Component-I (A) – Personal details: Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University,Tirupati Prof.Ravi Korisettar VS Wakankar Archaeological Research Institute Bhopal Dr. Rajesh S.V. University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram Prof. P. Ajithprasad The M.S. University of Baroda 1 Component-I (B) – Description of module: Subject Name Indian Culture Paper Name Pre and Protohistoric Cultures of India Module Name/Title Prehistory of India and Pakistan I : Development of Indus Civilization-Ceramic Traditions Module Id I C / PPHCI / 18 Pre requisites Objectives To understand the characteristic features and cultural changes that shaped the Indus Civilization from the beginning of Regionalization Era to the end of Integration Era Keywords Indus Civilization, Regionalization Era, Integration Era, Localization Era E-text (Quadrant-I): 1. Introduction Many settlements of the Indus Civilization are located in the areas well beyond the Indus river valley and therefore the civilization is referred to as civilization of the Greater Indus valley or Indus- Sarasvati Civilization. The Greater Indus Region extends from Shortugai in Afghanistan in the north to Daimabad on the banks of the Pravara in western India (Maharashtra). Its western boundary is marked by Sutkagen Dor whereas Manpur marks its eastern limit. With more than 2500 known sites spread across a landscape measuring over 1 million square kilometers, the Indus Civilization is the most geographically expansive state‐level society in the ancient world. This Civilization can be dated from c. 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. In order to define various cultural changes that occurred during the Indus Civilization; diverse terminologies emerged over a period of time as more number of researchers worked in separate geographical areas of the greater Indus region. These researchers felt that each stage of change needs to be defined separately so as to understand the origin, development, changes and decline of the Indus Civilization. They also felt that the process of cultural change within the greater Indus region is the result of an amalgamation of several traits from its various sub-regions. This led to a great diversity in its nomenclature, which now arouses confusion. Therefore, it is necessary to define these terminologies and bring them under relevant cultural terms indicative of the processes. The terms Regionalization Era, Integration Era and Localization Era are in use for assessing the development of the Indus Civilization. These terminologies are adopted from Shaffer and Lichtenstein, who proposed these terms supported by the radiocarbon dates from several sites distributed across the greater Indus region, assigning it as a product of interactive network among the ‘contemporary ethnic communities’ of that period within the region who shared several common traits and at the same time maintained their identity. Thus, the cultures referred to as Pre-Harappan or Proto-Harappan or Antecedent Harappan or Pre-Urban Harappan or Early Harappan or Early Indus Culture or Pre- Early Indus or Pre-Early Harappa or Pre-Pre-Harappa Culture are described under the Regionalization Era (c. 5000 – 2600 BCE), while Mature Harappan or Classical Harappan or Urban Harappan or Sindhi Harappan or Harappan are placed within the Integration Era (c. 2600 – 1900 BCE) and Late Harappan or Post-Urban Harappan or Post Harappan are grouped under the Localization Era (c. 1900 – 1000 BCE). 2 2. Objectives In this chapter, we will briefly describe the characteristic features and cultural changes that occurred during the Indus Civilization from the beginning of Regionalization Era to the end of Integration Era. This chapter will incorporate details of various ceramics traditions existing in Greater Indus region. 3. Regionalization Era During the Regionalization Era (c. 5000-2600 BCE), inhabitants of the Greater Indus region were organized into several regional cultures distinguishable from one another on the basis of pottery as well as other aspects of material culture. During this era, the inhabitants developed subsistence systems, interregional interaction networks, technological capabilities, and social hierarchies necessary for the emergence of urban state-level society. The regional phases located in the Amri- Nal Phase in Sindh and Baluchistan, Kot Diji Phase in Punjab and Cholistan, Sothi-Siswal Phase in Punjab and Haryana have the earliest evidence of the technological and social preconditions of the Integration Era i.e. diverse and abundant subsistence and resource base, establishment of socio‐economic interaction systems that link resource areas, the technological expertise and capacity to fulfill the needs of both urban and state level society, and mechanisms for establishing and reinforcing status differentiation or social hierarchies. Regional social complexity and the emergence of social hierarchies are reflected in the growth of small Regionalization Era agro‐pastoral settlements into villages and large towns during Integration Era. A pattern of wealth creation based on control of technology and distribution of finished products was also established during this era. Archaeological researches in North Gujarat, Saurashtra and Kachchh regions also provide evidence for the independent establishment of villages and towns during this period. Excavations at Harappa have confirmed a clear and gradual evolution of Classical Harappan material culture and social practice from the earliest Ravi-Hakra Phase and later Kot-Diji Phase. This continuous developmental trajectory at Harappa clearly shows that Punjab was the core area of urban emergence. There are different phases that make up the Regionalization Era: Bhurj Basket Marked Phase, Togau Phase, Kechi Beg Phase, Hakra Ware Phase, Amri-Nal Phase, Kot Dijian Phas, Sothi-Siswal Phase and Damb Sadaat Phase. 3.1 Bhurj Basket Marked Phase It represents the beginning of village farming communities, pastoral camps and introduction of ceramics in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan during c.5000-4300 BCE. The first occupation at Mehrgarh represented by the archaeological Period IA is aceramic or pre-pottery. The first ceramics of Period IB of Mehrgarh were soft, buff, chaff tempered and handmade. The shapes were simple and probably intended to meet the immediate needs. To some extent these shapes had similarities with those from the sites on the Iranian Plateau. From Mehrgarh IIA, ceramics are known from domestic context. The shapes are incipient forms of basins, bowls, pots and jars. The technology employed for their production is named as slabbing. Studies on Mehrgarh pottery also point to the evolution of techniques from basketry. Wheel made pottery appears from Mehrgarh IIB, at times expanded by using paddle and anvil. Compartmented buildings were constructed during the Bhurj Basket Marked Phase. 3.2 Togau Phase It is a period of significant growth in population and number of settlements. 84 sites of this Phase (c. 4300-3800 BCE) are reported from Baluchistan, Kandahar and Northwest Frontier Pakistan. Quetta Miri is the largest site of this phase. Agriculture and herding were well established during this Period. There was craft specialization in metallurgy, bead manufacture and potting. Wheel technology became increasingly common in the Togau Phase. The ceramics of Togau are fine, wheelmade and slipped in red and painted with black. The rim portions of the vessels are also definable. Bowls are the dominant shapes. The identity of these Wares rests on its surface designs, which are primarily naturalistic and stylized figures of ungulates. In South Asian designs these are perhaps the earliest examples of stylization and its evolution. This phase also witnessed significant craft activities. Mehrgarh was the hub of commerce. This phase also revealed evidences for melting, refining and possibly smelting of copper in a domestic type building with 3 three walls. Other finds include grinding stones, pestles, flint tools, drill bits, beads of steatite paste and shell bangles. Compartmented buildings were also constructed in this period. 3.3 Kechi Beg Phase In this Phase (c. 3800-3200 BCE), there was a significant growth in the number of settlements. 153 sites of this Phase are reported from Baluchistan, Kandahar and Northwest Frontier Pakistan. Dabar Kot is the largest site. Major sites of this period are Kechi Beg, Anjira and Sheri Khan Tarakai. A large number of terracotta figurines of both humans and cattle were found from this phase. Other finds include terracotta cones, spindle whorls, terracotta boats, bangles, beads, bone tools, ground stone tools and chipped stone tools. The faunal remains from Sheri Khan Tarakai include zebu (Bos indicus), sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). The Kechi Beg Phase is the most poorly known period at Mehrgarh, where Periods IV, V and VI have traces of this assemblage. It is clear that there was continuity in metallurgy and some interesting changes in the subsistence regime. At Mehrgarh, grape pips occur in this phase and persist through all subsequent periods until the abandonment of the site. The ascendancy of barley over wheat also seems to take place during this period. Its pottery include Zari Ware, Basket marked Ware of Togau, Anjira Ware and Nal ceramics. The Kechi Beg ceramic forms include open bowls and small mouthed bowls and globular jars. A variety of clay pastes seem to have used for its production. Similarly its surfaces were slipped with different colours; dominantly red and buff. Vessels with polychrome