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Thesis. (9.771Mb) HOLOCENE ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES DERIVED FROM A MONTANE POLLEN SEQUENCE IN THE KWAZULU-NATAL MIDLANDS, SOUTH AFRICA by Anél Geer Submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the Discipline of Geography School Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of KwaZulu-Natal Pietermaritzburg April 2013 i ABSTRACT There is a limited understanding of the climatic history of summer rainfall regions of South Africa, especially the east coast, even though palaeo-research has become a popular technique used in southern Africa to determine past environmental and climatic changes. Sites such as wetlands and peatlands are ideal for palaeo-environmental research as they are of high organic content and enable pollen preservation. Dartmoor Vlei, situated at Mt. Gilboa, KwaZulu-Natal, is surrounded by Midlands Mistbelt grassland and in close proximity of the Karkloof Forest archipelago, rendering the site ideal for investigating grassland/forest dynamics. A minimally disturbed, 240 cm, organic rich sediment core was obtained from Dartmoor Vlei for analyses. A multi-proxy approach, viz. radiocarbon, charcoal, geochemical (carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes) and palynological analyses, was adopted to determine past environmental changes. Six samples were used for AMS radiocarbon dating, which indicates sediments date back ca. 12,200 cal yr BP at 144 cm. Environmental conditions at Dartmoor Vlei during the early Holocene are characterised by warmer, dry conditions, and arboreal pollen taxa are found in high concentrations between ca. 12,300 and 9000 cal yr BP. The mid-Holocene marks a period where systematic changes begin to occur at Dartmoor Vlei, as wetter conditions in accordance with the Holocene Altithermal are evident ca. 8000 cal yr BP. A period of locally drier conditions at ca. 6000 cal yr BP is followed by a decrease in arboreal taxa such as Podocarpus, Brassicaceae, Anacardiaceae and Celtis at ca. 5800 cal yr BP. The occurance of Zea mays in the record at ca. 1600 cal yr BP, the increase in fire intensity and frequency, and subsequent decrease in some arboreal taxa is a robust indication of anthropogenic activity in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands region, attributed to Iron Age settlers. Arboreal and grassland pollen signals indicate the existence of a mosaic of montane and sub-alpine grassland and montane forests in the region of Dartmoor Vlei throughout the Holocene, and at present. ii PREFACE The experimental work described in this dissertation was carried out in the School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, from January 2010 to February 2013, under the supervision of Prof T.R. Hill and Dr J.M. Finch. These studies represent original work by the author and have not otherwise been submitted in any form of degree or diploma to any University. Where use has been made of the work of others it is duly acknowledged in the text. A. Geer (candidate) Date Prof T.R. Hill Date Dr J.M. Finch Date iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my supervisors, Prof. Trevor Hill and Dr. Jemma Finch a heartfelt thanks for sparking my interest in palaeo-research and for your time and continuous support, it is truly appreciated. To my fellow pollen-man, Jared Lodder, for all your help and advice, you are a star, and to my friends, Imke, Paul, Dom and Liandra, who braved the great outdoors to help me with my fieldwork, you guys were amazing. Thank you to the Palaeontological Scientific Trust (PAST) and the SANBI Grasslands Programme for the financial assistance which made this research possible. To the Electron Microscopy Unit (UKZN) for the use of their facilities and the Stable Light Isotope Laboratory (UCT) for conducting the Stable Light Isotope Analysis. The University of Waikato and Beta Analytic Laboratories for conducting Radiocarbon Dating. To the Grassland Science Department (UKZN) for allowing me to use their laboratory facilities, and to the Soil Science Department (UKZN) for the use of their equipment. To Astika Bhugeloo (UKZN) for conducting charcoal counts. To Desiree Lamoral at the Institute for Commercial Forestry Research Library for her assistance with reference material. To Colin Holmes, Victor Bangamwabo and Brice Gijsbertsen (UKZN) for their assistance with GIS. To the Van Zuydam family of Dartmoor Vlei for allowing me to carry out the research on their property and allowing me access to the site. And to family, thank you for your continuous support and encouragement throughout my work, without you this thesis would not have been possible. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………1 1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….…………………1 1.2 Aim and objectives……………………………………………………………………..4 1.3 Thesis outline…….……………………………………………………………………..5 2. REVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN PALAEO-ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY……..6 2.1 Drivers of climate change…………………..…………………………………………..6 2.2 The Holocene in South Africa………………………………………………………….9 2.3 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….17 3. SITE DESCRIPTION…………………………………………………………..………..18 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...18 3.2 Locality………………………………………………………………………………..19 3.2.1 Geology....……………………………………………………………………….20 3.2.2 Drainage……………………………………………………………………...….21 3.2.3 Land use.…………………………………...……………..….………………….23 3.3 Indigenous forests and grasslands of South Africa………………………………….23 3.3.1 The forest biome………………………………………………………………..23 3.3.1.1 The Karkloof Forests………………………………………………………24 3.3.2 History of utilisation of indigenous forests in South Africa…………..………..27 3.3.2.1 Historical overview of human impacts on the Karkloof Catchment………28 3.3.3 The grassland biome……………………………………………………………30 3.3.3.1 The Midlands Mistbelt Grasslands………………………………………...31 4. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND……………………………………………………..33 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………...…33 4.2 Pollen analysis……………………………………………………………………..…33 4.2.1 General principles and limitations………………………………………………….….34 4.2.2 Methodological considerations………………………………………...……….……..36 4.2.2.1 Site selection…………………………………………………………….…36 v 4.2.2.2 Field sampling……………………………………………………………...36 4.2.2.3 Laboratory processing…………………………………………..………….37 4.2.2.4 Counting……………………………………………………………………39 4.2.2.5 Data presentation……………………………………………..…………….39 4.2.2.6 Palaeo-environmental reconstruction and interpretation………...…...…….40 4.3 Charcoal analysis…………………………………………………………………….40 4.4 Radiocarbon analysis……………………..………………………………………….43 4.5 Troels-Smith sediment characterisation……………………………………………..45 4.6 Geochemical analysis……………………...…………………………………..…….45 4.7 Conclusion…………………………………..……………………………….………47 5. METHODS……………………………………………………………………………….48 5.1 Field techniques………………………………………………………….…………...48 5.1.1 Vegetation and pollen reference material………………………………………..48 5.1.2 Vegetation survey……………………………………………………..…………49 5.1.3 Core extraction…………………………………………………………….…….50 5.2 Laboratory techniques……………………………………………………………..…51 5.2.1 Subsampling…………………………………………………………………….52 5.2.2 Chronology………………………………………………………………….…..53 5.2.2.1 Radiocarbon dating………………………………………………………..53 5.2.2.2 Time stratigraphic marker horizons……………………………………..…53 5.2.3 Stable light isotope analysis………………………………………………..….54 5.2.4 Gravitational separation technique………………………………………..…….54 5.2.5 Pollen counts……………………………………………….………………..…..55 5.2.6 Pollen diagrams………………………………………………………………….55 6. RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………………57 6.1 Vegetation description………………………………………………………………..57 6.2 Troels-Smith stratigraphic description………………………………………………58 6.3 Radiocarbon analysis………………………………………………………………...59 6.3.1 Age model…………………………………………………………………….....62 vi 6.3.2 Sedimentation rates……………………………………………………………..63 6.4 Zonation of core material…..…………………………………………………………63 6.5 Geochemical analysis………………………………………………………………...64 6.6 Pollen analysis………………………………………………………………………..67 6.7 Charcoal analysis…………………………………………………………………….72 7. DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………………….75 7.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...75 7.2 Palaeo-environmental changes at Dartmoor Vlei……………………………………..75 7.2.1 Zone D1: 144-110 cm; ca. 12,100 - 9690 cal yr BP, Early Holocene….………75 7.2.2 Zone D2: 110 - 83 cm; 9690 - 7970 cal yr BP, Mid-Holocene………...……….77 7.2.3 Zone D3: 83 - 25 cm; 7970 - 550 cal yr BP, Late Holocene...………………….78 7.2.4 Zone D4: 25 - 0 cm; 550 cal yr BP – present…………………………………...80 8. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………...82 8.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...82 8.2 Review of aim and objectives…………………………………………………………82 8.3 Synthesis...…………………………………………………………………………….84 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………...88 vii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A preparation procedure for reference material….....……………………………....i Appendix B Characteristics of the modified Troels-Smith system of sediment description with original terms in brackets……………………..………………………………………....iii Appendix C Procedure for subsampling…………………………………..………………….iv Appendix D Troels-Smith data sheets for sediment core DA2...……………………………...v Appendix E Swirling technique for pollen and charcoal extraction……...………………….vii Appendix F Calibrated ages of individual samples……………………………………………x Appendix G Interpolated calibrated ages…………...……………………..…………………xii Appendix H Age-depth models………………………………………………………………xv Appendix I Vegetation survey – Dartmoor Vlei…….…………………….………………..xvii Appendix J Geochemical data (UCT)….………………………………….……………...xxviii Appendix K Raw pollen count data…...…………………………………..…………….....xxxi Appendix L Pollen diagrams……………………………………………………………...xxxiv Appendix
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