ethnic German enclaves of this region, Between Hitler and Tito movements of the Vojvodina, while Norbert Spannenberger, Ekkehard Spannenberger, Norbert while Vojvodina, the of movements 5 Nazi and 1930s early by the studies Nazi of target became a , 32. Volksdeutsche 3 ü and Carl offeredinsights andCarl Bethke have ) played a role in the perpetration of Reich - CEU eTD Collection in Hungary as the “ April 1938,for example, one German publication inBudapest already regularly referred toGerman communities “Eastern ” of such also becomes evident conceptualization The in Nazi framework. publications inimperialistic in an relation to conducted Hungary were Europe and the HitlerSoutheastern and Youth. Eastern Byin International History Review 7 Ungarn Riedl, Franz example, 6 contributorsgreatest of amongst SS troops Europe’s their scope to become an “imperializing” force. “imperializing” tobecometheir an scope Youth and its subsidiary Hitler the Nazi League,” in asthe “Youth created February 1922 First ideology. anti-Semitic organizationsand racist virulently and ultra-nationalistic, palingenetic, genocidal, their of realization (likeultimate the towards the creation mobilization youth as a was envisioned Harvey haveindicated, a cornerstone Germany’s of and perpetuationthesis. of mass support As historians youths, mobilization predominantly forms the atopicover of thesecond of that thread this for the Nazis, as suchwelldisputed borderlands— especially amongst ethnic German populations— occurred as astowards Gerhard the Rempel, H.across time and “identities,” but alsoW. across political situation and greater nationalKoch, context. Michael multi-ethnic andof territories nationalization interestingstudy the radicalization on avenue of Kater,including the German “ and ElizabethHorthy’s Hungary. Home toapanoply linguistic,of ethnic, and religious communities— Axisthe invasion, Batschka powers’ again the once formed asingleunder unit administrative purview of Kingdom the of Yugoslavia in 1920 (the restremained in Hungary). In 1941, after level. Part of Kingdomthe of Hungary beforemost 1918, of Batschkathe cameunder the onatrans-national perspective comparative aninteresting presents also Batschka hand, the Recent studies, such as David Furber’s 2004 “Near as Far in the Colonies: The Nazi Occupation of Poland” ( See, for instance, Janjetovic, instance, for See, (Hungary: Druckerei- und Verlags-AG, Ujvidek-Neusatz, 1944), 139. As this study will show, contests over allegiancethe of various ethnic groups within Reichsdeutsche Kolonie Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn , Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 541 Between Hitler and Tito Donauschwaben , published by ”— this region hence represents not merely an ” [“Führer, und Reich!- Aufruf Bohles an die an Bohles Gauleiter Aufruf Reich!- und Volk ” [“Führer, - 579) stress the manner in which Nazi programs and policies and programs Nazi which in manner the stress 579) , 165-166. This is echoed in Nazi publications also; see, for 4 Landesgruppe derAuslandorganisation derNSDAP in Bund DeutscherMädel 7 youths German of thousands Hundredsof Volksdeutsche communities. ), by ), 1933, expanded 6 On the other Onthe The CEU eTD Collection ethnic composition, and economic and strategic advantages of regions like the Batschka for the theBatschka like of regions advantages andstrategic economic and composition, ethnic limitations, of will perceived geographical the ananalysis thisand chapter provide 1940s, empire.” UsingGermanethnographical,historical, publications political and from 1930s the regionsthat Batschkawereassigned likethe play to thecreation within of “millennial Hitler’s chapter will explore Third the imagined and geography Reich’s of Europe Southeastern therole will be split into four distinct sections, of identifications region’sthe “ each dedicated self- to national and a separate affiliations, political interactions, social the on layer level, community of analysis. The the on and firstindividual the on had, attempts such that effects the as well as territories, the within people, projects launched the by National the toappeal Socialists to ethnic youths German “become”Socialists. National were to communities, greater relationships— stageupon whichthe ultimately constructed youths,German and their thus withinfolkloric media institutions— allimbedded various campaigns,andeducational extant groups, a complex web of covert Third Reich- NorthCarolina 8 Number3, 1(April 1938), 3]. “ like assumed Batschka amuchthe more form. diversified Exchange programs between regions within youths of mobilization and ideologization the however, show, will thesis this Auslanddeutschenund Seefahrer” in “ asan conceptualized (also education” of ethnic Germans and their recreation into“proper” Germans with Nazi proclivities help“re- with the to territories Eastern conquered newly the into especially were sent Gerhard Rempel, Gerhard Volksdeutsche This thesis will Thirdstudy the conceptualizations Reich’s of Batschka the andits Press, 1989), 136, 160. ” and “ Hitler’s Children: The Hitler Youth and theSS Reichsdeutsche Umvolkung Deutsche Nachrichten: Mitteilungsblatt der Reichsdeutschen in Ungarn Donauschwaben. ” youths, convergences with National Socialism of ” of German-speaking communities at the time). the at communities German-speaking of ” 5 ” In order to explore these issues, the thesis issues,the these toexplore In order ” Volksdeutsche (Chapel Hill and London: The University of organization-host state organization-host , Vol. 8 As CEU eTD Collection organizations, the historical trajectory historical organizations, the of trajectory Batschka afterthe 1941, and various competing a discussion Hungarian the of of development and Yugoslav folkloric clubs to their,by 1940s, the fully “ radicalized trace evolution the of youth within German moreorganizations Batschkafrom generalizedthe speaking publications and from Hungary, Batschkaitself, Yugoslavia, the will chapter this manifestations of such planned projects within Batschka.Analyzing the various German- their greater communities— in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. strategies employed by ThirdReichthe indoctrinate German-speakingto children— and thus schools,groups, andorgans abroad,of willpropaganda this thearsenal chapter illustrate of “ between the like programs for large-scale the ideologization of youthsGerman-speaking across Europe. Discussing a medium youths indoctrination from the geared towards of Germany within an to organization evolved quickly Youth Hitler the how illustrate then will chapter this Reich, Third the from Germany. Implementingextant both secondary literature and primary materialspropaganda and its (like the subsidiary organizations provide a brief explanation of the historical origins, evolution, and purposes of the Hitler Youth “education” of youths within this territory. lay for groundwork a the further discussion of significancethe of mobilizationthe and “ expansion of Thirdthe Reich. Paying particular attention to conceptualizations of the Volksdeutsche The second chapter will be followed by a meso-level interpretation of the actual first will interpretation, historical alsoa macro-level basedon The second chapter, Reichsdeutsche ,” and their potential will this forchapter within the and uses Batschka, Reich, potential ,” their the Landdienst ” and “ , the , Volksdeutsche Kinderlandverschickung Bund Deutscher Mädel 6 ” children, andthe establishment of Nazi youth Deutsche Jugend Deutsche , various exchange programs or the or ” form. Placed within Placed form. ” Jungvolk Volksdeutsche ) within CEU eTD Collection of the region and its Germans, for the Reich, would beplanningSocialist andactivities fornearly decades Crucial thereafter. two “harnessing”the to the inculcation of “ andbreadbasket manpower, agricultural provider of Batschkabecamethe for ahotbed National its for potential least an early by from A the as 1930s onwards coveted at Germany region the larger consequences of larger suchthe of such consequences were diversified: some became, through activities mostthat, efficiently, would occur through educationthe youths.of As study this will indicate, creation tiedof tothe aninculcation a “German” values, identity supposed National Socialist loyal to the to loyal intendedBatschka was toserve asacornerstone towards creation of the a German population . German predominately and multi-ethnic youths— had on particularly these incursions of amongst Socialism— impact that the National will fragmentary the illustrate memoires— to this memorabilia, chapter and attempt personal and Further national presentingself-perceptions. primary materials— like photographs, political activities, social composition, have may communities’ these hadon that effects the and communities, Batschka in various activities youth Socialist National of, observations 1940s, chapterthis will investigate memoriesthe individualof involvementwith, or interviews with conducted German individuals raised in Batschka the during the 1930s and activities of National youth Socialistprograms in the Batschka. Introducing variousoral history Volksdeutsche Batschka’sthe including Germans— its youth— soonbecame one of most radicalizedthe political and national projects within this region, this analysis will show how a large segment of As this thesis will ultimately show, the Third Reich’s mobilization youthsof within the the of effects the on examination micro-historical a implement will chapter final The Reich, populations in Central in populations Central and Europe. Eastern to the to Führer , and to the tenets of within ahighly contested territory. 7 Volksdeutsche ” with CEU eTD Collection a stance on, and forge a definition of, their own political and national identities. for asall consequences these forced Third communities, the totake had Reich were significant of incursions the however, Ultimately, two. the between vacillated others still beliefs; anti-Nazi for their someof werepersecuted Nazi supporters the regime; highly enthusiastic activities, 8 CEU eTD Collection During 1950s the and 1960s, with Hannah Arendt Carl or Friedrich and ZbigniewBrzezinski, andreassertion. delegitimization, reconceptualization, of definition, cycles and competing National Socialism as and 1.1 thesis. this of chapter final the for is utilized which history, oral employing of implications theoretical and methodological the on discussion andtheir canbeidentifications, fluctuations, studied. In particular, finalthe section will a offer self- national in which manners for an explanation offer then will it Ultimately, borderlands. contested of communities minority amongst created as especially nationalism, of discussion willof componentDescribing thenationalistic totalitarian this projects, chapter providethen a mostpertinentto this study. of“totalitarianism” presentingvast subject, conceptualizations the Thischapter“fascism.” will initially of this some theoretical underpinnings therefore provide discussion firstthereof thus requires an likeof elucidation concepts “totalitarianism” and andits subsidiaries were projects driven by aimsthe and of tenets National Socialism; any too,willchapter, be of composed intellectual various TheHitler intermingling threads. Youth such an undertaking. Asthis thesis employs arange of frameworks approaches, theoretical this foremost, a theoretical framework that laysand thefirst analytic andnecessitates, methodological communities, these foundations of for identifications national and political the on groups “ Batschka’s Theories of Theories beenhave fortotalitarianism decades,engaging incirculating fluctuating An exploration of the creation of National Socialistyouth groups amongst the Volksdeutsche Chapter 1: Theoretical Frameworks 1:Theoretical Chapter ” communities, and a concomitant analysis of the effects of of such effects analysis the of concomitant anda ” communities, 9 CEU eTD Collection with renewed emphases on— as Emilio Gentile claims— the “sacralisation of politics” and, as and, of politics” “sacralisation the claims— Gentile asEmilio on— emphases with renewed amalgamating previous trendshistorical of research and supplying“totalitarianism studies” be studiesseem to ontotalitarianism regimes,by current aesthetics employed these and rhetoric the also but politics, totalitarian of implications social the merely not Analyzing “revival” of kind mass movement. differentiated— highly ideology creation a—socially a key the again,to of as once turned, to increasingly Kotkin Stephen Mosseor like George intellectuals regimes, of totalitarian aesthetics followed focusing suit: totalitarianism studies on specificrituals,the rhetoric, and practices, Criticism of an Interpretation,” in Interpretation,” ofan Criticism 11 (Ithaca, New CornellYork: University Press, 1992), pp.16-36, 149-183. and “Stalin and the Making of the New Elite,” in 10 RogerGriffin (London: Routledge, 2005), 4-8. Fascism, Totalitarianism and (Political) Religion,” in 9 regimes. these de-ideologizedtowards more totalitarian for approach andtaking a support regimes, social of mechanisms analyzing dichotomy, perpetrator versus victim oversimplified the for instance, between stance, differentiated a rule, taking totalitarian under study of societies Arendtian models of “total anddomination” but terror, state moved increasingly a towards permeated historiographies in general, studies totalitarianism began focusing not merely on party. andthecentralized ideologization, mass sphere, the into intrusions coercion, terror, domination, state complete of principles its initial reached for instance, “totalitarianism” basedheavily theoretical formulations, on (London: Routledge,2005), 43. To this effect, see, for instance, Roger Griffin, “Introduction: God’s Counterfeiters? Investigating the Triad of Triad the Investigating Counterfeiters? God’s “Introduction: Griffin, Roger instance, for see, effect, this To See Emilio Gentile, “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion: Definitions and Critical Reflections on See, for instance, Sheila Fitzpatrick, “The Bolshevik’s Dilemma: The Class Issue in Party Politics and Culture,” It seems current studies that ontotalitarianism— which experiencingare themselves a 10 During 1980sandwith thegeneral the “cultural 1990s, ofhistorical turn” studies, 11 — are taking largely upon an thisapproach constructed “cultural turn.” Fascism,Totalitarianism and Political Religion TheCultural Front: PowerCulture and inRevolutionary Russia Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion 10 9 By the 1970s, with the “social turn” that , edited by RogerGriffin , edited by CEU eTD Collection National Socialists notionsEmploying of charismatic leadership first(as studied by forMax Weber, example), the elevatedrevolutionizing HitlerThe society Nationalto basedthe onstatus the tenets of Socialists, of a Nazism“divine” and the totalleader control withinas of isthe NSDAP.commonlyan “elaborate accepted, came to power with an agenda of this According project. toGentile’s definition, totalitarianism is: beproves suitable most to for that definition it current is Gentile’s perhapslisted above, Emilio national, that I would like to present this thesis. view of totalitarianism, with an analysis of its “cultural” productions and its effects on the 14 (London: Sage Publications, 2006),193. O’Donnell, Victoria and Jowett S. InGarth context.” a to recognizable artifact understanding of cultural artifacts their to (images, bring People architecture, meanings. ofdiffering literature, and recognition etc.) other meanings aspects ofshared ofamount theira certain culturethrough that link the informal rules that and tell formal peopleof asystem and how to behave ofrepresentation, mostforms ofbeliefs, the time, languages, enables customs, and people practices to actual as make sensedefined of their world “Culture, O’Donnell: Victoria and Jowett Garth by analysis propaganda to inrelation definition the consider 13 12 studies. nationalism show, will I Gentile, “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion,” 33-34. Definitions and conceptualizations of “culture,” of course, vary. Inthe context of this Gentile,thesis, “Fascism,it is Totalitarianismhelpful to and Political Religion,” 43. Gentile’s definition is instructive on several levels as one considers National Socialism. National considers one as levels several on instructive is definition Gentile’s goal a is create goal to ultimate whose party, totalitarian the of policies imperialistic and revolutionary new man anthropological revolution religion values myths and tothe categories, according interpreted individual, or collective of a governed on basisofthe on the governed society State basedillegal means, destroys ortransforms theprevious regime a andconstructs new on a monopoly ofpower movement While the definitions of “totalitarianism” are variegated, also according to the according tothe alsotrends “totalitarianism” arevariegated, of While thedefinitions ; is,that it seeks the integration subordination,and homogenisation of the an , that aims, that shape to theindividual and the massesthrough an , who is dedicated in body and soul to the realisation of the , with an experiment inpolitical domination palingenetic ideology new civilisation single-party regime and after that, having power, secured whether by legal or integralist conception 12 in order to regenerate the human being and create the create and being human the regenerate to in order It is within this spirit of combining a socially discerning socially a combining of spirit this within is It integral politicization of existence beyond the Nation-State. the beyond , institutionalized in the form of a , with the chief objective of 11 13 of politics, that aspires toward a undertaken by a Propaganda and Persuarsion 14 revolutionary conquering , whether political CEU eTD Collection 18 Vol.32, No. 1(1999), pp. 1-33, forexample. 17 University Press, 2008), 84. 16 Swatos (New Jr. York: Greenwood Press, 1986), 149, 151, 153. Dictatorial Charisma,” in Europe,” War 15 nation. German the “save” would that religion” political specific type of nationalism: “palingenetic ultra-nationalism.” According toGriffin, both Gentile fascism, to Griffin,Particularly according andRoger was further defined by a project. a distinctly but atotalitarian, merely not hence was definition— above expansionist understanding of Germanthe “nation,” National Socialism— according tothe definition totalitarianismsof of fascism— right— the becomes instructive: Gentile’s is that here does notsuffice.It framework mere the useof a totalitarian however, “new world order” according to the dominance and colonization of the “Aryan master race.” racist, and anti-Semitic lines. andanti-Semitic racist, “ German the of a“cleansing” through occur would hand, one the on Socialists, National through imperialistic expansion, the reclamation of “ of reclamation the imperialistic expansion, through Volkskörper Gentile, “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion,” 35. See John Connelly, “Nazis and : From Racial Theory to Racist Practice,” in Fritzsche, Griffin, “The Palingenetic Political Community: Rethinking the Legitimization of Totalitarian Regimes in Inter- Certainly an anti-liberal and anti-Marxist “political phenomenon” with aracial, with phenomenon” “political anti-Marxist and anti-liberal an Certainly andanewcivilisation. aim aneworder of ultimate creating State, with a bellicose mission achieveto grandeur, power and conquest with the organiccommunity,homogeneous organised intoacorporative hierarchically affirming religion political in a is sacralised it anti-hedonistic, and virile myth; on based party, with thea revolutionary, anti-liberal and anti-Marxist, organisedtotalitarian in form the of a absolute conception of politics and primacythe State, with an ideology of Socialism, National of the dimension nationalistic rabidly the to inregards Particularly nation understood as an ethnically Life and Death in the Third Reich Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions ”— both ”— both individualthe body and the body accordingstrictpolitic— to eugenicist, Fascism is a modern political phenomenon, which is nationalistic and nationalistic is which phenomenon, political modern a is Fascism Charisma, History and Social Structure 16 “revolution”On the occur hand,this wouldhowever, other also (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard of Press Belknap The Massachusetts: (Cambridge, 12 3 (Winter2002), 28; Arthur Schweitzer, “Hitler’s Lebensraum , edited by Ronald M. Glassman and William H. 15 the “salvation,”to accordingThis ,” and the establishment of a of establishment the and ,” 18 Central EuropeanHistory , 17 CEU eTD Collection 22 21 20 19 and renewed.” bedecadence of cleansed “the myth denotes “palingenetic ultra-nationalism” that organically the nation isconceived to programs— became a sacralized ideology, with Adolf Adolf with ideology, a asitsprograms— became “divineHitler sacralized leader” and youth of case inthe extremely more even perhaps Socialism— National reinforcive. mutually became inthe caseof Socialism, certainly National of politics, and “aesthetization” the “sacralisation” the that suggest I however, movement, Socialist National the of perpetuation of creation from the interpretation and an aesthetic himself removes unequivocally Gentile of the “aesthetization of politics” postulated by intellectuals like George Mosse. likeGeorge by intellectuals postulated of politics” “aesthetization of the indoctrination. nationalist and political at specifically aimed Youth Hitler the like ones especially programs, Socialist National of component crucial meaning and the ultimate aim humanof existence on .” political and formulates thus itselfregime” primary as “the of indisputable source andthe a a ideology,movement or an “sacralizes that “political religion” focal of the point totalitarian the becomes it as iskey, ideology Gentile, For projects. in totalitarian ideology of significance thesis will show, the Hitler Youth and its subsidiary programs. including, asthis projects— party’s various through the propagated “cleansed,” and preserved, “ Aryan the of comprised hence “palingenetic myth” of “palingenetic myth”of nation, the Gentile, “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion,” 64-65. Gentile, “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion,” 62. Gentile, “Fascism, Totalitarianism9. and Political Religion,” 34.Counterfeiters?,” God’s “Introduction: Griffin, According to Gentile, the “sacralisation of politics” was explicitly distinct from theories from distinct explicitly was politics” of “sacralisation the Gentile, to According inGentile, his andfurther exploresdefinitions treatises, historiographical the 21 Volkskörper ideology as a source of sacralized political power became a 19 The German nation, for the National Socialists, was for theNational Socialists, nation, The German 13 ,” a biological entity that was supposed to be 20 Generally based precisely on this 22 While CEU eTD Collection people, andthe “liturgy” andthe“believer”as such wereworshipped, furtherdisseminated. movement. Through the politicalalso turnan individual within anationally liminal intoposition avanguard of totalitarianthe symbolism of the National SocialistSocialists, “liturgy,” national identity couldnot merely be expressed and celebrated,butcould the Party, the German therecitation National of the Through could that learned. be was apparent, constitution “racial” citizenship,” of shared“historical myths and symbols”— all providedsomething, the “proper” “common of matter a became apparently Socialists, National the through “Germanness,” national National wereessential community— youth to programsSocialist abroad. The idea of a “ barriers. linguistic and cultural even at times, and, boundaries state across of German-speakers together by its historical myths and symbols.” 25 Nationalism, according to Mosse, accordingNationalism, becameformulated to according tothe“ a “mass movementwhich shared a belief in popular unity a nationalthrough mystique.” of creation liturgy” the of a enabled development the and myths andsymbols “national Mosse, for thebasis theperception helpedof create consciousness” citizenship.” a “common “new politicssought toguide andformalize this worship,” a“newly and national awakened “the general became “the a secularwill whereby people religion,” worshipped themselves,” 24 the NapoleonicWars through theThird Reich 23 the means for indoctrination— among other factors— became the aesthetic. Germansindoctrinated its “missionaries.”as ideology, This had however, tobe instilled, and Mosse, Mosse, George Mosse, George Mosse’s conceptualizations are particularly crucial within a study indoctrination of a study within crucial the areparticularly conceptualizations Mosse’s In his 1975 The Nationalization The of the Masses The Nationalization The of the Masses The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from The Nationalization of the The NationalizationofMasses ”— the notion that Germans around the world formed one formed world the around Germans that notion the ”— , 4. , 2. (Ithaca:Cornell University Press, 1991), 2. 25 14 , Mosse indicates how within fascism, within how indicates Mosse , Volk ,” an “entity held 23 For 24 CEU eTD Collection of of Nationalthe Socialist projectsideology. and Itis crucial,therefore atthis point, toaddress in Nationalizing the Masses within Interstitial 1.2 Spaces responses. totalitarian projects within “ fascist of influx the show, further will thesis this of chapter final the as totalitarianism”; “completed of lack its of aware highly was itself Reich Third the how illustrates however, programs, indoctrinating such of necessity perceived mere The identity. national succeededininculcatinginstances, individuals with a National brand of Socialist a German in some and identifications, national and political own their on stance a take to activities by forced indeed andboundaries. individuals Theseprojects penetrated their communities Europe’s Germanpeopleacross ultimate control the over toassert attempted certainly projects,however, such domination never attainedlike a complete form. As this thesis will show, totalitarian tocontrol attempted and of thoughts the regimes activities thereof. Totalitarian “their” people, the creationin so byArendtianprominent terror totalitarianism,the dominated accounts certainly and ofprocess National a instead, inrefers, its any to forms. any andrefer to totalitarianism ‘completed’ of It ‘perfect’ Socialist youth groups amongst “ 26 asan of understood “Thetotalitarianism concept states: he As thesis. this of conceptualization the for useful is particularly that Gentile by claim Gentile, “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion,” 58. As the discussion above has made apparent, the “nation” was a fundamental component fundamental a was “nation” the apparent, made has above discussion the As Before delving into the next section of this chapter, it is crucial to consider one more which cannever which ‘completed’.”by its ‘perfect’ nature or beconsidered Volksdeutsche ” communities also sparked a broad range of non- or anti- 15 experimentpolitical dominion of Volksdeutsche 26 Fascism was does not does ,” CEU eTD Collection 31 perpetuation of of perpetuation which create further for grounds As “national”Gellner contestations. further Gellner the “nation” envisions asprimarily basedon “culture”— thedefinition and 30 kind”). 27 “nationalist between differentiates holds political that the national andshould becongruent.” the unit and Nationalism definitions in discussion the of nationalism is of that Ernest Gellner. Inhis 1983 work is possible.” nationalism of theory universal single, underpinnings of “creation”the of a “national identity” within borderlands. contested theoretical and definitions pertinent most the present briefly therefore will section fieldcontested would naturally exceed boundaries the of a thisframeworks chapter; theoretical and“identity.” A comprehensive elucidation thisof sociologically historiographically and detailgreater fundamental evoked by the concepts any of “nationalism,” “ethnicity,” discussion 28 (Budapest:CEU Press, 2008), 1. anda“nationalist [political]the principle”) 29 if they ways of behaving and communicating.” in and means ideas whereculture turn same andassociations asystem the of andsigns culture, share they if only if and nation same the of are men “two First, components. inter-related two Gellner, Gellner, Quoted in Alexei Miller, “Russification orRussifications?,” in Ernest Gellner, Ernest Gellner, 29 recognize Echoing Mosse’s concern for the mythological and symbolic formation of the “nation,” the of formation symbolic and mythological the for concern Mosse’s Echoing Studies nationalism of, definitions on, and in arecopious; asJohn “no Hall wrote 1993, The “nation,” as he further claims, is more difficult to describe, but a concept with a concept but to describe, is more difficult further claims, he as The “nation,” Nations and Nationalism Nations and Nationalism Nations and Nationalism Nations and Nationalism , Gellner discusses how “nationalism is primarily a political principle, which principle, apolitical is primarily “nationalism how discusses Gellner , each other as belonging to the same nation.” , 7. , 7. , 1. sentiment (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983), 1. 30 Second, “two men are of the same nation if and only ” (the “feeling of ” (the“feelingof angerby aroused violationthe of movement 16 27 However, perhaps one of the most quoted mostperhaps oneof the However, The Romanov Empire and Nationalism ” (“one actuated by a sentiment of this 31 28 Furthermore, Gellner Furthermore, Nations CEU eTD Collection Nationalism “national” irredenta, the “nation” is thus generally— as Eric Hobsbawm similarly illustrates— similarly Hobsbawm Eric as generally— is thus “nation” the irredenta, “national” particular of reacquisition in the interested also Perhaps aims. territorial particular of fulfillment territory.” in a particular “nation.” German fully of forrealization the a race”was the precondition of “Aryan”“master the perpetuation “race”—the asitflowed through veinsthe of biologized “ the clear:ethnicity was were quite ethnicity of Socialist National show— conceptualizations the ‘ethnocultural’).” and ‘ethnolinguistic,’ ‘ethnoregional,’ ‘ethnoreligious,’ ‘ethnoracial,’ terms the all) of whatwe mean by nationhood and nationalism, andmuch else besides (as suggested by inclusive Brubaker is“‘ethnicity’ Rogers describes, much embracing more term, the (but not “ethnicity.” Modern definitions of“ethnicity” with arepainted brush;a rather broad as thus, 34 Princeton University Press, 2006), 14. was based notmerely ideas of upon “ the components— ethnic, cultural, territorial, economic, and legal-political.” 32 study recognition of “national identity,”which, aconcept accordingAnthony to in Smith his 1991 belonging”—upon contingent shared feelings of “groupness”— is constitutedthus by a mutual “National identifications. (self) national by constituted is also nation the indicates, 33 Brubaker, Anthony Smith, Rogers Brubaker, National Identity As Gellnerfurther and Brubaker show, “‘nation’the is ordinarily imagined as grounded National Socialism contained a rabidly “nationalistic” strand; nevertheless, this “nation” this nevertheless, strand; “nationalistic” rabidly a contained Socialism National , 1. Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity National Identity Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity inaTransylvanian 33 Nevertheless— and as especially the first research chapter of this thesis will , is a “…complex construct composed of a number of interrelated 34 “Nationalism”frequentlyupon is a for thus desirethe dependent (New York: Penguin Books, 1991), 15. Kulturnation 17 , 14. For a similar sentiment, see Gellner, ,” butalso eugenicist upon principles of Volkskörper 32 (Princeton, NJ: (Princeton, Nations and ”— and the and ”— CEU eTD Collection From Racial Theory to Racist Practice.” Racist to Theory Racial From 37 of History Alexei Miller, “Nation-Building and Regional Integration, c. 1800-1914: the Role of Empires,” in 36 University Press, 1992), 32. formal and informal boundaries. master ofan“” loyal the tothecreation paramount Nazis, to for identity “reawakening” of likethethusbecame, the within a national Batschka territories hence becamelanguages,religions, and populations,like nations various themselves— theethnic Germans, a primary between competing national andinterests and state comprised of multitude a of ethnicities, various caught interstitial spaces— Europe’s within geopolitical Particularly domination. target of for “German purposes race,” belonging tothe asalready members conceptualized for national,which national belonging— conceived along ethnic lines— was to be “taught,” ironically, to in aims, “imperial” followed also territories multi-ethnic Europe’s Eastern and Central imperial,within and politicalnever conceivedas originally inhabitedregions bytheGerman “race” and nation. China, or in America as South atterritories, targeted they were also however, “reorganization”; indoctrination. andlike for ethnic German “re-conquest” Batschka,coveted within the territories, aims. imperial distinctly with entity state The of cornerstone ThirdReich,the formed the a byfact National the complicated that Socialism 35 an expansionist unit. the creation of creation the relationship between the “nation” and National Socialism’s National the“nation” and between relationship creation of National Socialistyouth groups across Central and . However, the For more on the Third Reich’s non-European colonization efforts, see, for instance, Connelly, “Nazis and Slavs: and “Nazis Connelly, instance, for see, efforts, colonization non-European Reich’s Third onthe more For and Berger Stefan instance, for see, nations, and empires between relationship complex onthe a discussion For Eric Hobsbawm, It is measures apparentthus “nationalize” that taken to ethnicindividuals German , volume, 3 (2008), pp. 317-330. Lebensraum Nations and Nationalism since1780: Programme, Myth, Reality 35 In the case of National Socialism, this expansionist elementis apparent; for the German “nation” was a key motivator for projects like the projects for was motivator a key “nation” German the for 36 youths occurred of mobilization like Projects the 18 Lebensraum (Cambridge: Cambridge Führer across Europe’s across 37 arefurther European Review CEU eTD Collection Cooper (Los Angeles and Berkeley, CA: University of Press, 2005), 64-66. 2005), Press, ofCalifornia 40 University CA: Berkeley, and Angeles (Los Cooper strict distinction should be made between nationhood and nationalism as “constructed as nationalism and nationhood between made be should distinction strict Town inaTransylvanian Politics andEverydayEthnicity globe.however, This, raises afurther crucial Asquestion.in hisBrubaker, 2006 39 CornellNY: University Press, 2008), 3-4. 38 “ bounded a homogeneous, of creation the for identity national (Nazi) of a “German” “awakening” aim: the the were “fallacies” exactly these Socialists, homogeneity.” and boundedness for “group is itfoundation the beneeds not “discovered”; to that notion. Identity, of iscourse, somethingnot that all individuals haveorseek; itis something not assumed for potential social and political gain. be can it that and “other”; the and “self” the between process interactive an within formulated thatitis itcan that “selfhood”; “individual” be fragmented”; afunction or of either “collective” fundamental “identity”to studies: identitythat ismultiple, “unstable, fluctuating, and most assumptions the of some clearly illustrates Zahra children, these within identity Describing competing attempts in the Czech lands to instill either a German or aCzech national toexpose “thereforeand threatened deepestassumptions of politicsthe nationalist asmyths.” communities” national and linguistic between easily so slip to “seemed they as nationalists” targets of nationalist activismbecause in they tremendouspart problemspresented for nation-buildingfurther projects assumed auniqueposition.As she claims, “childrenbecame Battle for Children inthe Bohemian Lands,1900-1948 Brubaker, “Identity,”67-68. Rogers Brubaker, “Identity,” in Tara Zahra, Tara In his writings about“identity,” offers Brubaker several critiquesimportant of this in herindicates 2008 As TaraZahra Kidnapped Souls: National Indifferenceand the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands 40 While this appears to be accurate, it is also apparent that for the National for the that apparent is it also be accurate, to appears While this Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History Kidnapped Souls: NationalIndifference and the 39 19 states (quoting Eric Hobsbawm), a (quotingHobsbawm), Eric states , children within variousEurope’s Volksgemeinschaft , edited by by Frederick , edited ” across the ” across Nationalist (Ithaca, 38 CEU eTD Collection 43 42 41 “from from essentially below.” andas above” andconstructed perceived warrants further attention. Itis to this topic that this chapter will now turn. possible to study be may it in which manner precise The the analysis. of levels “from “micro” the to ultimately and below” reactions to “from “meso,” the into moving “macro,” from the infashion, bearranged will thus chapters telescopic above” nationalizing my thesis; inthis adopt I will that framework interpretive and methodological this precisely efforts, however, community Church)— family,(like the or organization between cultural two. the “meso”the level asexpressed interactions— mediating within factors of proximate the problem through a combined analysis of the macro- and micro- level perspectives, as well as on interactionsthe two between these levels? in Brubaker, his to solve2006 study, attempted this the effects that “official” nationalizing how is However, one toanalyze bestudied. can certainly creation of the “identity” a particular and projects“ethnicity,” “nation,” of conceptualizations Socialist had National “official” The “from perspective. below,” their own fluctuations, “from disseminated above,” question the rises how itis possible study to this “from below” and ideas,WarperiodsWorld areprecisely and II penned and propaganda rhetoric, the life.”everyday politics and thein ways which nationnessethnicity and are embodied and expressed in nationalist intense andintractable between arises “disjuncture a well there as from stark above,” as below from nationalism and “nationhood analyzes one as how, shows Brubaker framework, Brubaker, Brubaker, Brubaker, Considering that much of what the historical record has left us about the interwar and interwar the about us left has record historical the what of much that Considering Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity 42 20 , xiv. , 13, 16. , 13. 41 Using this analytical this Using 43 I is It CEU eTD Collection of the Past:of OralHistory founders of oral history current Paul practices, inThompson, states his 1978volume within Batschka. the micro-level implications of phenomena like the creation of National Socialistyouth groups show, however,history— oral whenapplied carefully— still into insightsprovides thecrucial interviews” (conducted privately and one-to-one with the interviewee), “family-tree interviewee), with the one-to-one and privately (conducted interviews” article “Ways should further bemadebetween of differentiations Listening,” “life story questioning.” friendly, informal, conversational approach to the more formal, controlled style of Thompson explains: “…there aremany stylesdifferent ofinterviewing, ranging from the vague, andcollectively subjective, exonerating history its seemingly approach, potentialconcerned with for reifying reproducing or these 46 Donauschwaben had former been inpro-Nazi themselves deeply within activities entrenched their topics— largely memoire-based community volumes, frequently penned by individuals who World War. 45 Verlag Dr. W. Hopf, 2009),17. Vater- Mutterland? DieKämpfe um die deutsche Jugend im rumänischen (1918-1944) und Hitler 44 historians of Europe’s andCentral Eastern 1.3 Oral History Paul Thompson, Paul SeeSchüller, See, for instance, Norbert Spannenberger, Norbert instance, for See, Oral history is, of course, a field with highly diversified methodologies. As one of the Oral isOral history an is that approach still by or largely discredited overlooked current (München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2002), 12 or Stephan Olaf Schüller, 44 Für Glaube, Führer,Volk, Vater- oder Mutterland? 46 such on historiography predominant currently by the exasperated Perhaps AsfellowSlim his Hugo in researchersand their1993 similarly described The Voice of the Past: Oral History hometowns , it is difficult to pinpoint to difficult is it , 45 — newer, more “scientific” studies generally eschew an an oral eschew generally studies more “scientific” — newer, Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn 1938-1944 unter Horthy Donauschwaben (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1978), 196. 21 Heimatbücher the way to conduct oral history research. As , 449. -type histories. As this thesis will As this thesis histories. -type communities during Second the Für Glaube, Führer, Volk, (: LIT (Berlin: The Voice CEU eTD Collection 48 Thomson(London: Routledge, 1998), 116-119. 51 50 49 and Other Stories reveal a significant emotional attachment to the episodes described. to the attachment emotional reveal asignificant as account, they meaning;all irregularbutconvey frequenta certain may for instance, pauses, 47 accent. or intone shifts duration of the between ratio “…the the (or narration” of “velocity events speed, and in rhythm differentiations described and the duration of the narration”), changes in volume, and nature. Luigi TrastulliandOther Stories famed in his Portelli to According Portelli. Alessandro call upon to instructive itis this basis. effect, To much theoretical morea unified speaking, epistemologically it seems project— oral that interview enjoys, andaimshistory of conditions a particular with interviews”people), and“group interviewees (conducted simultaneously). several interviewee’s life), “diaryinterviewing” (using the daily written or oral recordings of groups of in the theme particular on one focuses (which testimony” “single-issue more narrators), or one of eyes the through members family multiple of stories the reconstructs (which interviewing” the transcriber’s own words.” own transcriber’s the in described butonly in objectively approximately be transcript, represented the which cannot may meanings, speaker’s tothe same statement intonation, contradictory according quite have is information contains that impossiblein form. to transmit As written “…the Portelli describes: Alessandro Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,” in Alessandro Portelli, inAlessandro Different,” History Oral Makes “What Portelli, Alessandro Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,”48. Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,”47-49. Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,” 47. Hugo Slim, et al. “Ways of Listening,” in 48 Despite this plethora of methodologies— of Despite this plethora the choice of largely which the upon depends Oral testimony differs starkly even from its written transcript in that the speech act (Albany State University of New York Press, 1991), 46. 50 For Portelli, these factors are crucial for the interpretation of oral an of interpretation the for arecrucial factors these For Portelli, 49 , oral history is defined primarily and specifically by its oral include Portelli, for act, speech the of Idiosyncrasies The Oral History Reader 22 , edited by Robert Perks and Alistair 51 The Death of Luigi Trastulli For Portelli, hence, it is it hence, Portelli, For TheDeathof 47 CEU eTD Collection (Wisconsin: The University of WisconsinPress, 1997), 3. discourse” in mind. collective the with several levels. arealso experiences “Individual” shaped—and remembered andrecounted— be must on problematized however, This statement, mass movement. of creation a the political merely for the analysis of history as such, but for interrelated questions of “national identity” or not viewcanbecreated into anaccountof amoredifferentiated “History,” its interpretation, and experience, individual the of infusion the through narrative; collective a larger, into voice accounts.” as factually reliable important emerge…‘wrong’ statementsto arefact, still psychologically they now think they did.” but ‘true,’butas what the interviewees todo,what “…wanted they believed they were doing, and what and…rather this truth may they notoccurred, as necessarily arerecounted and acts plane. Events epistemological complex be equally in its departure from it, as imagination, symbolism, and desire 56 by Judith Butler andJoan W.Scott(London: Routledge,1992), pp.22-41. 55 54 53 52 within of islifetime intertextuality confines and recounted, a the of of the external references— about less us historical studies. ForPortelli, “thefirst thing makes that oralhistory … different is thatit tells never could.transcript important to consider the oral form of these testimonies, as they reveal meanings that even a Portelli, “Oral History as Genre,” in in “Experience,” Scott, see Joan of experience, discussion a detailed For Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,” 51. Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,”50. Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,”50. The aim of oral history hence seems to include the re-incorporation of the individual Portelli, too, sees a specific significance in the incorporation of intoof incorporation oral sources in seesaspecificthe too, Portelli, significance 56 ; thus, the individual memory— already shaped through a collective experience, acollective through shaped already memory— individual the ; thus, events than about their 53 The importance of oral history thus “…may lie not in its adherence in its not lie “…may thus history oral of importance The 55 The Battle of Valle Guilia: Oral History and the Art of Dialogue dialogicisa history “oral describes, further Portelli As meaning 54 23 .” 52 Oral accounts give historians “facts” ona Feminists Theorize the Political , edited , CEU eTD Collection 58 Transaction Publishers, 2005), 7. must overcome theirownlimitations in comprehending, and their biases own in interpreting, The problem acquired. is presented toresearchersthus twofold. hand, one Onthe historians inevitably influenced by totalitarianthe language,projects, and actsunder which they were 57 technology.” and industrialism modern by possible made life, intellectual and social, political, control completely to effort intheir autocracy and absolutism of manifestations earlier beyond far go “totalitarianism,” of conceptualizations critical and interpretations and definitions. However, asshe in posits a 1992article, among these variations unique challenges. AccordingPasserini, to totalitarianism is aterm subject todiverse histories from derived witnesses of regimestotalitarian present historians with additional, her in explains Passerini Luisa As implications. reaching distance. intellectual anewor across temporal experience “individual” by the reinterpret whovariety consumed,andinterpreted of a reproduced, audiences, said and presentsit within the framework of theirin own isresearch. Thisresearch turn who— through their own social,cultural, what political interprets and linguistic lens— was an interviewer, to interview’s audience, the about and expectations code linguistic a particular Passerini, “Introduction,” 7. Luisa Passerini, “Introduction,” in Furthermore, for Passerini, “ are products of the twentieth century of that twentieth the century are products for“totalitarianisms Passerini, Furthermore, meaning isus. that to unacceptable theirthat language andfor discourse haveameaning their evenif protagonists, our lives; that totalitarian systems are social systems like other ones,in the sense butinsidealso with itsourselves, rootscontinuously in societiespresent our and Particularly within fieldthe of studies,totalitarianism such discussions have far- 58 All memories gathered about a totalitarian system, for Passerini, are hence …we can accept two ideas: that totalitarianism is not only us only not ideas:external is to totalitarianism two …we can that accept Memory and Totalitarianism 57 24 , edited by Luisa Passerini (New Jersey: Memory and Totalitarianism , oral CEU eTD Collection and in the post-warsilence or, detailedthrough stories of painfulthe experiences they wentduring through war the period, collaborators “…describes, or of Nazi perpetrators the period continue towrap themselves in to As Rosenthal portray said. not is what but is spoken, what not is frequently testimonies, victims’ themselves as innocent ‘witnesses’ without actually of— actual perpetrators. purported— of— actual or the Nazi Regime of Perpetrators Rosenthal,in her 1998 study also beaware of problemsthe involved with an “unhabilitated” subject Gabriele matter. topics such as personal involvement with Nationalthe mobilization Socialist of youths must history— past andrestore and presentagency theto individual beinginterviewed. hence consider subjectivity in historicalthe experience— perhaps thevery purpose of oral “…totalitarianism notdoes homogenize thelives lived underits regimes.” discuss intheirintroduction Passerini’sto volume 2005 affected individuals’affected perceptions. actually of “comedy unanimity” totalitarian the what extent andto “masses,” among the is alsocrucial challengeto degreetowhich the systems actually shapedtotalitarian consensus perpetration. of accused were ifindividuals as responses elicit to and topic, a taboo of breaking aura the create to sufficed perception that I might possiblyinterviewees’ an perceive my research, in a participation Ifound as inNevetherless, such youth activitiesquestionable. of course, as incriminating is, frequently“perpetrators” deemed 63 62 xv. Victims,” in 61 60 59 may asystem memories under derived foreign be very that theirto own. The extent to which children,xiv-xv. who were Revision,” mobilizedand withinSilence “On National Socialist Leydesdorff, youth and groups, Crownshaw can actually be ofthe Words and Language The Revision: and Silence “On Leydesdorff, Selma and Crownshaw Richard Passerini, “Introduction,” 8. Passerini, “Introduction,” 6-7. However, in attempting to“restore” this agency and “voice” toindividuals, historians of Memory and Totalitarianism The HolocaustThree in Generations: Families Victims and of , describes the problems inherentgathering to oral accounts , edited by Luisa Passerini (New Jersey: TransactionPublishers, 2005), 60 further Leydesorff Selma and Crownshaw Richard As 63 For Rosenthal, the primary problem here, as with as here, problem primary the Rosenthal, For 25 Memory and Totalitarianism 59 On the other hand, it hand, other the On 61 must Historians 62 , CEU eTD Collection 67 only silence but distortions or ‘false memory.’” silence is not enough; ‘silence’ is not evenan appropriate term for the task to come: what is to Intergenerationalbe Dialog,” fought p. 244.Furthermore, is asPasserininot describesp. 16 onof “Introduction”:her “Fighting 66 65 255-263. life in milieux aboutwhere taboos addressing certain themes, prohibitions against asking past; non-Jewish Germans, even today,“… were socialized in our families and in German daily the of legacy the by burdened themselves are who researchers amongst prevalent especially Children Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2004), 247-265, or Gerhard Rempel’s “Conclusion,” in his 64 whodespite their pleasantpersonalities may have done terrible things.” becausefears fears…listeners of abouttheir exposing pastof we encountered own the people by the out blocked or over passed often are crimes in Nazi involvement of “…intimations but interviewer.interviewees, of the by In termsperpetrators, of testimony (supposed) merely of is product the the not frequently of systems totalitarian perpetrators the victimsthe or silence,problematic buta to downright to “distortion.” merely not frequently leading victim, a of position defensible morally more giving awitness testimony.” furtherconsider articles like Michael Kater’s “The Responsibility of Youth,” in his such. For different as perspectivesbe emphasized on should this and specifically complex, is project in relationa totalitarian to within involvement raised withof children the Hitler Youth,or “categorization” one role might “perpetrator” (and and related questions “collaborator,” of “victim,” volition) are of“witness,” complex,categories that contested, be stated must and it not Again, mutually 240. 1998), exclusive. Cassell, Especially(London: the Generations:Three Families of Victims and Perpetrators of the Nazi Regime, annihilation.” lifetheir story… andglossing over their experiences connected with systematic persecution and unincriminated” by censoring “…all of incriminatingthe linked events toNational in Socialism Rosenthal, “National Socialism and in Intergenerational Dialog,” 241. This is what Rosenthal calls the “perpetrator-victim inversion,” “National Socialism and Anti-Semitism Rosenthal,in “National Socialism and Antisemitism in Intergenerational Dialog,” 240. Gabriele Rosenthal, “National Socialism and Antisemitism in Intergenerational Dialog,” in : The difficulties of gleaning reliable narratives— and breaking the silence— from silence—from either the and narratives— breaking reliable of The difficulties gleaning The Hitler Youth and SSthe 65 The perpetrators hence, through the silences they create, attempt to assume the to attempt create, they silences the hence,through The perpetrators (Chapel Hill and London: The University of CarolinaNorth Press, 1989), 64 Similarly, perpetrators “… can present their past as 66 26 edited by Gabriele Rosenthal by Gabriele edited Hitler Youth 67 This is, for Rosenthal, for This is, in Holocaust The (Cambridge, Hitler’s CEU eTD Collection 68 be operative.” to continue and were depictions exonerating certain and questions further frankly described their own experiences within their local “Hitler Youth” groups; in other groups; Youth” “Hitler local their within experiences own their described frankly andhad avariety 1943, of in thatrecollections they individuals shared: quite some cases, individuals in born all Theinterviewees, German acquaintances. between Batschka 1928 the within Batschka. the Germans ethnic of self-identifications political the enterprise) a political also was Socialism National (as and national the on levels, family and community, personal, the on activities, such IalsoSecond, my through intended, individual interviews, tostudy memories of effectsthe of references. extra-textual such find to able case, in every was, I knowledge, and acquaintances, aswell own collections, interviewees’ the hometowns, through as my interviewee’s on research in conducting luckily, Youths; Hitler local of narratives such elucidate further and “verify” to oral— and archival, furthertextual, in sources— how interested to obtain I wasalso Besides attempting to elicit a thick description of What engageactivities suchorganizations operate? in, groups for these did which and purpose? activities within its witnesses, however, an organizedwithin Hitler Youth ethnicGerman Howdidthese communities? these there was itself— Batschka the within movement youth Socialist a National of indices finding andfinding considerable material in I wasinterested source challenges, initially presented has neverbeen previously studied asthis topic basic First, researchquestions. I explored two level thisof thesis. In preparingfor, conducting, and analyzingvarious eyewitness testimonies, and not created omissions by only victims,the but by inhibitionstheir own and restrictions. researchersin facehistory victims’with therefore, testimonies, silences oral andperpetrators’ Rosenthal, “National Socialism and Antisemitism in Intergenerational Dialog,” 241. I was able to find various interviewees through a “snowball effect” amongst personal It is with such complex considerations in mind that I approached the micro-historical 27 68 Both CEU eTD Collection each interview: asking individuals askingeach interview: about firstplace their and birth date of for a (and thereafter situations and the types of responses given, I attemptedM.A. thesis; furthermore, all names within this thesis are anonymized. to follow the same recordingsthe andtranscribed wereonly sections made to available supervisors the of this basic approach in recording atany duringpoint interview. the Forethical andconsiderations privacy protection, toturn thechance weregiven off interviewees digitally,andthe wererecorded interviews pp. 51-66. Interpersonal Relationships in Oral History Research,” in 72 German. in interview the conducted Germany interviews generally vacillated between the two languages (see footnote 76). Individuals currently (perhapsliving inthis is also due to the fact that Ifirst introduced myself to them in English), though these particular English or in German. Individuals who have spent most of their life in the chose to speak in English71 etc. interviewees, ofthe anonymization the employed, and stored 70 thesis. ofthis limitations the exceeded have would narratives ofthe of all representation comprehensive adequately and detailed, anaccurate, as thesis, of this production 69 calls. telephone Skype Iutlilized States, United in the interviewees conduct I interviews; lived in personal with wheretraveled interviewees to the Europe, aftereachinterview before or was signed and as project interests, well research thestipulations of which a legal as elucidating contract— activities. educational extracurricular and Socialist counteringfor National the ignoring or and discrimination Hungarian experienced schools, interviewees belonged alternative the to youth Catholicattended groups, Serbian and Socialist including groups, youth groups and exchanges with . In cases,other the National with involvement community or family of observations recounted instead they instances, whereindividuals had been too youngparticipate themselves to in formations, such For more on the ethical considerations of oral history interviews, consider Valerie Yow, “Ethics and “Ethics Yow, Valerie consider interviews, history oforal considerations ethical onthe more For in interviews the conduct to prefer would they whether on choice the given further were interviewees The be would material collected the which in manner the themes, and use interview’s the stipulated contract This final the within ofthem all include explicitly not I did analyzed, and transcribed were interviews of the all While While the interview variedprecise structure depending onindividual interviewing All five of my interviewees were contacted first by first by phone. werecontacted All fivemy interviewees of 70 — an interview time and date was set. In cases In wasset. time date and — aninterview 28 The Oral History Review , vol., 22, no. 1(Summer 1995), 72 71 69 In all instances, the After clarifying my clarifying After CEU eTD Collection United States were conducted in English; however, especially when more controversial topics arose— which do which arose— topics controversial more when especially however, English; in conducted were States United 76 between various levels of individual, family, and community narratives. community and family, individual, of levels various between only villages,two the production “communityof memories” and the potential intersection individual memories and, since all interviews with were conducted persons originally from entirely. Nevertheless, even latter these interviews provided insightinto productionthe of specifically; othersdescriptions and interpretations of personal memories youth of groups withineschewed Batschkathe topics like the National Socialistinterviews. mobilization of portion more duringwere generally upon semi-structured of the already the touched youths nearly asked about interethnic relationships, national identity, andyouth groups, though these themes generally I that here is it far; thus interviews the to external been perhaps had that questions vocabulary and the establishment of trust, see Thompson, see of trust, establishment the and vocabulary 75 74 Roberts, and D. Robinson(West Yorkshire, England: University of Huddersfield, 2006), pp. 1-17. Memory and Knowledge: Representations, Aesthetics & Contexts by interviewee. already the presented and askingmore sensitive questions only based upon vocabularythe and themes voluntarily firstquestions primarily based uponthe presented usingnarratives, vocabulary certain sensitive Iasked Thereafter, purpose. and narrative wasframed, with made—how the been what pause occurred, I followed merelynot was said, wherewhat certain but— may omissions have Interrelation Between Experience, Memory and Narration” in Narration” and Memory Experience, Between Interrelation 73 emerged. life inflowing history narrative, which biographical data,themes,pertinent and concerns description of their hometown, if not already given spontaneously), Ihoped to gain a more free- Interestingly, the interviews’ language here was crucial. The interviews with individuals now living within the For a discussion of the benefits and dangers of free-flowing interviews, and the importance of precise importance the and interviews, of free-flowing dangers and benefits of the a discussion For themselves. terms such mentioned interviewee an before “Nazi” or “Hitler” mentioned Inever Thus, For a further discussion of life story narration, see Gabriele Rosenthal, “The Narrated Life Story: On the On Story: Life Narrated “The Rosenthal, Gabriele see narration, story oflife discussion further a For The interviews conducted led arange The interviews conducted of thisprojectwith Some to results. rich provided 73 Attempting to not intervene in the presented narrative for at least ten seconds if a seconds ten least at for narrative presented in the intervene not to Attempting 75 74 Within the final section of the interviews, I then asked then I interviews, the of section final the Within 29 The Voice of the Past Narrative, Memory and Knowledge , edited by K. Milnes, C. Horrocks, N. Kelly, B. , 197-199. 76 Furthermore, most Furthermore, , in Narrative, CEU eTD Collection social effects of totalitarian projects— the question question the of of projects— totalitarian social effects at least illustrate a level that is perhaps more central to questions of national identity and the not form part of the frequently shared frequently of the part form not clear, Rankean depiction of events a present to be possible not will it while Ultimately, thereof. representations, the and memories, during 1930sandthe 1940s, itwill leastattemptat topresenta critical interpretation of the andyouthscommunities German of hearts minds to“read”be the within Batschka’s able the finalmythe present of not level chapter “micro” Whilecertainly will interpretation this thesis. community photographs, andhistories,publications and memorabilia— personal will I that related is like interviews, in andsources these to theirwith hometowns— conjunction during the 1930s andme 1940s,andpointfurther sources toandinterviewees for thisIt project. interviewees were able to provide elaborate descriptions of “daily life” within their hometown their former hometowns, etc.— the interviewees switched to their German mother tongue. 77 mother German to their switched interviewees the etc.— hometowns, former their “As it actually occurred/was” versus “as it actually is/was perceived/felt/remembered.” is/was itactually “as versus occurred/was” actually it “As Donauschwaben “ wie eseigentlichgewesen historical narratives of expulsion, general daily life within 30 wie eseigentlichempfunden. ” through such an analysis, I will 77 CEU eTD Collection 79 Academy of Sciences, 1998), 138-139. the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin century, the region experienced a significant influx of Serb migrants. Serb of influx a significant experienced region the century, by followingHungarians, though Ottoman in inconquests Southeastern Europe fourteenththe ethnic entities.and state early During the the Batschka modern period, wasinhabited primarily by various andconquest of centuries settlement Batschka experienced the Danube andTisza, forms the northwestern part of the Autonomous of Vojvodina. Located between the majority segment— Bács-Kiskun andits southern the , Batschka’sterritory— the of Hungary’s southern within lies segment northern its whereby , and Hungary between 78 century. seventeenth liberated various late the during Ottoman Herzegovinaterritories troops asChristian (Bunjevci,Bunjewatz communities, who Bunyevác) had primarily migrated from and Bosnia Sokác) (Šokac, various Schokatz Catholic alsohosted region the Overtime, populations. Turkish, Serbian, Turkish, Bosnian,in and— some cases— Greek,Jewish, and Gypsy theBatschka)throughout and region the became homea plethora toof ethnicities, including shift demographic extensive henceentireHungarian occurred: villages werecleared (asin 1541 began their occupation variousof southern Hungarian includingterritories, the Batschka. An 2.1 The Batschka: ABrief Geographical and Historical Introduction Kocsis and Kocsis-Hodosi, “Chapter 5: The Hungarians of Vojvodina,” 140. of Vojvodina,” Hungarians 5: The “Chapter Kocsis-Hodosi, and Kocsis Karolyi Kocsis andEszter Kocsis-Hodosi,“Chapter 5: The Hungarians of Vojvodina,” in Chapter 2: The Nazi Imagined Geography— The Batschka (Serbo-Croatian: Ba The Batschka(Serbo-Croatian: Ambitions towards the Batschka, 1930s - 1940s 79 (Budapest: Geographical Research Institute, Hungarian Institute, Research Geographical (Budapest: þ ka, Hungarian: Bácska)is ka, Hungarian: a splitcurrently territory 31 78 In 1527, Ottoman forces Lebensraum EthnicGeography of and CEU eTD Collection demarkated that this thesis primarily refers. primarily thesis this that demarkated protestant confession were permitted to settle in tosettle region.the confession werepermitted protestant a of Germans that time this during also was it predominant; became immigration German 81 80 Croatian, Hungarian, 1.9% and0.5% German. Hungarian Batschka’scensus, the households, by tax-paying Serbian1720, were97.6% and neighboring territory towards East,the Banat,the becamelands. Habsburg According toa 84 Ausland und Heimat Verlags-Aktiengesellschaft, 1931), 30. Instituts . A: Kulturhistorische Reihe, Band 28 (Stuttgart: 83 82 im rumänischen Banat(1918-1944) had similarly been county “Bodrog” Bács)(that ofitsand upper the one fortresses, “Bács” county (named after named after a fortressBodrog County. This unification occurred through an administrative amalgamation withinof the lower its realm). Alpineterritories). the Loraine, and though particularly from its southern and western regions (including Luxemburg, Alsace- thus settled in the Batschka, Germans who had originated from across the Holy Roman Empire, southern of Hungaryregions the to migrate to benefits taxation and permissions granted now were immigrants German devastated by the Ottoman program, of and whereby Habsburgs began alarge-scale resettlement Hungarian thousands wars. Particularlyin 1740,the throne tothe of Maria-Theresa after the accession Particularly following decades. Catholic Germans were between the two— the county was hence known by contemporaries primarily as “Bács.” as primarily bycontemporaries known county was hence the two— the between tworeports, the countiesmerged by had sothoroughly nodifference could1820 that be made Stephan Olaf 140. Schüller, of Vojvodina,” Hungarians 5: The “Chapter Kocsis-Hodosi, and Kocsis Cited in Rüdiger, Hermann Rüdiger, 141. of Vojvodina,” Hungarians 5: The “Chapter Kocsis-Hodosi, and Kocsis In 1699, Ottomansthe weredriven out of Batschka,the wherafter Batschka the andits In 1802, the Batschka became a unified entity as the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s Bács- Austro-Hungarian as the becameaunifiedIn 1802,the entity Batschka Die Donauschwaben in der südslawischen Batschka Die Donauschwaben in der südslawischen Batschka Für Glaube, Führer, Volk, Vater- oder Mutterland? Die Kämpfe um die deutsche Jugend (Berlin: LIT Verlag Dr. W.Hopf, 2009),23-24. 81 (1780-1790), JosephII of reign the Especially with 32 80 changed the This composition drastically over 82 , 30. It is also to the territory thus , Schriftendes Deutschen Ausland- 83 contemporaneous to According 84 CEU eTD Collection 89 88 2000), 25-27. 87 Vojvodina,” 142. of Hungarians 5: The “Chapter Kocsis-Hodosi, and Kocsis tongue. mother to according divided hence are 86 85 newly formed Kingdom of , Croats, and Slovenes. of the Batschka (alongBatschka againbecameWhile divided. the northern Batschka remainedmost within Hungary, with the rest of the Vojvodina) now came underwere Serbian, 24.4% German, 22.6% Hungarian, and 6.2% Croatian.the authority of census, by1880 Vojvodinathe housedsome inhabitants, 1.2million wherebythe 35.5% of these Hungarian Compromise of 1867, as County. Bács-Bodrog the (1849-1860), theBatschka officially became aHungarian territory again after Austro-the Serbian the andVoivodeshipof of (1848-1849) Temeschwar Voivodeship the andBanat Serbia After mid-nineteenth the tumultuous century, whichtheBatschkabriefly during became partof various ethnic minorities, including the Germans. became disputedmajority, the evolution of the Vojvodina’s variousnot territories into an officially merelyYugoslav region controversial; asthe only territory withindid thathave Yugoslavia not Slavic anabsolute by the regions’ former rulers (like Hungary), but also by its now turn. now will this chapter that from the German authorities, garnered, particularly thisthat population isIt interests century. tothe early duringtwentieth abonethe of contention became centuries, Particularly minority, this had and which increased flourished so drastically past the during total population of 611,838 in (southern)the were Batschka,173,058 Germans (or28.3%). infollowing Nevertheless, the chapters. Yugoslav according to the census of 1931, outof a Janjetovi Janjetovi Zoran Janjetovi Zoran Thiswas the first Hungarian 142. census conducted on thebasis of linguistic of Vojvodina,” (mother tongue) affiliation; the groups Hungarians 5: The “Chapter Kocsis-Hodosi, and Kocsis Following First the World War dissolution the and of Europe’s various empires, the ü ü , , Between Hitler and Tito Between Hitler and Tito ü , Between Hitler and Tito: The Disappearance of the Vojvodina Germans , 32. , 19. 33 88 This subject will be dealt with more closely more with dealt be will subject This 87 This shift in administration was administration in shift This 85 Hungarian a to According 86 (Belgrade: s.n., 89 CEU eTD Collection cleansing and incorporation into Germany. ethnic immediate for not and potential, economic their for predominately coveted initially were especially Russia. Europe, views, and their eventual incorporation into the into incorporation eventual their and views, colonization “ethnic toNazi of according territories, theircertain restructuration” eugenicist Connelly agree that from the outset, Racist Practice,” in Practice,” Racist 92 & Hitchcock, 1939),950-951. only of the east… but if we talk about new and gazethelands andin drive south westof Europe, directtowards German tothe endless our soil and territory in Europe today, we can think primarily 91 Century 90 2.2 The Expansion of German Interests in Southeastern Europe subjected to subjected differentiated andis the however, been emphasized, has perhapsonly recently What WorldWar.Second fluctuant nature atrocitiesthe of for some of greatest the acornerstone setting ultimately race,” master “Aryan in which the Nationaldeeply entwined with National Socialist theories ofeugenics and domination worldwide of the Socialists saw couldfuture be only secured by colonization” eastern the lands potentially 1926 historiography. Formulated by various Nazi leaders during the 1920s— as in Hitler’s notorious Hirschfeld, “Nazis Germany and Eastern Europe,” 71; John Connelly, “Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to , Georg Hirschfeld, “Nazis Germany and Eastern Europe,” in Europe,” Eastern and Germany “Nazis Hirschfeld, Georg , edited by Eduard Mühle (Oxford: Berg, 2003), 71. In The National Socialist emphasis on Russia Mein Kampf Lebensraum Mein Kampf Mein Central European History and its vassal border states.” and itsborder vassal through or 1926Bambergthe “Germany’s Conference’s conclusions that , Hitler himself explains howtheGerman peoplemust “… terminate the , edited by John Chamberlain, Sidney B. Fay, John Gunther et al. (New York: Reynal ambitions. 92 Batschka— like the includingterritories Europe— Southeastern , Vol. 32, No. 1 (1999), 9. Lebensraum 34 Lebensraum 91 Historianslike Georg HirschfeldorJohn Reich Germany and the European East intheTwentieth 90 ambitions— in terms of an intensive — the concept of — was focusedEastern primarily on has been thoroughly explored in explored thoroughly been has Lebensraum became CEU eTD Collection academia became increasingly fascinated by Germans living in regions that, economically living economically by in and fascinated that, increasingly Germans regions became academia German losses, economic and territorial various and Versailles of Treaty humiliating Germany insaw anincreasinginterest Following regionsthe andpeoples of Europe. for the Southeastern might cultivate not merely crops, but a “ of of bountiful farmedsoil by several others) (amongst hundred thousand “ and envisaged were asstretches of Europe,” as all,a “breadbasket after known generally were Minorities of Europe, 1933-1945 of Europe. Valis O. Lumans, belonged tothe German or Habsburg Empires (like Balticthe Germans); never and 4)had Germansthat living Europe overseas, within outside Germans 3) Swabians); Danube the and Saxons, the Germans, UpperSilesia); 2) Germans who were part of the now disintegrated Habsburg Empire (such asthe Sudeten separated from the Leitmotif Weimar period onwards distinguished betweenfour categories of “ Sachse (Göttingen: WallsteinVerlag, 2010), 364. Furthermore, according to Lumans, German authorities from the als Planungsraum: Wirtschafts- und kulturpolitische Expertisen imZeitalter der Weltkriege deutsche ‘Volkstumsarbeit’ Jugoslawienin und Rumänien 1933-1941,” in “ citizenship) who lived abroad. ElizabethHarvey, “Mobilisierung oder Erfassung? Studentischer Aktivismus und “Auslanddeutsch” could, later on, also referto “Reichsdeutsche” (bornwithin Germany and with Germanexplains, further As Harvey states. respective of these minority” “German ofthe part as be counted referred to citizens of other nation-states that, “due to their language and historical and cultural affinities,” couldupon Elizabeth Harvey’s definitions thereof: “Auslanddeutsche” and “Volksdeutsche,” during the interwar period, 94 2010), 16-17. kulturpolitische Expertisen im Zeitalter der Weltkriege Wirtschaftstag 93 “ German the of notions common of fostering the and tieseconomic based upon ideas of empire,” primarily rather, an conquest; “informal militaristic with ideaof coupled the were necessarily not Europe in interests Southeastern German und “Südosteuropa” alsPlanungsraum studies by German recent historians. AsCarola Sachse, in her 2010volume by forisvarious economiclike supported asinteresting particularly reasons Batschka, the In order to make the distinction between “Volksdeutsche” and “Reichsdeutsche,” it might be helpful to draw to behelpful itmight “Reichsdeutsche,” and “Volksdeutsche” between distinction the make to order In Carola Sachse, “Einführung: ‘Mitteleuropa’ und ‘Südosteuropa’ als Planungsraum. Der As historians like Willi haveOberkrome shown, especially post-Worldthe War Iperiod The idea thattheNational Socialists regardedSoutheastern includingEurope, regions for German involvements with Southeastern Europe. Southeastern with involvements German for im Kontext,“ in Reich due to post-World War Isettlements (such as in Northern Schleswig,East , or Himmler’s : The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German National “Mitteleuropa” und “Südosteuropa”als Planungsraum: Wirtschafts- und (Chapel Hill, NC: Kulturboden shows,particularly during 1920sand the 1930s, University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 23-24. , edited by Carola Sachse 35 ” for Germany. Volk Volksdeutsche ” with Germans abroad, became the became abroad, Germans with ” Mitteleuropa” und “Südosteuropa” 93 Batschka, the like Regions (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, Wallstein (Göttingen: ”: 1) Germans who had been who had Germans ”: 1) Volksdeutsche Mitteleuropäische , edited by Carola “Mitteleuropa” ” 94 that CEU eTD Collection German case what already had realized with “ Francehad with realized already German case what Kompensationsbegriff formation. , or territory, which,agenda, buthave notions of incorporated generally history, a sharedculture, religion, politics, for most of these Manfred Hettling, definitions of the primarily of notions upon Germanthe “ rested of course, studies, These interest. German of within and tendencies structures so-called “ so-called flourished.further “ saw thecreation of such institutions,of whilepreviously centers established “cultural space”); thus, Bonn, , Innsbruck, and Munich (as with the the goals of “ home in and abroad— general. 98 Zwischenkriegszeit 97 96 Ruprecht, 2003),42. Volksgeschichten im Europa der Zwischenkriegszeit 95 legitimizations were sought for lost territories, butstudies also a bolstering of the German “ mightbeotherwise, beneficial Germany. to increasingly formulated Historiographies their in terms of a “ Volkstumsforschung Hettling,“Volk undVolksgeschichten inEuropa,” 12. Manfred Hettling, “Volk undVolksgeschichten inEuropa,” in Oberkrome, “Entwicklungen und Varienten derdeutschen Volksgeschichte (1900-1960),” 42-43. Willi Oberkrome, “Entwicklungen und Varientender deutschenVolksgeschichte (1900-1960),” in Especially from the Weimar period onwards, these institutions fostered the writing of writing the fostered institutions these onwards, period Weimar the from Especially Volksgeschichten 97 Ostforschung the Hettling, to according 1918, by Crucially, , edited by Manfred Hettling (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &Ruprecht, 2003), 8-11. 96 ,” like,” the Deutschesin Ausland-Institut (establishedStuttgart in 1917) (acompensatory term). ” (the study of the East) and “ Grenzkampf ”— amalgamated studies of historic, ethnographic, and ofhistoric, geographic ethnographic, studies ”— amalgamated 95 Entire research institutions mushroomed across Germany with Germany across mushroomed institutions research Entire Volk ” (border fight), in which not merely irredentist , edited, by HettlingManfred (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & have varied significantly across time and political and time across significantly varied have Volk. 36 98 Völker Around 1800, Around ” According tothecontemporary historian Volksgeschichten im Europa der , have constituted aglue, have constituted for community nation Kulturraumforschung ”; ”; 1918, around Volk couldin compensate the Volk Deutsche Akademie Deutsche had become a had become Volk ” (the study of could once Volk ”— at ) CEU eTD Collection himself coined the term the himself term “ coined Donauschwaben inder südslawischen Batschka. 2.3 A Weimar Study of the Batschka turns. now chapter this that Batschka, the about particularly thought, of evolution this to depending on current political conditions, both within Germany and outside ofits borders. Itis Volk whose boundaries), state beyond (anentity Grösse” “ausserstaatliche asan conceptualized also in of theirengaged a historization thus between conceptualizedtheirborders arupture “nation” geographical andtheir that legitimacy. territorial for claims various creating first, localities which innations found themselves a political toprove“race” which (appropriated) geographical demands. and physical with bestowed but features, “spiritual” to constricted merely longer no was political political actor; a of position the to “elevation” an experienced already had century, nineteenth the of course 102 101 100 99 Versailles. at been lost had all of that recuperation again the promise Hettling,“Volk undVolksgeschichten inEuropa,” 12. Hettling, “Volk undVolksgeschichten inEuropa,” 13, 16-17. Hettling,“Volk undVolksgeschichten inEuropa,” 17 Hettling, “Volk undVolksgeschichten inEuropa,” 12-13, 20. was unjustly severed from from was unjustly irredenta. within national “motherland” the severed the All In 1931, in Deutschethe Ausland-Institut published avolumeStuttgart entitled Volksgeschichten Volk became defined by language, culture, state, heritage, history, and race; 100 such as intensified, demands period, Particularly during Weimar the Donauschwaben were not created equal, however, and varied significantly andvaried however, equal, created were not Volk and its localities; nations like the Germans were thus were Germans the like nations localities; its and ” in ” denote 1922 to ethnicthe Germans than (other 37 Its author, Hermann Rüdiger, apparently had apparently Rüdiger, Hermann author, Its 101 99 Especially countries The Volk 102 Volk hadin existed , over the over , Volk Die CEU eTD Collection brief discussion of thegeological and geographical structurecollapse of the regions of Danube Swabian settlement, as well as a of the Monarchy formerthe realm Rüdiger Habsburg an prosper, dedicates would entire chapteron the and the development of the “South Slavic”in future. the in “maintenance” the how language, of 1931 German the would culture economy, develop and in a “ only since “disintegration”this of Habsburgthe Monarchyhad Germans in regionthis unified afterandHungary, the“ripping Yugoslavia, apart” of Furthermore, Austria-Hungary. Urheimat the Danube, hundreds (Novi Sad, Újvidék), of thousands(Odžaci,HodschagApatin,ethnic populations: German significant Neusatz Kula,Hódság), of withindividual of several settlements pages finally research to dedicates ethnographically, and German introduceshistorically, Batschka the Slavic”“South states, geographically,and (Yugoslav) farmers the of livenotion far away he volume,1920s researching In the Batschka. firstgenerally this the particular describes from German communities within Central Rüdigerand Southeastern Europe, spentmuchthe of the German 104 103 hadbelonged Kingdom who Transylvaniathe Saxons) the of to Hungary. changes, as the as changes, and “political Germans’ War,these World 105 Rüdiger, Janjetovi Rüdiger, völkisch Immediately after his statement of uncertainty about how the German minorities within German minorities how the about of uncertainty hisstatement after Immediately In his introduction, Rüdiger explainshow “at largestrivers the in Volgathe Europe, and DieDonauschwaben in der südslawischen Batschka ü Die Donauschwaben der in südslawischen Batschka [original, ancient homeland].” , Between Hitler and Tito 105 ” sense within their new states. As Rüdiger claims, however, it was not yet clear Donauschwaben Donauschwaben Palanka, and (Zombor). , then offers a rough historical overview of the Hungarian and , 10. of between split formerof HabsburgMonarchy the were 104 According to Rüdiger, particularly after the First 38 völkish , 7. , 7. ” lives had undergone “extraordinary” undergone had lives ” 103 An expert on CEU eTD Collection Furthermore, in his description of the Batschka’s climactic, geographical, andeconomic in geographical, climactic, Batschka’s his description of the Furthermore, expresses some trepidation about how this ethnicmay group in develop upcomingthe decades. and Batschka, minority the within German on the focusesit primarily Certainly, features. Volksgeschichte did not hurt the Batschka’s German minorities in minorities another. way German one hurt Batschka’s or the did not thedecades administrative across reorganizations border and that census results), andconcludes observed (as explained by re-distribution the districtsof in 1921, which suddenly changed he that irregularities any discusses state censuses, from official derived statistics offers simply including their Rüdiger Hungarian, and“other” German, ethnic “Serbo-Croatian,” groups, 106 andNovi Verbász), (Vrbas, Sad. Werbass Palanka, , of Gara,Sombor, Hodschag, centers administrative respective around each theireight of “groups” German intocentered primarily settlements, divided beintocould an a middle, splitupper, alower region. and Batschkathe Furthermore couldbe territories. “Volk” and linguistic, , different distinguish between make itclearly impossible barriers)to geological nosparsely settled land ofwith flat, geographical the region (primarily the conditions plains. Hungarian southern the DanubeandTiszawithin the between main publications’the Batschka. the topic: elsewhere). simply read about can (which, hisreaders hesays, state 110 109 108 107 Rüdiger, Rüdiger, Rüdiger, Rüdiger, Rüdiger, Rüdiger’s For Rüdiger, the Batschka consists of the former Bács-Bodrog County, and is nestled DieDonauschwaben in der südslawischen Batschka Die Donauschwaben der in südslawischen Batschka Die Donauschwaben der in südslawischen Batschka Die Donauschwaben der in südslawischen Batschka Die Donauschwaben der in südslawischen Batschka , asitrepresents an inquiry into geographical, the ethnographical, historical and Die Donauschwaben indersüdslawischen Batschka 109 108 Providing population statistics for various German towns, German various for statistics population Providing Nevertheless, he describes how the Batschka, historically, Batschka, the how describes he Nevertheless, 39 , 7-30. , 34. , 31-32. He does not mention the eighth center. , 30. , 30. 106 110 107 He then transitions into can be interpreted asa can be interpreted explains, Rüdiger As CEU eTD Collection Auslanddeutscher Studenten there. communities abroad to gather data about territories like the Batschka and “Germanize” the the “ and Yugoslavia, these students were also given the task of collecting “racial-biological” data on BesidesHitler’s “newworld beinggivento“Nazify” order.” in mandate the Germans Romania for “missionaries” as working of aim the with Europe, in Southeastern communities German government to financegovernmentto and German across schools sendingEurope “ das Deutschtumfür imAusland instance,in established 1881 and originally a private institution, wasrenamed the “ 111 the “ andfunds wereconducted raised of sole activities for were the Increasingly, buffering purpose occurred in German institutions,including various academic andforeign entities.policy-related 2.4 A Post- SocialistStudy of National the Batschka minority. German its and Batschka the on Reich Third militaristic andideological aims— in contraststark with studies later commissioned by the his from economicfree study the region. however, potential seems the Ultimately, relatively of he onGermany’s aninterest in partnotmerely articulates in alsofeatures, “cultural,” but the National Minorities of Europe, 1933-1945 See, for instance, Valis O. Lumans, Volk Volkstum As Elizabeth Harvey has shown, after 1933, another organization, the organization, another 1933, after shown, has Harvey Elizabeth As As theNational gripSocialists’ over Germany tightened, agradual ” in order to prepare for the large-scale incorporation and militarization of German the of militarization and incorporation the large-scale for prepare to in ” order ” abroad. Institutions like the 111 (BADSt) began (BADSt) sending Himmler’s Auxiliaries: The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German ” after 1933,and closely worked with Thirdthe Reich’s (Chapel Hill, NC: Verein für das DeutschtumVerein für imAusland 40 University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 25. Reichsdeutsche Reichsdeutsche students into ethnic studentsinto Donauschwaben Gleichschaltung (VDA), for ” students Volkstum Bund CEU eTD Collection various and sources methodologies tocreate “idolizations of the from 1943, 1933 to a nexus periods of between two German and BanatthatRemainedin Hungary in Published1920”). in 1943, this volume seems tocreate undBanat Gebliebenen TeilenvonBatschka Batschka, the of study Walz’s Erich with found be such of collection of 1930sand1940s.One example can to this thanks duringdata the efforts altogether thatin inhabitants they Bukin. were dropped amongst communities’ these suchanuproar apparently measurements caused eugenicist) (ultimately these particularly weresought; populations German towns’ the of circumference) Hitler’s Bukin. of Polje;evangelical of Dobroin occurred inBatschka second the 1936 Catholicthe town chapter. 115 114 113 112 in of Batschka.biology” Germans the Erneuerungsbewegung from of groups instance, traveledstudents Halle totheBatschka.Incooperation with local the several “expeditions” werehence launched the 1930s.Startingresearch forduring in1934, Reichsdeutsche mind (which might combine ideological and practical withintraining theseterritories for populations there. Harvey,“Mobilisierung oder Erfassung?,” 377. Bukin will become significant again in this thesis’ oral history Harvey,“Mobilisierung oder Erfassung?,” 376-377. Harvey,“Mobilisierung oder Erfassung?,” 375-376. Harvey,“Mobilisierung oder Erfassung?,” 364-365. The shift in policies, activities, and ideological ambitions towards Batschka after the towards ambitions ideological and activities, in policies, The shift Machtergreifung 114 head build,and weight, height, (including data physiological cases, In both youths, while concomitantly indoctrinating concomitantly while youths, 112 Also with the potential initiation of international Hitler Youth activities in activities Youth Hitler international of initiation potential the with Also Volksgeschichte , these students studied the “living conditions, traditions, and population becomes highly apparent within the within apparent highly becomes 113 became increasingly “multidisciplinary,” drawing on drawing “multidisciplinary,” increasingly became Volksgeschichte The first main research trip occurred in 1934 in the (“The Germandom in the Parts in Batschka (“Theof the Parts the Germandom 41 Das Deutschtum in den 1920 Bei Ungarn 115 . As described by Oberkrome, roughly Volksdeutsche Volk Volksgeschichten ,” provide suggestions for youths abroad), youths published CEU eTD Collection volume was collected a decade earlier, however, due to Uhlig’s apparent illnessdueits toUhlig’s adecadeearlier,however, andvolume was death, apparent collected the Tolna, Baranya. the andthe volumes on German populations in Hungarian territories like the Hungarian “ Hungarian the like territories in Hungarian populations German on volumes Professorbetween Carl who, Uhlig, hadsupervised1931 and 1936, thepublication other of Apparently, volume this intended tocomplete aseries of studies by (by the 1943) deceased the of experienced agradual “Museumthe derund Institut Kunde desAuslanddeutschtums,” Auslands-Institut the also was volume’sthe publisher—asin Rüdiger’s case twelve years Established prior. in 1917 as Batschka undBanat aims in Eastern Europe. (peoples of purported service to the service to purported (peoples of 118 N.R. Deutsches Ausland-Institut (Brünn, Wien, München: Rohrer, 1943), 5. description of how the VoMi gradually came under SS control, see Lumans, 117 Ruprecht, 2003),83-84. Volksgeschichten im Europa der Zwischenkriegszeit 116 a German military and civilian personnel within newly the territories.occupied correctionthe of “Jewishly-induced malformations of modernity,” and provide guidance to 119 Das Deutsche Ausland-Institut1933-1945 “ henceforth, became virtually indistinguishable from goalsthe of Thirdthe Reich’s eastern policy; For more information on this, see Katja Gesche, Katja see onthis, information more For Oberkrome, “Entwicklungen und Varianten derdeutschen Volksgeschichte (1900-1960),” 87-90. For a Willi Oberkrome, “Entwicklungen und Variantender deutschenVolksgeschichte (1900-1960),” in Grenzlanduniversität Erich Walz, Erich Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle In the foreword to Das Deutschtum in den 1920 bei Ungarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Raumforschung , it becomes evident that the Deutsche Auslands-Institut (DAI) in Stuttgart (DAI) Auslands-Institut Deutsche the that evident becomes , it Gleichschaltung Königsberg-dominated eraof ethnographical studies, 117 Das Deutschtumin den 1920 BeiUngarn Gebliebenen Teilenvon 119 ” was conducted according” wasconducted “ totheevaluation of According to the foreword, much of the data presented in the (VoMi) indirectly, thus, and SSduring the 1940s. the (Köln: BöhlauVerlag, 2006), pp.82-86. Reich after 1933,ultimatelyafter directcoming undercontrol the ) and the realization of National Socialist genocidal Socialist National of realization the and ) Kultur alsInstrument der Aussenpolitik totalitärer Staaten: , edited, by HettlingManfred (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & 42 Himmler’s Auxiliaries 116 Mittelgebirge Volksgeschichte 1943,After in Dienstvölker , 31-61. , Schriften 118 ,” ” CEU eTD Collection Batschkais equivalentto formerthe Bács-Bodrog County, Walz, like Rüdiger, further splits justClaiming the likein that territory entire Rüdiger. which hethe the Batschka, delineates of descriptions Walzoffers also Nevertheless, administration. Hungarian still under Batschka Batschka undBanat “negative” influences of “ influences “foreign” “negative” Walz’s unveiling of the there,already around of concern German communities centered by various censuses as ethnicities presented andfocused primarily state initial on an grouping (“ method” settlement a “geographical As the Auslands-Institut similarly explained, this volume was compiled strictly on the instance, for foreword, he had his explainshow a “geographical studies approach.” purely basis of hisown In preserved. been had work Walz’s of much that seems it however, written; more “ “common” by now term the wasreplaced [minority] these Germans’ “environment” on their habits. Völker weremade, term andthe changes” “ only necessary factually-based very “some however,conducted some Auslands-Institut the his “minor adaptations” to manuscript; thus, 120 publication was delayed. 124 123 122 121 himself had fallen on the eastern front “for front hadfallen eastern himself on the apparently born in 1907 in Baiersborn bei Freudenstadt, Württemberg; in August 1941, he Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, The content of The content In light of this foreword, it is perhaps difficult to reconstruct what precisely Walz had were studied just as extensively as the German ones to understand the influences of DasDeutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat , unlikefocuses Rüdiger, primarily on portionsthe in Northern the Das Deutschtum inden1920 Bei Ungarn GebliebenenTeilenvon 120 Furthermore, the author of this volume, Erich Walz, was Walz, Erich volume, this of author the Furthermore, Volksgruppen siedlungsgeographische Methode 43 Führer, Volk .” 124 presented simply who Rüdiger, Unlike Volksgruppe. , and , Reich ”), whereby “foreign” whereby ”), .” ” 122 121 Since his death, his Since , 5. , 5, 6. , 12. , 6. , 5-6. Minderheit 123 ” CEU eTD Collection breeding. the Batschka and Banat’s economy,including issues of property ownership, soil use, and cattle and “nationalities.” various movement,” the andpopulation natural Third,Walz includes a section “population,”on which “population considers density,” “actual formation of settlements and the construction and layout of towns and individual buildings. including of historical Batschka the the Banat, and onsettlements Walza chapter provides bases” of fauna, “economicterritory. flora the and and climate, formations, population figures by featuresethnicity, geomorphological from tectonics rockplate to new and notused in Rüdiger’s study), which includes subsections on geographical boundaries, 125 and stream increasing repetitively the best decreasing of into flowed German blood widethe over half “for agenda. Already how, Walzdescribes in his a a century, Socialist) introduction, harmless enough, its rhetoric and modes of analysis quickly illustrate its radical (National variouslinguistic, demographic, topographical, agricultural and maps. from censusesthe 1880 to1931,a of “chronology” of settlementthe of specific villages,and of the features and economic-geographic Walz focuses his analysis on sub-groups: several first, he the presents “physical-geographic “Northeastern”) and presentsstatistics from 1921and1931 the censuses. the and “Northwestern,” the “Southeastern,” the (here; sub-regions three into region the maps. 130 129 128 127 126 Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, While, based on this basic layout, the intention of Walz’s study may have been have may study Walz’s of intention the layout, basic this on based While, Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat 129 Finally,Walz includes a lengthy includingappendix, population statistics derived Lebensraum 44 ” (whereby the term “ 128 130 Fourth, Walzanalyzes 125 Liketoo, Rüdiger, Lebensraum , 13-15. , 116-119 and , 96-106. , 64-78. , 35-53. , 15-35. 126 Second, ” is 127 CEU eTD Collection seemed to have been successful; population numbers dropped drastically within dropped numbers Batschka the seemed tohavebeensuccessful; population measure curb this “Jewish” practice, to instance, the for missionaries, by attempts Jesuit inintroduced Csávoly (Bács-Kiskun County, Hungary) by a Jewish doctorin 1884. Germans in the territory. “cancers” that had been damaging the “human material” (“ “natural population basedstatistics”— onnatality mortality— Walz certainand highlights Distinguishing between “actual statistics”—population whichincluded immigration— and is indicative here. on populations metsevere His chapter Europe, challenges. and Southeastern countrymen within Germany. folk)(agricultural hadreacheda astandardzenith,” thatshould be adopted againby once his for Walz, further “German where andBanat, the Batschka of were Germans the compatriots. their by eyes” “glowing with met were they War, World First the during and content the of theirlonging”; entire thus, when German troops firstentered Hungary 132 136 135 134 133 “foreign Germans within Germany,neverfound who themselvesinsuch “struggle”a direct with 131 heritage. “enthusiasts” of their German greatest the remained territories these “motherland”its the “daughter slowly and “loosened,” ethnic settlements” the Germans in EastandSoutheast.” of European the territories Urheimat Europe, the in Volga rivers and largest thethe Danube, “at how about line hundredsopening of harmless thousands comparatively of GermanRüdiger’s with farmers nicely live contrasts also far away from the German Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, Nevertheless, as Walz describes, the Germans in this region had, as in most of as inmostEastern of had, in region Germans this the describes, asWalz Nevertheless, DasDeutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat [original, ancient homeland].” Rüdiger, Völker ,” these Germans had always considered their “ hadalways considered Germans ,” these 135 supposedly a practice abortion, included “cancers” Onethese of 134 Die Donauschwabenin der südslawischen Batschka 45 131 While, after a time, the direct ties between ties direct the a time, after While, Volkstum Menschenmaterial ” as “the highest good highest “the ” as , 9. , 75. , 64, 72-73. , 10. , 9. , 9. This quotation Bauerntum 136 132 ”) of the , 7. 133 Despite Unlike These CEU eTD Collection Hungarian and German andefforts the invasion of Yugoslav territories— itwould further population withinelement” the Hungarianlands. “mostthe “puszta” Hungarian valuable flourished; hadalwaysconstituted thethe Germans endof and it towards the his volume, efforts was toGerman skill concludes only that thanks 137 “health of the Volk” (“ urgesthatmeasuresthus be taken abortionto stop practices, as this the severely undermines mass. attending stopped even they that ashamed so became women and on, then from 143 142 141 irregularities. Rüdiger, 140 139 138 speaking Hungarians.” villages “fell tofaultyprey” thatsuddenlyquestionnaires ethniclisted Germans as “German- in forcefully educated Hungarian was frequently as listed Hungarian in censuses; entirethus, Hungarian population numbers within them. policies on Germanpopulationsthe in these andforregions, falsifyingboost statistics to farmers.independent primarily “nationalities”— inother cases, andtheBunjewatzen— most were, Germans the into” an already “weakened zone of of German zone the an “weakened into” already “break to notary” attempted “German-hating whoof for instance—theproduct a therefore— Walz,was amere“ For Magyar the Magyars. of the opinions Walz, Walz, Walz, Walz, Unlike Rüdiger, forinstance, in explanationhis thatthe changing of lines in 1921led to some Walz, Walz, Besides his anti-Semitic and eugenicist analysis, Walz also expresses negative expresses also Walz analysis, eugenicist and anti-Semitic his Besides Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Die Donauschwaben in der südslawischen Batschka 139 Volksgesundheit 141 Walz further criticizes the Hungarians for imposing Magyarization imposing for Hungarians the criticizes further Walz Areas with especially low numbers of Germans, for Walz, were ”) and might, one day,lead to its collapse. 46 140 As Walz laments, any German who was 143 After 1941— after the convergence of convergence the after 1941— After Volkskörper. , 34. Dienstbote ” 142 Nevertheless, as Walz as Nevertheless, ” (servant), while all ” (servant), , 75. , 110. , 92. , 79. , 76. , 77. 138 137 Walz CEU eTD Collection some of the same tactics and insights. As the book’s introduction states, the goal of this NSDAP branch), Riedl’s workministry is not, strictly ofspeaking, the a can be detected can inbe detected Franz Riedl’s 1944 2.5 Late Third Reich Conceptualizations of the Batschka of hygiene, rates natality, and“ethnic” “awareness.” of modernrise standards “German” the to be to educated, itbe neededto also studied; need to in its war for domination in Southeastern Europe. This population, however, would not merely “ accordingat leastNow, region. within the “human material” German “pure” tothe threat one of ominous to this official, government-funded study, an official part of the German for the for be battle, (and would,“human material” supported);they within needto this also represented struggle for their own withinexistence a“hostile” world offoreign and ethnicities “inferior” farmers thus not merely The Batschka’s purpose. ideological andbecame an militaristic onealso with a the “purest” form of “Germandom,” who engaged in a daily 144 begin a in“ “powerful reconstruction” finally be possible for the Germans to overcome the “yoke” of Hungarian oppression, and 72-74. 145 Lebensraum Walz, See, for instance, Walz, instance, for See, Reich A final intransformation Germany’s conceptualization of Batschka the and its people The image that Walz thus paints in his in paints thus Walz that image The Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat , which could provide Germany with resources the and soldiers thatitwould need ,” the Batschka became not merely a territory with great economic potential, buteconomic not potential, merely with great became Batschka a territory ,” the Landesgruppe der Auslandorganisation der NSDAP in Ungarn Das Deutschtum in den 1920 bei Ungarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat völkisch Nachbarland Ungarn , biological, and economic terms.” 47 gleichgeschaltet 145 Volksgeschichte . Published by propagandathe DAI study is DAIof Batschka the study , though it assumes Donauschwaben , 111. 144 (Hungary’s , CEU eTD Collection 148 147 Ungarn (Ujvidek-Neusatz: Druckerei- und Verlags-AG, 1944), 3. 152 151 150 149 Nachbarland Ungarn all emphasized with are at Germany relations times or of them.advantage take unwitting and provoke approach Germans to and “races” “mimic” markings” other in live“without especially that Hungary, arewarned andGermans as elements,” “foreign andare connoted Jews Gypsies unmistakable: andArmenians. Schokatz, Bunjewatz, Hungarian lands are inhabited by Germans,Magyars, Romanians, Ruthenians, , years.”for a Magyardom thousand and Germandom between existed have ties closest “the how explains suddenly Riedl Magyars, drastically.altered hadWhile Walz’s publication for still expressed adeep-feltanimosity the in a,for them, war, increasingly evaluation of German the precarious “Magyar”the suddenly World Wars. two over hadexperienced Germany especially members of of members the especially love to insense truest the inlove word, the of his with raceandin will, his life every profess situation, value” “ the “correctly individuals 146 publication providewas to all of “our beautiful host state.” “ Riedl, Riedl, Riedl, Riedl, Riedl, Franz Riedl, Seit einem Jahrtausend bestehen innigste Verbindungen zwischen Deutschtum und Magyarentum After a lengthy description of Hungarian history— in which concurrent and friendly and concurrent in which history— Hungarian of description a lengthy After By 1944, of course, relations between Hungary Germanyand had changed— now allies Volk Nachbarland Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn and .” and , 5. , 3. , 31-50. , 6, 17. , 6. , 10. Wehrmacht 146 149 , published by Landegruppethe derAuslandsorganisation derNSDAP in Hopefully, theintroduction wouldcontinues, as thishelp book Reichsdeutsche Like Rüdiger and Walz,furthermore, Riedl explains how the Waffenbrüderschaft 148 The Magyar, like the German, as Riedl explains, “… is, — with a quick guide to the history and current relations 150 However, the Nazi eugenic tone here becomes here tone eugenic Nazi the However, 48 who are entering Hungary for the first time— 147 152 ” (brotherhood in arms) that Hungary and Hungary that in arms) ” (brotherhood — Riedl finally enters a discussion of discussion a enters finally Riedl — 151 …” Riedl, CEU eTD Collection Wehrmacht only excelled in agricultural and economic production, butalso in rearingthe of Honvéd, ethnically, “mixed hadnot Germans beingdespite Batschka’s the territory” an extraordinarily sugar beet—that turneditintoHungary’s most valuable agricultural territory. gavemany rise valuableto like andspecialized crops— hemp, corn, wheat, sunflowers, and of people. a million quarter inflated) (an number which Germans, valuable” “economically most the to home is Batschka inBatschka hadbeen particular valuable within German Asthe Riedlwar efforts. the explains, members Hungarian-German of Waffen-SSthe in hadshown joining armedthe forces. of a population enthusiastic (or at least compliant) with the Third Reich’s activities. buffering,andrequired bythe rearing that became had and materialized, Reich that one afact, region of incorporation the by Third the militaristic and economic the Rather, speculation. Donauschwaben material.” The inagricultural and “human direction productivity which Batschka’s the ethnologicalclear. A territorystudy now underfrom direct a Axisdistance, control, the Batschka but was no longera region a region underthat could be directly exploited for its 156 155 154 153 Volk As Riedl explains, the Hungarian “Germandom” isat all times loyal to the state and loyal to the ethnic German populations withinincluding Hungary, adescription of particular communities. Riedl, Riedl, Riedl, Riedl, (“ staatstreu undvolkstreu By thepositioning1944, thus, of Batschka—the in atleast official was propaganda— Nachbarland Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn Nachbarland Ungarn , and SS soldiers. population population would take was no longer— asunder Rüdiger— a matter of , 139. , 139. , 59. , 58. 154 156 Located within a fertile basin, as Riedl explains, the Batschka the explains, as Riedl fertile basin, within a Located ”), which ”), willingnessexplains the thatcurrent over 40,000 the 49 155 Furthermore, 153 The CEU eTD Collection Germany’s own the could longer no changed: also Batschka the of in terms rhetoric Germany’s War, the losing slowly and Hungary with allied Now again. the region in “ in region the “ best Lebensraum. German within German races” the “inferior multitude amongst of “servile,” a race” as a“master blood,” intheregion were regarded Germans theBatschka concretized; towards intentions Germany’s blood that presented some of the most valuable potential institutions, including schools of economic, cultural, and national path. After the National National Socialist the After national path. and cultural, economic, and potential amajor yet resources, of manpower, undecidedinits German population future in great asafruitful with German studies Batschkahadalready consolidated been the territory, 158 157 explored its “ and periods,asGermany interwar soughtincreasing duringBatschka the attention garnered the minority, German significant a to rise given had years, hundred two past the of course overthe especially that, A region the Batschka. towards, activities and of, conceptualizations ideology another.” shaped one Third geopolitical Reich’s and ambitions in “opportunityEastern Europe, Southeastern and 2.6 Conclusions Menschenmaterial Walz, Connelly, “Nazis and Slavs,” 4. As publications like Riedl’sby show, Reich’s situation 1944, the had changed once In a 1999 study, historian the John Connelly especiallyclaimed that in of terms the Das Deutschtum in den 1920 beiUngarn gebliebenen Teilen von Batschka und Banat Volk The Batschka, as in Walz’s description, had for thousands of years hosted “the hosted years of thousands for had description, in Walz’s as Batschka, The völkisch Lebensraum ” across Eastern and Southeastern Europe. By Weimarthus, Europe. late the and period, Southeastern Eastern ” across ” (“human material”) as material”) the ” (“human , biological, and economic terms.” . Rather, Germans within Germans region asloyal painted within were now . Rather, the Ostforschung 157 This, too, is seen in the evolution of German 50 Reich Reich and research and exchange programs abroad, programs exchange and research and planned its “powerful reconstruction” of so openly claim the region as part of 158 Gleichschaltung , 111. of German CEU eTD Collection forces. further disseminating tool disseminatingfurther tool for theNaziideology, and into ultimately drafted the a youth trained andyouth implemented as within ideologized Socialist programs, a National primary means for this large-scale indoctrination would consist of “harnessing”the of youths— National Socialism, whowould be willing tofightand die forits ideals. Asin Germany, a of tenets the towards enthusiastic ofapopulation creation all,the above and, institutions, some of some of the they hadtactics applied the gradual within Germany: vigorously is Reich beganto employ thatthe It here world empire.” “millennial in creating their envisioned, and to be enlisted, both physically mentally,and for the Third Reich’s greater goals had ThirdReich that the as material” act “human the be to “German,” and trained to taught communities within the region; the region; the within communities plans in relation to the region. Connections would first have to be made with the ethnic German Batschka’s as communities German simply toengagewilling in, andsubscribe to,Germany’s “ by German then,recruitment, hadbeen TheBatschka’s fora reality several years. Reich German their to both Menschenmaterial , with ultimately fatal forconsequences individualsthe involved. Nevertheless, itwould Nevertheless, beerroneous to claimthat Third the regarded the Reich ”— both economically and militaristically— was thus exploited by the by exploited thus was militaristically— and economically both ”— Volk and to theirand to homeland. Hungarian Large-scale Donauschwaben 51 within the region would then have to be to have then would region the within Gleichschaltung Wehrmacht Reich of various ’s armed and SS- CEU eTD Collection and non-governmental structures in the creation of a “national community” centered around Hitler (p. 6). (p. Hitler around centered community” “national of a 161 creation the in structures non-governmental and analysis in relation to Nazithe Party Third and Reich as a whole focuses interplaythe on of various governmental Carolina Press, 1989), 1]. Rempel’s analysis, however,fluctuates overthe course[Gerhard Rempel,of his study; thus, most of his the final bizarre momentsI to War World inafter his Munich Berlinin bunker, career political Hitler ofhis start was the obsessed“From Rempel: to with youthaccording as a politicalTherefore, forceperspective. in history” 2004), 16]. Other historians of Hitler the Youth— like Gerhard Rempel, seemingly adopt a intentionalistmore [the them in interest great a take contemporary historiographies of the HitlerYouth, as with Michael Kater, who states that “Hitler himself usefuldid not but only under the wings, so to speak, of the storm troopers” to was that (p.point a 46). by youth, This be led is a causealsobeing ofechoed occasionalyouth of by frictionmore emphasis untilof the after 1933. HeMovement, consideredYouth German a National Socialist pre-war ofthe YouthMovement traditions politically perspective onthe topic of the Hitler Youth. As he states, forinstance, “… Hitlerwas not1975), 46-47. Koch—as yet himself aformer fully participant in Hitlerthe aware of Youth— seems to appropriatethe a more functionalist 160 Socialist youth groups would also need tobe deployed outside the enough to vote for his Party” [Michael H. Kater, 159 Germany. Nazithe youth movement initially crucial became in theindoctrination youthsof within somecounted eightmillion members within by Germany outbreak the Worldof War IIalone, youth soon became historiographically contested centralAdolf for the is of happiness the youth,your name, my perpetuation Hitler of the volume in his Nazi declared Schirach, had movement. initially A formation that embraced the creation of a Nazi youth movement is is stronger than you, my you, than is stronger Rempel, See, for instance, H.W. Koch, Baldur vonSchirach, Chapter 3: Chapter The Hitler Youth— andthe Origins,Evolution, Employment of Youths as anInstrument ofInternational In 1936, the leader of the Hitler Youth and leaderIn 1936,the Hitler of the Youth eventual 161 Hitler’s Children Hitler’s National leadership that apparent tothe becameithowever, mid-1930s,By the Hitler’s Children Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt , 268. Führer Hitler Jugend The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 160 : The Hitler Youth and the SS ; nevertheless, it is evident that the coordination of Germany’s of coordination the that is evident it nevertheless, ; ; itis thelove of the young Germany you…towards your name Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee undGestalt Idee Die Hitler-Jugend: ] at that time [the 1920s] because he focused only on adults old Propaganda Hitler Youth Hitler Führer 52 , is our immortality.” our is , (Leipzig: Koehlerund Amelang, 1934), foreword. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, University Harvard Massachusetts: (Cambridge, (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Gauleiter Reich : “There is one thing that thing is one : “There 159 of of Vienna, Baldurvon , as the “creators” as a of , “creators” the (New York: Dorset Press, The degree to which The degreeto CEU eTD Collection Wandervögel society. industrializing of constraints by the unfettered individuality natural emotional, “ hoping toturn“German blood” across includingEurope, into Batschka, the afully disciplined countryside, supposed the coldmaterialism andbourgeois decadence theirof Roaming elders. the suburb leaderin of Berlin,their amiddle-class adult the Steglitz, example of such early youth movements. Founded in 1901 by male Protestant adolescents and own political or religious affiliation or social agenda. The its eachwith youth organizations, of of a plethora flourishing the saw century the especially The Formation of the Hitler 3.1 Youth “ will consider thestrategies employed by Youth groups andHitler activities inforging it of intoThird “disciples” Reich.the particular, especially In but at theircreation Germany, Youth institutions and aimed programs notmerely indoctrinationat the youthsof within Hitler in which manners the explore then will It Germany. Nazi within Youth Hitler the of 162 abroad. (National GermanSocialist) identity amongst theapproximately million 27 ethnic Germans 163 Menschenmaterial volksdeutsche Z.A.B. Zeman, Z.A.B. Kater, 162 Youth movements had a long history in Germany prior to Nazism’s ascent. The turn of turn The ascent. Nazism’s to prior inGermany history long a had movements Youth Hitler Youth This chapter will first provide an overview of the origins, development, and ideology , however, presented only one amongst many organizations thatGermany’syouth Wandervögel ” Nazi Propaganda communities loyal loyal to the “ communities , 7-8; Koch, ,” poised and ready to fight for the Third Reich. girls and boys held campfires, sangfolksongs, and stressed an The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973),71. Führer 53 ” and to the tenets of ultimately Nazism— of tenets ” andtothe Wandervögel Wandervögel , 26-27. offer one pertinent one offer reacted againstreacted 163 The CEU eTD Collection end of Weimarthe Republic, approximatelyfive million of Germany’s young belonged tosome view, defeatist andshamefulview, WeimarRepublic. defeatist 165 164 Rotfrontkämpferbund youth radicalizedgroups rangingfrom left-wing the found new with adherents increasingfacility. Weimar The Republic thusbecame withdotted young, especially the groups affected political that large-scale unemployment anddistress, the political In agendas— arose. interwarthe environment of political instability, economic Other German youth groups underwent similar transformations, while new ones— with specific more radicalized goals. The liberal,’s democratic the to anathema became now frigidity— industrialization’s of inrebellion previously hence— The nationalism. a chauvinist and members, female their of exclusion the drills, andincluding thetrappings assumed of a martial arigidorganization, , uniforms, As the were slain. aresult, ideals andenlist rushed to assoldiers. By 1918, November over half of these 12,000 volunteers Wandervögel Scout movement, introduced to Germany in 1909, all were among the possibilities. couldlocaljoin— youth religious groups, groups directed by the Catholicthe Church,or Boy 166 Kater, Koch, Kater, In their increasing political radicalization, however, the however, radicalization, political increasing their In World War Irepresented a turningin point developmentthe of youththese groups. The The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 Hitler Youth Hitler Youth , for instance, regarded the warasa nationalist the for instance,regarded chance romantic, , tofulfill their Bünde , 8-9. , 7. to the right-wing : rightwing, anti-democratic youth groups that rejected the, in their the, rejected that groups youth anti-democratic rightwing, : Wandervögel Jungnationaler Bund and their followers became increasingly militaristic, increasingly became followers their and 54 165 Wandervögel Antifasistische Junge Garde , 28-29. . 166 It is estimated that towards the towards that It is estimated Wandervögel thus disintegrated into the were not alone. were not Wandervögel ( 164 Antifa ) and CEU eTD Collection wouldbe organized by and directed SA.the that Party,”section” a“youth Worker’s National League of the Socialist “Youth of the creation 170 169 168 1988), 166. young, upon young,whom upon “future the of Fatherland”the depends, “… receive bestthe possible statutes; it will educate its members in the same spirit which characterizes the party” so that the ranksof into storm the troopers.” the accepted article, was“…to gatherall young becausewho, our supporters of youngtheir age,cannotbe 167 published in the formation On the about a Naziyouth of group. 16 “Kindergarten.” right-wing another yet of founding the towards funds Nazi of diversion the to contrary , youth creation group; a of aboutthe Hitler wasambivalent describes, historian the Koch H.W. a drivingfounders offorce the newly discussions about creationthe of a separate Nazi youthestablished league began in of1921, when the the NSDAPearly conceivedcolossal, regimented, and highly ideologizedNSDAP form it is moststrategies famous for today. The earliest and severalYouth underwent and permutations stages of finally developmentbefore achieving the for theirHitler’s ascent to power.additionGermany’s to mushrooming youth groups, thattheHitler emerged. Youth The Hitler advisor, As was downright associations. radicalized politically budding Weimar’s form of youth group, whether to the Boy Scouts, the ’s youth groups, or Quoted in Koch, Koch, Koch, Jackson J. Spielvogel, J. Jackson It was within this environment of Weimar’s political and economic instability, in instability, economic and political Weimar’s of environment this within was It The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 168 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 Völkischer Beobachter Nevertheless, by early 1922, a consensus was reached within the NSDAP Hitler and Nazi Germany: AHistory , the NSDAP’s official newspaper, announcing the announcing newspaper, official NSDAP’s , the 169 55 the accordingto thisLeague, The purposeof 170 (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Furthermore, “themovement has its own 167 , 47. , 46-47. th , 1922, a proclamation, 1922, was thus , 47. CEU eTD Collection for sixteen to eighteen-year olds. Termed the olds. Termed eighteen-year forto sixteen of divisions League further Youth the onefor emerged,sixteen-year fourteen olds, other to the Gustaventrusted Adolfto Lenk, apioneer of youth movements, earlier in May 1922, two join. to strata social all from boys “desired” fourteen and eighteen, membership while an absence fees of was designed toencourage these Mammon.’” ethical and people,spiritual enjoyment of characteristicshonest whichvalues, had their origin in the Germanic blood, namely ‘love of one’s opencountry and combat and andpervade theLeague as theNSDAP; its aim was “…to reawakenand totreasure those of thehealthy rejection physicalyouth movementactivity, as it would emerge. According to the statutes,of the samethe “spirit” would thoseveneration of Nazi the tenets alsothe contained matters, organizational and logistical settling besides values of statutes, ten These League’sstatutes. the originating NSDAPissued Party, the Worker’s Socialist National from Jewry primarilyinitiated as feedingthe for future SAmembers. grounds and a period of transformation. As the first NSDAP essentially dissolved, so too did early so too the NSDAPHitler dissolved, first essentially As the of a period transformation. violence included. designed toprepareyoungmen for service in SA— drills,the SA-type uniforms, and street 171 trainingfor their difficulttask in future.”the 174 173 172 Quoted in Koch, Koch, Koch, Quoted in Koch, Shortly after the official announcement of the creation of the Youth League of the of League Youth the of creation the of announcement official the after Shortly With Hitler’sfailed Beer Hall inPutsch 1923,November Nazi youth groups underwent The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 172 Membership to the League was restricted to “Aryan” boys between the agesof to“Aryan”between boys Leaguewasrestricted Membership tothe The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 174 56 173 Jungsturm AdolfHitler 171 After leadership of the Youth League was League Youth the of leadership After The NSDAP’s Youth League was hence , 49. , 48-49. , 47. , 48. , the latter branch was latter , the CEU eTD Collection On March 25 which members.Party, at timemillion one that over of hosted rival Center that the Catholic in the Hitler Youth.” “… that declared,which entire is the stipulated Germanyouth within territory the coordinated German boys youth Hitler’s groups were, during the1930s, intoturned a legally andcompulsory exercise for all girls. voluntary Previously organizations, purely legislation. restrictive succession increasingly of On DecemberHitler new of in as it members, NSDAP,however,soon came topower passed a Youth the as January 1933, recruitment the 1 with making were they progress the with satisfied Not program. league, the NSDAP, a female branch— the branch— a female NSDAP, By 1928, theHitler was Youth splitinto military,welfare,propaganda,film, sport, newly other and Hitlerdesigned branches. Youth Reichsführer hierarchy and organization was hence imposed on Hitlerthe Youth, which appointed Gruber 180 179 instruction. Koch, 176 175 Bund der Hitler-Jugend, deutschen Arbeiterjugend. Youth. 178 177 was his which, youth group by July 4 that of Kurt Gruber, a young NSDAP lawyer. Termed the Greater , it Kater, Quoted in Kater, Hitler was mistrustful of Gruber and of the youth movement he had created independently of Hitler’s Koch, Koch, Koch, 175 During the 1920s, the Hitler Youth became an increasingly significant part of Nazi part of the significant became anincreasingly the Hitler Youth 1920s, the During TheHitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 Hitler Youth During the next two years, several successor youth movements emerged, including Jungvolk th of the Hitler Youth, and gave him— and the SA— control over the education, , 1939, one of oneof most, 1939, significantthe pieces oflegislation of timethe wasfurther The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 Hitler Youth , 22. (“ 179 Pfimpfe All youth other illegal,organizationsincluding,becamefor instance, , 22. ”) was set up for the ten to fourteen-year old age cohorts. age old up for tofourteen-year set the ”) was ten Bund DeutscherMädel th , 1926, and, 1926, amongst qualms onHitler’s became part, the Gaue st , 1936, for instance, the Hitler Youth Law was 57 , Kreise 176 , 64-69; Kater, , 56. , 64. The Hitler Youth was born. An intricate An born. was Youth Hitler The , and , , orBDM—wasformed, aseparate and Ortsgruppen , 60-61, 64. Hitler Youth similar tothat of the , 16. 178 180 177 CEU eTD Collection Youth service mandatory, the Nazis targeted the more malleable, enthusiastic sensibilities of of a sensibilities malleable, enthusiastic the Nazismore targeted mandatory, the service Youth with appeal which Nazis the sought to entirethe to German population.making By Hitler soon became one of the cornerstones of the Nazi program. In particular, it became a vehicle 1939. 98.1% of all youths wereunderGerman thedirect purview of Nazi youth by groups early thesis. of all the members” (Koch, minds the 116). “penetrate This could issueideology Nazi will the become that assume more cannot apparent ofcourse one withinactivities, Youth the followingHitler in engaged chapters of this Koch, could bejobs, deniedapprenticeships, and the acquisition inheritedof farms. refused an this law would bring severe atleast sanctions: theoretically, students could be December 1936, it already boasted over 5.4 million.it over 5.4 boasted already December 1936, have While worked. had theHitler Youth secured 100,000members some byJanuary 1933, by Anglo-American films, swing and jazz music, and fashions) [see, for instance, Kater, instance, for [see, fashions) and music, jazz and swing films, Anglo-American consider, forinstance, the spread of the “Swings,” groupings in which boys andwithin girls Germany engagedstill consumedin alternate activities (as throughand the Church,engaged the home, orpopular with culture— 1933, youths simply eschewed Hitler Youth activities; after the Hitler Youthbecame mandatory, many historiographiesyouths agree that “dissent” against Hitler Youth membership was also common amongst youths. Before 185 184 youths and their parents, even making them totheGestapo. evenyouths makingsubject andtheir them parents, 1942, Heinrich enactedadditionalHimmler legislation couldthat imprison and fine dissenting the BDM or the 183 182 181 Youth.” Hitler in the in service put passed,a law “… whichstipulated that eighteen all from age ten to to are obligated adolescents Kater, Kater, Kater, Kater, Quoted in Kater, 185 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 Despite the NSDAP’s initial hesitations in forming a youth group, the Hitler Youth Hitler the group, youth a forming in hesitations initial NSDAP’s the Despite Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Abitur Jungvolk Hitler Youth , 26-27. , 23. While this official statistic is, of course, rather high, it must be stated that most , 19. , 25. (a qualification necessary for entering university), while working youths , hence became mandatory for all “Aryan” boys and girls. Defiance of Defiance girls. and boys “Aryan” all for mandatory became hence , , 23. 181 such as and subsidiaries, its HitlerYouth in Service the 58 , 204-227]. Furthermore, evenwithyouths who 184 According to Nazi statistics, some statistics, Nazi to According 183 These tactics seemed to seemed tactics These Hitler Youth 182 November By , 113-166, and CEU eTD Collection 187 became the training grounds for future SS leaders. Rempel, leaders. SS future for grounds training the became 189 188 Kater, (such mentally as Jews,Gypsies, “undesirables” the or “” andracial between struggle” included an adherence toanti-Semitism of andconceptualizations “ethnica Darwinian 186 of doctrines Nazism. followed the Youth leaders,of Hitler course the and for thecreation SA, then first intendedof SS, Asan ideology. organization aspecific followed Ideological Content and Dissemination of the Hitler 3.2 Youth of the Hitler Youth. through systematicthe indoctrination Germany’sof budding generations within framework the ingeneration which, 1933 alone, one comprised third of Germany’s population. the NSDAPthe hopedtoensure its initial itssuccess and longevity.ultimate average ageof thirty-one. ascension of young—itsthe most leaders of between for1925 andinstance, 1932, wereof an these variousthroughout stagesof Nazi the wasframeddevelopment, movement asthe within the Hitler Youth became notonly illegal. oddity,a subversive but Nevertheless, of a vanguard became,by late 1930s,a morethe whereby routinized project, non-membership movement voluntary and revolutionary a as framed been 1920s, the during had, What changed. membership Youth Hitler of nature the that legislation restrictive increasingly this with Kater, After the so-called “” in 1934, the Hitler Youth was divorced from the SA and instead and SA the from divorced was Youth Hitler the 1934, in knives” long the of “night so-called the After Kater, Nicholas Stargardt, Nicholas Hitler Youth The Hitler Youth, as was already stipulated in the 1922 statutes in aswasalready League, 1922statutes Youth the The Hitlerof Youth, the stipulated Hitler Youth Hitler Youth , 5. , 10. , 11. Witnesses of War: Children’s Lives under the Nazis 187 By recruiting the young— either through persuasion or coercion— or persuasion through either young— the By recruiting 59 Hitler’s Children (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005), 11; , 9-12. 188 Anditwould so do 186 also is It 189 This CEU eTD Collection that the Hitler youth’s theHitler that 1940s. politics”— assumed thefigure of a divinefatherfigure in duringpropaganda 1930sand the of “sacralisation a of model Gentile’s with in line also who— Hitler, in faith in ablind trained Persuarsion especially crucial within the followingbecome will chapter. concepts These Garth S. purposes.” Jowettpropaganda and Victoriafor be needed O’Donnell,will they when day the against contacts maintain and open lines “keep to employed is etc.— pamphlets, books, classes, language periodicals, releases, press television, ofradio, form the in communication”— “facilitative which in and doctrine” ofthe acceptance toward audience the in ofmind a frame to build needed is oftime period a considerable which for doctrine, anunfamiliar tospread is task propagandist’s “the where propaganda of atype of“subpropaganda,” conceive to achieve a response that furthers desiredthe intent of propagandist.”the Furthermore, Jowettand O’Donnell “Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior 196 William H.Swatos Jr.(New GreenwoodYork: Press, 1986), 149,151, 153. however, also harbored its own specificities. Nazi ideology— was especially crucial ideology—tothe Hitler Youth. crucial Nazi wasespecially “Hitler’s Dictatorial Charisma,” in 195 194 assume Hitler’stype ofhuman being—nationalistic, powerful, “racialof cleansed andimpurities,” preparedto task of the creation of a “millennial world empire.” World WarWorld Idefeat. purportedly, unliketheir by unfettered elders, degeneracybourgeois “shameful”and Germany’s as movement, Nazi of they the were of continuation youngthe “guardian” becamethe The strength, and “duty, courage, ruthlessness”inculcation honor, inits members. obedience, of 193 1945 by Hitler.” “propounded of “tenets” “hotch-potch” of a more Socialists, had a unified, “systematic” ideology as such; historians like Kochthus conceive of this “ideology” as 192 191 190 ill). It is useful here to consider a more precise definition of “propaganda.” According to Jowett and O’Donnell: and Jowett to According of “propaganda.” definition precise a more consider to here useful is It For more on Hitler’s “personality cult” and related issues of “charismatic leadership,” see Arthur Schweitzer, Arthur see leadership,” of“charismatic issues related and cult” “personality Hitler’s on more For Koch, Spielvogel, It should be stated, however, that some historiographies also doubt that the HitlerYouth, oreven the National Koch, Koch, 190 , 116. German The 196 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 Onepublished songbook inLeipzigin 1941 clearly illustrates religiousthe trappings (London: Sage Publications, 2006), 7, 26. Hitler and Nazi Germany: A History Volk 194 Führer Furthermore, Hitler’s “personality cult”— though prevalent throughout prevalent though cult”— “personality Hitler’s Furthermore, , as Griffin has also shown, was to become the expression of a new Charisma, History and Social Structure -adulation assumed: -adulation , 169. 192 60 In particular, Hitler Youth literature stressed the The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922- , 117-118. , 116-118. , 116. , edited by Ronald M. Glassman and 195 be was to youth Germany’s 191 Propaganda and The Hitler Youth, Hitler The 193 CEU eTD Collection administratively it suffices to be instructed, drilled,be trained, instructed, andbred.” it to administratively suffices mayhowever, be engagein trained. To onemustpolitics becalled,yetfunction to “mission.” As inJoseph Goebbels declared 1930: “Trueleaders areborn.Leadership cadres, young weredrilledin marches,fanfares, wargames, rifle trumpet practice, and other the in which weekends— on held generally meetings— weekly Youths’ Hitler inthe foremost, andindoctrinationelaborate, machine. ever-expanding, Hitler Youth’s task to “breed” new generations of Nazis, a task that was carried out with an to theirtrue people, andonewho would— ascan be gleaned from leadthis nationalistic “liturgy”— youths 199 from the NapoleonicWars through the Third Reich 198 37 in Führer!,” “Mein Schirach, von Das Lied der Getreuen; Verse Baldur ungenannter Österreichischer Hitler-Jugendsoldier!” aus your den Jahrenand der Verfolgung 1933- fighter your be I will sacrifice, of act every for ready way home. Wherever I may stand, at every hour, every day, I am connected to Germany onethe who leads usforwards anew andthrough night and to need. you.Just now does And my life makesense;thus, I have found my 197 Quoted in Kater, Mosse, SeeGeorge (Leipzig: Philipp Reclam Jun. Verlag, 1941), 17. “My Führer! As I saw you for the first time, I knew:you are the loyalty,you are my will and commandment, Hitler’s followers, however, would need to be specifically trained to carry Nazi carry the to out betrained specifically need to however,would followers, Hitler’s The endeavored indoctrination of Germany’s youth was to be carried out, first and first out, be carried to was youth Germany’s of indoctrination endeavored The Hitler, within Youth Hitler propaganda, wasportrayed as fora divine leader the German völkisch sein unddein Soldat! jedem Tag,binichmit Deutschland undmit dir verbunden. Woichauchimmerstehenmag,zujeder Stunde, heimgefunden. aus Nacht undNot,unsvorwärts aufs neue.führt der eine, dieTreue,dubistmirWilleundGebot, ich: dubist Hitler Youth The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany and national calling. Und so,bereit zu jeder Opfertat, will ichdein Kämpfer Erst jetzt hatdieses Leben Sinn: Ich habe wieder Mein Führer! Alsichdich sah zum erstenmal, dawusst’ , 12. 197 198 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,1991), 2. 61 199 the hence was It CEU eTD Collection indoctrination of Germany’s youth. Textbooks with into a Nazifocusintroduced indoctrination werethus Textbooks youth. Germany’s of NSDAPthe realized by mid-1930s the it that could also exploit other organizations for the goals. of Third fulfillmentthe harnessed,the palingenetic towards Reich’s andtargeted fostered, stations, and flier,motor, ormarine sections— further ensured thatall wouldtalents be enforced). where Hitlermembers Youth could spendall of their recreational if time desired (or Heime Hitler-Jugend “Fatherland,” the Germanic , and the virtues of and blood virtuesthe soil,of death. battle Germanic “Fatherland,” and the and reporting “glorious” on Hitler’s abroad. conquests while simultaneously of HitlerYouth, the education anti-Semitic nationalist, the furthered 206 205 204 203 201 Die JungeFront 202 200 Prussia). historicallymembers important sites of to futurepurported conquest (suchas Schleswig or East with physical hours-longtraining, Hitler marchesbecame common, which took Youth these Youth meetings andin public schools. fencing,swimming, running, soccer, andexercises similar became mandatory, within both especially held a forpremium their role in steeling the would future servicein them that for exercises militaristic prepare the Kater, Kater, Kater, Koch, Kater, Kater, Kater, 206 While initially focusing on Hitler Youth-specific institutions tospreadHitler’s word, Hitler Youth Hitler Youth The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922-1945 Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth 202 205 Nazi ideology was further incorporated into the Hitler Youth newspapers— like newspapers— Youth Hitler intothe incorporated further was ideology Nazi Special divisions withinits Hitlersuchas the Youth— choirs, radioorchestras, and the and , 30. , 32. , 33-34. , 33. , 29. , 30. (Hitler Youth homes) were created as community centers for the young, the for centers community as created were homes) Youth (Hitler Hitler-Jugend-Zeitung 201 62 education combinenationalistto In anattempt (both already (both established in 1928)— which , 71. 203 Volk Hitler Youth songs exalted the exalted songs Youth Hitler ’s bodies; boxing,thus skiing, Wehrmacht 204 . 200 Special Sports CEU eTD Collection clearing afterand debris bombings, andrescuers air-raid acting wardens brutalities as oncethe thewar for mobilized effort,collecting rags,paper, metal scraps, and materials other initially, and destroy Jewish property and up round Jewish prisoners. too. During 1938 the wherehouses, Youth became to gruelingdrills they subject and racial education. by evacuated KLVthe betweentheages of ten and fourteen inwere frequently placed Hitler for further indoctrination; intochildren safety from bombardments in countryside,the provided the Nazis with meansthe placed Kinderlandverschicking under the direct administration of the Hitler Youth, youths 212 (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2000), 48-54; Stargardt, disgust with react learn to and program, euthanasia Germany’s of Nazi anexplanation receive enemy,” towards of “internal the glimpse first-hand younga catch could in the where camps 1941, concentration Jews, youthof an Hitler tours “Adolf organized to extreme,indoctrination these Schools” of Gypsies,Schulen, and by teachers. school leaders public other “enemies” of the Third Reich. 211 210 209 207 futurewith “subjects.” superiority and conquest,while languages foreign were taught specifically for communication schools; biology infusedwas with racial ideals, German history was withdotted notions of 208 Kater, Kater, Kater, Kater, Kater, Kater, Hitler Youth were Hitlergroups Youth mobilized for practical of tasks violence andracial hatred, Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth opening of the first in an ten eventual Pomerania onApril 20 , 62-63. , 41, 44. , 44-48;, Emmy Werner,E. , 50, 64. , 48. , 50. 207 (KLV), the systematic removal of some five million urban German urban million five some of removal systematic the (KLV), Hitler’s regime further stipulated the recruitment of new Hitler Youth Hitler new of recruitment the stipulated further regime Hitler’s , for instance, Hitler Youth members helped to smash, burn, smash, to helped members Youth Hitler instance, for , 208 The Nazi government created independent created government Nazi The Through the Eyes of Innocents: Children Witness World War II 63 Witnesses of War of Witnesses 212 At home, Hitler Youths were , 125. th , 1937. 211 209 210 Adolf-Hitler the Taking Ee the Even CEU eTD Collection 217 216 215 214 “ organizations. “foreign begun envision youth a separate had their for NSDAP functionaries to already policy” Germany, would hence alsoextendits reach into the international realm.in Starting 1920s,the indoctrinating itsforce of own. The Hitler thoughcrucial Youth, within confinesthe of labor division for the Nazi regime; by the early 1930s, Hitler’s youth was also envisioned as an The Hitler Youth’s Foreign 3.3 Activities Reich’s collapse in May 1945. be the task of the Hitler regions. European other Youth toand these into spread Germans of resettlement the and Jews, and Slavs of Hitler’s mass the as well vision of a German Policy.” “Eastern Hitler’s to instrumental became eventually Youth Hitler Ribbentrop’s Foreign Office, andRosenberg’s Ministry for Occupied Eastern territories, the 213 for “ thecreation — or Prussia,the of , East as Pomerania, such territories— of German “reclamation” the included infamously fodder for the of Germany. hitwar hadalso Volksdeutsche Rempel, Rempel, Rempel, Werner, Kater, The Hitler Youth, however, was not merely the target of indoctrination and an eventual an and indoctrination of target the merely not was however, Youth, Hitler The Hitler Youth Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Through the Eyes of Innocents Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Hitler’s Children Hitler’s 215 ” in these territories of purported future in future conquest. Indoing of territories these purported Hitler so,the Youth Workinginconjunction with theAssociation for Germans Abroad, , 36; Stargardt, 217 , 143-144. , 21. , 21. , Hitler’s final fromfinal , Hitler’svictory push towards 1944totheThirdOctober Hitler’s Youth, in this scenario, would fulfill a crucial role. It would It role. crucial a fulfill would scenario, this in Youth, Hitler’s 213 214 Witnesses of War of Witnesses At the front, Hitler Youth members famously became cannon became famously members Youth Hitler front, the At , 123-136; Rempel, , 11,, 300. 64 Hitler’s Children Lebensraum , 233-244. ” Reich in Eastern Europe, as in Europe, Eastern to the so-called the to 216 Ti policy This CEU eTD Collection 223 219 222 increasinglyregulations. Nazi stringent becameto regime, and subject The movementflourished rapidly: while in 1934 the the 218 called was of propaganda the “masters.” Aryan of empire an of creation eventual the for Hitler to loyal flock new a rear help would 221 220 213, No. 3 (December1971), 577. channelednow into directly newlyareas the Poland.of western There, itconquered became of World WarIIin 1939, however, participants, by had1936 the movement already to 6,600members.grown harvest season toiling onborderland farms for a small wage of nine Rather, the Artamanen Hitler Youth Hitlerinitiatives Youth in territories.disputed territory. inestates politically the border between territories Poland anddisputed Germany. Boasting some two thousand workers by Boasting thousand workers some two 1929, the “racially livespure” pastoral and placement the of“German”into“Aryan” agriculture hands. Rempel, Michael H. Kater, “Die Artamanen: Völkische Jugend in der Weimarer Republik,“ Rempel, Rempel, Rempel, Kater, Landdienst Artamanen One of the first, and most significant, projects that employed the Hitler Youth as agents Youth Hitler the employed that projects significant, most and first, One the of On 7 October Hitler Youth 219 Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Hitler’s Children Hitler’s ’s purpose, however, lay not primarily in boosting the German agricultural sector. Toiling sometimes for years at a time, these young men aimed at the creation of creation atthe menaimed young these a time,years for at Toiling sometimes Artamanen . Initially a voluntary exercise, Hitler Youth members could now spend the spend now could members Youth Hitler exercise, voluntary a Initially . , an , an youngassociation of menfounded in volunteered1924, that onfarms and , 107. th , 1934, the Hitler Youth and the and Youth Hitler the 1934, , Landdienst , 122-123. , 109. , 107. , 109. sought to drive Polish farm hands off of purportedly German . The Weimar period had already seen the growth so- thegrowth of the hadalready seen . TheWeimar period Landdienst 220 65 service came under the direct jurisdiction of of jurisdiction the direct the service cameunder Artamanen Landdienst Artamanen eventually became for model became the eventually involved some five hundred officially officially merged tocreate Reichsmark Historische Zeitschrift 223 222 Hitler Youths were Youths Hitler After the outbreak per month. per 218 , Vol. The 221 CEU eTD Collection German Liaison Office only within framework of occur the the (VoMi) stipulated the creation of Hitler Youth branches in Slovakia, participated in the largelyprogram due crumbled to theThird Reich’s some retreat, 215,633youths had to indoctrinate youths. 229 2001), 447-461. Contemporary European History Harvey, “‘We Forgot All Jews and ’: German Women and the ‘Ethnic Struggle’ in Nazi-Occupied Poland,” 228 227 Norway warunfolded. as the Norway and Alsace, Netherlands, the or as Eupen-Malmady such territories andMoravia, western ethnic Germans in Bessarabia, Bukovina, the Baltic states, Volhynia, Southern Tyrol, Bohemia- implemented in the newly annexed territories of Poland, the Hitler Youth begannutrition and hygiene. working with and folkGerman “German”literature anddances),and standardsof songs them teaching thousands of moved Youths Hitler to borderlandsthe under purview the of the service, Hitler Youthswere used now explicitly asan ideologizing By tool. of 1940, tens forefathers.” ways lifeof theirof andlivelihood proper the 224 giving “re-educate” theirto responsibility 226 225 Rempel, Elizabeth example, for see, abroad, BDMexperience of the description detailed Fora more 149-154. Rempel, Kater, Kater, Rempel, Kater, 227 The Hitler Youth’s role in attempting to indoctrinate to role inattempting The Hitler Youth’s As theNazi expanded, so territorial occupation too did Hitler mission; the Youths’ first Volksdeutsche Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler Youth Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Young girls, too, were now sent by the thousands into these territories by the BDM the by territories these into thousands the by sent now were too, girls, Young Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Volksdeutsche Landdienst , 35. , 34. , 34-35. 225 German lessons,German teaching them Nazi-specific culture (including Nazi , 136. , 141-142, 145; Kater, , Vol. 10, No. 3, and its subsidiary programs. subsidiary its and within their homes. their within 226 all German mandatory for became this service By 1942, Volksdeutsche Theme Issue: Gender and War in Europe c. 1918-1949 Landdienst Hitler Youth Hitler 66 communities and “…lead them back to the 228 , 34-35. . InJuly for 1941, instance, Ethnic the by 1944,when the is that It estimated 229 224 Volksdeutsche In addition to their agricultural their to addition In , however, did, however, not Landdienst (Nov., , CEU eTD Collection outside the outside As the As would create connections with connections would create youth likeactivities emerged, the newly Hitler established Youth seafaring organization, which “ National could Socialistgroups attempt tofightfor “Enlightenment” (conduct an they nolonger spoketheirmother andtongue taught their foreign children languages. manyproportions; had “betrayed theiras fatherland” they longerno wantedtobe Germans, as “ 235 234 Organisationen derNSDAP, Seefahrt und Ausland G.m.b.h., December1938), 32, 43. 233 German-conscious people and possess German possess and people German-conscious betweenpublishers of the NSDAP’s foreign office) lamented how, for a long Germanstime, the “alienation” In instance,1939, for the and crucial considerto the Nazis’ aims asputforth by them in publications. contemporaneous outside thebut also ardent followers of “Germanic” culture and Nazi thought. become Europe:ethnic only not pure,” wereto “racially Germans across German populations 232 Auslanddeutsche.”). p. 28. sind besitzen, Riechsangehörigkeit deutsche die und leben Menschen deutschbewusste als Reiches des Grenze leaders from Germany at their helm. attheir from Germany leaders 231 230 established amongst Hungary, Schleswig. andNorthern Yugoslavia, Romania, Auslanddeutsche Aufklärungskampf Rempel, Rempel, Rempel, Jahrbuch der Auslands-Organisation der NSDAP, 1939 Jahrbuch der Auslands-Organisation der NSDAP, 1939 Jahrbuch der Auslands-Organisation der NSDAP, 1939 Auslands-Organisation In terms In terms of the aims conceptualizing itis of and extent such instructive alsoprojects, Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Hitler’s Children Hitler’s Reich ” consist of “all individuals of German blood that live beyond the boundaries of the boundaries the beyond live that blood of German individuals of “all consist ” created a“ created ”) for Hitler amongst these Germans. these amongst Hitler for ”) Volksdeutsche , 160. , 148. , 148 Gauverlag Auslands-Organisation der der NSDAP Schicksalsgemeinschaft further claimedGermans in1940, within the Auslanddeutsche Reich 231 across Hitler’s purported future The goal of these groups was the “ Reich and theirhomeland had assumed “threatening” membership” (“Alle Deutschblütigen, die jenseits der 67 youths and raise them as National Socialists. National as them and raise youths , 142. According to an article in the same volume, the volume, same inthe article an to According , 142. , 44. , Vol. 1(Berlin: Gauverlag der Auslands- ” (“community of fate”) that had National that fate”) ” (“community of 234 230 various too, Among groups, these Hitler Youth groups were hence were groups Youth Hitler 232 Reich umvolkung , with Hitler Youth Hitler with , Reich and Germans and (the “” Reich ” of ethnic ” of 233 Only as 235 CEU eTD Collection territoriesorganization, threemain tasks were hence delineated: conductingthe of field trips in border and abroad incorporated into1933, a more general for all German youths from within the abroad. As Schirach von abroad. explained,the movement youth German the of construction planned the into glimpses further some for world’s youth. learning” ultimate goal but sensibilitiesthe towards amongst the trans-national of creating isnot teaching, task their Socialism; for National notdoas propagandists travel abroad, travel visitby and “foreign” youths, including a friendly visit of the Hitler Youth in Hungary, and a reciprocal between German von pastyear Schirach, the interactions tohadonly limitedAccording seen wasabroad— creationthe of “purely humane mutual communication between youths.” includingengagements— “study” trips and exchangeprograms with youth other groups with youth, notwith politics.”grand “ Idee undGestalt. outside the outside 236 linked tothe irrevocably became fatethus German and identity its national core; German atthe Socialism 239 238 237 Organisationen derNSDAP, Seefahrt und Ausland G.m.b.h., December1939), 12. Auslandsarbeit vonSchirach, vonSchirach, vonSchirach, Jahrbuch der Auslands-Organisation der NSDAP, 1940, The propagandistic nature of von Schirach’s work is of it Nevertheless, nature allows work The propagandistic von apparent. Schirach’s The role of the Hitler Youth in conducting this “ Reich Reich 239 Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt ” (foreign work). According to von Schirach, “the Hitler Youth isconcerned Youth Hitler “the Schirach, von to According work). (foreign ” youths in Germany. youths further becomes apparent in von Baldur Schirach’s 1934 In his work, von Schirach dedicates an entire chapter to the Hitler Youth’s Hitler the to chapter entire an dedicates Schirach von work, his In and to the Nazis. the and to 236 Therefore, as von Schirach claimed, “Hitler Youths, who Youths, “Hitler claimed, Schirach von as Therefore, Mittelstelle Deutscher Jugend in Europa 237 Mittelstelle volksdeutschefür Jugendarbeit , 154. , 154. , 154. Themain goal of theHitler Youth’s foreign 68 Vol. 2(Berlin: Gauverlag der Auslands- Aufklärungskampf Reich ; the ” amongst Germans Die Hitler-Jugend: Volksdeutscher . Within this . Within was, in 238 CEU eTD Collection von Schirach states, the goal of these efforts was: efforts goal the of these states, Schirach von Europe’s German-speaking press. across andmagazines innewspapers “special” articles initiate the publication of magazines like magazines of publication the initiate lecturers (who could educate youths (whocould aswell abroad, lecturers educate as ( department” “educational from the from bringingnews goal Yugoslavia,Austrian, with and of ultimate Romania, the Czechoslovakia, towards ethnicthe movements Germanyouth in Lithuania, Latvia,Estonia, Poland, Youth.” be these provided groups create to “ato spiritual to connection the according tothe tenets of National and books Socialism. youth publications Free further would Arbeitsdienst to a “connection newGermany.” wouldthe that create engagingGermans in dance, abroad, them folk theater, and song, similarproductions cultural In terms of the field trips, Youth; these would then be brought to the to brought be then would these Youth; youthsof foropportunity capable leadership recruitment the within Hitler positions of the 240 Arbeitsdienst 246 245 244 243 242 241 vonSchirach, vonSchirach, vonSchirach, vonSchirach, vonSchirach, vonSchirach, vonSchirach, within the same spirit… same the within inwill— march direction separation— spatial despite and live one andact in the world, will create a large camaraderie [ large a camaraderie will create in theworld, 243 Reich Additionally,a pressorganization— the … that every Hitler Youth and every BDM-girl, regardless of their location , in would in, turn, open schools toeducate abroad order (labor service); service); and (labor education of the Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: Idee und Gestalt into the auslanddeutsche Schulreferat Reichsdeutsche 246 ), Foreign the Office wouldfor provide theeducation of Volk und Reich Volk und press, and viceversa. press, , 156. , 162. , 159 , 158. , 157-158. , 157. , 157. youth groups were seekwithyouth contact groups to ethnic 69 Reich Auslanddeutsche Pressedienst Ostraum Pressedienst 241 Kameradschaft auslanddeutsche an presentThesefurther would trips for training. , establish libraries, and disseminate and libraries, establish , 244 youths within the within youths Finally, in terms of its of terms in Finally, ], and that they that and ], 242 reichsdeutsche — would be — would targeted guests in the guests The Auslanddeutsche Volksdeutsche Reich Reich 245 Hitler As . 240 ), CEU eTD Collection “ these identity, a“German” of benefits and contents the about abroad youths German ethnic Teaching as“educators.” acted they also programs; be within these “educated” to merely not within Hungary’s Nazi youth paper, the paper, youth Nazi Hungary’s within actas a supposed to furtherindoctrinating tool within As their communities. one 1941article “ hand, On for its other the tenets. fighting of theperception actively were granted and like German that “blood” environments to the Batschka—according “original”“true” German 247 Reich. mobilized in population would millions thatthe beprepared andinspired tofightfor Third the forge a andultimately communities, their“Germanness” broader to “true” would teach andservice “ hand, one the On explicit. in Ungarn,” in werdensogar froh sein, wennihr um Kilometer vor ihnen steht. schnell, vielleicht fehlt es auch ander nötigen Einsatzbereitschaft bei ihnen, aber sie werden marschieren und Aufgabe, auch für eure Eltern zu kämpfen. Durch euch müssen sie Deutsche werden. Es geht vielleicht nicht so reichsdeutsche Volksdeutsche “ Deutsche Jugend! Vielleicht stehn eure Eltern dem Volksbund noch gleichgültig gegenüber. Ihrhabt aber die Hitler Youths were thus intended explicitly as an indoctrinating device, as one that one as device, indoctrinating an as explicitly intended thus were Youths Hitler them. of ahead kilometers are you when glad be will even they and march, will they however, havemaybe won’t necessary occur dedication; rapidly, it they alsothe won’t to alsofor fight your parents. Through you, they mustbecome Germans. Maybe Volksbund increasingly became their Europe, purpose schemes across traveled As these elaborate Der Jungkamerad: Das Blatt der Volksdeutschen Jugend Ungarns, Kinderlandverschickung Deutsche Jugend! ” youths, who had” youths, who beenideologized within such werethen programs, also ” youths suddenly suddenly ” youths became “emissaries” for Nazi“gospel,”the and themselves [Hungary’s Nazified German organization]. However, it isHowever, German your Nazified [Hungary’s organization]. task Volksgeschichten 247 reichsdeutsche Maybe your parents are still ambivalent about the about ambivalent still are parents your Maybe of of Theseyouths,however, were time—still the harbored. operations, with the goal of experiencing, firsthand, the firsthand, experiencing, of goal the with operations, Jundkamerad ” youths were sent abroad within various foreign 70 ” “ErsterLandesjugendtag der deutschen Jugend , stated, for instance: , stated, Vol. 1,No.12 (July 1941), 1. CEU eTD Collection Socialist propaganda, youths from propaganda, Socialist the gradual underwent a and cultural local organizations political withintheBatschka,German as flourished “ slowly— disseminationthe through hisof propaganda— forgedaNational Socialist German were to act as Hitler’s messengers; they helpthe could they as Hitler’sact messengers; were to youth of anddisseminatingliterature abroad. National actual)Socialistconquest, territories creatingyouth exchange programs, fostering HitlerYouth formations within futuretheir (or 248 “Aryan masters” within regions. contested Europe’s of aware class a“nationally” help create andultimately to, subjected been had themselves thatthey indoctrination the perpetuate a ‘superior’ culture,” bearersof self-conscious Germany. Asvon and realized,Schirach similar leaders young Hitler’s could become “…the outside palingenetic dogma borders for the of nationalistic, Hitler’spropaganda anti-Semitic, asagents groups youth regarded weresoon themselves indoctrination,of these Socialist initially thetarget of Youth; Hitler the NazileadershipNational the increasingly transformed however, II, War World of stages early the in materializing begin to seemed Reich Third larger the Nazi-specific nationalistindoctrination of youths Germany.within As visionsHitler’s of his regenerative vitality during the 1920s, the Hitler Youth gradually became a crucial vehicle for its existence.throughout Initially as a meansdesigned for infusing theNazi movement with a 3.4 Conclusions Schicksalsgemeinschaft Rempel, Ultimately, it was therefore first the first therefore was it Ultimately, The history of the Hitler Youth is complex, as it underwent various permutations Gleichschaltung Hitler’s Children Hitler’s , 164. ” across Europe’s boundaries. These aspirations and activities also andactivities aspirations These boundaries. Europe’s ” across , much endemic German press morphed into an agent of National Reich flooded local reichsdeutsche 71 248 The Reich Donauschwaben Führer , then the then , thus expended great efforts in efforts expendedthus great construct his construct volksdeutsche communities within communities Reich youth youth that , as they CEU eTD Collection across the region. It is to these subjects that this thesis will now turn. willnow this that thesis is subjects It tothese region. the across became increasingly Nazi to tied Germany, “Hitler mushroomed andindividual Youth” groups schools local German andexpeditions, KLV, BDM Youth, Hitler of student, framework the 72 CEU eTD Collection Batschka hence poses certain challenges: the Batschka, for much of time under Batschka, the the challenges: certain hence poses Batschka again 1941.Anydiscussionafter of of developmentthe ethnic German organizations inthe theformedinitiallysplit between Hungary aunified once Batschka and Yugoslavia, territory mediaof time. German the within ethnic the events of these of representation an butalsothe analysis literature, in secondary presented inhasas it been region organizations the youth) German (particularly ethnic activities of youth groups. The chapter development of inBatschka,ethnic focusorganizations with German on the particular will not merely presentrelations, a discussion conditions, boundaries, administrative state of the general evolution development, however, wasgradual, and caughtwithin negotiationscomplex offluctuating and and wartime circumstances. This chapter will provide an overview of the infuse the local witnesses of KLV, student exchange, educational,and other ideological methods employed to least at became programs;in Youth mostothers from Hitler engaged actively Batschka the targeted by National youth groupsSocialist and activities. By 1940s, the thousands ofyouths and—like other regions containing ethnic German communities— a increasinglyterrain Number7, 18February 1940, p.4. 249 Weekly Hitler Youth column in column Youth Hitler Weekly Chapter 4: The Transformation of the Batschka’s Youth Organizations from a Transnational Perspective— From As described previously, the Batschka underwent several As described Batschkaunderwent changes;being several previously, the administrative The Batschka, by the interwar period, hadbecomeThe Batschka, by interwar by aterritory period, the sought the Students of Folk Tradition to “Harbingers of [Nazi] Donauschwaben Enlightenment” Deutscher Volksbote: Wochenblatt für Kultur, Politik und Wirtschaft with Nazi German values and self-identifications. This self-identifications. and values German Nazi with 73 Donauschwaben 249 to SSFodder — ThirdReich—host state Volksdeutsche , Vol. 2, Reich , CEU eTD Collection farmers’, and clerics’ organizations thus were increasingly supplemented by farmers’, thus increasingly organizations clerics’ and supplemented German were various German traditional this stance.time, teachers’, nationalistic During assumed anincreasingly experienced and an economic that truly organizations blossomed political andupswing, these communities German the when century, nineteenth the during only was It home. the outside the of oversight and training the for responsibility main the assumed for workers’ guilds, religious centuries, groups, farmers’, workers’ (later) organizations and revolved around either religion vocationor within German-speakingthe communities. Thus, historian tothe organizationsJosef According Volkmar generally organizations. Senz, these 4.1 Hungary:of the TheEvolution armed will forces be presented. reunification. Finally, the incorporation Finally, incorporation the reunification. of the into ethnicBatschka’s the Germans 1941 hadontheBatschka’s thesedisparities effectsthat the organizations inYugoslavia, and will in organizations Hungary. It distinctiveof discussthen development ethnic the German chapter will first present post-Worldthe War Ievolution of ethnic German(youth) “ compelled also tomerge,a processwhich again once structure and the transformed of nature and,by state; the the time Batschka within organizations wasreunited, the were territory this differentinfluences and developed diverse political tendencies depending on theirhost current consideration for this thesis, formed no single unit; various parts of the territory came under Volksdeutsche Hungary’s Germans presided overalong individual tradition of cultural youth and ” organizations of do of an attempt complexities region. In the this tojustice, these ” organizations Volksbund 74 and the Deutsche Jugend Donauschwaben , 1919-1944 ’s youth Reich ’s CEU eTD Collection 252 1938-1944 unter Horthy und Hitler University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 113; Norbert Spannenberger, Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and Germanthe National Minorities of Europe, 1933-1945 253 (Rothenburg ob der Tauber: Schneider, 2005), 9-10. Schulen— Erziehungsheime und Erziehungsanstalten des Volksbundes der Deutschen in Ungarn— 1940-1944 Weltzer, Wigant system. school Lutheran Transylvanian tot he belonged 254 werethere some 2,400German schools inHungary; by 1918, this number had already dwindled to417, of which laws, which restricted the development of minority schools. According to some estimates, in 1855, forinstance, 251 208. laws. education restrictive increasingly and in workforce, the discrimination assimilation forced changes, name were pushed to through minorities Hungary’s in which campaigns, Magyarization ongoing the to subjected increasingly such historiographies agreewas an integrative polity monarchy), became(the Germans organizations than those ethnicGerman inestablishing facedWorld difficulties cohesive War,were with greater in other Habsburg successor states. radicalized. increasingly becoming way, own Faced with the collapsebegan developing virtually independently from each across other state boundaries, each,in their of what German ethnic communities new Henceforth, split were borders. region,of across the too, Habsburg Monarchy its carvingand various into states, ethnic successor communities German awatershed. represents historians, most for War, World First the of were outlawed, German schools dwindled, and so-called the dwindled, schools German were outlawed, 250 a priority. education singing andathletic many groups, which of already began making anationally-minded Furthermore, whileFurthermore, ofnationally-based thehad seeds thinking already within been planted nomembers ageof twenty-one. under the wasallowed German first organizations— Lumans, Senz, See, for instance, Senz, instance, for See, Josef Volkmar Senz, Josef Volkmar Many historians agree that Hungary’s Germans, in the immediate aftermath of of First aftermath immediate in the the Hungary’s Germans, agreethat Many historians While most such weretrue developments of Geschichte der Donauschwaben, Himmler’s Auxiliaries, 250 Geschichte der Donauschwaben Geschichte der Donauschwaben, 113. Especially crucial here, for instance, were Apponyi’s 1907 educational 1907 Apponyi’s were instance, for here, crucial Especially 113. (München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2002), 1. 209. 252 German institutionsUntilhighereducational 1940, 75 (München:Donauschwäbische Kulturstiftung, 1987), 208; Valis O. Lumans, “Donauschwaben Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn Volksbildungsverein Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege: Himmler’s Auxiliaries: the 251 ” communities, the end the ” communities, (Chapel Hill, NC: With the fall of the — one of the 253 CEU eTD Collection festivities, like a inbanquet April 1927 inhonor of foundingthe of UDV’s the Budapest musical (“ initiatives cultural various organizations state. Hungarian and help German support culture within whileHungary, atall maintainingtimes loyalty to the (under asaconciliatoryportrayed figure; Bleyer the and UDV hoped to affirm minority German rights the heading of “ 1924 as minority’sthe only official representation. Volksbildungsverein formerHungary’s 1923, In position. political and cultural own their of preservation the for movement Minister for minorities. their ethnic German Minorities,for butalso states, successor greater for the notonly degreeof confusion saw aconsiderable Jakob Bleyer, founded the 254 Volkspartei Steinaker’s Edmund with Hungary, in community German most of Batschka—which the had apparently themostpoliticallyhoused mobilizedalready ethnicthe from decreased Germans 10.4% to 6.9% of Hungary’s total population; regions like for flourishing the of a cohesive ethnic German movement. Through the 1920 Trianon Treaty, War, became geographicallyfragmented too and unable toprovide asolid structural foundation the after especially communities, these War, the before communities German ethnic Hungary’s 255 256 Spannenberger, Lumans, Lumans, It was within this climate that Hungary’s Germans attempted to launch aconsolidated to Hungary’s attempted that Germans thisclimate It waswithin Himmler’s Auxiliaries, Himmler’s Auxiliaries, — were cededto successorstates. — were other Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 256 Seeing its mandate as primarily based in the countryside, the UDVlaunched basedin the as Seeing countryside, itsprimarily the mandate (UDV), an (UDV), organization acknowledged by Hungarianthe authorities in Kulturarbeit 113. 113. ”) in”) openingHungary’s towns, libraries, supporting 76 Volkslied undVolksmusik 255 Bleyer,in much historiography,isrecent 254 The immediate postwar period hence period postwar immediate The , 1. Ungarländische Deutschen Ungarländische Ungarländische Deutscher ”), and holding CEU eTD Collection VoMi officially renounced the legitimacy UDVand moderate more VoMi renouncedthe began the of officially to reinforce— Hungary’s dominated thereafter that an organization Kameradschaft of Hungarian leaderthe as theofficial Basch VoMi recognized potential such of an organization, Nazileaders inBerlin werequicklend to theirsupport; the support was support quickfollow. to In1934,Basch the founded rival 261 260 discredited the UDV. Lumans, UDV. the discredited henceforth and discovered was which aplan organizations— German radical more the foil to attempt an in UDV Swabians them hopefully, result in more would, for and action that idea” an Germany, within “national enthusiasm,of asatriumph the nationalistic ethnicGermans—including Basch—observed political in changes the 259 organization 1920sstudentdecidedly nationalistic a former student of Bleyer’s born in Zurich in 1901 and afoundingmember of morethe Basch, byFranz waschallenged Gratz, Gustav successor, Bleyer’s collapsed. UDV essentially restless. increasingly andGermans grew abate, did not Suspicions ofmeddlingby HungarianamongstGermany rose officials, Magyarization policies (VDA). fundsthe through government, to allocated authorities. Hungarian officials in 1933. Spannenberger, 258 des Nationalismus der Nachfolgestaaten 1918-1944 257 chapter. Lumans, Spannenberger, Lumans, According to Spannenberger, some 80,000 to 100,000 Magyarizing changesname were still planned by Georg Wildmann, At the same time, however, it seems that Bleyer’s more conciliatory backfired. more conciliatory stance Bleyer’s seems it At samethat the time, however, 257 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1967),114. Apparently, Hungarian the government began funding the Himmler’s Auxiliaries, Himmler’s Auxiliaries, In most of these projects, the UDV was silently financially supported by the German 259 Hitler’s Observing as the only official link between Berlin and this minority. this and Berlin between link official only as the Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Donauschwäbische Geschichte. Band III: Die Tragödie der Selbstbehauptung im Wirkfeld Himmler’s Auxiliaries, 114. 114; Wildmann, Reich support for itsfellow support Germans inHungary. Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn 1938-1944 Machtergreifung (München: Donauschwäbische Kulturstiftung, 2010), 99-100. Verein Deutschefür Kulturbeziehungen imAusland Donauschwäbische Geschichte 114. 77 Suevia Volksdeutsche 258 By 1933, with the death of Bleyer, the in January 1933, Hungary’s more , for being a puppet of , for being Hungarian apuppetof the , 79. Volksdeutsche Kameradschaft Volksdeutsche organizations. Aware of Awarethe of organizations. , 98; G.C. Paikert, Volksdeutsche 261 By the July 1937, , 78. 260 This Reich The Danube , and his Reich with , CEU eTD Collection 265 144-145. 263 Suevia wouldpublications be thecreation of a “ reconstituted the recognized Béla now under anti-Semitic Imrédy government— Hungarian the authorities— Volksbildungsverein Volkdsdeutsche Volksbund organizations. youth creation and charity of the for German basis 264 1938-1944 the official remained amust, purpose the of rhetoric— the people. German the and Hungarian the between and [Germany], “motherland” and [Hungary] “homeland” between Rundschau secondary schools, themother-tongue class instruction, the creation of individual Kindergartens, primary,and unification of the demandedentourage asolution growing to the “school andanincreasequestion” in German German “ During founding the meeting of VDU the on November 26 most helpful to present the VDU’s program as it was put forth by in of minorities as theofficial German itsthe “organ” leader, Hungary. Basch and the VDU itself. 262 the financially— also Lumans, Weltzer, Wildmann, Südostdeutsche Rundschau: Zeitschrift derDeutschen Volksgruppe in Ungarn, , the Hungarian German economics office, propaganda (“ propaganda office, economics German Hungarian , the As the exact nature and aims of the VDU are historiographically contested, itis perhaps contested, and historiographically aims VDUare nature the exactAs the of , 121, 127. The Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege Himmler’s Auxiliaries, ’s stance in the March 1942 edition of the VDU’s own periodical, the . According to Basch, the VDU maintained a dual aim: the creation of of a bridge VDUmaintained creation adual aim: toBasch,the . According the DonauschwäbischeGeschichte Kameradschaft and . Spannenberger, 265 Reichsdeutsche Reich While the maintenance of friendly relations with Hungary— certainly in certainly Hungary— with relations friendly of maintenance the While Kameradschaft funding helped finance primarily German-speaking publications in Hungary, the inHungary, publications German-speaking primarily finance helped funding , the 115. Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn 1938-1944 , 27; Spannenberger, Volksbund derDeutschen in Ungarn and a fortification of their “spiritual and social” bonds, the bonds, social” and “spiritual their of fortification a and , ’s “ 153; Spannenberger, Volkstumsarbeit 78 Sprachrohr Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn 1938-1944 Volk Volkstumsarbeit” Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn ” into one political party, and a legal .” Volksbund ” (direct speaking line)speaking” (direct between th , 1938, for instance,, 1938, Baschand his 262 On November 26 November On 264 Basch further explained the explained further Basch in German villages), and the March 1942, 7. , its organizations, and its and organizations, its , 263 (VDU), with (VDU), as Basch , 106. Südostdeutsche th , 1938, the , , CEU eTD Collection Deutsche Nachrichten: Mitteilungsblatt der Reichsdeutschen inUngarn Deutsche Nachrichten: Mitteilungsblatt the branch, radical more VDU’s the of publication the from gleaned be can activities youth National Socialist goals.activities— Germanthat youth began groups gainmomentum to and increasingly profess Some of the most interesting and telling representations of German organizations. education, and, ultimately,intoinsight Nazi ideology,youth training, and youth impetus and press itsuggests, was especially during the late1930s— when the fathomed through an analysis Hungary’s of German-speaking pressduring time. this As this communities, and communities, camps. “ youth local Hungary. stress Furthermore, began German organizations increasingly to “ early had1930s a minor already seen 269 (Göttingen: WallsteinVerlag, 2010), 363-390; Senz, Planungsraum: Wirtschafts- und kulturpolitische Expertisen im Zeitalter der Weltkriege, ‘Volkstumsarbeit’ in Jugoslawienund Rumänien 1933-1941,” in 268 itsthrough traditional values “blood,of idea, andlanguage.” 267 266 support of German cultural andprojects, maintenancethe of unconditional “ flourish and establish themselves as crucial components of the of components crucial as themselves establish and flourish völkisch Reichsdeutsche Thomas Spira, “The Radicalization of Hungary's Swabian Minority after 1935,” See, forinstance, Elizabeth Harvey, “Mobilisierung oder Erfassung? Studentischer Aktivismus und deutsche Weltzer, Südostdeutsche Rundschau, 267 The activities of ethnic German youth groups in Hungary in be more concretely youth can Hungary German groups of ethnic The activities It was during this time that German youth organizations in Hungary also began to began also Hungary in organizations youth German that time this during was It ” values,organizing folk musicand theater field events, trips, and even work Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege Exchanges between students, especially in the Batschka, began to flourish, as flourish, to began Batschka, the in especially students, between Exchanges Reich 268 ” were sent on ethnographical and ideological missions into missions ideological and ethnographical on sent were ” Volksdeutsche agencies were already with werealready agencies entwined Hungary’s deeply March1942, 8, 3,6. , 44. students traveled gainstudents traveled to Germany access to tohigher Geschichte der Donauschwaben, 79 “Mitteleuropa” und “Südosteuropa” als movement amongst ethnic Germans in Germans ethnic amongst movement 266 Volksdeutsche Volksbund Hungarian Studies Review, , printed in Budapest. 209. edited by Carola Sachse gained increasing movement. The movement. Volksdeutsche Volksdeutsche Volkstreue 269 ” CEU eTD Collection local apparently Youths Hitler an Easter attended fieldtrip, during whichthey marched through organization). welfare Socialist National (the NSV the by Stuttgart ofthe“ dance, andtheater folk song, issue of the 273 272 May 1938 (p.4); September 1938 (p. 4). 271 270 Vol. XI,No. 1(Spring 1984), the “real the of Stuttgart year, that urging boys ageof the all andgirlsattendtwelve over and to experience 1938, the the portrayed as forming a , the “ asforming the acolony, portrayed would be annulled. laws ofnature” the “against boundaries state that ademonstration and worldview,” Socialist “National the loyalty to of aprofession bonds,” “blood-based of a manifestation represent Reich Hungary’s Germansproclivities tolight. In early April 1938, for instance, paper the published articles urging to travel to Vienna to vote in favor of Austria’s (more about the legal position of these organizations later), reports the on reports later), organizations these of legal position the about (more appearances. unabashed first in make their Hungary Youth” “Hitler the of activities the that newspaper Deutsche Nachrichten This term appears in virtually every issue of the Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Jugend — the “dream” of a greater Germany would hence come true, a dream which would An analysis of the of analysis An While it seems that no legal basis existed for a “Hitler Youth” in Hungary at that time that at in Hungary Youth” a “Hitler for existed basis legal no that seems it While Grossdeutschland Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten. (DJ), and the and (DJ), , May, 1938, 5-6. , April 1938, 12-13. , April 1938, 3, 8. 270 10. Within this conceptualization, Hungary’s Germans were further were Germans Hungary’s conceptualization, this Within .” Transport bylow-cost bus would be organized from Budapest to Deutsche Nachrichten further advertised further the Bund Deutscher Mädchen The April issue, for1938 instance,on evenings reported of Reichsdeutsche Kolonie Reichsdeutsche Reichsdeutsche Reichsdeutsche Kolonie Deutsche Nachrichten 80 quickly brings its National Socialist National its brings quickly Reichstagung derAuslanddeutschen . See, forinstance, April 1938 (p. 11), (BDM) appear in every monthly ” youth in” youth Budapest. Ungarn 273 That same month, twelve month, same That .” 271 Anschluss Hitler Jugend It is hence in this in hence is It 272 with the with MayIn (HJ), in CEU eTD Collection BDM, weekly events and meetings, and various accomplishments (such as the creation of a Hitler Youth Hitler Youth column begantoannounce newlocal leadership amongst the developed further tothe further developed already legal, an considered official, andsignificantentity— onethat wouldneed tobe article, however, suggests that within that the suggests however, article, inmostrepresented only secondary This became anofficial sources, 1942. after organization Nachrichten Reichsdeutsche Schule in the afternoons Saturday on regularly meet would Youth Hitler the of units All Youth. Hitler local the by unified and collected be could citizens” Austrian former “the of youth the that so explained,further “service the year” 1938/1939would thus includeanincrease in advertising, Youth into an independent an into Youth the youth organization’s foreign office). According toStadler, HerbertEngel had as been appointed Stadler, the Stadler, accommodated in youth hostels. accommodated Hitler Youth camps for the duration of their stay in Germany, while the girls would be 276 275 274 details onthe field trip toStuttgart werepublished— the Tihany according(which, paper, this to they naturally won). Hungarianthe countryside matchand playedafootball localagainst the Hungarian in club Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten Landeskreisjugendführer An expansion of An youth expansion propaganda can indeedof By belate detected. 1938, aregular In October1938,the Reich’s ’s itispropaganda, nevertheless crucial; Hitlerthe within Youth, Hungary and as head of the of head , October1938, 7. August, 1938, 9. May, 1938, 14-16. in Budapest. Reich’s Landeskreis Deutsche Nachrichten in Hungary, a step that effectively turned the Hungarian Hitler Hungarian the turned effectively that step a in Hungary, Grenz- undAuslandsamt der Reichsjugendführung 275 advantage. 276 While statementitself this is ofthe aproduct within the Reich 81 , the Hungarian German youth organization was organization youth German Hungarian , the published a“Hitler published Jugend” article by Theo Reich’s organizational structure. Asorganizational structure. Stadler Volksdeutsche 274 additional 1938, August In boys would live in live would boys Hitler Jugend (the Deutsche Reich and ’s CEU eTD Collection German youths singing at a local instance, the instance, the Hitler Youth within Hungary was brought to the forefront. In its November issue, for November 1939— Secondthe WorldWar wasnow well its way—on militaristic the nature of would help createthis Hitler article,essentially the formed Youth amongst an“activist young, the troupe” which a path ofwithinnature HitlerAccording analysis onthecompulsory extensive to Youth Germany. the for National Socialism and new “” for the Party. importance of youth to the A4-typeand format (unlike previously), script—gothic began printing on articles the Hungary’s ethnic Germans. By springthe of 1939, the them. 278 280 April 1939. in disappeared these subscriptions— their for pay toactually readers warning slip apink contained even edition to change. Previously including a copyright page with requests fordonations in every issue— theJanuary 1939 279 O’Donnell, Victoria and S. Jowett [Garth change” “significant attain and ends” certain to audience an to“rouse attempts that ideology” “activated of an comprised isgenerally propaganda” “agitative this indicate, O’Donnell and Jowett as nature; “agitative” propaganda’s this indicate that statements of types these also is It exercise. “revolutionary” participation withinthat deemed the HitlerYouthauthorities Nazi the groups perhaps would seemchapter); more previous (see attractive troupe” by youths“activist an when as it was advertised framed as propaganda, a Nachrichten uniform, the curvedswastikauniform, the emblem Hungarianthe of also featured photographs of glowing and girls boys in folkGerman orHitler costume Youth songs, and youth Describing German performances of articlesfrequently dances,these plays, every few months ona “ 277 fencing club at the mithelfen,dem Nationalsozialismus den Weg zu bereiten und der Partei junge Kämpfer zuführen… See, for example, for See, “ seemed also situation financial paper’s the format, new the with along that here, note to interesting perhaps is It See, for instance, for See, In der Kampfzeit der Bewegung solltedie Hitlerjugend als aktivistische Truppe der jungen 278 It was not merely such announcements and images, however, that circulated amongst Propaganda and Persuarsion , May 1939, 4. It is interesting that even after the Hitler Youthbecame compulsory, it was still, in Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten Reichsdeutsche Schule Lustiger Abendder HJ Reich. (London: Sage Publications, 2006), 16]. , December, 1938, 9-10. Rundfunk 279 printed an article, including a photograph of enthusiastic of a photograph including an article, printed , March 1939, 9-10; April 1939, 9-10; March 1940. an printed newspaperinstance,for the May 1939, In ). 277 82 studio, entitled “the Hitler-Youth inWartime.” Hitler-Youth “the entitled studio, an articlein March1939, appeared Beginning ” (a fun evening by/with the Hitler Youth). Hitler the by/with evening fun (a ” Deutsche Nachrichten Volksbund generally draped behind — now in larger ” Deutsche 280 By CEU eTD Collection 283 National Socialist indoctrination and military training. military and indoctrination Socialist National hadreports, hencefrom developed clubs fostering language andfolk traditions toworkshops of “unsurmountable difficulties,” the camp would be held in the Beregvar castle instead. castle Beregvar the in be held would camp the difficulties,” “unsurmountable 282 281 all boys for prepare German be measuresby thistaken wereto According article, to special the precarious, the precarious, youth organizations front,in Hungary, as well at asleast work “youth lauding intotal service aswar,” German the youths’ military atandservice behind the in canair beraid gleaned shelters from September 1944—the andthe provision stocksNachrichten on the home front. for example, the In March1944, German the cause. for soldiers as valiant service, in only military depicted in Hungary were soon Hitler Youth the activities, of field recreational such Another becamp was heldto Augustbetween 14 inHungary, youths German which received amounts copious of freshfood, air,and exercise. 1943, the creation newof chapters, and an explication of the German youth’s duties were printed. In June of service. monthswartime for in three per month preparation Sundays two least at train now would which Youth, Hitler the join to boys old eighteen-year (Colibita) Transylvania. (Colibita) between in Hungary,groups Nazi Kolibicajointthe effortof and Youth Serbia, Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten During the ensuing months, such Hitler Youth columns continued; weekly meetings, the meetings, weekly continued; columns Youth Hitler such months, ensuing the During Deutsche Nachrichten printed an article on the first Hitler Youth “volunteers” fighting on the front; by Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche , 29September, 1944,8. , 11June 1943, 8.In August the 6th, 1943 issue,itwas later announced thatdue to , November1939, 5-6. Deutsche Nachrichten 282 increasingly grew situation military Germany’s as 1944, By Wehrmacht even reported on a Hitler Youth summer camp held in held camp summer Youth aHitler on reported even ’s reports shifted.’s reports Previously portrayed in primarily the service. It was therefore the duty of all sixteen to sixteen of duty the all was It therefore service. ’s last edition ever— afull-page spread praised 83 th and September 15 281 Reichsjugendführung Deutsche Nachrichten Deutsche Nachrichten th of that year— a 283 Deutsche German , 4. to ’s CEU eTD Collection Volksbote its February 4 In Batschka: Gara. the of segment Hungarian activities is by provided the movementcan be found here also—especially in relation youth.to the day, or other accomplishments. other day,or simultaneously articles publishing congratulating Horthy on the occasions of his birthday,name the rhetoric. hence displayed an interesting mixture of “ aninteresting displayed clearly hence Hungary.relationship within German-Hungarian disrupt already publication The the precarious prudence inits presentation ideasof and debates than the section. following in the be considered will which in specifically, movement Batschka the youth on the descriptions in-depth several contains Nachrichten’s tothe aninteresting complement presents bi-weekly publication— VDU’sofficial the the Inparticular, state. with theHungarian path directly confrontative telling, it is also useful to consider the reports of another German publication initially on a less in Walz’sin work. 1-2. 285 pp. Hungarians. the and state, Hungarian the minorities, German between generations over struck balance the in themselves prided always have Germans that claim largely editorials ensuing I. The War of World humiliation the overcome and again rise will Europe Central in living Germans million 80 the how about speech recent Hitler’s describes author the Power,” Largest World’s “Germany—the entitled article this 284 This is also an interesting contrast tot heanti-Magyarmaterial printed within Germany during samethe time, as See, for instance, an article and its ensuing editorials in the in editorials ensuing its and article an instance, for See, Deutscher Volksbote One of One of mostfascinatingthe of examples youth radicalization the of andorganizations As the official publication of the VDU, the While these reports from the overtly National Socialist branches of the 284 began its coverage. In an article entitled “The Youth of the Batschka Sings and Sings Batschka the of Youth “The entitled article an In coverage. its began Especially before 1941—when andGermany Hungary became full Axis partners— polemics. Unlike the Unlike polemics. never used terms such as “National Socialist” or“Hitler Youth,” while Deutscher VolksboteDeutscher 285 Nevertheless, evidence of a germinating a of evidence Nevertheless, Deutsche Nachrichten 84 ’s recurring reports on one town within the Deutscher Volksbote Deutscher Volksbote völkisch Deutsche Nachrichten , the , ” th ambitions withambitions pro-Hungarian , 1940edition, the Deutscher Volksbote from February 4th, 1940. In 1940. 4th, February from Deutscher Volksbote had to exercisehad more to Volksbund Volksdeutsche , so as not to Deutscher Deutsche further are — CEU eTD Collection of of maintain youth the to German culture, bylearningits dances andsongs. in anchored German “soul.”the “eternity,” meaningful. even more therefore theseagainwas learning youths there were that years; fact the recent specifically had “ their neglected specifically as Böss Batschka explained, the heritage. Furthermore, andspreadlearn diligently German the the of foundation the preservation of local “Germandom.” “ “Germandom.” local of preservation difficult times, the times, difficult began. speeches the then And branches. pine and colors” “national filled the room,including alarge of portrait the flag of the ten villages sent some 195meter of boyssnow outside, claimed Böss,and the “loyalty of girlsthose in our to the event. 287 held event24 between described ayouth January Böss, 290 through theThird Reich Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars movement which shared beliefa in popular unity through a national mystique.”George Mosse, symbols”— were employed by the Nazis in theircreation of a national “liturgy” that was to forge a “mass 289 oder die unendlichen Schneefelder, die den Weg versperrten. 286 (and a andeditors main authors of paper’s the Dances,” one components of the National Socialist conceptualization of a national “ 288 4. Volksseele verankert. Die Jugend aber ist vor allem Träger dieses Volksgutes. Unsere völkische Kultur mussnur für heute und morgen,eben sondern für alle Zeiten zu sichern. Volk und Volkstum sind Ewigkeitswerte, tief in der “ “ and myths “historical as such cultural— the that theoretizations Mosse’s consider should one Again, Gentile’s “sacralisationof politics” becomes evident here, as does Mosse’s analysis of the “spiritual” “Im Stillen erwogen wir,wer nundiesmal stärker sein wird: dieTreue unserer Volksgenossen in der Batschka Wo dieFahne des Volksbundes gehisst wird, darfeben keiner fehlen. Es versammelte sich die Volksjugend, weil er sich zur Aufgabe gestellt hat, das heimatliche Deutschtum nicht Philipp Böss, himself apparently thesedescribedthis himself despite how, Philipp event, Böss, a speakerat apparently 290 Volksbund After Böss’ speech, Franz Basch himself apparently also gave a speech. While gave also aspeech. apparently Basch himself After speech, Franz Böss’ (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,1991), 2-4. Volksjugend Volk is raised, nobody may be absent.” be may nobody is raised, ’s future, itwould be their responsibility maketo sacrifices, and to Volkslieder had shown its loyalty and had dedicated itself to the to itself dedicated had and loyalty its shown had Volk 288 ” (folk songs) ” (folk the responsibility was especially it Furthermore, ” 85 and “ ” Deutscher Volksbote Reichsverweser Volkstum 286 th and January and January 27 Volksgemeinschaft As he further explained, “where the “where explained, further he As 287 and “ ” Deutscher Volksbote Deutsche Jugend apparently decorations Opulent ,” for Böss, were values of Volk Volkstänze , 4 February 1940, 4. ” was strong enough that enough strong was ” Horthy, surroundedHorthy, by .” th in Gara. Despite a 289 ” Youth would be would Youth (folk dances) in The , 4 February 1940, leader), Philipp CEU eTD Collection “commenced their work with great enthusiasm.” Especially the youth, as the article further article the as youth, the Especially enthusiasm.” great with work their “commenced official founding of the local year. announced the founding of an official local issues of the youth. Batschka’s paper, the essential termstenets like of the“Hitler Nazi movementYouth” or were“National being propagated—Socialist” neveralso amongst arose within the the early phases of this mother tongue, awakened in him. couldthat be learned,butsomething that slumbered in every German, and that couldbe very “Germanic” “inheritance.” “ “inheritance.” “Germanic” very Michael Kracher wrote how the how wrote Kracher Michael ideology ideology surrounding such events even more clearly.Writing about “ the 291 February 1940, 4. Volkszukunft, muss aber zur Opferbereitschaft für diese Zukunft erogen werden... in den Herzen der erwachten Volksjugend tiefste Wurzeln fassen... Die Jugend,das Fundament unserer in defending the rights of the Basch’s from from fear,butnot reverence towards determination a deep-felt explained, sprang “love and loyalty” the transcripthis of waspresentation not publishedin this made article, Böss suretonote how emanated towards Basch from the audience. This admiration, as Böss 293 292 Deutscher Volksbote tiefe Verehrung undTreue zueinem ,redlich der und entschlossen für die Rechte desVolkes eintritt. “ Deutscher Volksbote Deutscher Volksbote Die Liebe und Treue zu Dr. Basch entspringt weder der ‚Macht’, auch nicht der Furcht,nein, sie ist einfach 293 The indoctrination of Gara’s youth progressed, and this is evolution hinted at in later On the same page of this newspaper, another article was printed that illustrates the illustrates that wasprinted article another newspaper, this pageof On thesame the Garawas “surpassing” after how everyone; In Aprilan article described 1940, Deutscher Volksbote Volkstum , 4 February 1940, 4. Volksgemeinschaft , 25 February 1940, 4. , 4 February 1940, 4. , poetry, and folk song.” Volk. Volksgemeinschaft Volksgemeinschaft 291 Volksbund . On February 25 , finally, was composed of the “holy values of the The article thus ended. Volksbund 86 chapter, local the had apparently chapter, Germans 292 was primarily based on the on based primarily was It hence becomes evident that— although that— evident becomes hence It ,” Kracher continued, was not something not was continued, Kracher ,” th , 1940, for instance, a short article chapter in Gara on February 15 ” Deutscher Volksbote Volksgemeinschaft Führerprinzip , 4 ” th Volk that ,” a , a : CEU eTD Collection recruitment, and losses on the front. were “ Socialist fightpages movement).of our Articles onyouth, accordingly, shifted; also nolonger September 1 September official subtitle became“ official subtitle Volksbote enthusiasm. proudly that Batschkawas all the stated its “surpassing” with local other fervorandthe groups was dedicated to the role of the Hitler Youth in the 297 in the activities foundations, chapter and events local nature of A such youth groups. weekly youth column began toannounce the“Hitler Youth’s” Brüder the and anthem national Hungarian the both featuring youth was now able independently (all, shows,dances, to and organize concerts course, of schooling the youthsFurthermore, Gara’s hadapparently of effects— shown positive already 296 295 zu halten. Die Jugendschulung hat Früchte getragen...“ Deutscher Volksbote ehrlichen Weg öffentlich bekunden kann... Da haben wir gezeigt, wie wir entschlossen sind, unser Volkstum rein 294 summer camps. Youth Hitler which “wedeterminedwearetokeep dance athow showed our Sinceframework. the founding, two more organized youth events had taken includingplace, a wasdelighted tobedescribes, able to professway” “theiropenly honest within a legal See, for instance, for See, Deutscher Volksbote Deutscher Volksbote Besonders die Jugend freut sich, dasie nun in einem gesetzlichen Rahmen ihre Geschlossenheit und ihren völkisch ”). By fewincreasingly 1941, wereminced words in the 295 ’s coverage on youth became more drastic. By May 26 297 The radicalization of Gara’s youth its washencepublicly way. youth on of Gara’s Theradicalization st , 1944, itchanged “ the , 1944, to By the end of the war, as in the ” events of song and dance depicted in headlines,the military but SS- training, Deutscher Volksbote , 22 May 1942, 1. , 25 February 1940, 4. Kampfblatt unsererKampfblatt Bewegung 296 By May 22 , 22August 1941, 4; 30 January 1942, 5. nd NS-Kampfblatt unsererNS-Kampfblatt Bewegung , 1944, the , 87 Deutsche Nachrichten Volkshymne ” (the fight pages of our movement). By Deutscher Volksbote Volkstumskampf NS-Erziehungsheim Deutscher VolksboteDeutscher , 25 February 1940, 4. “ Seid gegrüsst ihrdeutschen Seid gegrüsst th , changes in the changes , , 1944, newspaper’s , the — an article that also Volkstum ’s entirefrontpage in Budapest, and Budapest, in ” (the National (the ” pure.” about the about Deutsche 294 CEU eTD Collection the upcomingthe goals andtasksof the Mágocs— for the historian Norbert Spannenberger an event emblematic of the of emblematic event an Spannenberger Norbert historian the for Mágocs— eggs atthrow passing the budding radicals. “ rally German marched youths ended, the apparently through streets of the Mágocs, through “breeding”the of willful, responsible, knowledgeable and minds. could beformed firstby construction the bodies,military-ready of and, physical, second, was the “creation of the new German man.” This new German man— a National Socialist— German “spirit.” legalization of of the legalization 299 Landesjugendtag haboru idején,” Ph.D. dissertation, 523-527. For images from a propaganda booklet printed Hungaryin thison 8,000 the 1938-1944 300 298 the of members June 29 development. It is here that this chapter again turns increasingly secondaryto sources. movement this which within frameworks legal the consider to crucial is still it media, Hungarian Batschka,be should clearer bynow based on thisof presentation German-speaking Heil Hitler Wildmann, Vitári, “Hitlerjugend,” 527. Wildmann, Landesjugendtag Volksbund When this display of the German youth movement’s growing power occurred in occurred power growing movement’s youth German the of display this When Most secondary material available on the German youth movementin Hungary cites While thespreadand evolution in Nazi youth of groups Hungary, aswell withinas the th , 149; Weltzer, , 1941,as movement’sthe moment.defining On this day, 12,000 some to 15,000 ” and “ DonauschwäbischeGeschichte DonauschwäbischeGeschichte , see appendix. Deutsche Jugend 298 members, assembled the youths listened speeches to pushing for the Landesjugendführer Deutsche Jugend Sieg Heil in Mágocs (Magotsch, Mago Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege ”— a display that prompted the town’s Hungarian residents to residents Hungarian town’s the prompted that display a ”— (as the Hungarian Hitler Youth was termed officially) metat was officially) termed Hitler Youth Hungarian (asthe Deutsche Jugend Deutsche , as wouldthis be forcrucial the“reawakening” of the , , 171. 171; Spannenberger, Mathias Huberalsogave a in speech hedefinedwhich 300 , 44; Zsolt Vitári, “VIII. Hitlerjugend és Magyarorszag a 88 þ ), Hungary. Accompanied also by some . According to Huber, the aim of the DJ Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn 299 Gleichschaltung As soon as the as soon As chanting CEU eTD Collection Hungarian anda government, legal subsidiary of the Volksbund the circulate German-speaking press,and and youth homes establish events, centers. “ideological” and athletic, cultural, hold to allowed be thereafter would Deutsche Jugend The state. Hungarian the loyalty towards them instill within time, same the and,at worldview,” would be to train German youths— outside of school— according to the “National Socialist Deutsche Jugend continued theirnegotiations. OnApril 1 of completely out be opt able to not they would however, “ These sections. own their German madehowever, itFebruary waspassedthat ethnic possible whenanordinance for 1942, in completed only was process This Education. Public and Religion for Ministry Hungarian began would that turn the March21 on minister been legalized as an independent entity within Hungary yet. Hungary within entity independent an as legalized been 304 301 the of 303 302 Spannenberger, Spannenberger, Weltzer, Vitári, “Hitlerjugend,” 514-515. Deutsche Jugend Volksbund Unsatisfied with these concessions, however, Hungarian and German officials German and Hungarian however, concessions, these with Unsatisfied leventes Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege members. Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 — open — open “the only to children Hungarian of citizens of German ethnicity”— could be reached. According its statutes, aim the of statutes, its the According be reached. could according tothemodel of NSDAP—the “Hitler the had Youth” not actually (members of (members of mandatory the Hungarian pre-military youth form to groups) 304 st , 1941, the , officially ayouth remained organization under supervision of the Deutsche Jugend Deutsche Jugend , 45. Deutsche Jugend st , 1942, an agreement on the legalization of the of legalization the on agreement an 1942, , ” groups wouldbe tousetheHitler allowed salute, 89 into a youth organization supervised by the was acknowledged andlegal procedures levente levente , 316-317. , 168, 276. 301 By executive order of the prime the of order By executive , only opento childrenthe of 303 training. At the same time, however, sametime, the At 302 Deutsche Jugend CEU eTD Collection German youth. One month after the the on media inpublic statements brazen more circulating began colleagues his and Basch propaganda amongstHungary’spropaganda youth paper, the songs, poems, marches, salutes, and uniforms of of the and uniforms salutes, marches, poems, songs, youth amongst organizations. German materials Hungary’s Nazi circulated propaganda “Batschka”). eventually— “Sathmar“Westungarn,” and— undKarpatenland,” “Nordsiebenbürgen,” the into “Buchenwald,”“Mitte,” seven Türkei,” Youth (“Schwäbische units administrative weremade distinctions “Banne,”“Stämme”), (with “Kreise,” which andsplit Hitler Hungary’s olds— the “DJ,” eighteen twenty-one-year- andfor to actual the to eighteen-year-olds— for fourteen “M” or “ olds— the “Kg,” or olds— the“Kg,” 1943 As a Youth”). “Hitler the termed officially was movement the where press, 305 DMB— female gender male (with DJ split in to counterpart andaccording like being precisely Germany, its Deutsche Jugend Jugend 308 307 306 132-133. Sad: Landesjugendführung der DJ. Abteilung Presse und Propaganda. Deutsche Druckerei u. Verlags A.G., 1943), Spannenberger, Spannenberger, Jahrbuch der Deutschen Jugend in Ungarn 1943 Jahrbuch der Deutschen Jugend in Ungarn 1943 As the As Despite these official concessions to the Hungarian state, it seems that the itseems that state, Hungarian the to concessions official these Despite also followed its own agenda (as can be seen, for instance, within the 306 Deutsche Jugend Furthermore, National Socialist boarding schools were further established, andfurther established, were boarding schools National Furthermore, Socialist Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Deutscher Mädelbund members indicates, for instance, the Hungarian “Hitler Youth” wasstructured “Hitler for Hungarian instance, the members indicates, Jugend voran Kindergruppen Jungmannschaft became legally sanctioned by the Hungarian authorities, Franz authorities, Hungarian by the sanctioned legally became Volksdeutsche , was printed to further to , wasprinted disseminate National Socialist — for ten to fourteen-year-olds— the “DJv” or “ Deutsche Jugend ”). — groups) and age (with a cohort for six to ten-year- 305 , edited by Herbert Mars and Mathias Huber, Vol. 3 (Novi , 132-134. geographic andleadership distinct Furthermore, 90 youth. Reich’s 308 ’s legalization, in May 1942, Basch’s , 319. , 318. Hitler Youth were adopted. A newwere adopted. Hitler Youth Volksdeutsche Jahrbuch Jungvolk Deutsche 307 The for ,” CEU eTD Collection and potent. and dotted article,the leaving nobody in thethat German youth doubt movement was alive, there, enthusiastic, and Nazi uniform-clad German youths in -draped meeting halls further perpetuate and Nationalvalues. propagate perpetuate Socialist wish tocreate autonomy for itself within Hungarian the state, itwould nevertheless be used to mighty ideamighty fills that usall today,” Huber continued; thewhile new German human being.” human German new enthusiasm.” glowing “unsurpassed with movement youth German the of flag the wave to learned finally had youths the of branch Deutsche Jugend “racial awareness.” young an physicalage as and formation fitness, the “breeding”possible, and character, of and Béldy, nolonger belonged in private hands, but within the firm control of the “nation.” the mandatory Béldy described the mental and physical of steeling youngthe that would need tooccurwithin ofyouth importance in training another prevention the of Trianon “catastrophe,” Treaty-type youth.” Explaining “pre-military of the andeducation Hungary’s the described state exercise youth. The first, penned by Hungarian -General penned youth.and The first,by Lieutenant-General Hungarian 313 312 311 310 309 the publication, monthly Südostdeutsche Rundschau Südostdeutsche Rundschau Südostdeutsche Rundschau Südostdeutsche Rundschau Südostdeutsche Rundschau Immediately after this statement, Mathias Huber, the levente levente , issued a report on the significance of the of significance the on report a issued , 312 . After decades of struggles,claimed Huber,hundreds and thousands of “The of motherlandis source theour blood 310 as preparation for Honvéd service. The rearing of youths, according The rearing to of for service. Honvéd aspreparation Now that the , May, 1942, 172. May, 1942, 168-171. May, 1942, 168. May, 1942, 167. May, 1942, 161-165. Südostdeutsche Rundschau 311 itAndsowould do throughNational training Socialistfrom as Deutsche Jugend 91 , printed two articles regarding Hungary’s 313 fed, well athletic, joyful, of Images was legal, it could openly create “the Landesjugendführer Deutsche Jugend levente Deutsche Jugend Deutsche Volk leader Alajos von Béldy, von Alajos leader and creatorof the this , now an official now , of Hungary’s of thus did not 309 CEU eTD Collection question.” region(depending on the nationality and in dominant charge)“German towards the Yugoslavia due to its already multi-nationalinherently nature and its uncoordinated policies WorldfoundWarorganizations after it I organize relatively easy within themselves to Donauschwaben radicalized nationalistically and politically most (officially) the of some brought reunification movements effectively more momentumgained much more rapidly, sothat Batschka’sthe Yugoslavia. As will be described in this section, Yugoslavia’s right-wing ethnic German youth of those behind lagged still movements German ethnic Hungary’s however, development, by 1922,hadOctober at brought least Batschka two representativesinto Yugoslavthe within Hungary as an agent of National Socialist accommodate for right-wing German movements, the movements, German for right-wing accommodate youths,German and Hungarian the state’s increasing willingness (anddiplomatic need)to organizations, theincreasingly open circulation of National amongstSocialist propaganda 314 from support the primarily framework ofmore traditionalwithin the youth Due todirectGerman organizations. Yugoslavia: An Alternate Path to Nationalistic Self-Awareness, 4.2 1919-1941 See, for instance, Lumans, instance, for See, As is described on historians recent bynumerous the topic, ethnic German As was demonstrated in the preceding section, the Hungarian “Hitler Youth” arose “Hitler Hungarian Youth” the in section, As waspreceding the demonstrated 314 In 1920,Yugoslavia’s Germans founded the communities under Hungarian in communities rule 1941. Reich Himmler’s Auxiliaries, and its agencies, a radicalization of the main ethnic German 118. 92 Gleichschaltung Deutsche Jugend Deutsche Partei and indoctrination. In this In indoctrination. and eventually flourished eventually (DP), aparty (DP), which, CEU eTD Collection Kulturbund the utlilize to began thus agenda, establishing political organizations. Germans in Yugoslavia, especially with those a political elements. to the Yugoslav state (as in the in (as state Yugoslav the to communities in were Yugoslavia loyaltysplit amongst the “older breed”to of politicians loyal the of indivisibility the identity, ethnic of of of active an difficulties organizing acohesive political especially entity the 1920s. Alreadyduring sitethe be resumed in 1927. shutdown by government officials andits assets distributed state.Itsactivitiesto the could only belonged to Germany, it was not eligible for official for eligible not was it Germany, to belonged VDA assisted some of these earlier projects, however, as none of Yugoslavia had officially 316 Bukin in der Batschka/Jugoslawien 315 financingthe of andsocial works scientific projects. libraries and institutions educational (alsofor teachers); organizationthe of cultural events; and “needs” in includingYugoslavia, distribution the of art, books, music, andfilm; creation the of the of goal the statutes, founding their to Kulturbund parliament. 317 319 318 Lumans, Benedikt Helmlinger, Lumans, Lumans, Helmlinger, According tohistorians like Valdis Lumans, Germans in Yugoslavia experienced 319 Himmler’s Auxiliaries, Himmler’s Auxiliaries, Himmler’s Auxiliaries, 315 had established some 866German cultural, athletic, educational, social and welfare (the SDKB, or Erneuerungsbewegung Bukiner Heimatbuch from prohibited were Germans 1930s, the especially during Furthermore, samefounded alsoYugoslavia’syear,That Germans the 318 Bukiner Heimatbuch: Werdegang, Aufstieg und Untergang der deutschen Gemeinde Kulturbund 118; Helmlinger, 118. 119, 28; Helmlinger, (Magstadt: Helmlinger, 1974), 208. , 209; Lumans, Deutsche Partei Kulturbund — ayoung,movement right-wing activist professing ideals ), with headquarters in Novi Sad (Batschka). According Kulturbund Himmler’s Auxiliaries, Volk Bukiner Heimatbuch 93 Bukiner Heimatbuch as a means for political change. By 1938, the , and similar, pro-Nazi sentiments— German sentiments— pro-Nazi similar, , and ), and these newer, more radical newer,), andthese political Reich 316 was the buttressing of German cultural As in the Hungarian case, Germany’s case, Hungarian the in As aid. , 119. 118. 317 , 208-209. By 1924, the Schwäbisch-Deutscher Kulturbund was CEU eTD Collection officially belong to the most extreme most the to belong officially leader,as thehead force and unifying of the wing pro-right and young, energetic, an and farmer atenant of son the Janko, Sepp elected Kulturbund German community. entire ethnic “capture” Yugoslavia’s to of the SS. presumablymotivated by also gain— a politicalof agentpersonal Thirdthe Reichand aleader the between negotiations activate of theVoMi. Within a series diplomatic to case— as intheHungarian decided— Hausleitner andHarald Roth (Munich: IKGS Verlag, 2006), 223-225; Senz, Faschismus und Nationalsozialismus auf Minderheiten in Ostmittel- und Südosteuropa, Janko,” in 322 321 p. 612. even moreeven power. 323 320 the protested factions as certain These createda developments mounting chasm within Yugoslavia’s ethnic German population, politics right-wing radical for a platform as employed were they as radicalized increasingly direction of Maleprinted. andfemale established youth groups, between 1931 and 1940and under the twenty-five weekly, four bi-monthly, andninemonthly newspapers were German-language organizations with a total membership of 50,000 individuals. Some four daily newspapers, as such was only mentioned as an incorporated branch of the For Janko’s own reflections on his involvement, see “Ein Gespräch des ‘Donautal-Magazins’ mit Dr. Sepp Dr. mit ‘Donautal-Magazins’ des Gespräch “Ein see involvement, his on ownreflections Janko’s For Wildmann, Zoran Janjetovic, “Die Donauschwaben in der Vojvodina und der Nationalsozialismus,” in Nationalsozialismus,” der und Vojvodina der in Donauschwaben “Die Janjetovic, Zoran Wildmann, Under Janko, the (by now As in the case of the Hungarian VDU, these organizations and newspapers became newspapers and organizations these VDU, Hungarian As inthe caseof the Das Donautal-Magazin 322 DonauschwäbischeGeschichte Landesjugendführer DonauschwäbischeGeschichte disseminated copious propaganda along 321 Reich Kulturbund , Nr. 91, Volume 1 (Argentina: May 1997), 12-17. agencies, realizing potential their for gain within thisstruggle, Erneuerer Josef flourished.Josef Beer, gleichgeschaltet , the VoMi, and local local and leaders,the , theVoMi, German , 567-569. , 568,608. According to Wildmann, however, the Erneuerer s’ rising influence, s’ rising and the Kulturbund 94 , it seem does , he that ultimately became— ) Volksgruppe Kulturbund 320 Erneuerer in August 1939.While Jankodid not 323 after the Yugoslav War, in May 1941. Geschichte der Donauschwaben, commenced officially on apath on officially commenced Like the Hungarian VDU, the VDU, Hungarian Like the andNazi lines, professing Erneuerer edited by Mariana edited Der Einfluss von Der Einfluss Deutsche Jugend in sought turn Kulturbund 216. . CEU eTD Collection propaganda office of Germansthe in WithinYugoslavia). publication,this dozens ofimages, 1941 by the andfurther described anddepicted in volumea propaganda in published inNovi Sad March of the Germans’ “calling.” According this toJanko, wasprecisely typethe would of that challenge enabletherealization Prahovo, which housed Germans from which housedPrahovo, Germans from tothe andBukovinaBessarabia “returning” youths serveof Yugoslavia to intransitincamps established Zemun Zimony)(Semlin, and 30 implemented as workers in workers as implemented education. for National primary Socialist site teachers. German prospective and students secondary both trained and Batschka in the located establish and/orfund German-speaking schools andboarding many schools, of which were all of its organizations would be structured logistically and ideologically according to Hitler’s to institutional in creations and dogmatic “motherland.”the according ideologically and logistically structured be would organizations its of all 10. 328 (founded in 1931)in Neuwerbass. Weltzer, Schulstiftung “ Bürgerschule 324 however, the VDU, blood, andsoil.” “honor, of “sacrality” the and “motherland” the the loyalty to 325 Donauschwaben, 326 Führerprinzip HeinrichReister-Leopold Egger, Janjetovic, “DieDonauschwabenin der Vojvodina und der Nationalsozialismus,” 223; Senz, Wildmann, Crucial here were, for instance, the instance, for were, here Crucial th , 1940,for instance, SeppJanko— under direction of the The young, were mobilized too, in youth (largely uncoordinated) organizations, and 326 ), the As will be discussed in the final chapter, these institutions later also became a became also later institutions these chapter, final in the be discussed As will in Noviin Sad (founded in 1941), the DonauschwäbischeGeschichte Landespropagandaamt derdeutschen Volksgruppe inJugoslawien 214-215. ”— the ”— Deutsche Gymnasium Kulturbund Kulturbund 328 Reich Activities in for campweredocumented this propaganda purposes Das grosse Aufgebot Deutsche Gymnasium under Janko also openly proclaimed their adherence to the under their proclaimed Jankoalsoopenly adherenceto (re-established in1940), and the projects amongst projects would be Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege , 593-594. Deutsche Bürgerschule the 95 ( Novisad-Neusatz: Druckerei- und Verlags-A-G., 1941), representative of Germans in Yugoslavia, and in (founded Apatin in September1940), the Volksdeutsche , 71-93. 325 (founded in 1933 by the Deutsche Lehrerbildungsanstalt The Führer in the region. the in Kulturbund — called all German all called — Geschichte der further helped 327 Deutsche 324 (the official (the August On the Unlike Deutsche Reich . CEU eTD Collection youth in Yugoslavia— regardless of nationality— would need unifyto loyaltyunder to student in Belgrade and apparent the head of “Yugoslavthe youth.” According toUtovi months earlier,months by God. will the of determined afate “fate,” theGerman realize help and beliefs Catholic Church. Yugoslavia’s German Catholic Youth would need thus to openly theirprofess Nobody, dedicated was more asBerenzexplained,to theGerman German the of youth the are “we that asserting article an published Berenz, Adam of carrier “German” values.OnApril 27 articles advertising the Catholic Youth organization, the organization, Youth Catholic the advertising articles published by Catholicthe Church in Apatin for(Batschka)— instance, frequently published raised considerable concernsraised among considerable the Himmler’s wife. or andWerner Lorenz, Toni leaders Schnitzler Sepp Janko, Princess Olga of Cvetkovi Minister Dragiša Sepp Janko, Princess Prime Yugoslavia, Yugoslavian of Olga as such visitors greeting hundreds, the by costume folk in in rows standing or together, events 332 331 grosse Aufgebot Egger, camps. concentration in collected of“supplies” piles with more weassociate now what precisely 330 andcare, clothing. Bessarabia and Bukovina Germans in amounts copious distributing offood, medical first-rate falls, a true German core radiates towards us.” Egger, us.” towards radiates core German a true falls, 329 tothe “home” returning which had been “corrupted” supposedly by of“Romanian-Russian” influence—decades finally entitled with propagandistic slogans,a highly created imageidealized of ethnic Germans— “Deutsche Jugend in Volk und Kirche,” in Kirche,” und Volk in Jugend “Deutsche Egger, Some images are particularly haunting. Two in particular depict large piles of clothing and shoes— reflecting One image of a smiling German boy,for instance, contains the caption “when the Romanian-Russian shell The mobilization and ongoing indoctrination of Yugoslavia’s German youth,it seems, Das grosse Aufgebot , 69. Die Donau 330 portrayedGirls andboysas were organizingGerman folk andathletic , 104-106, 86-97. Reich had also published astatementby Vladimir Utovi . 329 with coordinating as depicted were Germans Yugoslav Die Donau Kulturbund th , 1937, for example, the newspaper’s editor, Father editor, newspaper’s for the example, , 1937, Das grosse Aufgebot 96 , 24April 1937, 3. ’s rivals. In Marienbund , 38. 331 Die Donau Volk , as only the and “true” and — a weekly paper Volkstum ü 332 , auniversity Just several Just Das than the than Volk ü ü , SS , all !” CEU eTD Collection began openly pro-Nationalprofessing Socialist sentiments. Suddenly draped with a swastika in be guaranteed. language of languageby their apursuitfor of “forefathers,” whichsupport “ the least30 “ at enthusiasm, an “activism” thatwasunique and such commendable for a youngyouth group; thanks to their explain,the to continued article Asthe communities. local their for language had courses Topola,to organizeGerman Topolya), also begun posture.” had especially the stated, gymnasts “delighted” duetotheirthe audience “unifiedandrigid successful March 1 reporting on similar “ similar on reporting instance, the Yugoslav the instance, local organizations. German of radicalization the on reporting simultaneously German German press in alsoseemedbe undergoing to Yugoslavia agradual of National Socialism indeed didnot seem beto unfounded. Asin Hungarianthe case, the 335 334 333 state. Yugoslav the loyalty unity as longandof, respectthe nationalisms, towards, asthese alternate especially, be it should warnedthat should “stay itwhatis” and Yugoslavia knowthat respects fightYugoslavia to splinteringthe and of state the thespread of Bolshevism. youth, German “Die jugoslawische Jugend an die deutsche Jugend,” in Jugend,” deutsche andie Jugend jugoslawische “Die Deutsches Volksblatt Deutsches Volksblatt: Tageszeitung der Deutschen Jugoslawiens. 333 After dissolution the in of AprilYugoslavia the Yugoslav1941, The qualms expressed by both Catholic and Yugoslav state leadership spread the state byboth about The qualmsexpressed andYugoslav Catholic st 334 issue, forissue, instance, the town of Kulain (Wolfsburg) Batschka the had hosted a Volksabend Apparently,the 335 , 1March 1941, 5. Volksabende , which had been organized entirely by the local youth. As the author As the youth. local bythe entirely organized been had which , Deutsches Volksblatt Volksgenossen Deutsche Jugend ” (“ Volk ” (fellow ethnic Germans) were now studying the evenings”) as Hungarianthe press. According tothe , printed in Novi Sad by the 97 in other Batschka towns, like (Ba Topola towns, in other Batschka Die Donau Deutsche Jugend Vol.23, No. 6595 (1 March 1941), 5. , 2 January 1936, 5. Volksgemeinschaft of Topola was showing Gleichschaltung Deutsche Volksblatt Kulturbund In early for 1941, ” would ” , began , while , þ ka CEU eTD Collection the Batschka’sthe Yugoslav German population. This gaveriseseveral to awkward instanceswith of portion aconsiderable within hadbeencreated leastenthusiasm outwardly, an at seems that isand organizations highly andthesubjectdebatable, of followingthe it Nevertheless, chapter. population population had been actually by “coordinated” the wing. its under minority German entire the become members of become members the “ own as tenets, well as for the activities of Thirdthe Reich.late By 1940, the had largely in itssucceeded aims of forging a sources the of that time— the pro-National Socialist leastaccording to seems— at Sad, according Sad, always of article,acenter tothis had been the from departure of was dedicatedtothe Novi itsSS recruits Novi surrounding towns. Sad and youth OnApril activities, exchanges,and SSrecruitment. 10 of control Hungarian the Deutschen Südungarns epicenter of epicenter 338 Nazi flags and a“Germandom”was now prepared to fight, that being sent towarin massive a procession of . was now Belgrade, tocapture cloaked soldiers how and in Belgradethe parliament 337 336 the banner, its Volksgruppenführung Janjetovic, “DieDonauschwabenin der Vojvodina und der Nationalsozialismus,” 223. Deutsches Volksblatt: Tageszeitung der Deutschen Südungarns Deutsches Volksblatt: Tageszeitung der Deutschen Jugoslawiens. Despite theconcerns and propaganda launchedby 336 Kulturbund Yugoslav the By 1942, Deutsche Jugend Volksbote ” boasted somethat 98% of Yugoslavia’s populationGerman had ” (the daily paper of the Germans in Southern Hungary). Now under Now Hungary). in Southern Germans the of paper daily (the ” activities since the 1920s, Novi Sad had now attracted a“Germandom” 1920s,Novi Sad hadnowattracted sincethe activities Kulturbund Volksbund began issuingbegan articles on how itsupposedly onlytook nine German formations. , the Novi Novi Sad , the , and that the that and , Deutsche Volksblatt 338 337 The degree to which, for instance, the Batschka’s instance, the for which, The degreeto 98 Donauschwaben Kulturbund Volksblatt Kulturbund , Vol. 24, No. 6921 (10 April 1942), 1. Vol.23, No. 6634 (18 April 1941), 5. had the “ become began printing frequent articles on articles frequent printing began had indeed succeeded in unifying Kulturbund th and National Socialistideology , 1942, for instance, paper the , 1942, population enthusiastic for its for enthusiastic population Volksdeutsche critics, ittherefore critics, Tageszeitung der Tageszeitung “tradition”; an Kulturbund CEU eTD Collection Yugoslavia. ByApril 6 for invade enter already aprevious plan assembled to ordered troops— Greece— to thus Hitler Europe. in Southeastern domination of plans their to threat a as developments with pact Yugoslavia’s pre-existing the Whilecoup. the new governmentpromised tohonor all commitments—previous like joined Yugoslavia tothe . Two days later, the regime was overthrown by a military On March 25 the western Banat became a became Banat western the State (ISC), of Croatia Independent of newly becamepart the established disassembled. The Final Years: Problems with the Batschka’s Reunification and 4.3 Sweeping SS by surrounded German a confused population. imagery and display Socialist National of atthe perplexed streets, these marched through Spannenberger, produced by BeyerAstrid Günter and Czernetzky (Stuttgart: Südostdeutscher Rundfunk, 1998). Also see 339 the flags greetand swastikas to incomingthe Unlike soldiers. the which Banat, “liberated” by was beingto the“motherland,” in reconnected Batschka towns entire the with weredraped Nazi Batschka’sthe by re-annexation in 1941,forHungary instance.April Injoyful anticipation of See several reports by eyewitnesses in the following documentary film: Wehrmacht Recruitments The year 1941 indeed represents a turning point in the history of the Batschka. Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn 1938-1944 th , the Batschka was taken , theBatschka wastaken Hungarian bythe over , 1941, Dragišathe Cvetkovi th , 1941, Yugoslaviahad, 1941, and collapsed Vojvodina the was de facto in Serbia underGerman direct Reich ü 339 99 government signed government the , which — Germany’s government evaluated— Germany’s these government , 286. Schicksal derDonauschwaben Honvéd , whose troops hence troops whose , , CEU eTD Collection subsidiaries of the of subsidiaries now controlled only Banat’s the only controlled now Kulturbund subsumation of their into organizations the Hungarian model.After April 1941, the was importance. of state” primary “host thevariable not Hungarian the about in communities region.the most Batschka Furthermore, leaders German expressedfrustrations itself intervention, ethnic amongst successinanchoring German hadfrom state greater and freer Germanorganizationsin administration of In Yugoslavia,the was separate too, 1938). decades, the decades, while furtherthe describes, Spannenberger As thatsawasnow they ending. aprospect institutions, educational, political and liberties Batschka the indeveloping hadenjoyedtheir Germans greater cultural, own generally withdissatisfied prospectthe joiningof the “intolerant” Greater Hungary. Previously, 341 Minderheit, 1918-1978 342 223. Lumans, 340 for interesting increasingly and minorities, of 800,000 ethnicwith accession the of Batschka’s the 175,000 Germans,Hungary atotal ultimately encapsulated Germans, a territory of reunited, becoming Hungary. Batschkacontrol, andthe was making it a with one of the world’s largest German Spannenberger, Spannenberger, See, for instance, Janjetovic, “Die Donauschwaben in der Vojvodina und der Nationalsozialismus,” 229-231; Nevertheless, the Batschka’s Germans were forced to observe the complete to observe the forced were Germans Batschka’s the Nevertheless, As described by historians such as Zoran Janjetovi as Zoran such by historians As described Himmler’s Auxiliaries, Himmler’s , the , Volksbund DerVolksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Genossenschaftsverband Volksbund (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980), 40-45. Volksbund was a much younger formation (established in its formation moststate (established recenta muchyoungerwas only 120-121; Hans-Ulrich Wehler, . Sepp Janko lost his authority over the Batschka Germans and ’s apparent loyalty to the Hungarian state; for them, the them, for state; Hungarian the to loyalty apparent ’s Kulturbund. Reich , and the and , 100 Kulturbund The Batschka’s new “ TheBatschka’s officials. Nationalitätenpolitik inJugoslawien: diedeutsche 342 Deutsche Schulstiftung 341 had a lastingtradition for several , 261-263. , 268; Lumans, ü , the Batschka’s Germans were Germans Batschka’s , the Kulturbund Himmler’s Auxiliaries, Himmler’s 340 It is estimated that ” receiveda all became Reich , CEU eTD Collection households with households incorporated approximately of all96.5% Batschka Germans (generally calculated by Hungarian states and peoples. German and the between diplomatic difficulties wouldand create that accustomed to not were they that “tone” new whole a with Hungarians confronted feared— VoMi the as which— VoMi concernsabout the“lack expressed of discipline” exhibitedby Germans, Batschka and with engagingininflammatory rhetoricNational dotted Socialist phraseology. Even the ideology amore radical Socialist professing National as “agitators,” became known Germans Batschka’s the incorporation, in of the Batschka’s Especially early phase the an opportunity. Kulturbund 343 as“ known (also Batschka Germans the itthat seems organizations, Deutschen inUngarn— Schwäbisch-Deutscher Kulturbund— Batschka.Gebietsführung became the officially German administration of autumn 1941, Batschka’s the the administration. German Hungarian boarding schools,ministries of education, legal propaganda, health,protection, andyouth. German schools and various by overseen sub-units) seven (with such unit administrative an became Batschka— as those indifferent Apatin, Novi Sad, leader, and Werbass, Sepp were adoptedSpreitzer, by the and the territory— now rejoined with the Hungarian 347 346 345 344 Nationalsozialismus,” 51. Hungarian German community SeeWeltzer, This calculation, made by the Spannenberger, Spannenberger, Spannenberger, Deutsche Jugend Despite initial misgivings loss aboutthe of independence by Batschka German membership was much higher in the Batschka than Batschka the in higher much was membership Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 Kulturbund , under of , the leadership Kulturbund, membership cards). 345 346 ) soon saw their absorption into the into absorption their saw soon ) 343 ,; Janjetovic, “Die Donauschwaben in der Vojvodina und der Furthermore, it is estimate that the that estimate is it Furthermore, isof course questionable. While most historians agree that All German youth groups now officially formed part of 101 Deutsche Jugend 347 This was a far cry from Hungary’s much Volksbund , 168. , 329. , 261-265. membership in Hungary, many sources many inHungary, membership head Mathias Huber. By the Volksbund Batschkanesen Kulturbund ’s structures as ’s structures Volksbund der ” by the by ” 344 had CEU eTD Collection across Hungary mirror of precisely Hungary began German to those the across creating evenlarger by youths. resistance German Batschka cases as into a (some burning asthe of however extreme a swastika German boy’s chest), Deutsche Jugend assembled the Vitári describes, Zsolt historian the As awholenew dynamic. introduced youth with theprogressionof war, dropping to less than two-thirds. See Wildman, demonstrations by youthsGerman against delegation. German ein Führer. Reich, substantial birthplace of most the quantitatively” and “qualitatively both Batschka the making administration, in the key positions over took quickly Germans Batschka wascompleted, territories twenty percent. around newspaper reports describing how the “Batschka surpasses them all.” them surpasses “Batschka the how describing reports newspaper 351 control. Basch’s under previously not territory 350 349 348 instance. for 594, levente severe that Germanthe embassy to intervene in attempted freedom 1944, requestingfrom between major conflicts accustomed mandatory youngto Batschka’s werenot ethnic Germans (also (also primary— more about thisin oralthe history chapter) agree that lower Vitári, “Hitlerjugend,” 537-538. These actions perhaps shed a whole new light on theHungarian German Vitári, “Hitlerjugend,” 523-527. One wonders whether this was perhaps also simply ofan act scapegoating a Spannenberger, Wildmann, from Calculated Volksbund Even within the within Even It was also only after the Batschka’s annexation that the that was annexation alsoIt Batschka’s the only after training for Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 at their opening rally in inMágocs June 1941began chanting “ membership percentage, which even after the Batschka’s annexation hovered annexation Batschka’s the after even which percentage, membership ” According to Basch, these chants were started by the enthusiastic Batschka by enthusiastic the werestarted Basch, chants these to ” According 350 Deutsche Jugend Furthermore— youths the within Hungary— raised German unlikethe Volksbund 348 Deutsche Jugend Deutsche Donauschwäbische Geschichte Nevertheless, as soon as the administrative unification of the of unification administrative the as soon as Nevertheless, levente leadership. leaders and Batschka youths. As Vitári Asdescribes, Vitári youths. Batschka and leaders members. Bullying by , it seems that the incorporation of the Batschka’s levente 102 349 leaders in towns such as Hódság became so became such as Hódság in leaderstowns , 169-170. Kultur/Volksbund 351 , 263. Donauschwäbische Geschichte Hitler Jugend Deutsche Jugend levente levente membership dwindled officers continued, officers . Boys wore the wore Boys . service, causing service, ein Volk, ein ’s uniforms Volksbund , 593- CEU eTD Collection troops andtroops pupils from town’s the German middle school. local the streets from with of Werbass through the marched group Germany reality. In itsyouth, by hadbecome a time, that Socialist National “Germanized,” creation of the a fully November 23 memberships daily. memberships Deutsche Jugend of all youthsGerman in Batschkathe (or 22,000 individuals) had been by “coordinated” the its goals. As proclaimed in 1943 the doctrine.” Socialist consuming affair, trainingmind both andfor body a “ 352 indoctrination, within especially the Socialist National in Germany. equivalents BDM their like blouses, white and skirts dark familiar andshirts black aswastika shorts, wrappedaround their upperarm. Girls wore 354 353 German families in the Batschka and the and Batschka the in families German 355 Gentile). and Griffin (consider proclamations ofsuch components man” “new gehen wird’. der gesund an Körper und Geist ist,und der offen und ehrlich durchs neue, für uns Deusche soschöne Leben zu unsherüber zu holen und durch Spiel, Sport undSchulungen einen neuen kommenden Menschentyp zu schaffen, Kampf erschaffen hat, liebt. Daher sieht die ganze Jugend der Batschka nur ein Ziel: ‘Die Aussenstehenden noch Wildmann, “ According to some estimates, approximately 8,000 German KLV children were ultimately hosted by by ethnic hosted ultimately were children KLV German 8,000 approximately estimates, some to According Jahrbuch der Deutschen Jugend in Ungarn 1943 Wir lassen schimfen gegen uns, wir Jugendliche der Batschka aber wissen, dass uns der Herrgott, der uns zum According to propaganda issuedAccording to by Batschka’s the life.’ beautiful, a such Germans us for this, through honestly human being, whois healthy inbody andmind andwhowill proceed openly and games, through and sports, schoolingcreate and to new,the upcoming of type ranks into our bring outsiders the ‘To goal: seesonly one Batschka of the youth entire the Therefore, loves battle, us. usfor has Lord, created that our that ” Jahrbuch der Deutschen Jugend in Ungarn 1943 DonauschwäbischeGeschichte We will let them curse us, we youths from the Batschka, however, know however, Batschka, the from youths we us, curse them let We will already; now, it was the job of the of job the was it now, already; 352 353 By Batschka’s the 1943, As the proclamation Ascontinued: proclamation the rd issue, the issue, SchwäbischeTürkei Jahrbuch der Deutschen JugendinUngarn , 172. NS-Erziehungsheime Volksblatt , 154. 103 Deutsche Jugend Deutsche (in current-day Tolna, Baranya, and Somogy). These , 154. It is hard to overlook the “palingenetic“ and “palingenetic“ the overlook to hard It is , 154. described how a Deutsche Jugend völkisch 355 Deutsche Volksblatt Apparently, the Apparently, , revivalaccording totheNational became an increasingly time- increasingly an became had further clearly clearly articulated hadfurther 354 Kinderlandverschickung leaders to increase these leaders to volksdeutsche Deutsche Jugend in least, 1943 at , ninety , ninety percent and CEU eTD Collection thousands of recruits, all of whom, in joining the German military forces, lost their Hungarian their lost forces, military German the in joining whom, all of recruits, of thousands alone. territories these youthsGerman from Hungary joined(including theBatschka) in the SS 1941withinSeptember Reich- “ Batschka’s the of recruitment and assessment the at primarily 1940s, early the by aimed, trips taken by as Nevertheless, likeevenhistorians haveindicated, Spannenberger “ethnographical” early Batschka is and complex, and becameof purpose this large-scale rapidly coordination, too, apparent: the mobilization of SS cannot beincluding Batschka— the atleastin henceofficial appearedtobe Thepropaganda— complete. dealt with fully withinnow formed the next link on an “everlasting chain” on the “fighting lineage.” the parameters of this thesis. 357 borne fruit; individuals who had, for seventeen years, grown up “within the skirt of the region hadFinally,if succeeded. as hard a “miracle,” the work through of a generation had 359 358 356 Ungarn, 1938-1944 Spannenberger, VDU. the from assistance financial received then families undeniable“ the that claimed,proof This, astheauthor constituted confusion as arose to which students came from Germany and which from Batschka.the reichsdeutsche Menschenmaterial Deutsches Volksblatt Spanneberger, Spannenberger, Deutsches Volksblatt: Tageszeitung der Deutschen Südungarns Wehrmacht administered Banat Initially cloaked as “voluntary recruitments,” military Initially as“voluntary cloaked beforerecruitments,” 1942drew enlistments youths The coordination Hungary, of and within “education” German a greater Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn 1938-1944 Reich youths looked so similar in “folk costume, posture, racial features, etc.” that racialfeatures, etc.” posture, incostume, “folk sosimilar youths looked Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 , 310. troops. troops. The history militaryof amongst ethnic Germans in the .” , 23November1943, 3. 358 officials within Batschka werecarriedunderthe SSleadership out and 359 formalLured into the boundaries of the — through “youth through camps” and “youth exchanges,” several hundred 104 , Vol., 25,No. 7401 (23 November1943), 3. , 284-286. , 284. Der Volksbund der Deutschen in Reich Volkstumskampf — orthe more directly 357 ” in the ” Führer 356 ” CEU eTD Collection during this recruitment came from the Batschka (Janjetovi Batschka the from came recruitment this during Hungarian armed forces. Furthermore, according to Janjetovi to according Furthermore, forces. armed Hungarian increasingly brutal and began exerting great psychologicalbecame pressure onofficers, individuals to join by GermanGerman the led and not the tactics, thatrecruitment of recruitments wave second this from starting especially 364 2000), 66. the forces— another 22,125 Hungarian 22,125 forces— another Germans currently serving in the 363 from from Batschka. the 362 1944), 139]. Landegruppethe der Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP in Ungarn (Ujvidek-Neusatz: Druckerei- und Verlags-AG,Riedl, [Franz soldiers German rearing in successful most been had Batschka generally did not fight directly onthe fronts. Paikert, 1933-1945 correspond to sources likeRiedl’s military (primarily Southeastern Europe’s SS Division Europe’s “ military (primarily Southeastern individualsfrom in someHungary “first wave 17,690 German enlisted the recruitment,” of Hungarian the join to whether on andbeinitially have would forces, whereby given German to the all choice armed recruits the whichdeal, ethnic according to 20,000 Germans from Hungary belegallycould into recruited Waffen-SS. der Deutschen in Ungarn 1938-1944 360 1,500 individuals from Batschkathe hadenlisted into the Volksdeutsche supplied soldiers more “enthusiastically” than any Hungarian other region: while only 125 citizenship. Europe, 1933-1945 Germans from in Batschka from Germans served the the 361 Paikert, Zoran Janjetovi Zoran Lumans, Valis O. Lumans, G.C. Paikert, Wehrmacht. On February 1 The Danube Swabians , 224; Paikert, The Himmler’s Auxiliaries: the Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German National Minorities of Europe, 360 Waffen-SS At least according to The Danube Swabians from “Trianon Hungary” served in the in served Hungary” “Trianon from ü 364 , (Chapel Hill, NC: Between Hitler and Tito: The Disappearance of the Vojvodina Germans Himmler’s Auxiliaries: the Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German National Minorities of During the third andfinal official “wave” of recruitments— sparked by a 363 The Danube Swabians was employed directly and regularly in military operations, while the ordinary SS After a second diplomatic agreement on May 22 May on agreement diplomatic second a After st , 1942, the German, 1942,the and Hungarian a governments struck diplomatic , 146; Lumans, Nachbarland Ungarn , 284. It is also important to note the difference betweenthe SS and the University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 224. (The Hague:(The Martinus Nijhoff,1967), 147; Spannenberger, Volksdeutsche Honvéd Honvédség Reich , 146. Himmler’s Auxiliaries Waffen-SS statistics, by 1941,theBatschkaOctober had actually could choose to transfer into the German armed German the into transfer to choose could The Danube Swabians 105 (discussed inthe second chapter), which claimed that the or German military.the ü , Between Hitler and Tito joined the ü , some 8 out of 18 transports of German soldiers of German of 18transports out 8 some , . 361 Wehrmacht Prinz Eugen , 224-225. According to Lumans, it was Wehrmacht Waffen-SS , Nachbarland Ungarn 144. Such statements further at that point, approximately point,at that ”); 12,868 of ”); 12,868of these came , 66). , while 1,729enlistedin . Another 2,000ethnic. Another 362 nd ensuing the During , 1943—whereby (Belgrade: s.n., , published by Der Volksbund CEU eTD Collection Within Hungary, Germans experienced the gradual formation and formation gradual the experienced Germans Hungary, Within Worldfollowing its First the War— adifferential across boundaries. experienced radicalization maintenance of a “ seat of various religious, vocational, athletic, cultural, and folkloric clubs designed for the Batschka Already of period evolution experienced early during the century. asignificant the twentieth the within organizations German actors, political and ideological, national, interests andof diverse the structures between of state a variety Caught is Batschka complex. 4.4 Conclusions that would fight and fall for the degree within like theHitlerarenas Youth— ultimately thus forgehelped an army thousands of shed onsuch issues within thefollowing chapter. Deutsche Jugend apparent and recruitment ofmilitary proportions high between relationship precise The army. German the scale military service, large- to and membership necessarily lead not within did groups such youth Nazi groupsinto wasinclusion certainly their and Batschka the not a pre-condition within youths German for recruitment into 368 from Batschka. the 367 366 365 War Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Romaniahadin served Germanthe armed by forces endthe of the the and the between nogiven mena choice age longer the of sixty)up to were encompassed final German-Hungarian onApril agreement signed 14 One should, however, not come to simplistic causal conclusions. The attempted totalitarian indoctrinationof Paikert, Paikert, Deutsches Volksblatt: Tageszeitung der Deutschen Südungarns 366 ; 20,000 SS recruits— as atleast the The history of ethnic Germanorganizations— includingyouth groups— within the Honvéd The Danube Swabians The Danube Swabians membership within the Batschka remains a matter of speculation; however, more light will be . 365 somefromAccording to ethnic statistics, approximately Germans 120,000 367 Donauschwaben leastata “educated” to “bred”and Batschka— youthsof the German , 147. , 146; Lumans, Reich ” heritage, the Batschka— especially after its the ” heritage, especially after division Batschka— . 368 Himmler’s Auxiliaries 106 Deutsches Volksblatt , Vol. 25, No. 7348 (19 September1943), 1. th , 1944—German (which nowsoldiers , 225. Gleichschaltung stated instated late1943— came of Basch’s Waffen-SS CEU eTD Collection ethnic Germans within region this ultimately provide the made by leaders andGerman pressorgans themselves— several raise Why questions. did restofHungarycombined. the many times ten as Batschkathathadsuppliedover the it also was Socialism; of National with tenets numbers the in greater been raised had apparently causingstructures, aboutthis“radicalized” tensions more within territory. Youths the Batschka percent of Batschka’sGerman youthspercent of the hadfollowers become of ardent Hitler’s Germany? ninety that claimed time,of which the news reports to begiven much can How credence activities? these experience themselves individuals did How force? military and movement and within amore multi-nationally liberal Yugoslavia, the Batschka’s pre-existing especially began fosteredcausing headlineswithin Supposedly the German-speaking press. equation. identificatory of a “German—Nazi” transmission German KLV and exchange children, and necessary organizational structures for full-blown the local “Hitler Youth” andgroups supplied them with leaders,the ideological materials, “purely” National formations,Socialist alsovarious dueto programs by the distinctly into turned had too, these, 1940s, the By a transformation. underwent similarly with associated Hungary’s and ethnic state-sanctioned Yugoslavia’s German organizations— intocultural a organization pawn of VoMi.the youth German organizations— particularly ones National Socialistleanings and activities than the 370 369 Volksbund See, for instance: for See, Paikert, Kulturbund After 1941incorporation the of entirethe Batschka into Hungary, Batschka the The Danube Swabians ; within Yugoslavia, Janko’s formations suddenly became incorporated formationswithin suddenly became incorporated Hungarian the Jahrbuch der Deutschen Jugend inUngarn 1943 , 147. 369 These claims, however— based mainly on the assertions the on mainly based however— claims, These Kulturbund 107 Volksbund — perhaps moreeven radicalized in its Wehrmacht , 154. Reich — similarly developed from a Third Reich soldiers by 1941as soldiers by October with with such a sizeable youth Deutsche Jugend , which financed Volksbund 370 CEU eTD Collection this thesis now turns. now thesis this communities? What were identity “German”andloyalty Third the to Reich theBatschka’s within the alternatives? youths actually create a help certain of indoctrinating Did National aspiration the Socialist It is also to an elucidation of these questions that 108 Donauschwaben CEU eTD Collection Nazi youth mobilizations on the on mobilizations youth Nazi to consider sofar: thishas topic been neglected micro-historical effectsanalysis of the a of organizations thewithin Batschkain fair detail, perhaps significantangle most the from which experiences of war, and related considerations of social cleavage and national identity. andnational cleavage social of considerations and of related war, experiences Batschka’s communities duringGerman the 1930sand1940s, mobilization the youths, of in the ofchildhood on the topics perspectives ofthreediverseandpersonal presentation youth’s“German experience.” Thefollowing should chapter be thus more taken asa stake small any was of interviewees “archetype” haphazard toclaimstoo the and towards andcommunities, whichensued. fragmentations the their of lives the into Socialism National of incursion the of recollections personal some before 1944were oldto be enough andcogent capable memories, of retaining have atleast who Batschka, the of children German former all is evident: nevertheless thing one hometown, diverse memoriesDonauschwaben and viewpointsmemories of intheir childhood various within towns 1930sandthe 1940sBatschka. While all personal individuals’ of investigation an to turns now thesis this that here is It community. on topics like the “Hitler Youth” activities within their Chapter 5: Perspectives from Below— Current Reflections on Past While the above analysis has presented the development of National Socialist youth Socialist National of development the presented has analysis above the While The stories presented here are not intended to be representative— indeed, the sample of , who had grown up as German children within the Batschka, of course have course of Batschka, the within children German as up grown had who , Fragmentations Donauschwaben 109 individual and the Donauschwaben CEU eTD Collection “ (“ tothe“bombastic speeches” andbegan listening who were seatedjoined within fronther cry, Johanna third parents— the rows of of the seats— during 1930sand the composed perhaps 1940s,andof who ten population.the percent formerinhabitants also remember Hungarian, Serbian,and “Czech” families who lived there official German sources) apurely by German town mid-nineteenththe its century, though had theHabsburg’s through immigration least settledthere becameaccordingpolicies, (at to in by who Kernei,Kernei Germans of 1765 primarily Kerény),Batschka. established (Krnjaja, 374 373 her, herbrother Michael*, and Caroline Mezger, 27 July 2011. Do notforget, bethankful too; For all thatAdolf Hitler has done for you. 372 conducted in German as an in-person group interview with Johanna and brother,her Michael*. 371 her began festivity. poem: Johanna this occasion, each littleand nervousabout all equally theirIt wasHitler’s upcoming birthday. task. celebration of In girl had been askedforget-me-not, she lined upwith six sevenor littleother girls, all clothed as differentflowers, to recite a poem at their Kindergarten’s Perspective One: officialChildren Observe Nazi 5.1 Activities Volk undVaterland Michael Eichhorn, “Ortsplan Kernei” (HOG Kernei, 2007); Johanna and Michael Bauer, interview Bauer, Michael and Johanna 2007); Kernei, (HOG Kernei” “Ortsplan Eichhorn, Michael interview Bauer, Johanna was interview The 27.7.2011. on interviewee and interviewer between signed by as agreement changed Name “Forget-me-nots with blue star; Quickly come hither, from near and afar; Finished with her poem, Johanna was allowed to leave the stage. Fighting the urge to Johanna was born in March 1938 into a family from predominantly the villageGerman On th ” that ensued. ” that , 1943, five-year-old Johanna Bauer* stepped onto a stage. stepped onto JohannaBauer* five-year-old , 1943, . Vergesst es nicht, seiddankbardran, Vergissmeinnicht mitblauemStern, Kommt her geielt vonnah und fern. Was Adolf Hitlereuch getan. 373 110 schwulstigen Ansprachenschwulstigen ” Johanna Bauer* in an interview with interview an in Bauer* ” Johanna 372 ”) about Hitler and Hitler about ”) 371 Dressed as a Dressed . 374 In CEU eTD Collection Kinderlandverschickung youths. Werbass, began holding folkloric circa 500 volumes, sent many of its girls and boys to the German Batschka, Kernei— through its through Kernei— Batschka, is German.” one that arose “awareness increasing atMagyarization—a Hungarian-speakingand administration attempts an War I—as German becamepopulations suddenly immersed first in a Serbian, then (after 1941) maintenance publications, wastheof after Especially World language German the and culture. in 1920. risea to plethora of German-oriented organizations,including its own branch of the changes during the interwar period. As in other, now Yugoslav, German towns, Kernei gave 380 379 Kerneier Heimatblätter: Mitteilungen andie Kerneier in aller Welt as 1922 [see Johann Schmidt, “Vor60 Jahren wurde derSchwäbisch-Deutsche Kulturbund (SDKB) gegründet,” in “ a and farmers; “middle of an“upperclass”and (the laborers; small day and craftsmen class” Welt 378 1930er Jahren,” (Unpublished paper, 1996), 3. 377 376 375 boys farm (“ and of “lowergirls the class” categories: generallywas predominately its inhabitants and agricultural, belonged one to of socialthree 1944, Kernei had apopulation of approximately 6,347. Herreleut Ehrlich, “Das Vereinswesen in Kernei,” 15. Schmidt, “Vor 60 Jahren,” 5. Heinrich Ehrlich, “Das Vereinswesen in Kernei,” in Kernei,” in Vereinswesen “Das Ehrlich, Heinrich EvaAckermann, “Kerneier Hochzeiten. Strategien und Bräuche in einem donauschwäbischenDorf denin interview. Bauer, Michael Kernei.“ “Ortsplan Eichhorn, , Vol. 10, No. 1 (1967), 15. The founding year of Kernei’s Kernei, likeKernei, towns other and villagesin hadexperienced Batschka, the considerable 380 378 Like many German communities in the Batschka, Kernei also hosted multiple hosted also Kernei Batschka, the in communities German many Like ” 376 The aim of this of aim The ) composed of grand land-owning farmers and a few “studied” individuals. units (from (from units inWestfalen 1942,Hamburgin 1943, and Viennain 1944, Kulturbund Kulturbund Heimabende 379 As in other in As — thus established— thus aGerman-language library of , according tocontemporary , according 111 Kerneier Heimatblätter: Mitteilungen an Kerneier in aller , and hosted cultural and athletic events for Kulturbund Knechte 375 , vol. 24 (Easter 1981), 14.] Donauschwaben Like other Batschka villages, Kernei Batschka villages, Like other is disputed and placed, by some, as late ” and “ Lehrerbildungsanstalt Mägde communities of the ”), cattle herders, ”), Donauschwaben Kulturbund in Neu 377 CEU eTD Collection Batschka originate. It was in Paraputsch that she attended the “completely normal “completely Itwasin shethe that attended Paraputsch originate. Batschka inthe childhood her about memories Johanna’s of most which from Paraputsch also was It however, family the moved(, toParaput/Parabutsch Paripás) in early 1942 or 1943. (Ba inBatsch-Brestowatz wasthus born herself frequently. Johanna teacher. German the hadattended however, father, her costume. folkloric Magyar for anaffinity with man a Hungarian memory, their to according was, herder consisted, especially during harvest the season, primarily of Bosnians; their grandmother’s goat recollection— brothers’ her and Johanna to according laborers— day these whereby laborers, family”). “fifth richest village’s the have to Johanna’s brother, they (according beenfairly large to estates were and owned well-off seemed family the of side mother’s her Especially Kernei. around centered primarily cousins, (bornbrothers in 1940 and 1943),and an extensive array of grandparents, aunts, uncles, and speaking Kindergarten. 387 386 385 384 383 382 381 established. as well as several from groups Bakony and Transylvania). Johanna Bauer, interview. Bauer, Johanna Johanna and Michael Bauer, interview. Johanna and Michael Bauer, interview. interview. Bauer, Michael Ehrlich, “Das Vereinswesen in Kernei,” 16. Schmidt, “Vor 60 Jahren,” 15. Ehrlich, “Das Vereinswesen in Kernei,” 15. Due to Johanna’s fathers’ occupation as a family immediate she andmoved occupation her fathers’ Due toJohanna’s teacher, Johanna’s family, during 1940s,consisted the of herparents, two her twoyounger 386 385 Johanna’sfather’s side of family consistedskinners primarily the of andfurriers; 382 local 1943, the and 1942 Between 383 384 These estates were farmed by tenant farmers and day and farmers by farmed tenant were These estates 112 Lehrerbildungsanstalt Kulturbund 381 An official even opened its own German- own its opened even þ in Sombor and became a became and inSombor ki Szilberek), ki Brestovac, Deutsche Jugend Deutsche was 387 CEU eTD Collection Kindergarten, marchedKindergarten, in andtheir uniforms, werehosted by generously the the near gathered generally they nonetheless, basis; adaily on did youths these exactly chests. their across thing” “and adiagonal shirts, brown shorts, probably several came usedtimes— to“march nicely” throughtheir all town, clad inblack Kinderlandverschickung used this awaken mail to him.delivery livingthe room; by was as assumes,hermother Johanna simply irritated longhow he slept and Every five-year-oldmorning, Johanna was asked by her mother carryto man’sthis mail into hosted the “ the hosted however, family, Johanna’s family. this to be distributed would child the and “here!,” out call a out, namewas child’s called eachGerman After local the Kindergarten. representatives (usually women) from every willing every from women) (usually representatives families in Batschka,asthisthe experiencing region hunger.was neitherOne warnor day, some of children.these As youthsJohanna from recalls, Germany were “invited” tostay with Kinderlandverschickung and“Schwäbische approximately hosted the Türkei” part children as 8,000 of a home. own their in Germany from youths welcoming began family 391 390 stärken. (“ consciousness” “German families’ these “strengthening” at 389 388 birthday.held for Hitler’s that Kindergarten” celebrations children were generally hosted by hosted generally were children Johanna Bauer, interview. Bauer, Johanna interview. Bauer, Johanna Spannenberger, Quotation Johanna’s ownwords. Johanna Bauer, interview. ”), p. 311. Whether these particular children arrived in Paraputsch as part of part of a as in arrived Paraputsch children particular Whether these According to someAccording to duringearly the estimates, German families in 1940s, Batschka the Führer Der Volksbund derDeutschen Ungarnin 1938-1944 ” of this Thisgroup. young man apparently slept in her family’s living room. or youth exchange operation. exchange youth or is unclear. Nevertheless, Johanna recalls that these groups— and they groups— these that Johanna recalls Nevertheless, is unclear. Volksbund members. The KLV, also according to Spannenberger, further aimed further Spannenberger, to according also KLV, The members. 390 113 …um bei ihnen das deutsche Bewusstsein zu Donauschwaben 389 388 , 310., As Spannenberger explains, these welcomed too, family, Johanna’s It was also in Paraputsch that her that in Paraputsch was also It 391 know whatJohanna didnot family thus gathered at Donauschwab would CEU eTD Collection make sure to that radio the check to her tell would it mother Johanna’s washome, family their approach to notbegan tuned into an “enemywhenever mother close someone hadan “connection” to Germany.unusually Furthermore, station” her as town, their (a within youths German of “ hosting the inorganizing instrumental quite been remembers. shestill herself that songs “enthusiasm.” developed acertain also motherherhowever, traveledat toMagdeburg work mother an their to orphanage. Thereafter, they wouldbe able communicate to with authorities).the Sometime between 1932 and 1934, leastattempted World duringmother—War—to raise at widowed First onechildso the that received an educationhadtoo, mother, Germany traveled ayoung to as interwar woman. she period, the During had first at a Serbian, then at a Hungarian boarding school. (Her mother’s ultimately, he also became one of Kernei’s first members of members of “ first Kernei’s the he of alsobecame one ultimately, he “enthusiasm” Batschka with the to (“ returned an apparently agricultural an on received education Hanover 1930s.After the during his studies, had side) mother’s her (on uncle Johanna’s time. some for Germany with ties fostered had and it.” really special… one appreciate did… hospitable; and“when camefrom hospitable; someone 396 395 Kernei,” 15. become the two successive leaders ofKernei’s leaders successive two the become 394 393 392 “ Batschkadeutschen Johanna Bauer, interview. Bauer, Johanna Johanna and Michael Bauer, interview. Johanna and Michael Bauer, interview. Italso seems that two individuals with interview. the same Bauer, family Johanna name had interview. Bauer, Johanna As Johannaexplains,mother used her to sitat pianothe and songs”— play “soldiers’ Johanna’s family,it seems,Johanna’s had for everything shown an interestgenerally “German,” .” 392 Germans in the Batschka, Johanna explains, were always very always were explains, Johanna Batschka, the in Germans 395 396 Kulturbund 393 Her mother, as Johanna conjectures, must have also 114 Germany during the 1920s. Begeisterung ! That was always something very Feindsender See Ehrlich, “Das Vereinswesen in Vereinswesen “Das See Ehrlich, ”) for National Socialism— National for ”) Volksbund. ”); Johanna her did ”); ” 394 Johanna’s CEU eTD Collection employed by the learn Hungarian, whichwasnow required of all in teachers Batschka—the instead became peopleagreed— whyshould discriminateagainst with one opinion? a different grandmother abruptly by responded “So what? exclaiming Those arealsopeople.” just Johanna like “evil” people mightbe living there; her qualms, however, wereeased when her exclaiming to her grandmother that “it is“it that hergrandmother to exclaiming houses, these at pointed Johanna Nonetheless, means. that what sure entirely not was to “maintain Germandom or something” (“ something” or Germandom “maintain to 400 399 398 397 back, as Johanna explains, these individuals were presumably part of the were probably with painted a stencil,“since all of symbolsthe looked same.”the Thinking town, she noticed how some of the housesremembers, she hermother’sonce visited mother in During awalkParaputsch. through the had “some kind of black ‘V’ marked on within German the community, seem there them” to have beenincreasing frictions.As Johanna that to adisagreement slaughtering in over methods 1913 anyways. due Sombor, center, administrative Kernei district’s for the hadleft Jews all their estimations, grandmother’s farm was still maintained byBosnian laborers,and Hungarian and, according to her conflicts— major aware of any not were her brother and she minorities, other region’s couldnotyet read. she as adjusted be should radio the how sure entirely always wasn’t she though says, she best, Johanna Bauer, interview. Bauer, Johanna interview. Bauer, Johanna Johanna and Michael Bauer, interview. interview. Bauer, Johanna Especiallywith quickly1944 waswrought Johanna’sfather— difficulties. unable to The early 1940s, as Johanna remembers, were filled with tensions. In terms of the In terms filled with tensions. were remembers, asJohanna The early 1940s, Wiener Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaft 397 them … umdasDeutschtum zuerhalten 115 that live there!.” For some reason, Johanna felt Johanna reason, some For there!.” live that as a German instructor— probably 398 Nevertheless, particularly Nevertheless, Volksbund 399 ”). 400 , though she though , familyHer CEU eTD Collection 402 401 Austria-Hungary,but he died as a German.” then to the forces… Yugoslav Hungarian the to loyalty eternal swore “first father their explains, brother Johanna’s forces… and in the endwithin he fought for thethe Germans… man,young fought within forces. Yugoslav early Duringthe the father her 1940s, then served Hungarian He was born in within pastthe decades. Johanna’s father—like many menother of his generation— had, asa army. In 1944, he was 1944. October ultimatelyin relatives, ultimately a Partisan incampprisoners’ perished their wasevacuated after village draftedFirst into World Warthe and knewGermanJohanna explains, wasnever“enthusiastic” theabout he Nazis— himself had fought during the the cost of militarization.SS. of her male relatives— she was Asfinally able to bring him garments.the Her grandfather, as Nevertheless,negotiations with guards,duringthe which she condemned large-scale the forced conscription he, like so many in (he hadAfter some middle of heated arrested the and night been pajamas).the only wore of their decided tohelpher father and,despite dangersthe involved, clothing brought for him jail the to brother, this a jail.uncle’s into Heraunt, local school the had converted who German soldiers, as a army;wastaken the (her grandfather)prisoner his as father by a result, apparently deserted by time,that had already been into drafted Germanthe army. late In 1944,her youngest uncle most inKernei, of furthermale relatives SS service. recalls, her away intocarried AsJohanna andinto men trucks of herded heand alargegroup other day,German one were school where local the wascalled to heras Johanna remembers— father— Pécs.There, movedthus to Michael Bauer, interview. Bauer, Michael interview. Bauer, Johanna Military Military hadwithin Batschka indeedthe conscription seena developmentcurious 401 402 116 CEU eTD Collection “enthusiasm” turned into an enthusiasm for National Socialism. After experiencing all these all experiencing After Socialism. National for enthusiasm an into turned “enthusiasm” was presented. image with the which she “The asthecompetent…and Germans ones… better the is and hard-workingthis ones”— the everything everything “wasGerman (“ indeed venerated” As shefeltthat nationally.” achild, more thought “became— they that administration hadatractor). now in Hanover— educated was who uncle— her even exclaims: Johanna (as technology German beganseek an to education in or Austria Germany, andbecame fascinatedespecially with Germany. individuals “orientated” themselves towards increasingly that understandable They (“ “restricted” increasingly 407 406 405 Bürgerschule Neu-Werbass,” ANS F-207 v. 9(1941-42). Deutsche 1941/1942- “Matrikel instance, for See, well. as classes Hungarian had they when even course, one of few the classes that German students frequently failed between1941 and 1943 was Germantheir language 404 chapter). previous (see close to area the in schools German most caused which schools, German 403 shechild that was“stupid.” able to spell correctlyfor the restof life, in herschools— mainly wasnever she Yugoslav for was instance, educated in German them.” from taken were schools German the even (herthen and helpless, “quite mother tongue), Germans had as“they werethus Germans The German.” difficulties, only knew changed, so that Johanna always language (“ state official WorldWar,when the First the after particularly thought as a itseems thatJohanna’s family, too,had grappled with these Asquestions. Johanna describes, Johanna Bauer, interview. Bauer, Johanna interview. Bauer, Johanna interview. Bauer, Johanna Neu-Werbass, in schools German the from cards report official to according that here to note interesting is It on legislation Hungarian restrictive increasingly the to refers probably here She interview. Bauer, Johanna It was largely due to these “restrictions” that Germans now faced under a new faced under now Germans that “restrictions” was largely these It dueto What exactly, in this context, isin exactly, Whatby Certainly, context, meantthis is “German” to elucidate. difficult 405 eingeschränkt 404 According to Johanna, the Batschka’s Germans were Germans Batschka’s the Johanna, to According ”) after . For Johanna, it was therefore 407 In some cases, thus, it seems that a new national 117 Das Deutsche war schon hochgehalten 403 One of her aunts, her of One Amtsprache ”). 406 ”) CEU eTD Collection 411 410 409 dangerous being. and becomes the German“German” “occupying” soldierthe force, apotentially suddenly in jail, the( clothing of herfather bringing however, experiences herdescribes aunt’s an “Germans”examplebe.created assomethingin As that heraspired toJohanna community assume seemed from “Germans” “Germans” Germany newPreviously, anentirely to persona. activities. forthing” her,so shethat became (“ “cautious” whole the “neutralized had reason, some for in Germany, experiences her “enthusiasm”— inworker 1944. 1943 or When she returned, she was“subdued” (“ factory asavolunteer Germany traveledhad to for instance, aunt of Johanna’s, Another Nazis. individualsthese were furtherthen joined by whobecameothers gradually by disillusioned the “enthusiastic”— not were who community in their individuals of “plenty” were there Certainly, 408 (“… National Socialism was really behind” “enthusiastic.” became also children— Johanna’s mother and uncle, whohad spent some time in Germany— ultimately her of Two “enthusiasm.” an develop to began also thus own— her on mostly children the First World backeverything tohowitwas.” War. A “realpost-World Waris Hitler “one I“restrictions,” thought thesavior [chuckles], hewill bring German”— a strong, farming woman who raised all of her Johanna Bauer, interview. Bauer, Johanna interview. Bauer, Johanna interview. Bauer, Johanna “... da hat ma sich gedacht,der Hitler ist der Erlöser [lacht],der bringt wieder alles, wie’s war. As Johanna further explains, most Germans within her town were “clueless about what about “clueless were town her within Germans most explains, further Johanna As 410 By the time forceful SS recruitments started within their hometown, too, the 411 408 Her grandmother, for instance, had lost her husband during husband her lost had instance, for grandmother, Her 118 ahnungslos, was ahnungslos, wirklich dahinter steckt verhalten ”) about the about ”) gedämpft Volksbund ” ”) in her Reichs- and its ”). 409 ) CEU eTD Collection increasingly met with National Socialism, as Socialism, National with met increasingly seems a that rising national created duringawareness— interwar tumultuous the period— faced by Germans within a multi-ethnic,fluctuating borderland. According toher description,it many, to suddenlyappeared, problems Hitler was “understandable,”to the since asasolution during the werecleared villages as 1944, German her Batschka’s the in October of dissolution community Volksbund hosting herthe youth leader town, in of a between her tensions home, and odes to Hitler in her memory, witnessed the marching of ( communities inhabited by family.Johanna’s herself, Johanna raised with inher ear These elements will also become apparent in will perspective. become apparent this next also These elements nuclear family pre-existingand other social inties— which activities and beliefs theyfollowed. the environment— immediate their of example the primarily followed children particularly that seems it opinions, and affiliations political in their divided were indeed families while materialmother’s for and uncle’seducation— anopportunity socialFinally, “progress.” or her or teacher, a German as job new father’s her tractor, uncle’s Johanna’s by seen be can as of but— fora “national” cause, thefulfillment many,means necessarily fora not Nazism, was many also changed their minds over the course of the Second World War. Furthermore, or“ with “German” “Nazi” equated within Batschka Germans the Not all ethnic wastenuous. connection that this seems italso However, Germanness.” “true of embodiment own linguistic and national affiliation. For many, the National Socialists thus became an and for “restricted” theirmany previously attracted teased national individuals superiority that The Third Reich The Third was thuscertainly withinKernei, andother Reich a presence Paraputsch, Vertreibung individuals, the recruitment of her male relatives into the SS, and the ultimate the and SS, the into relatives male her of recruitment the individuals, . As Johanna describes, an initial “enthusiasm” for National Socialism National for “enthusiasm” initial an describes, As Johanna . 119 reichsdeutsche organs began began to professorgans acertain reichs- ) Germanchildren through Volksbund Volksbund and non- and ”; CEU eTD Collection 1941. after forces armed Hungarian the join to had he when much very him help not did ultimately it jokes, Fritz as although, school, a Serbian to sent thus was brother Fritz’s language. state Hungarian,know military service ashe didnot learn decidedneed to that his sonswould the aunts, for instance, were nuns. were for instance, aunts, however, was also home to ethnic Germans who never subscribed to the to subscribed never who Germans ethnic to home also was however, explains, had always been “tied” to the Catholic Church (“ Church Catholic the to “tied” been always had explains, he family, as Fritz’s wasborn. his olderbrother later, years Two married. got forces— they been inraised Kernei, and,in 1919— following hisfather’s military service in the Habsburg Schneider*, bornin Kernei in 1931. October Fritz of perspective is alsothe This a result. as discriminations suffered severe who and tenets, 415 16. Kernei,” in Vereinswesen “Das Ehrlich, song.” offolk maintenance the also led the Catholic Church choir,which “aimed at the beautification of Church services through choir singing, but Kernei’s official yearly publicationby its former inGerman. 414 and individually, interviewee the with person, in conducted was interview The 413 15). 1942/1943, membership numbers decreased, though they saw a steady increase from the late 1930s until 1941 (p. 412 the to belonged some Kernei’sinhabitants” 92to95percent“German Accordingestimates, of to professions. by individuals latethe 1930s—attracted a multitude from of families, generations, and Perspective Two: Children Resist 5.2 Nazi Activities Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview with Caroline Mezger, 10 August 2011. It is also interesting to note that according to 10 on August Mezger Caroline and interviewee between signed contract to according changed Name Schmidt, “Vor60 Jahren,” 15. As Schmidt also explains, immediately 1933 after and particularly after 415 Fritz was born into a family of farmers with modest means. Both of his parents had Kernei clearly hosted an active, and increasingly “ an increasingly hosted active, and Kernei clearly Kulturbund in 1941 (whenmembership reached its pinnacle). 414 his during difficulties experiencedhad who father, His Donauschwaben 413 120 inhabitants, a man withFritz’s ancestors’ name gleichgeschaltet religiös gebunden religiös ,” Kulturbund Kulturbund ”) — two of of his ”) —two 412 th , 2011. Kernei, and its that— CEU eTD Collection the the “didother notexpect they that would bereturned toHungary.” one group was sorry (“ now?” A bifurcation of the population (“ that an entirelythat new erawasdawning.” in Yugoslavia” As recalls, Fritz 1941. his family’s “one horses were confiscated; noticed there the German industry. larger factories, primarilyto theirfarmersrose”— own whichcatered private established thus war, thedemandfor… products, especially for construction the of andships and ropes so on of explains,“through withthe hempfactories. AsFritz three industry establishment arose the depended primarily on cattle breedingandfarming,in though first1938, Kernei’s major [they] belonged to at a given (“… community” a“purely thus Kernei German was moment, marryingnationalities began differentin only each otherandsettling places. By different 1810, either Serbian or Hungarian.” train managertrain station (“ andthevillage director the pressure,the uh, Magyarization andthe use of Hungarian the language ended. [...] However, one that was couldmany for notfathom easier now was “What states: As I. he War World after territory Yugoslav a became Batschka 419 418 417 416 “ and Hungarian, German, trilingual: essentially As he explains, whenthe villagefirst was settled duringit the eighteenth was century, beingmainlyagricultural. year decades,alsodescribes village every three the as during thepast establishment, development, and ultimate downfall— and whohas visited his hometown nearly It is also interesting to note that according to Fritz’s description, similar reactions occured Fritz when Schneider, most of interview.the Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. This relatively “peaceful” atmosphere was shattered when “the war broke out against out “the when warbroke wasshattered atmosphere “peaceful” This relatively Fritz, who has spent most of his life informing himself Kernei—about its 417 haben esbedauert ”) that “the Hungarians weren’t there anymore,” while Zweiteilung derBevölkerung Zweiteilung 418 The question then also arose on “what happens “what on arose also then question The 121 Gemeindedirektor Slawisch eine rein deutsche Gemeinde eine reindeutsche .” Nevertheless, as he explains, as Nevertheless, .” ”) were, “depending on where on “depending were, ”) ”) had already had already occurred; ”) 419 416 Especially this latter this Especially Kernei’s economy Kernei’s ”). Only the Only ”). CEU eTD Collection consequences.” “Walls were smeared—‘traitor,’ ‘Jew,’ and so on and so forth— and that occurred ‘Jew,’ so soon and smeared—‘traitor,’ were “Walls consequences.” “blacks”the (“ as “the ” (“ and camps: between two strongly” splitcommunity them” (“ returned from their studies in Germany “broughtand this National Socialist body ideasof with of this changedKulturbund after 1933.and—individuals backthen—even prominentlike “this Father Berenz,”wholater resisted the After was actually“Itelaborates. for intended thepreservation of German the andlanguage,”culture this date, more and more members of their community “community” [“ “community” Führer the equated by Hitler, “enchanted” were who “Hitlerites,” The 2) Germany“; with National-Socialism identified members. 420 Hungary.” that... this area would now belong toYugoslavia wouldand nolonger be part of this grand tradition of Austria- state.” German later,stated thatsooner wewouldor in also betaken by belongGermany and wewould tothe group was dismayed that it was not the Germans who had entered their territory, as “it was 423 422 anoversimplification. Janjetovi enemies of“Ideological 4) Nationaland Socialism”socialists”; like reformist and church-goers.cosmopolitans, As liberals, Fritz’s turncoats, description “ethnic the shows, however, “pro-Hungarians,” the this scheme seems like 421 einmarschierten in Abmachung mit Deutschland... zum hier deutschen Staat gehören und das war alsodann eine grosse Enttäuschung als dann ‘41 die Ungarn “ As Janjetovi As Fritz Schneider, interview. It was Father Berenz who published Denn es hat geheissen früher oder später werden wir also von Deutschland hier eingenommen und wirwerden Kulturbund with Gerany, and made the bulk of the According to Fritz, this bifurcation of Kernei’s German population had Fritz,Kernei’s this “severe According bifurcation to population German of For Fritz, the dieses dieses nationalsozialistische Gedankengut mitbrachten , was one of the founding members of the ü explains, there were four main “categories” of “categories” main four were there explains, die Schwarzen 420 Gemeinschaft opponents (“ opponents This latter group, as Fritz elaborates, was mainly composed of die Braunen Kulturbund ü , Between Hitler and Tito ”). Kulturbundgegner ”]. “Originally, the “Originally, ”]. ”), while its opponents were known either as “Magyarone” as either known were opponents its while ”), 423 Die Donau arose during a time when Kernei was still a “unified” a still was Kernei when time a during arose Kulturbund ” , as mentioned in the previous chapterof this thesis. 122 ”). , 45-46. Kulturbund ; 3) The “Magyarones 3) The ; Kulturbund Kulturbund Donauschwaben Kulturbund followers (“ was actually a good Fritz thing,” a was actually good followers were generally known in Apatin. ,” who include “the hesitant ones,” hesitant “the include who ,” in Vojvodina: 1) „Those who ”). Kulturbundanhänger 422 421 T eefe, “the Thereafter, However,much Kulturbund or ”) CEU eTD Collection clear in the neighborhood who belonged to which “camp,” Fritz claims. His family home was 428 427 426 explicitly called. His brother thus ultimately served inthe Honvéd from 1942 onwards. brotherfrom doing anything of the sort— a veteran himself, he insisted that one has to wait goingto serve to untilCroatia, one is overthe Danube, and to voluntarily enter the German forces.” His father, however,forbade 425 his reconciled.” have could groups... two these how expelled... been have wouldn’t we 424 for his therest of life.” his father“suffered activities, thusultimately at Mauthausenthe worked concentration camp, an underevent which father, previously for notparticipatingindiscriminated Jews [ of for thesurveillance and clothed… recruited forcefully Danube,the butfinally as the war ended, implemented one this group of persons… that were by his own neighbors— forces. Ultimately,however, he also had enterto the military in 1944. Betrayed and reported on here!” bereavedthe criticized that“my son had tofall in Russia, and they’re still running around as emerged, another” one against a“real hatred front, fall onthe began men to when especially intensified. theseconflicts occurred, military recruitments voluntary first children and viceversaand no neighbor one longer spoketo the other.” or sons their with spoke longer no “Parents continues: As Fritz families.” through straight continues, “was that initially they were implemented [“ implemented were they initially that “was continues, Fritz thing,” tragic “The retreat.” their on Germans the followed then and uniform] [in clothed where they were alllocked weeksinto two for localthe Then“they forcefully synagogue. were nightthe by members. Taken SS men, away with other 180 Sombor, he first brought to was Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. As Fritz explains, when his brother was around twenty years old (around 1941), “there was the option... of Fritz Schneider, interview. As he further states: “One cannot imagine, what would have happened [laughs] if 426 As Fritz explains, his own family had belonged to the “ the to belonged had family own his explains, Fritz As forwas heavilyashehad the German tovolunteer Hisfather, refused too, criticized, Kulturbund followers— Fritz’s father was captured in the middle of 428 123 eingesetzt Kulturbund Judenüberwachung Schwarze ”] with the refugees, across refugees, the ”] with 425 or German militaryor 424 .” It was generally .” It As Fritz explains, Fritz As Especially asthe ].” 427 Fritz’s CEU eTD Collection “threwitin claythe and[ground] stepped on it.” “Why don’t you take a different, German cap, and boys” other wouldbefor waiting him. They then him,teased off tore his school cap, “former classmates station, Kernei’s train at Asas hearrived soon discrimination. experienced he again however, holidays, the for Kernei to he returned Whenever fluently. Hungarian this predominately Hungarian school, eventually Fritz caught upand learned speak to in linguisticdifficulties initial years ata boarding Despite Hungarian school. academic Piarist within Kernei—Fritz traveled toSzeged,where he spent 1942/1943 and the 1943/1944 Germany did. Approximately half of housesthe had this sign, Fritz recalls, and everyone whohad “gone” to itwas there.” that be anindication still would there otherwise entire gable, the repaint anyways, hisfamily would paintover it— adifficult as task, Fritz explains, as“one had to asked her whether shewouldlike one, she sent them away, andwhen such a sign appeared anyone when house— their on markings such any opposed vehemently always mother Fritz’s sich auchnichtzuwehren homes, however, “once they were in [the were they “once however, homes, were probably leaf, and, written above it, ‘ there again.” there was it evening, next the because anymore, it over paint to have didn’t we ‘traitor’… or ‘Jew’ label, this and again… broken just then were they because anymore, windows the replace even 431 430 429 frequentlythus vandalized by Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. After finishing fourth the gradeatage eleven— highest the level of schooling available 429 Kulturbund recalls, AsFritz ”] when someone came to paint this German twig on their houses.” followers who did not necessarily appreciate these markings on their der deutsche Sieg Kulturbund Kulturbund followers— “in the end,” Fritz states, “we didn’t states, Fritz “inthe end,” followers— Kulturbund ’” on their homes’ facades. followers allfollowers had “a ‘V’—victoria— with a laurel 124 ]… they daredid not to resist[“ 430 As Fritz states, there trauten 431 CEU eTD Collection my… color? What shall I do here?.” led by male andfemale leaders(“ didknow what not ashe“internally.” realized,weregenerally occurred groups However, these andthere sang This songs.” ismerely couldfrom one what observe outside—hethe himself sports did and fields sport the to school the from marched “They Fritz. states much,” wasn’t “ other the with Sundays on services church to went Fritz while Therefore, everything.” himself did not getactively involved in such activities, he nevertheless “silently accepted local belonged tothe War— the againafter also each other to speaking with daughters— whom hadFritz virtuallynodirect as contact, his father and uncle only began could be a boyfrienda girlfriend, or one did well, question, is hein the that […] thought one “when Even club. which attended who precisely considered also Youths 434 433 432 to participate in everything, right? Whatwas offered by the wanted they then and age in that “were daughters uncle’s his describes, Fritz As organization. with the youth was associated the even youths.amongst Within his town, there youth were two organizations, organized one by explains. Fritz children,” among even common were why you needdo toweara Hungarian cap?” children the would “Such taunt. smaller conflicts [ Jugendarbeit, Jugendeinsätze Kulturbundgegner Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Kulturbund Fritz’s father actually had a brother who was “involved” with the “involved” with whowas had abrother father actually Fritz’s The “bifurcation” of Kernei’s German population, toFritz, according was noticeable , the other by the Catholic Church. (As Fritz estimates, perhaps 70% of Kernei’s ” ( Kulturbund ], youth holidays, camps, and so on.” Kulturbund Führungskraft opponents), his two cousins attended youth meetings. “It 433 ’s youth programs, including the 125 ”) whohad “gone away either[presumably to 432 Kulturbund Kulturbund 434 — work with— work youths Kulturbund father their While Deutsche Jugend Kulturbund ? Or is he in . His two His . youth .) CEU eTD Collection [ emerge from meetingsthese “enthusiasm,” with many also prepared“to fightfor an ideology also with non- with also German is a fight for the fatherland and so “making and advertisements very forstrong the propaganda Third onand Reich readiness the to and so forth.” place toNational from strongly “especially andtraveledplace to who connected Socialism” “propaganda speeches were delivered,” especially by“ especially “propaganda speeches weredelivered,” (“ (“ (“ alles. andshirts everythingit,” thatand belongedall to singing “ march in one column, “the were generally by followed a large“ women with white shirts and so on,” the boys “with light brown 436 435 German the that “expected they that and anymore” Church the with do to nothing have we that “show to wanted generally groups These boots.” leather in alarger withGermany medals…men or within and Batschka] the the German school returned 437 Reich, fürdie Bereitschaft zukämpfen fürdas Vaterland und so weiter und so fort. wasVorherrschaft die haben muss und da müssen wir alle dabei sein das.... nein, dasmuss also durchgezogen werden, wiedas eben halt gesagt worden ist...Deutsche... ist... ein... Volk Gedankengut Kulturabende Elternhaus Begeistert “ Fritz Schneider, interview. “...... es ist dann auch sehr viel Reklame gemacht worden und äh Propaganda gemacht worden fürdas Dritte ” All in didindeed who seem“enthusiastic” participated youths processions the these zu kämpfen für ein Gedankengut,was diealsogar nicht richtig... verstehen konnten, undtrotzdem hat man Kernei also had a Particularly these marches, from the school from or school the marches, these Particularly ”)— a maldevelopment (“ Volk ”). These “enthusiasts” would also attend meetings once ortwice once meetings aweek attend would also These “enthusiasts” ”). ] that they could not really understand and nevertheless […] believed, that the that believed, […] nevertheless and understand really not could they ] that ”), where “German ”), Kulturbund that must have the upper hand and that we all need to participatein that.” levente individuals [“ individuals , however, as Fritz explains, “they had no big… attraction… Tamtam Fehlentwicklung Liedgut Nichtkulturbundlern ” (hullabaloo). Perhaps” (hullabaloo). 150to200youths would 126 [song heritage] was practiced,”and where [song heritage] 436 youths would generally As Fritz observed, ”) “feared” by his ownimmediate family Kulturbund Wanderlehrer .” Reich Deutschland, Deutschlandüber Deutschland, ”], because everything was”], becauseeverything in would be establishedhere.” ” center to the sports fields, sports the to center ”— lecturers whowere lecturers ”— 437 435 CEU eTD Collection youths were “strongly integrated into the into integrated “strongly were youths morning, itdown took every evening, andheldprocessions. As Fritz further claims, these children wore their “uniform” (with “shorts” and “light brown shirts”), hoisted a flag every instrumental instrumental in localthe silk worm production— Kernei’sinhabintants had always silkraised strong influence on the the within afternoons the spent usually then They Germany. from them had teachers that accompanied classes inthe morning with the attended generally experienced in ideology.”the and strongly…Germany spreading “agitators” (“ Along who with hadbeen within students educated the states, “had nothing to do with the with do to nothing “had states, Fritz from institutions, returned these Many who there. schools German secondary the attend 440 439 438 myself, no?’” Kulturbund eszel.’ magyar kenyeret földön hearélsz, ‘magyar had to when constantly one Hungarian, andknow Hungarian… one didnot it even went toofarfor had a “certain precondition” (“ had a“certain precondition” further refused attend non-German to As schools. Fritz explains,youths from Kernei— who Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. “On Hungarian soil you live, Hungarian bread you eat.” Fritz alsowitnessed Kernei’svarious KLV programs. Thesechildren,asFritz explains, opponents thought ‘you stupid guy, what’s I’m this? eating, producingmy bread Agitatoren 439 Germansorganizations.Many Mostwithin remained thus German-speaking Kulturbund ”) amongst youths within their hometowns, reporting on “what they “what on reporting hometowns, their within youths amongst ”) die Voraussetzung .” Furthermore, as Fritz describes, the KLV children became Kulturbund Kulturbund, 127 and National Socialism”— many, however, did. ”)— traveled to Apatin or Neu Werbass to Werbass Neu Apatin or to ”)— traveled where… leading hada personalities Reich , these pupils beganactingas 440 Kulturbund Kulturbund 438 ’s house. These ’s house. And then even then And opponents, CEU eTD Collection 441 every silkafternoon. these worms worms as a supplementary income, and boysthese and girls collected mulberry leaves andfed is punctuality and […] honesty.” […] and is punctuality “Germany is cleanliness” (which they apparently complained aboutin Kernei), how“Germany “politicize,” Fritz claims. Rather, they told Kernei’s youths about Germany, about how were apparently a littlebitolder him than 16 years(“maybe 12to not really old”)— did Germany, which was something very new for us,” he explains. Theseboys and girls— which 444 information and updates to maintain communication betweenformer KLV children and their hosts. Heimatblätter 443 442 an die Kerneier in aller Welt “one was in the was “one whether care not did simply youths KLV the children”— neighboring the with than boys these of twoorthree with relationship better “hada therefore Fritz community. same the of Germans down there”between occurred that with know theseconflicts, what todo or understand not 1905. In “confrontations”Kernei. were or 1905. In this within regard,there no“incidents” thus people.” everything settled down” “oneas made sure that noproblems with occur would these Hungary began tooccupy their Germans territory, “until hidthelocal Serbs andBunjewatz explains, “there was no politicalcomes orfrom racist mannerHungary in Kernei.” is On againstthe contrary, formerthese KLV youths and formerthe of inhabitants Kernei. inGermandom... 1941, when that they wanted to Magyarize us…,” Fritz For a personal account of this, see “Meine KLV-Zeit in der Batschka,” in Batschka,” der in KLV-Zeit see “Meine ofthis, account a personal For Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Numerous issue of the ongoing Kernei Fritz Schneider, interview. As Fritz recalls, these KLV youths were “an interesting group.” “They about alot talked group.” KLV were“aninteresting As Fritz recalls, these youths Despite the all of “propagandathe from Germany,” which “taught everything that that 444 According to Fritz, furthermore, Kernei’s last Jew, a Dr. Zinn, retired to Sombor in ) further contain memoires of KLV individuals who had stayed in Kernei, as well as contact as well as Kernei, in stayed had who individuals of KLV memoires contain ) further Kulturbund , vol.32 (1989), 37-43. or not.” As he explains, even today, “contacts remain” between 442 441 “Interestingly,” as Fritz adds, “they [the KLV groups] could 128 Donauschwaben 443 Kerneier Heimatblätter: Mitteilungen publication(the Kerneier CEU eTD Collection Deutsche Jugend in heldby also Banja Luka. inacloister organizations these “German with infused strongly also were instance, for groups, youth Catholic Kernei’s asserts. as Fritz exist, did identity equate “Germanness” with National Socialism. mindlessly into propagandathe of Thirdthe Reich.” Other arenas for the expression of a German community to join the join to community a “good intention of the of intention “good a a perceived (“ “pressure” deutsche Ideentumzuverbreiten Germandom” (“ “Germanness.”As Fritz explains, organizations like the Kulturbund bifurcation the of German the community Kernei. battles The wagedbetween within Fritz,conflict that accordinghis to remembers ownreports, andsufferedmost under the was thereafter. soon westwards 448 447 446 445 explains, was this an incitedevent that many Jewish prisoners was herded agroup of German army asthe retreated— 1944— in October elaborates, asFritz Nevertheless, through Kernei, many of them shot on the open street. As Fritz Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. During Kernei theearly 1940s, wasembroiledthus within adiversity the conflicts; of followers and followers das Deutschtumzu festigen appeared, more andmore youths appeared, joined ranks the of the Kulturbund Druck 445 Kulturbund Kulturbund ”) from from ”) andYugoslavia Hungary. However, whathad begun as Volksgut ”), particularly particularly in”), order to counteract andliberate from oneself , to voluntarily join the SS and fight for “Germany,” and to and “Germany,” for fight and SS the join voluntarily to , opponents also revolved significantly around notions of notions around significantly revolved also opponents and German folk song.” Yearly German courses were [in preserving the , etc.]… slid ”) and “spread the German body of ideas” (“ 129 Donauschwaben 446 withinmounted the thus “Pressure” Deutsche Jugend 447 Nevertheless, as soon as the as soon as Nevertheless, to flee Kernei and travel Kulturbund hoped to “solidify to hoped . 448 das CEU eTD Collection became very bitter, he says, after he was forced to leave Hungary for being a German. Hungarian,” buthe forhad“felt Hungary”—more so perhaps many than thushis Fritz of peers. a German as you, and still him.am As Fritzso today.”explains, he then usually responds by stating “let it be, at all times I was as good Kulturbund usually the countered “Germanness,” depended primarily on social status. Very wealthy individuals, in his opinion, entire 451 450 to the idea, like so many others... [to change your name or forget the German language].”Youcertainly are a Hungariancitizen and must fulfill all of yourduties, must learn the language,but don’t come 449 the from removed and Church the explains, when he decided toattend the Hungarian Piarist school in Szeged, his fathertold him: German people.” German no what,insisted matter “we healso that, areGerman Nevertheless, people, andwewill stay in. themselves found currently they state particular whichever of citizens as duties their fulfill “ Fritz Schneider, interview. “But don’t you dare start thinking somehow Hungarian... You are a German, and you will remain a German... Lass merdas sein, so guter Deutscher wiedu bist war ichalle Zeit und bins auch heute noch. Donauschwaben As Fritz explains, attraction to the explains, attraction As Fritz verlernen] anderen…[deinen Namen zuwechseln oder die deutsche Sprache zu komm’mirnichtauf aber Sprache erlernen, dieIdee,wie soviele ungarischer Staatsangehöriger undmust erfüllen, Pflichten alledeine mustdie denken willst… Du bist Deutscher, unddu bleibst Deutscher… Bist wohl Fritz As complex. are and were thus, belonging, national of feelings own Fritz’s For Fritz’s father, it was important for his children to learn the “state language” and members from from members “ Kernei. Aber komm’ janichtdamit, dassduplötzlich irgendwie ungarisch 450 . 449 The “Germanness”particular brandFritz’s of family that pursued— tied to Kulturbund community. Even community. Even asFritztoday, sighs, he isapproached by former Kulturbund , so that they could remain on their estates and not fear Na, duMagyarone? 451 Certainly, as Fritz explains, he had “not felt as a 130 — was, however, not necessarily accepted byhis necessarily accepted — was,however, not Kulturbund ” (“So, you Magyarone?”), they they tease Magyarone?”), you ” (“So, , and their particular notions of ” CEU eTD Collection “un-German,” as“ “un-German,” destroyed her windows, asherdestroyedin herwindows, daughterwas the joined;they activities in which example parents’ their followed generally children indicate, further however, as FritzNational Socialism, too, mentions, inideology a of“social hope became to increasingly tied As“Germanness” redemption.” he also had a neighbor whose daughter constantly discriminated against byindividuals whofollowed the like “German”their markers identity own increasingly the to Church according were recruitment tightened— Kernei’s German population split. Individuals determined todefine increasingly radicalized— and its gripoversocialyouth groups, andprograms, military within their own community during the late 1930s and early 1940s. As the “where it drifts— against the Church and so on and so forth.” original founders of the that these Kulturbund Kulturbund (“ Germans with programs andsupport Hungary,that for instance, did “social not: support” “socially redemptive” (“ “socially redemptive” 454 453 standing and political affiliation. 452 potential military recruitment. Sozialhilfe Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Fritz Schneider, interview. Itis perhaps interesting, then, to compare this to the Bauer family’s economic Kernei’s inhabitants experienced an extensive infiltration of infiltration experienced National inhabitants projects of Kernei’s anextensive Socialist Kulturbund , for these individuals, acted as , for acted ameans individuals, these for social security mobility.and Non- members,in wereaccused of turn, being a mere “vassal of something Hungary”— ”) for mother and child, and health insurance, for example. “Germany” and the and “Germany” example. for insurance, health and child, and mother for ”) Magyarone opponents “did opponents notwant sinceto accept,” they had frequently been the Kulturbund sozial erlösend Donauschwaben ,” “traitors,” and “Jews.” As Fritz’s and Johanna’s experiences 452 For the lower classes, the classes, lower the For during it the 1920s,butwhohad they after abandoned saw ”). Germany, it”). Germany,seemed, could nowprovide Kernei’s with alternate ideasby became with many, regarded, as alternate 131 Kulturbund, Kulturbund 453 Kulturbund and she herself was not. was herself she and and its National Socialist National its and Kulturbund was perceived as was perceived became 454 For CEU eTD Collection settlers.” formed,for 200 years, apeaceful village community inneighborliness good with newthe 1727). Atleast according to this history, these Slavic inhabitants “stayed in villagethe and Bukin,joined and the“previous Slavic population of 36 tax-paying citizens” (as in counted Donauschwaben village Dunabökény). historiesAccording to called Bukin byits published (Mladenovo, former Perspective Three: Children Engage in Nazi 5.3 Activities turns. now 456 455 by 1944, Bukin inhabitedwas by approximately 548 families, each containing atleast three property Batschka. the within imported (Christian)new, wouldliberty, settlers receive exemptions,tax right andthe to with signingthe of Article 103by Hungarianthe inParliament 1723 and which stipulated that ideology.” for an tofight “prepared they were that “enthusiastic” became so many nevertheless made. propaganda might they Although havenot it, entirely asFritzunderstood explained, its that youth— German the of significance and advancement, leadership, the of promises— about the very “enthusiastic” became youths furthermore, Fritz, 457 Archiv, 2002),21. Andreas Pfuhl, Andreas Fritz Schneider, interview. Pfuhl, Approximately fifty kilometers south of Kernei, near the bank of the Danube, lies a Bildband Bukin 457 455 Exact population statistics are difficult to come across; nevertheless, it seems that it nevertheless, cometo across; difficult are statistics population Exact is “enthusiastic” perspectiveindividualIt thatthis chapter the a previously to of Bildband Bukin: 1749-1945: Ein deutsches Dorf der in Batschka inhabitants, Bukin firstsettled duringwas the “ , 21. 456 In 1749, hundred firstthe familiestwo in German thussettled 132 Schwabenzüge, Kulturbund (München: Donauschwäbishes and all of the ” which began CEU eTD Collection Verwandte, ja sogar nicht selten die einzelnen Familien. Geistesströmung zerstörtedie Liebe, den Frieden, die Eintracht; entzweite dieGemeinde,Freunde, Nachbarn, 461 Bukin in der Batschka/Jugoslawien 460 462 459 relatives, not even rarely individual families.” individual rarely even not relatives, to us love,destroyed peace,andharmony; it divided community, the friends, neighbors, “AnHelmlinger intellectual states: ominously in current produced Thirdthe Reichandbrought 458 origins. least— last family to names,at andnearly of members according German all— registered “ in recruitments Bukin between 1941 and 1944, and the division of Bukin’s population into “stand asan Church.”the enemy against a new from teaching Germany would amongst be youths” that propagated our andwould that “ photographs on Bukin thus attest to the activities of Church,folkloric, and choral clubs (like the organizations during the interwar and WorldWar IIperiods— numerous published Kulturbund late Particularlyagain 1930s,asHelmlingeritsopened doors. the the explains, during across Yugoslavia—chapters shortly nevertheless, in thereafter; 1935, Bukin’slocal chapter historian from village’sBukin, the saw the establishment of its own Schwarze Gesangsverein Cäcilia Gesangsverein Helmlinger, Benedikt Helmlinger, Helmlinger, See, for instance, Pfuhl, Pfuhl, Like Kernei, the Kernei, Like 458 Bildband Bukin ” and “ became increasingly influenced “ by became increasingly the Bukiner Heimatbuch Bukiner Heimatbuch Braune Bukiner Heimatbuch: Werdegang, Aufstieg und Untergang der deutschen Gemeinde , 432-479. Bildband Bukin ”) during the 1920s, 1930s, and”) during 1920s,1930s, the 1940s. ,” not much ,” not else is about revealed periodthis of Bukin’s history. As Donauschwaben (Magstadt: Helmlinger, 1974), 209. , 211. , 215. “ Kulturbund , 215, 227. Eine im Dritten Reich produzierte und zu uns gebrachte Kulturbund of Bukin established a range of German-specific 462 133 461 chapter. ” SS violent of mentioningquick a Besides was dissolved— like allother wasdissolved— Erneuerungsbewegung 460 According to Benedikt Helmlinger, a Helmlinger, Benedikt to According 459 However, in 1924, Bukin also ,” which “imported ,” which Kulturbund CEU eTD Collection that Friedrich had apparently man” asayoungboy.“met the had Friedrich that apparently Yugoslav government in Belgrade before 1941.It was also thanks tohis father’s connections with the a HansTrischler, least onerepresentative, hadat Batschka the remembers, Friedrich “most however,was“all just as local” of them spoke fireBukin’s department, German.” as he explains, weregenerally also run by individuals “of Yugoslavian Serbian or descent”— Serbian.” departments, or police The “Yugoslavian, asherecalls, twenty other spoke percent, only and wereCatholics. eighty German” “spoke of percent which about inhabitants, Adolf Greenberg. an man, aJewish by led apparently was which bank, local the at transactions financial make Hungarian frequentlyand Serbian, also and toNovi traveled Sad (sometimes with Friedrich) to 470 469 468 467 466 465 464 interview was conducted individually via Skype telephone call and in English. 463 behind [in].” organize shipments of for “technology” this produce from Germany— “which farwe werevery farms… and that stuff grew, beautifully.” As Friedrich explains, the Batschka was “an agricultural paradise, especially for rich cattles and agricultural traded and(likeproducts from corn) wheat for “mechanical Germany.products” Friedrich, whohas oneyounger sister,was son the of a merchant, who,even during the1930s, “propaganda” youthsamongst is Friedrich Fischer*, born in Bukin in February 1928. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. The May 2011. on 24th Mezger Caroline and interviewee between signed contract to according changed Name Bukin, Friedrich’s according to description, wasatown of approximately 3,800 3,500 to One individual with memories of these conflicts, “intellectual and currents,” “intellectual of memories conflicts, these One individual with 466 including languages,Friedrich’sDue tohisjob, fatherknewsome several 467 465 Located close to Danube,the hisfather would help 134 470 468 469 The As 464 463 CEU eTD Collection 474 der Weltkriege “ Studentischer Aktivismus und deutsche ‘Volkstumsarbeit’ in Jugoslawienund Rumänien 1933-1941,” in ofaware Bukin’s “value” wellbefore 1941— See Elizabeth Harvey,“Mobilisierung oder Erfassung? 473 472 471 resultof move these Novi hethus decidedtensions, in to to Sad 1941 asa thirteen-year-old, as feelingsa downthere,”Friedrich recalls— bad “There weresome[…] says.really Friedrich increased, also towns withinindividual themore the“animosities” region the “escalated,” and moreoccurred, recruitments the thatarmed in skirmishes between andGermans Partisans such that more the However, explains. Friedrich volunteered, men many in them, shown us.” Germany wanted that experience... for theGerman volunteer army.for was…abeautiful Andalot of usthat would,them because [was].” part country of the our kind […]they of a treasure what camerealized German through troops Germans”mounted, Friedrich explains. names of the Germans… slang, more.” Batschka-Palanka, so that ultimately “they [the Serbians] always referred to us as the Nazis, the duringmounted despise, Idon’t and know”—tensions between hisSerbians timeGermans in Yugoslavian,” he further states. As Friedrich recalls, the “Yugoslavs” were “a bitjealous or in wastaught came pointwhere […]everything “Itto the minority.” in “were the “German-speakers” in Batschka-Palanka, explains, As Friedrich or fifth grade. thefourth after attend Batschka-Palankamoved a“middle to to school,” asBukinavailable hadno schooling Mitteleuropa” und “Südosteuropa” als Planungsraum: Wirtschafts- und kulturpolitische Expertisen im Zeitalter FriedrichFischer, interview. Friedrich Fischer, interview. Judging by Elizabeth Harvey’s study, however, it seems Friedrich that Fischer,the Third interview. Reich was FriedrichFischer, interview. 473 In 1941, “as the Germans came through” “animosities between the Serbs and the Before 1941, Friedrich recalls, he attended thelocal secondary inschool Bukin, butthen likeif to asked lotpeople…of they “a were 1941, therefore, Immediately after , edited by SachseCarola (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2010), 376-377. 471 472 474 Furthermore, asFriedrich “in states, 1941, when the Enticed by the sudden interest that Germany had Germany that interest sudden the by Enticed 135 CEU eTD Collection therefore “brought everything down there to us, and it was free.” The students atthisitus, and German students was free.”The everything downthereto “brought therefore the dictionaryfrom everything, German… for in need how saw “they however, 1941), (in in” came Germans to German books…” these students were. As Friedrich recalls, the Germans difficulties and emphases on “fictitious warriors” like “Kraljevi like warriors” “fictitious on emphases and difficulties gave ustheir books”—something “we that [German pupils]liked” never due to linguistic they Yugoslavs, the also and books their us gave they Hungarians, “the Before, experience. “made a player of [his] nationality.” Bürgerschule could doeverything,and wedidn’t need to beafraid of anything.” Hungariansthe leftus alone… because that they had allied toGermany.more And, or less we “…eyes however, Friedrich kept in claims; Sad, […] onus”even Novi “The Serbianpeople was German,forinstruction five except per hours week, whichHungarian. were dedicated to differences Friedrich Friedrich differences inthe perceived becoming first the German in secondary Novi school Sad since 1868. German descent from that territory.” 476 475 the attended he where 480 479 478 477 already increased to 442,of which 249 were boys 193 and girls (Weltzer, 89). first academic year (1941/1942), the school hosted some 369boys girls; and by followingthe year, this number Volksbundes der Deutschen in Ungarn— 1940-1944 Wigant Weltzer, Wigant FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. As Friedrich explains, his entry into the into entry his explains, Friedrich As The Deutsche Bürgerschule that Friedrich was “roped in” and, like so many of his fellow Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege: Schulen— Erziehungsheimeund Erziehungsanstalten des Deutsche Bürgerschule 479 475 was established in 1941by was established the Deutsche Bürgerschule Deutsche (Rothenburg ob der Tauber: Schneider,2005), 89. During its 136 , “a boarding school mostly of young people of Deutsche Bürgerschule was that the languagethe of that was ü Marko.” Deutsche Schulstiftung 478 476 was aneye-opening It was also at the One of the major the of One Donauschwaben 480 “hn the “When 477 , , CEU eTD Collection that “turned into Hitler Youth.” had an afolkloricYouth”— youth which existedpreviously organization, but as organization schools Asprivate had hishometown. outside Bukin herecalls,however, a“Hitler also part of. As he explains,he wasactive” “not inBukin’s youth as, aftergroup, 1941,attended you areGerman”; this “cultural club”included also a“Hitler Youth,”which Friedrich became states, that “they formed whatyou call a… a cultural club. Youknow, that you are visiting, that 485 484 483 482 481 go outinto the open sort of with ourbeliefs.” freedom the receive“we all from andGermany itto After 1941, […] could this wasbeautiful.” they broughteverything down forthere us.” Because wesort Germans…. of Because[…] the worshipped amazed! just “they were explains; and his fellow “They students. [he and his fellow students] were mesmerized,” Friedrich as various “guestspeakers” from “such interest” Germany, great was created within Friedrich most of them could not read and write properly in German. Now, thanks tothese books, as well states, he and his fellow German pupils “did not know… school “just ate that all up, the knowledge that we got from that.” associated with with the associated German National Socialistof the spirit the worldview, within in the strengthening, bodily sense and ofspiritual paragraphstheir on enthusiasm 2 andwith worked 3 of and DJ the in thewere statutes of the der Deutschender Jugend.” Quoted in Weltzer, Ertüchtigung im Geiste der deutsche nationalsozialistischen Weltanschauung im Sinne der § (“ Alle Schülerinnen und Schüler waren inder DJ und arbeiteten mit Eifer an ihrer geistigen und körperlichen According to the school’s Josef rector, Zorn, in his1943/1944 annual report: “All pupils [of the FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. As Friedrich explains, when the Hungarians took over the Batschka, “they empowered “they Batschka, the over took Hungarians the when explains, Friedrich As Bürgerschule 484 in Novi Sad. Friedrich, however, “was active” within the “Hitler Youth” “Hitler the within active” “was however, Friedrich, Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege 482 483 137 485 It was alsofrom this time onwards, as Friedrich anything , 90.) about German history,” and history,” German about 481 Friedrich Previously,as 2 und 3 der Satzung Deutsche Jugend Bürgerschule .” ] CEU eTD Collection 490 489 488 487 children of children a female and a male dorm, which,by 1943/44, hosted 60and 50 pupils respectively.Furthermore, it was only the dorms, called “NS- called dorms, 486 girls. and boys school’s the for park” the explained where tous theRussians advanced or advanced.” Germansthe retreated, “there was alwaysto a “ a big map of Every night after dinner, would Friedrich heandhisfellowfurtherexplains, be students called the East front bitolder and knewaboutGerman culture and like […]German and andpoets Goethe Schiller.” also the West Sundayson […]ouryouth group would gettogether andwehad whowerea professors little front, and it was always boys and girls, and, in school.” allGerman youths, wewere whatever […] just or maybe become soldiers train this to us, to was officially financedby however,he Germany, that“it assumes was… sort of geared for all dorm school the and whether this know not does Friedrich again. samelunch atthe cafeteria have then classes,and cafeteria, attend atthe breakfast have school,the they would At songs.” would shower, andwould march then “as a group” of “maybe sixty” to school,the “singing our The dorm’s inhabitants would all “get upearly in the morning,” do “calisthenics” and running, did letus, not hadthey tohavethewindows all and open year round water.” wasnohotthere Furthermore, during meetings, theyouth Friedrich and his fellow youth group members with us. So we were not, left in the dark about what’s going on. […] It was very interesting.”back,” as Friedrich hestates, thinkswas just “that awonderful that thing… they shared all this FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. According to Weltzer, the Weltzer, to According Versammlung As Friedrich recalls, he lived atthe he lived recalls, As Friedrich This “training,” however, took place in a variety of arenas. As Friedrich recalls, “even Volksbund Erziehungsheime members who could study at the ” (meeting) in the “ Bürgerschule ,” which were organized by the 487 in Novi Sad— like many other Germanschools across Hungary— had 486 Essraum As he says, “it was very, very healthy, because they Bürgerschule 138 Bürgerschule ” (cafeteria), where “we were greeting” and where “weweregreeting” (cafeteria), ” Volksbund. (Weltzer, ’s dorm, “a three-story home to close “athree-story ’s dorm, Wege, Irrwege, Heimwege The Bürgerschule in NoviSad had 489 “Looking , 89-91). 488 490 CEU eTD Collection Deutsches Volksblatt 25, No. 7401 (23 November1943), 3; or an official call forapplications forthe in Schülerlager,” grosses Ein “Neuwebass— instance, for [see, school the to admitted reports of the time indicate, it was only the children of belonged to the to belonged thirty-two other youths stayed in the in 1944 Friedrich was “selected” August to travel to Weimar, he Germany, where andthirty to program,” youth the with “active he was Because Youth. Hitler the with involvement his an “ 1933, and became officially sanctioned by Hungarianthe authorities in 1941. The mind.” also taught “mindthat and body goes together, so if you had agood body,you have agood were Youths on.” so and sports, the or knowledge the did, we everything In else. anybody than the context of this interview; nevertheless, as Friedrich states, “we were encouraged to be better knowledge of what’s going on.” Theprecise content of “knowledge”this is abitunclear from political usup “brought to also activities however,these On hand, other the Schiller). hand, “knowledge” this was linguistic language) (theGerman and cultural and(Goethe Grossbetschkerek (Zrenjanin, Nagybecskerek), Banat, Nagybecskerek), (Zrenjanin, Grossbetschkerek 494 493 492 491 Újverbász). Lehrerbildungsanstalt Bürgerschule explains,he “certainly” did enjoy these activities and has “good memories about that.” “field“a “amarkings.”maneuvers.” and“different hat,” shirt,” AsFriedrich Theyconducted “a “a knot,” scarf,” with in uniform” They“were march usecompass.” to to how and “learned Friedrich Fischer, interview. Organized as a private German school by the FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. NS-Erziehungsheim 493 In 1943, Friedrich left the As Friedrich recalls, a variety of “knowledge” was conveyed during his duringtime atthe wasconveyed of “knowledge” recalls, avariety As Friedrich 494 Deutsche Jugend and during his involvementwith “Hitler associated the Youth.” It seems that during his time in the , Vol.25, No. 7302 (25 July 1943), 4]. ,” whichwas established in 1943 and controlled by the (teachers’ preparatory school) in New Werbass (Novi in (Novi Vrbas, New Werbass preparatory school) (teachers’ . (Weltzer, . Wege,Irrwege, Heimwege Schloss Belvedere Bürgerschule the Volksbund 139 Lehrerbildungsanstalt Lehrerbildungsanstalt members and SS “volunteers” that would be would that SS“volunteers” and members (as discussedin introductionthe to this in Novi Sad and attended the , 92-93). Furthermore, as newspaper Deutsche Schulstiftung Volksbund. Lehrerbildungsanstalt was moved to Neu Werbass in Lehrerbildungsanstalt Deutsches Volksblatt , Friedrich continued Friedrich , Its inhabitants also all 492 On the one the On in 1931 in in the in 491 , too, had , Vol. CEU eTD Collection for instance, “there were two factions”: one that “was more or less very supportive of of lessthe very supportive moreor “was factions”: that one two instance, were “there for with also manpower.” the “we were… well… sort of a storage Friedrich and his fellowhowever, youths in.” “roped were thus he“realized” In that retrospect, area Ultimately, for motorcycle. a had even Germany.father His explains. he everything,” had they telephones, The supplies, and with the Friedrich— Germans the “had “fascinated” they had Especially radios, technology German food, and Dietrich’s “Lili Marlene” and continue with greetings from soldiers around the world. German news,” particularly the radio show “ show radio the particularly news,” German 498 497 496 495 init andsowe read on…” newspapers the know muchHitler,not laterthat but listened yes, about on, wetothe radio, tothe, you know, “we didin gadgetry.”states, nowto“all stands AsFriedrich as Friedrich relation [current] the novelties these to inrelation stood therefore they school”; of grade sixth or fourth “the attended Germany.” time of that at especially,“they were really teaching us new things […] so naturally, we, we thought the world fascinated” with For young German the technology. or Germany,“infatuated… especially good. Butwhereit wehadeverything.” it’s,wasn’t that wewere, however, Germany, wherewe on, used to live,” they were all to supposed report “howon good things werein cameback to our towns— Bukin, andPalanka, and Vrbas,and Titel, andTovarisevo, and so when “when all “weweresort left as states, we of… there, we There, Friedrich duped”; thesis). FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. This “ropinghowever,in,” for not occur did everyone, as Friedrich recalls. In Bukin, As Friedrich recalls, it was particularly the younger generation that became youngerthat generation the it recalls,was particularly As Friedrich 498 496 In Friedrich’s opinion, “the older generation” had generally had only generally “the generation” older opinion, In Friedrich’s 497 Brave Heimat 140 mainly“everybody the listened night, to Every ,” which would begin with Marlene 495 CEU eTD Collection fleeing the RedArmy“ staying.approaching or faced decision the of were with when Germans until town’s 1944, the prevailed right October 500 499 become disillusioned after expulsionthe of Bukin’s German population in 1944. While, asa and forces Partisan ultimately perished. or Soviet the of laborers slave and prisoners became eventually them of many where stayed, lessmore or you became ‘black.’” however, “as soon as you did not come to the meetings, on Sunday mornings, well, then… Hitlergoing to meetings?” Youth AsFriedrich explains, choice the was“up individual”; tothe scheduledfor similarthe times thatyou had decide,to well,you going are toChurch are or you held on Sunday mornings, at the same time as Church services, so “our meetings were sort of… population youths.also affected As Friedrich meetingsrecalls, “Hitler Youth” were generally “ called were explains, Friedrich “faction,” This second needthat.” wedidn’t many yearsand German […] soldiers or armies,” and another that “said, ‘no, it’s too much, welived here for so to lose.” “ these “more adventurous,” and were individuals less with property and social standing who“were looking formaybe a life”better Unlike nice.” everything and homes, land, much so have they where army, the into going sons population; generally, individuals these were also“prosperous” want who“didn’t their,their Schwarze Die Schwarze FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. Despite Friedrich’s “fascination” with the Germans as a youth, he seems to have to heseems as ayouth, Germans the with “fascination” Friedrich’s Despite The “distrust” and “animosity” due thatarose to this division of Bukin’s German 499 , according to Friedrich,, according perhaps to thirty comprised to thirty-five of Bukin’s percent ,” which meant that “they didn’t want anything to do with […] Germany.” The Germany.” […] with do to anything want didn’t “they that meant which ,” 500 TheseinFriedrich population, states, Bukin’s divisions Schwarze 141 ” “were more protective because they had more protective becausethey more ” “were Die Schwarze ,” Friedrich explains, generally explains, Friedrich ,” CEU eTD Collection involvement within the within involvement within Caught conflictsthe of a multi-ethnic insociety flux and Friedrich contestation, sawhis throughoutfight for it [the Uniteda States] lifetimeagain.” “gave [him] and everything”— havingeven with served U.S.Armythe in Korea, he “would of experiences,I am an American.” After having spent the past sixty years in the United States— a country that andgave “a him onthings, perspective of reality.” represents “Germanthe army,” which he would not “deny.” The period before 1944,as Friedrich claims, a complexdid infact livein Germany forfive Furthermore, years,he instates. 1945, he hadalso served in amalgam He Germany.” “from he is that claim can he however, now, in Yugoslavia; born been having as of components. “an represented myawakening of Before,nationality.” heexplains, he was identified generally losers of that conflict.” however the people, the German people, well in my eyes, didn’t lose the war. We were the Berlin could go home to Berlin and the guy from Bukin could go where? […] We lost the war, even though they had “foughtfor Germany.” After war,Friedrichthe said, “the guy from was “sad,” ashe and his family(surviving)accepted by were not local the population as equals, 503 502 501 different, andwe didn’t havemuch to offer.” we talked us,becausewedresseddifferent, and nobody war… evenafter the wanted around in…“we language, that common were…roped wewere…pushed heultimately perceives youth, he could identify himself with Germans who had come from Germany because of their FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. FriedrichFischer, interview. Nonetheless, asFriedrich states, theperiod between 1941and 1944, forhim, 502 NS-Erziehungsheime 503 142 and the and 501 Friedrich’s “nationality” thus was assembled was thus “nationality” Friedrich’s However, as he adds, he now feels “even so that so “even feels he now he adds, as However, Particularly his time as a refugee in Germany refugee a as time his Particularly Deutsche Jugend as a “privilege,” which total CEU eTD Collection presented above, generally followed the model of their parents, and, at times, the model of their perspectives the leastaccording to at Children, divisions. pre-existing societal exacerbated) (andit potentially seemsyouth programs. Rather, perpetuated thatprograms National Socialist of tactics indoctrinational and the establishment through primarily not occur did however, German individuals whohad been inraised Batschkathe themselves. split On exacerbated. the hand,of expansion other the (National also activities German Socialist) which, according tothewitnesses above, hadalready existed duringperiod— interwar were the SS recruitments— divisively. acted it onehand,the On seems interethnic that conflicts— KLV children from and youths Germany, establishment the of endemic “Hitler Youths,” and particularly the radio), the establishment of pro-National Socialist schools and dorms, visits by the through experienced Germany became a presence within all became within Germany a presence Nazi that is apparent It above. presented in of perspectives the all apparent become features inhabitants on German 1930sandthe 1940scannot be Nevertheless,underestimated. certain 5.4 Conclusions couldaccounts, due only to his do between experiences 1944. 1941 and Friedrich thus claims that he is a “German”— something that he, according to his own 504 enabled an“awakening” of his national identity. FriedrichFischer, interview. Donauschwaben Divisions that arose within German communities (between “ (between communities German within arose that Divisions The diversity of experiences, perspectives, and reflections of the Batschka’s former of Batschka’s the andreflections perspectives, of The diversity experiences, communities internally— a division remembered most clearly by clearly most remembered a division internally— communities Kulturbund / Volksbund Donauschwaben 143 ’s activities, the media (newspapers and media (newspapers the ’s activities, 504 American,” “an like feeling Despite communities. This This as presence— communities. Schwarze ” and “ Braune ”), CEU eTD Collection what such a “nationality” entailed, and how the how and entailed, “nationality” a such what end the learnedfor of at theseyouths, war asthey the crushed of course however,were hopes, “awakened,”(strong, and atsociety’s vanguard) thatmany had longed for. Many of these become part of something larger, and were presented with definitions of their own “nationality” in the youths. Somehow, were fascinating their interviewees, the of all for “Germans,” with and “Germany” with interactions direct Nevertheless, from modelsGermany. Socialist National “imported” tothe “Germanness” adherence entailed others, for Church; the like markers and Socialism National to resistance with closely alwayssome, hadbeen For moreGermans. however,this became associated “Germanness” individuals interviewed aboveinsisted they that were German, andthat they andfamilies their youth instance. for groups, the National Socialist versus Catholic Hungarian Piarist school theGerman versus school Piarist Hungarian divisions hence channeledyouths intodifferent activities and associations— education within a innovate entirely new pathsfor themselves from apart theirupbringing. original Pre-existing the mannersthe in which this national identity is expressed. and “Germanness” own their of identity— national of issues with confronted time, this during were, all youths associations, own their of regardless that seems it Ultimately, community). by their membersown of (or other as a“German”Germany within regarded her mothers’ windows for not being in the being not for windows mothers’ her schools and immediate social circles. Although Fritz, for instance, recalls a girl who smashed These diverse activities further fostered diverse notions of “Germanness.” All of All of“Germanness.” the notions diverseof fostered further These diverseactivities Kulturbund Lehrerbildungsanstalt 144 Donauschwaben , itgenerally thatyouthsseems didnot Donauschwaben German was not necessarily wasnot German , or membership, or within the Donauschwaben now seemed to CEU eTD Collection The Hitler aswasdiscussed had Youth, thisthesis’ third within originally been chapter, youths. of mobilization the through primarily Socialists, the for National occur, wasto regions, linguistic knowledge, and national and “racial” “awareness.” would, on the hand,other need tobebrought up to modern “German”levels of “hygiene,” people—mightbut people who the offer interests— were envisioned,thus by 1930s,astheidealthe of providers not merely produce, “ agricultural potential mostbut, importantly,for what the Nazis considered tobeits 1930s, became a territory by coveted Reich Thirdthe not only its for strategic location and under German study and scrutiny from interwarthe period onwards, Batschka,the by the forlocated decadesat nexus the ideological, of projects. Aregioncompeting national, state and this within mobilization occurred borderlandlikea multi-ethnic the Batschka, which was environment. TheBatschka’senvironment. had of centuries experienced “corruption” dueto their position a within multi-ethnic “foreign,” “educated,” andas— “trained,” like“purified,”authors according to Walz—these individuals firstneedNational to beeighteenth would, Socialist to conceptualizations, century— according required toforge its “millennial world empire.” prior to the National Socialist form of “Germandom” at the epitome of the bucolic National Socialist fantasy of “ the fantasy of Socialist National bucolic attheepitome of “Germandom” the form of Menschenmaterial The “education” of ethnic Germans within the Batschka, as in other contested European as in contested Batschka, other within of Germans ethnic the The “education” The history of the National Socialist mobilization of youths is complex, especially when especially is complex, youths of mobilization Socialist National the of history The However, these ethnic Germans— who had lived atleast Germans— the ethnic since these whohad Batschka within the However, .” The over 173,000 “ Machtergreifung Donauschwaben Conclusion Donauschwaben Reich 145 , were already the subject of were subject the , already — on the one hand conceived as the “purest” the as conceived hand one the on — the fully ideologized “Aryan” fighters it ” living within region—this who, volksgeschichtliche Volk ”— CEU eTD Collection Gleichschaltung “identity” of an already minority. post-Habsburgdivided level,local andstate negotiations andongoing and on discussions politicalthe andnational ethnic German cultural, religious, and political organizations, shifting political conditions ona evolving and extant of plethora a with confronted rather were They communities. German ethnic theBatschka’s andultimately enter engulf to meetattempted asthey a vacuum upon not organizations. National Socialist organizations andactivities— youth-based or otherwise— did acomplex andthrough structures negotiation of and adaptation pre-existing, endemic far). Rather, the NationalGerman children (which previous historiographies on such subjects have mainly emphasized so Socialist mobilizationtypeformations and programs within Batschkathe did not originate only from “import” the of of youths within the Batschka themselves. forSocialism National also“activists” and messengers become “liturgy,” Socialist occurred National the repeating and(atleastaswasenvisioned byNational Socialists) literature, the travel abroad and, in reporting on the “glories” of the of “glories” the on in reporting and, abroad travel Socialism into turned “educators.” More themselves specifically, youths German couldnow within of National theparameters “educated” means by previously children German which foreign projects. Activities like the like Activities foreign projects. Bund Deutscher Mädel to the to the Nazi Nazi loyalthe Party, andageneration for aswell soldiers German rearing the as to by established NSDAPduring the theinfusing 1920s as a meansfor ainto vitality regenerative Reich As the German-speaking press of As theGerman-speaking a andthe BatschkaHungary,indicate, press Yugoslavia, Youth- Hitler and Socialism National of spread the however, shown, has thesis this As . By 1930s,however,the the Hitlerand Youth its subsidiary likeprograms, the of official German press organs does seem to have occurred within these or the or Jungvolk Landdienst , became deeply entwined with the National Socialists’ National the with entwined deeply became , 146 or the Reich Kinderlandverschickung , language “German”teaching and all served asa all Führer and CEU eTD Collection abroad, andhow abroad, much to already existing to the attributed ethnic effortsThirdReich’s German communities toinfiltrate concerted Youths”— uniforms, drills, National Socialist chants,and racial“education” inclusive— canbe How much of this transformation of German “cultural” youth clubs into full-fledged “Hitler institutionsstate and within communities Yugoslavia, andtheHungary, Batschka specifically? awarenesses, or the opportunism and initiatives of local leaders like Basch, Janko, and like of local Janko, leaders Basch, initiatives and opportunism or the awarenesses, Gleichschaltung Such observations, however, also raise multiple questions. On the one hand, how much forces hence1930s andSocialist during thelate increasingly common became did early 1940s. this an norm, became not the aberration. but gradually in Germany, intoturned “Hitler and Youths,” (atthat leastformal) non-association with such likeprograms, especially during this period that many youth formations pre-existing within the Batschka like newspapers National Socialist Südostdeutsche Rundschau, publicized too.As is depicted within more pro-National Socialist publications (like the within Batschkaduringthe late the 1930sand early more openly 1940s, but and radically exchange programs, or the foundation thefoundation of or exchange programs, likeprojects, establishment local the of Youth” groups, “Hitler conductingthe youth of given atleastto some of information the within press,this itis alsoapparent youth that if of Furthermore, andethnic German canbesome credence organizations official discourses. dueto increasing the shown, of largely Third VoMi)the occurred control (as through Reich regions during 1930s the and 1940s,a which,transformation asdiverse secondary literature has The mobilization of ethnic German youths within Batschka youthswithin by of German the ethnic The mobilization pro-National of the (youth) press reflect a reflect press (youth) of the the Deutscher Volksbote, Die Donau NS-Erziehungsheime 147 Gleichschaltung Erneuerer , and current secondary literature, it was literature, , andcurrentsecondary or the or -type movements, rising national rising movements, -type , became notonly more popular of official ethnic German or German ethnic official of Deutsches Volksblatt ), anti- ), CEU eTD Collection 505 remained “incomplete” and “unperfected.” (fortunately) has date, to that, “experiment” an rather but domination” “total represent not does methods of National Socialism, they say little about the ultimate “effects” of Fascist programs. Griffin,for instance— canbe highly instructive when envisioning the aims, tenets, and organizations like asinformed byintellectuals HitlerYouth— the likeMosse,Gentile, or the model that whilebecomes apparentof totalitarian inquiry.lines of itmicro-level Therefore, history chapter has shown, must historians be wary macro-levelreachingof about conclusions oral final, the As particularly lie. solutions possible that thesis this within presented analysis of levels and sources various the of interplay and juxtaposition the within is precisely it communities? and then act as “missionaries” for a National Socialist German identity themselves within their Jugend National Socialists had envisioned? In other words, didyouths mobilized within the Donauschwaben percent of seventy estimation percent of ninety estimate National Socialist the between assume thatmembership within Nazi youth in organizations Batschkathe indeed lay anywhere to were if one hand, other the On themselves? communities German ethnic within individuals Criticism of an Interpretation,” in Interpretation,” ofan Criticism 507 506 154. Sad: Landesjugendführung der DJ. Abteilung Presse und Propaganda. Deutsche Druckerei u. Verlags A.G., 1943), (London: Routledge,2005), 58. See Emilio Gentile, “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion: Definitions interviews. and Schneider* Critical Fritz and ReflectionsFischer* on Friedrich Jahrbuchder Deutschen Jugend in Ungarn 1943 As Gentile has stated, “totalitarianism”— as farit studied— can be “totalitarianism”— “empirically” As Gentile hasstated, While these remainquestions be answeredto inmore complete detail by studies,future andits associated programs a“conversion” toNational actually experience Socialism, boys and girls actually operate as the transformative “activists” that the that “activists” as the transformative andactually boys operate girls Fascism,Totalitarianism and Political Religion 506 of all eligible girls and boys, did this majority of 507 148 The study of totalitarianism, at least within the , edited by Herbert Mars and Mathias Huber, Vol. 3 (Novi 505 and the oral history interviewees’ history oral and the , edited by RogerGriffin Deutsche CEU eTD Collection within the Batschka succeeded in creating a unified, ideologized massof“ ideologized within succeeded increating Batschka the aunified, German inhabitants. markhave left and German their its memories communities, on the ethnic formerof Batschka’s therefore certainly projects hadreachedthe their Third community. totalitarian The Reich’s experiences “Hitler with Youth”discrimination membership, or by pro- personal of recollections have also individuals these instance), for schools, or church, families, nuclear (their circles social immediate by their followed paths the on depending Especially SS soldiers, and the bifurcation of ethnic German communitiesDonauschwaben into “ their experiences in Germany, exchanges between Germans from the from Germans between exchanges in Germany, experiences their personal “Hitlerrecollections of marching Youths” in theirKLV streets, children reporting on memories of incursions Most have retained the into of theirSocialism National communities. hadbeen born within Batschkathe between 1920sandthe early 1940s indeedall haveseem to coordination by propounded Hitlerandthe Youth similar projects. collisions of personalthe and community spheres with mass-basedthe visions of totalitarian and onthe interactions perspectives below” “from alsoconsider to imperative is therefore As study the of mobilizationthe of ethnic German youths within Batschka the has indicatedit visionsacross intellectual space, but “empire.” of revolutionized greater a “palinegentically” thishas thesis shown, this occurrednotonly within the confines of a limited geographic or actors (like the Third Reich) attempted to assert a model of “complete control.” Furthermore, as framework of this thesis, thus refers primarily to the dynamics and processes that occur as Nevertheless, it would be erroneous to assume that projects like the “Hitler Youth” As particularly the final chapter of this thesis has illustrated, German individuals who individuals German illustrated, has thesis this of chapter final the particularly As , the propagation of Hitler’s words through the media, the mass-recruitment of mass-recruitment the media, the through words Hitler’s of propagation the , 149 Schwarze Kulturbund Menschenmaterial ” and “ members of members Reich Braune and .” ” CEU eTD Collection hallmarks for a “true” “German”for a“true” identity. hallmarks becamethe National Socialism to resistance and/or culture, folkloric German “traditional” followed other definitions of “Germanness,” whereby Church,the following the more of also communities German ethnic Batschka’s the within individuals certain Nevertheless, of. the Certainly, “national identity.” became only one component, andfueled only of parts, an ongoing discourse questionson of German communities. ethnic furtherand divide family), their (like channels other through to exposed been already have might a child that sentiments Socialist “strengthen” pro-National the pre-existing tensions, helpedexacerbate formations troupe” of girls boys and thatwouldhelp“convert” communities;their most,such greater at powerful forcethe that powerful National Socialist and afollower of Thirdthe Reich, aseemingly expansive, modernizing, and is German a “true” thatthe notions with temporarily) least (at someindividuals inculcate and helpedprovide accompanied suchprograms and andactivities of that propaganda schools, the the in this indicate, thesis (even if only perhaps forcedseemingly all totake individuals a stance on questions of theiridentity “national” own individual lives, and in programs certainly of Batschka thus affected Hitler Youth the 1940s, and further evolved continuously over alifetime of experiences.While theintroduction propagation of National Socialism theirwithin differed communities, during 1930sand the prepared to fightfor the to prepared The markers for of identity, a “German” Furthermore, itis apparent National that youth programsSocialist within Batschka the Donauschwaben a posteriori Reich Reich and the tenets of National Socialism. As the interviews presented interviews As the Socialism. National of tenets the and Deutsche Jugend did in notnecessarily even succeed an“activistcreating ), totalitarian projects like the Hitler Youth within the within Youth Hitler the like projects totalitarian ), , in adhering to National Socialism, could become part could in National Socialism, , to adhering 150 Donauschwaben , the KLV exchanges, the exchanges, KLV , the individuals who witnessed the witnessed who individuals Gleichschaltung CEU eTD Collection with “ study of “totalitarianism,” as, ultimately, historians deal not with a “ a with not deal historians ultimately, as, “totalitarianism,” of study interpretations,dissecting various the perspectives, levels and inherent of any discourse to great prudence exert One in have effect. not Batschka ahomogenizing did musttherefore Menschen .” 151 Menschenmaterial ,” but CEU eTD Collection et Bonn: al. Bundesministerium für Vertriebene, Flüchtlinge und Kriegsgeschädigte, 1961. Source: Conze, Werner. Conze, Source: ethnic German communities according tothe1931 census.) of I) Map Vojvodina, as assembled byW.KrallertVienna in1941. in (Red dotsindicate Selection of SourceImages Das Schicksal der Deutschen in Jugoslawien Appendix 152 . Edited by Werner Conze, TheodorSchieder, CEU eTD Collection Volume 1, Number 2 (April 1942). Budapest: Kultura Verlagsgesellschaft M.B.H., 1942-1944. 1) Source: Erziehungstätte The II) Südostdeutsche Rundschau, Südostdeutsche Rundschau: Zeitschrift der deutschen Volksgruppe in Ungarn. Deutsche Jugend in Budapest. (Selection)in Budapest. and related activities, as depicted in official press reports. Budapest, April Photographic on 1942: Report 153 Edited by Philipp Böss. NS- CEU eTD Collection (January (January 1943). Edited by Philipp Böss. Source: honor of ’s establishment of the 2) Südostdeutsche Rundschau Südostdeutsche Rundschau: Zeitschrift der deutschen Volksgruppe in Ungarn. , Budapest,January 1943: International youth in conference Budapest:Kultura Verlagsgesellschaft M.B.H., 1942-1944. 154 Europäischer Jugendverband Volume 2, Number 1 Number 2, Volume . (Selection) . CEU eTD Collection andfor booklet Hungarian propaganda 4) Imagesfrom 1943 the Europas e.V., 1991. Ippesheim: Verlag des Arbeitskreises für Geschichte und Kultur derdeutschen Siedlungsgebieten imSüdosten Hans. Holzträger, Source: Wehrertüchtigungslager (military education camp for Hitler Youths) in Hodschag, Batschka]. 3) Caption: “SS-Ausbilderim WEL Hodschag/Batschka” [SSEducator in the DieWehrertüchtigungslager der Hitler-Jugend 1942-1945: Ein Dokumentarbericht. Jahrbuch der Deutschen JugendinUngarn participated as a guest of the Levente at the St. Stephen’s celebrations.”Caption: “For the first time this year a section of the Budapest DJ Deutsche Jugend 155 members. , anannual plannerevents CEU eTD Collection The highest [ideal] of the Jungvolk boy honor.”is “Jungvolk boys arehard. Jungvolk boys are taciturn. Jugvolk boys are comrades. the Deutsche Jugend ofresounds. step It marching fills the the German capital state of the life with streets newthe on content.” “Also Caption: Jungvolk procession in the streets ofBudapest. streets in the procession 156 CEU eTD Collection 5) Propaganda printed on printed on 5) Propaganda 1941 the Neusatz: 1943. Landesjugendführung derDJ, Abteilung Presse und Propaganda. Deutsche Druckerei u. Verlags-A.G. Ujvidek- Source: Caption: “The comradeship between the DJ and the Levente was deepened further…” Erziehungsheim NS- Budapest the greets Jagow) von Dietrich S.A.-leader by the Béldy (accompanied von leader Levente Jahrbuch der Deutschen Jugend in Ungarn children after the arrival of the first the of arrival the after children Landesjugendtag Reenactment of an “Ancient Germanic” solstice celebration (p. 9). (p. celebration solstice Germanic” “Ancient of an Reenactment . Edited by Herbert Mars. Volume 3 (1943). Novi Sad: Kinderlandverschickungs 157 in Mágocs transport in Budapest. CEU eTD Collection Jungkameradinnen employees, greeted is by crowds.the (p.14) direct by his followed center), and infront (pictured Basch Franz (female DJ) salute incoming salute DJ) (female Volksbund 158 flags (p. 16). CEU eTD Collection Source: Reister, Heinrich, and Bruno Klein. Bruno and Heinrich, Reister, Source: German girlsattend in their folk costumes (p. 23). Landespropagandaamt des Volksbundes der Deutschen inUngarn,1941. Erster Landesjugendtag Mágocs 1941 159 . Budapest: CEU eTD Collection printed printed forexhibition atMuseum of Vojvodina, Novi Sad:2011. p. 65. Source: “Drugi Svetksi Rat (1941-1945).” In 7) “HitlerNovi Marching Youth” Sad through Volksblatt: Tageszeitung der Deutschen Südungarns. In Abschiedskundgebung.” überwältigende eine ihnen bereitete Kreises gesamten des und Stadt der Source: “Derletzte Sonderzug mit volksdeutschen SS-Freiwilligen aus derBatschka abgerollt- Das Deutschtum Novi Sad. 6) Deutsches Volksblatt , Novi April, Novi Sad, 10 of 1942. Photos departurethe of SS recruits in Zavi þ aj na Dunavu: Suživot Nemaca i Srba u Vojvodini. Vol. 24,No. 6921 (10 April 1942). p.1. 160 Deutsches Book CEU eTD Collection Rüthen: Kerneier Heimatausschuss. p. 56. b) Rüthen: Kerneier Heimatausschuss. p. 51. Source: Source: group in the year 1943, as they marchfrom the community center to the sports field.”]Caption: “Eine Mädchengruppe im Jahre 1943, wie sie vom Vereinshaus zum Sportplatz marschiert.” [“A girls’ a) 1) Kernei III) Imagesrelated tothe oral history chapter. Jungkameradinnen Kinderlandverschickung Kerneier Heimatblätter: Mitteilungen an alle Kerneier Kerneier Heimatblätter: Mitteilungen an alle Kerneier Procession, 1943. 1 st and 2 nd Grade cohorts, Gradecohorts, as hosted in Kernei in 1943. 161 . Edited by Johann Schmidt. Vol. 47 (Easter2004). . Edited by Johann Schmidt. Vol. 47 (Easter2004). CEU eTD Collection Rüthen: Kerneier Heimatausschuss. p. 48. Source: leave Kernei 20 on d) SS-Recruits Kernei. Heimatgemeinde Source: c) Nazi youth propaganda from circulated in Germany Kernei.that Kerneier Heimatblätter: Mitteilungen an alle Kerneier th March1942. 162 . Edited by Johann Schmidt. Vol. 47 (Easter2004). CEU eTD Collection b) Women of Bukin in traditional dress, circa 1939. a) Traditional inhouses Bukin. 2) Bukin 163 CEU eTD Collection “Határvadász”). d) A German man, born in Bukin in 1920, asa Honvédin soldier control1941 (border unit, Hungary in the background.) c) Bukin’s primary school in 1943 with its nine to ten-year-olds. (Notice the flags and map of 164 CEU eTD Collection Donauschwäbishes Archiv, 2002. Archiv, Donauschwäbishes Andreas. Pfuhl, Source: of Parabutsch.” (p. 338) hall in this illegal action. The photos are snapshots of this unhappy day and show transportationthe in the directionBatschka. All men capable of military service until the age of 45 were led, through force of weapons, to the town Caption:“On 24 the leave 24 SS Bukin on the into e) Menrecruited th of September, 1944, the German Reichs-government carried out a forceful recruitment in the in recruitment forceful out a carried Reichs-government German the 1944, ofSeptember, Bildband Bukin: 1749-1945: Eindeutsches Dorfin der Batschka. 165 th September, 1944. München: CEU eTD Collection Rüdiger, Hermann. Jahrbuch der Deutschen JugendinUngarn Adolf. Hitler, and Books II) Pamphlets Schneider*, Interview Fritz. by Caroline Mezger. 10August2011. Fischer*, Friedrich. Interview by Caroline Mezger. 24May 2011. Bauer*, Johanna andMichael. Interview by Caroline Mezger.27July 2011. I) Interviews Sources Primary Walz, Erich. Riedl, Franz. Riedl, Heinrich. Egger, Reister-Leopold Reister, Heinrich, and Bruno Klein. Pfuhl, Andreas. von Schirach, Baldur. Ungarn. Novi Ungarn. Novi Sad: Druckerei- undVerlags-AG, 1944. New York:Reynal & 1939.Hitchcock, Banat Ausland undVerlags-Aktiengesellschaft, Heimat 1931. Deutschen Ausland-Instituts Stuttgart. A:Kulturhistorische Reihe, Band 28.Stuttgart: Donauschwäbishes Archiv, 2002. Verlags-A-G.,1941. Landespropagandaamtdes Volksbundes der Deutschen in Ungarn, 1941. 1943. Verlags-A.G., Deutscheu. Druckerei Propaganda, Volume 3(1943).Novi Sad: LandesjugendführungderDJ, Abteilung Presseund 1941. Jugend ausdenJahren derVerfolgung 1933-37 , Schriften N.R. Deutsches Ausland-Institut. Brünn, Wien, München: Rohrer, 1943. Das Deutschtum inden1920bei Ungarn gebliebenen TeilenvonBatschkaund Nachbarland Ungarn Mein Kampf Bildband Bukin:1749-1945:Ein deutschesin derBatschka. Dorf Die Donauschwabeninder südslawischen Batschka Das LiedderGetreuen; Verse Hitler- ungenannterÖsterreichischer . Edited by John Chamberlain, Sidney B. Fay, John Gunther et al. Das grosse Aufgebot. . Landesgruppeder Auslandorganisation der NSDAPin Erster Landesjugendtag Mágocs 1941 Erster LandesjugendtagMágocs Works Cited . Edited by Herbert Mars and Mathias Huber. 166 . Leipzig: PhilippReclam Jun. Verlag, Novisad-Neusatz: Druckerei- und . Schriften des . Budapest: München: CEU eTD Collection Deutscher Volksbote: Wochenblatt für Kultur,PolitikDeutscher undWirtschaft. Volksbote: Wochenblattfür Deutsches Volksblatt: Tageszeitung derDeutschenSüdungarns. III) Newspapers, Journals, andPeriodicals Journals, Newspapers, III) “Deutsche inEinwohner den Gemeinden der Wojwodina undden benachbarten V) Maps Archive of Novi Sad— “Matrikel 1941/1942- Deutsche Bürgerschule Neu-Werbass.” IV) Archival Sources Südostdeutsche Rundschau:Zeitschriftderdeutschen Volksgruppe inUngarn. an alleKerneier Heimatblätter:Mitteilungen Kerneier Jahrbuch derAuslands-Organisation der NSDAP. Deutsches Volksblatt: Tageszeitung derDeutschendes Königreiches der Serben, Kroatenund der Reichsdeutschen inUngarn Deutsche Nachrichten: Mitteilungsblatt Der Jungkamerad: DasBlattderVolksdeutschen JugendUngarns. von Schirach, Baldur. Kriegsgeschädigte, 1961. Kriegsgeschädigte, Conze, Theodor Schieder, et al. Bonn: Bundesministerium für Vertriebene, Flüchtlinge und 1944. Leipzig: Koehler Amelang, und 1934. Siedlungsgebieten.” In Siedlungsgebieten.” Philipp Kultura Böss.Budapest: Verlagsgesellschaft, 1942-1944. Organisationen der NSDAP,und Seefahrt Ausland G.m.b.H. 1939-1940. Slowenen. Krivachy. Budapest: Edmund Krivachy, 1936-1944. Budapest:Kultura Verlagsgesellschaft, 1939-1942. Goldschmidt. Budapest:Richard Huss, 1935-1944. Novi Novi Sad: Kulturbund, 1938-1941. Die Hitler-Jugend: IdeeundGestalt Die Hitler-Jugend: F-207 v.9(1941-42). Das Schicksal derDeutscheninJugoslawien 167 Berlin: Gauverlag derAuslands- . Kerneier Heimatausschuss. 1967-2011. . Neudruckder Volksausgabe. Novi Sad: Kulturbund, 1942- Edited by Böss. Philipp Edited by Georg . Edited by Edmund . Edited by Werner Edited by CEU eTD Collection “Ein Gespräch des ‘Donautal-Magazins’ mit Dr.Sepp Janko.” In Eichhorn, Michael. “Ortsplan Kernei.” HOG Kernei, 2007. Gellner, Ernest. Gellner, Furber, David. “Near as Far in the Colonies: The Nazi Occupation of Poland.” In Fitzpatrick, Sheila. “The Bolshevik’s Dilemma: The Class Issue in Party Politics and Culture,” “Drugi (1941-1945).” In Svetksi Rat Crownshaw, Richard, and Selma Leydesdorff.“On Silence and Revision: The Language and Fritzsche, Peter. Fritzsche, Connelly, John. “Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice.” In Brubaker, Rogers. Brubaker, Brubaker, Rogers. “Identity.” In Beyer, Astrid, and Günter Czernetzky Czernetzky Beyer, Astrid,(producers). Günter and Berger, Stefan, andAlexei Miller. and “Nation-Building Regional c.1800-1914: Integration, Ackermann, Eva. “Kerneier Hochzeiten. 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Ithaca, NewYork:Cornell University Press, 1992.pp.16-36, European Review History of Memory and Totalitarianism Colonialism inQuestion: Theory,Knowledge, History . Vol. 26, No. 3. . Vol. 26, September 2004.pp.541-579. Zavi . Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983. þ aj na Dunavu: SuživotNemaca iSrbau Vojvodini. 168 . Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, Schicksal der Donauschwaben The Cultural Front: Power andCulture . No. 3,. No. 2008.pp. 317-330. . Edited by Luisa Passerini. New Das Donautal-Magazin Central The . Stuttgart: . Edited . . No. CEU eTD Collection Janjetovi Hans. Holzträger, Hobsbawm, E.J. Hirschfeld, Georg. “Nazis Germany and Eastern Europe.” In Hettling, Manfred. “Volk und in Volksgeschichten Europa.”In Helmlinger, Benedikt. Harvey, Elizabeth. “‘We Forgot All Jews and Poles’: German Women and the ‘Ethnic Struggle’ Harvey, “Mobilisierung Elizabeth. Erfassung? oder Studentischer Aktivismus und deutsche of Legitimization the Rethinking Community: Political Palingenetic “The Roger. 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