U.S. SCIENCE EXHIBIT Seattle World's Fair Final Report

\ ^, ('))'< • S '' '• .•.••'-: '•< • • ; U.'C>. &C'.Cr r, J ' : • • • . - . : UNITED STATES SCIENCE EXHIBIT SEATTLE WORLD'S FAIR FINAL REPORT

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE LUTHER H. HODGES, Secretary

DR. ATHELSTAN SPILHAUS, Commissioner

CRAIG COLGATE, JR., Deputy Commissioner Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 63-60022

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price 55 cents llATTLE PUBLIC LIBRARY

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

SEATTLE WORLD'S FAIR, CENTURY 21 EXPOSITION, APRIL 21-OCTOBER 21, 1962

March 15, 1963

The Honorable Luther H. Hodges Secretary of Commerce Washington 25, D. G.

Dear Mr. Secretary:

It is a pleasure to transmit to you the final report on the United States Science Exhibit at the Seattle World's Fair. The almost universally favorable reception which the beautiful building, the science exhibits, demonstrations and other activities received during the Fair is a credit to all of those who took part. I hope that you and others in your Department will share this satisfaction. The Exhibit achieved, I believe, a high standard of excellence. I hope it will point the way for similar endeavors in the future.

Another source of gratification is that the permanent Science Pavilion and its contents will continue to bring scientific enlightenment to people of all ages and walks of life. The Pacific Science Center Founda­ tion has taken on the important task of operating the Exhibit facilities as a permanent Science Center. They are working hard to enlist community, regional, and national support to keep the Science Center going and up to date.

Finally I want to say to you how much I appreciated the long and hard work of the dedicated people of my staff, the assistance that you and those in your Department afforded us, and help from hundreds of people from all over the United States.

I am grateful to have had the opportunity of working with you on this challenging and unique undertaking.

Sincerely yours

Athelstan Spilhaus Commissioner

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200 - SECOND AVENUE NORTH - SEATTLE 9, WASHINGTON - CENTURY 5-3160 1. LEGISLATIVE HISTORY

Federal participation in the Seattle World's Concurrently a request to cover the total costs Fair was based on Public Law 85-880 (see page of Federal participation was under considera­ 84) approved September 2, 1958, which called tion by Congress. A justification in considerable on the President to "cooperate with the Washing­ detail was presented to the Senate Committeee on ton State World Fair Commission with respect Appropriations in August 1959 (Mutual Security to, and determine the extent to which the United Appropriations for 1960, Hearings before the States shall be a participant and an exhibitor at, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate, 86th the World Science-Pan Pacific Exposition . . . Congress, First Session, on H.K. 8385, page S53 which is being held at Seattle, Washington, et seq.). No House hearings as such were held in 1961." The appointment of a Commissioner on this appropriation. was authorized. The President was instructed Although there w^as considerable opposition in to report to the next session of Congress how the both houses of Congress to establishing a prec­ United States could best be represented at the Fair edent for Federal participation in domestic fairs, and the amount of money that would be neces­ in September 1959, during its first session, the sary. An interim appropriation of $125,000 was 86th Congress, by an amendment to the Mutual authorized. Security Bill, appropriated $9,000,000 for a U.S. On November 13, 1958, President Eisenhower Government Exhibit in Seattle. Funds were requested the Secretary of Commerce to study the made available in mid-October. matter, and furnish him recommendations upon Shortly thereafter Philip M. Evans was desig­ which a report to the 86th Congress could be nated Commissioner and began formation of a based. permanent staff. The 85th Congress adjourned without appro­ In the same month, Fair authorities announced priating the $125,000 called for in P.L. 85-880. In that the Fair would open in 1962, for 1 year only, order to be able to report to the 86th Congress, and not in 1961 for 2 years as originally planned. and enable the necessary planning to get under­ This was done in order to conform to the regula­ way, the President allotted the Department, of tions of the Bureau International des Exposi­ Commerce $60,000 from his Emergency Fund on tions governing participation in international December 20, 1958. A small planning staff un­ fairs by its members, and to secure the Bureau's der the direction of Francis D. Miller as Deputy official approval of the Seattle Fair as one in Commissioner was set up in the Department of which members of the Bureau could participate. Commerce on December 29th. At the time, this postponement of the Fair's open­ As a result of the work of this staff, and the ing, and halving its period, seemed to some a con­ assistance of the National Science Planning fession of failure and the beginning of its col­ Board, the President was able to transmit a re­ lapse. In retrospect, however, it proved probably port to Congress on May 21, 1959, as called for the wisest decision made by the Fair manage­ by P.L. 85-880. ment. Not only was significant foreign partici­ Further study by the planning staff also showed pation thus obtained, but the planners of the that P.L. 85-880 was unduly restrictive. Amend­ United States Science Exhibit were given an ad­ atory legislation would be needed if the Commis­ ditional year. Events were to show that they sioner were to have the necessary authority to needed every day of it. accomplish his tasks and if arrangements for Fed­ On January 20, 1961, Mr. Evans resigned as eral participation in the Fair were to have the Commissioner. Craig Colgate Jr., was appointed necessary flexibility. On September 9, 1959, ac­ Deputy and Acting Commissioner until the ap­ cordingly, Congress amended P.L. 85-880 by P.L. pointment of Dr. Athelstan Spilhaus as Commis­ 86-250 (see page 86). This not only broad­ sioner on April 18. ened the powers of the Commissioner, but sub­ A request for an additional appropriation was stituted a new financial ceiling of $12,500,000 for made in the spring of 1961, and on September 30, the previous ceiling of $125,000, which had been 1961, a supplemental $900,000 was granted (P.L. meant only to cover the initial planning. 87-332, 87th Congress, H.E. 9169). This money largely made possible the highly successful Junior ment of funds (31 U.S.C. 529), the prohibition Laboratory of Science described in Section 4. on contracts extending more than 1 year, and the Critical to the successful accomplishment of the standard regulations on the employment of ex­ tasks called for in P.L. 85-880 were certain ex­ perts and consultants. emptions from legal prohibitions and limitations Under section 302(c) of the Federal Property designed to control routine, continuing Govern­ and Administrative Services Act he was also ment operations. given authority to negotiate certain contracts P.L. 85-880 provided that appropriate funds without advertising, as follows: public exigency; were available until expended. Thus, unspent contracts for professional services; contracts with money did not have to be returned to the Treas­ universities and educational institutions; con­ ury at the end of each fiscal year. In addition, tracts where it was impractical to secure the Act gave the Commissioner authority to ac­ competition. cept loans and gifts, and to hire without reference The above exemptions afforded needed latitude. to Civil Service rules. The Commissioner also Without them there is little question it would have was immune to the prohibition on advance pay­ been impossible to complete the job on time. Contents Page 1. Legislative History 1 2. Development of the Theme 3 3. Storyline of Exhibits 7 4. The Junior Laboratory of Science 35 5. The Science Theater 43 6. Books at the Science Exhibit 45 7. Foreign Participation 46 8. Science Demonstrators 47 9. Public Reaction 49 10. Architectural Critique of the Pavilion 51 11. Residual Use of the Pavilion 55 12. Lessons for the Future 59 Appendixes: National Science Planning Board 62 Science Advisory Committee 63 Consultants and Advisers 64 Private Contributors 69 Exhibit Designers and Fabricators 72 Films in Science Theater 74 Science Books at the Exhibit 77 Attendance Pattern 80 Financial Statement 81 Organizational Chart 82 Index of USSE Files in National Archives 83 Public Law 85-880 84 Public Law 86-250 86 2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME

The United States Science Exhibit resulted It appeared as though the scientists and the pro­ from the union of two groups of people with sep­ moters of the Century 21 Exposition might have arate but complementary goals. On the one hand a common aim. the Seattle promoters of the Century 21 Exposi­ Despite reservations about Seattle's remoteness, tion hoped to stage an Exposition based on the Reynolds and Mitchell referred their visitors to theme of the 21st Century—when science would the American Association for the Advancement presumably play a major role. On the other hand of Science as an entree into the scientific com­ a small group of scientists was disturbed at the munity. An appointment was arranged for them lack of U.S. popular understanding of science, with Dael Wolfle, Executive Officer. and was anxious to do something to strengthen Wolfle thought the initial plans looked good, public support of scientific research. The meet­ and asked his visitors to return in about 10 days ing of these two groups was somewhat fortuitous. when he could assemble a group of scientists with In mid-October 1957, a few days after the whom it might be useful to talk. The Parliament Soviets launched the first sputnik, Dr. Frank of Science sponsored by the AAAS would then Fremont-Smith of the Josiah Macy, Jr., Founda­ be in session and a representative group of U.S. tion, Dr. Orr Reynolds, Chief, Office of Science, scientists could be convened. All of this seemed Department of Defense, and James Mitchell, particularly apropos, because by this time the Associate Director, National Science Foundation, Brussels Exposition was about to open. Many met in Washington and agreed that something U.S. scientists felt that the U.S. science exhibits at such as an International Science Fair was badly Brussels were not turning out as well as had been needed to demonstrate the many areas in which hoped, and that much better popular exhibits U.S. science was preeminent, and to awTaken the could be designed. U.S. public to the significance of the general scien­ A meeting was held in Washington, D.C., on tific effort and the importance of supporting it. March 15, 1958 for which Carlson and Dingwall Nothing more was done at the time by these returned. Senator Magnuson was also present. men, beyond talking to a number of their friends A number of representatives of the scientific com­ in the above vein. The United States Pavilion at munity also attended. Among these were Dean the Brussels Exposition was then being prepared. Henry Eyring, University of Utah, Dr. Frederick A number of U.S. scientific exhibits were being Seitz, University of Illinois, and Dr. Paul Weiss, constructed for Brussels, and it was hoped that to Rockefeller Foundation. These men had chaired some extent they would answer the problem. three of the four committees which had been work­ In early March 1958, Edward Carlson, Chair­ ing on the U.S. sections of the science exhibits at man, Ewen Dingwall, Director, and James N. Brussels, and had many ideas and suggestions as Faber, Deputy Director, of the Century 21 Cor­ to how science could be better presented to the poration arrived in Washington to try to interest general public were the job to be done again. the Federal Government in participating in the The consensus of the meeting was that if the projected Century 21 Exposition (subsequently backers of the Seattle Exposition were serious termed the Seattle World's Fair) since it was about having a large popular science exhibit, the clear that little foreign participation could be scientific community wTould eagerly support them. hoped for unless the U.S. Government could be However, it was emphasized that the exhibits must induced to play an official role. Calling at the deal with science not in terms of technology, but White House, they were referred to their Senators, as an adventure of the mind, as man's effort to Magnuson and Jackson, since the initiative in such understand the universe, and must appeal to the a matter would have to come from the Congress. general public rather than the specialist. The Ex­ Senator Magnuson, in particular, had long sup­ position management agreed, and a partnership ported the work of the National Science Founda­ was born. The National Academy of Sciences, tion and sent them to talk with James Mitchell the National Science Foundation, and the AAAS and Orr Reynolds. From Mitchell and Reynolds each appointed an individual to assist Carlson and they learned for the first time that a number of Dingwall in enlisting the services of a group of scientists for several months had been discussing scientists to advise the Exposition management. the idea of an International Exposition of Science. Leonard Carmichael, James Mitchell, and Dael

678410 O - 63 - Wolfle were appointed from their respective The proposals of the various departments were organizations. Together they recommended a carefully screened. Duplications were eliminated panel of scientists to whom letters of invitation and non-science subjects discarded. The result were sent by Senators Jackson and Magnuson, and was a summary in conformity with the ideas of Wolfle. A high proportion of those solicited ac­ the National Science Planning Board. This was cepted the invitation to serve on what then became used as the basis for the President's report to the 18-member National Science Planning Board the 86th Congress called for in P.L. 85-880. (see page 62), which met for the first time in This report, the first formal outline of a theme Seattle, August 6-7, 1958. for a Federal exhibit, proposed spending about The Board actively began to support a bill for $12% million for an International Hall of Sci­ study and a recommendation respecting U.S. par­ ence—a single monumental structure housing a ticipation in the Century 21 Exposition. How­ series of interrelated exhibits in four major fields: ever, if such legislation were to be enacted, an Space, the Life Sciences, Energy, and Man. For­ executive arm of the Government had to be found eign scientific contributions were also envisaged, willing to undertake the responsibility. The Na­ but this suggestion found little favor in tional Science Foundation, the Department of Congress. State, and the Department of Commerce were ap­ In the final event the storyline of the exhibits proached. All initially refused, because accepting in the U.S. Science Exhibit was much more so­ the job would create a precedent and would re­ phisticated, but this first thematic outline devel­ quire the establishment of a new office. At the oped with the assistance of the NSPB and time, Philip M. Evans was Special Assistant to embodying its ideas is historically interesting. Sinclair Weeks, Secretary of Commerce, who, at 1. THE SPACE SECTION of the International Mr. Evans' request, agreed to permit the Depart­ Science Hall was planned to include demon­ ment of Commerce to make a recommendation to strations of the solar system and of man's the President on Federal participation, provided efforts to penetrate its secrets, findings of the adequate funds were made available. With this International Geophysical Year, the meas- - agreement, the Bureau of the Budget looked urement of the ionosphere, prototypes of favorably on the proposed legislation. tracking stations, space vehicles, propulsion Following the appointment of Francis D. Mil­ systems, and control problems. ler as Deputy Commissioner on December 29, 2. THE LIFE SCIENCES AREA would outline 1958, he and a staff of four began to assemble the the major fields in which biochemists and exhibit proposals of various Federal Agencies others explore the nature of life. Exhibits solicited by a Presidential Directive in January would show how these discoveries could con­ 1959. tribute to the rational choices man must make In early 1959 there took place a number of to survive. lengthy sessions involving Mr. Miller's staff, the 3. THE ENERGY SECTION would show man's National Science Planning Board, scientists of constant search for new sources of energy. the Department of Defense, the National Aero­ Communications would demonstrate how nautics and Space Administration, the National satellites transmit signals to earth stations. Science Foundation, and various other Federal Weather predicting techniques would be agencies. An active part in this was played by demonstrated as well as breakthroughs in Dr. Paul Weiss, who was both a member of the new synthetic products. National Science Planning Board and the Presi­ 4. THE SECTION ON MAN would show the dent's Interdepartmental Commission on Sci­ many forces that are at play within his en­ entific Research and Development. Valuable vironment. Here would be inventions that assistance was also provided by James Mitchell have eased his work, provided him with lei­ and George Rothwell of the National Science sure, and given him new powers to heal as Foundation. well as to destroy. Here the visitor would The staff found strong support in the scientific see the uses of automation and educational community for the following reasons: advances. 1. Although the United States had partici­ This outline, admirably though it described im­ pated extensively in science expositions portant areas of scientific interest, was not suita­ abroad, it had never prepared a science exhibit ble as the storyline of a sophisticated and inte­ for the American people, who increasingly grated exhibit. In addition the allocation of are called on to support science expenditures. space described in the presentation to Congress 2. Such an exhibit could focus attention of seemed architecturally somewhat superficial. It youth on science, creating in them a desire to was apparent that, though the beginning had been participate in its many fields. excellent, additional thought was needed. 3. Much of the exhibit material could have At this point many assumed that the U.S. residual educational or research use, or could Science Exhibit would display scientific research be used in overseas U.S. exhibits. performed by various parts of the U.S. Govern-

3. STORYLINE OF THE EXHIBITS

The United States Science Exhibit at the Again in contrast to other exhibits or even to most Seattle World's Fair was a radical departure from museums, the Science Pavilion adopted a new all science or technology exhibits in the past, and approach to subject matter that had been treated constituted an important landmark for future de­ often in part but never in its totality. Science velopments in the use of the exhibit medium for was described as an adventure of the mind—as the communication of science to the public. man's effort to understand the universe in which First, the Science Pavilion was by far the larg­ he lives. est exhibit of its type ever—5 huge buildings with Thirdly, the Science Pavilion had a single uni­ 125 exhibits of varying size and complexity. It fied approach to science, with an integrated series not only dwarfed similar exhibits in other fairs, of exhibits, each telling a different part of a but there are relatively few museums in the world coherent story meant to be seen more or less in with this much space devoted to science, and none sequence. It was a carefully planned and co­ with anything approaching this amount of space ordinated effort, rather than a collection of ex­ devoted to contemporary science. This was also hibits created independently and for different the first time that a single exhibit of this size had purposes. ever been developed expressly for the purpose of Lastly, the Science Pavilion was not a glamori- popular science communication. No one knew zation of science or a parade ground for the prod­ whether a single huge presentation devoted solely ucts made possible through the applications of to science would interest the public. Its great at­ science. It was an attempt—quite successful to tendance and critical acclaim indicate an impor­ judge from the public reaction—to trace the tant lesson in regard to popular interest in science. history of intelligence in one whole field of human Secondly, the Science Pavilion had as its sub­ curiosity, and tell a coherent story aimed at pro­ ject science as a whole—its knowledge, its activi­ viding a better understanding and enjoyment of ties, and its people—rather than some particular science. It was an effort to display the innate aspect or area of concentration. It was an ab­ beauty and joy of science rather than its complex stract of the world of science, a collection of im­ discoveries, to give to the public some better in­ pressions, expressions, sights, and sensations, all sight into what is possibly the most powerful and aimed at providing an over-all view of science. important social force in the world today.

BUILDING I—THE HOUSE OF SCIENCE

The first building, a theater, contained an un­ showed science as a vast and varied enterprise usual 13-minute film introducing the entire with a long history which began when man first Exhibit. A visitor entered a spacious, softly lit, tried to understand the workings of nature. Ever oval room, one entire concave side of which was a since, he has added to the structure of the House of huge screen. While standing or seated on the Science at an ever-increasing rate. In collecting carpeted floor (there w^ere no seats) he watched a all these impressive images and uniting them into projection of six simultaneous related images of a coherent storyline and a concise script, Eames extraordinary brilliance and sharpness—almost talked with hundreds of scientists in many coun­ one and a quarter hours of them if judged by tries, and visited more than 50 laboratories with single-frame standards. This film achieved its his camera. remarkable technical effects through a battery of The prologue (approximately 4 minutes) was a seven 35mm projectors running in interlock and fully animated sequence for six projectors. Sci­ projecting multiple images on an unsegmented ence was treated allegorically as constantly evolv­ surface. This film, "The House of Science" cre­ ing architecture—its growth, its divisions, its ated by Charles and Ray Eames of Venice, Calif., unifications, its dead ends, its increasing complex- '* Jt Swiff SMI 1 t#4ttP 3lil lllfii If 1 IE -I llii^^ 1 Iliiilllilpi f 1I ' Ift^Ta^iifi:! 59 *tt#"?i* ^P4 fia4J MfTT" •Dpi m fO%v|^lS BPIill

"This is the House of Science as it is today." ity and specialization, its tendency toward reuni­ The transition (approximately 60 seconds) con­ fication. As the House of Science was brought up sisted of a selection of portraits of scientists of all to the explosive acceleration of modern times, it nations. It was meant to broaden preconceived became a sort of road map that hinted at the divi­ notions of what the "typical" scientist looked like. sions of the present structure. When the viewer Individuals were not named. "These," the narra­ was brought by the six screens to the present day tor said, "are the men that inhabit the house . . . in science, the technique was at its most impres­ that work in it . . . live in it . . . build it. This sive. "This," the narrator said, "is the House of is about what scientists look like." In succession, Science as it is today." And the viewer was pre­ six at a time, photos appeared of the great sci­ sented with a complex and gigantic architectural entists of today, variously inquiring, serious, cas­ representation of the branches and subdivisions of ual, humorous, intent, but all scientists, and all scientific disciplines. like ordinary people everywhere.

"These are the men that inhabit the House.' A tool of science—"The radio-telescope reaches farther out into space than anything we have ever known before.,,

The main body of the film (approximately 6 beautiful film closed with Mr. Eames' poetic minutes) consisted of a profusion of still pictures words: of the environment that surrounds the scientist "Science is essentially an artistic or philosophi­ and in which he functions. The laboratory was cal enterprise carried on for its own sake. In this shown not only as a collection of fancy glassware, it is more akin to play than work. But it is quite but as a stagnant pool, the people in a crowd, the a sophisticated play in which the scientist uses sun, or notes on a pad. "A laboratory," it was nature as a system of interlocking puzzles. He suggested, "can be anywhere that a scientist is assumes that the puzzles have a solution—that drawn to look." There were perhaps 60 scenes they will be fair. He holds to a faith in the un­ describing the laboratory alone—6 at a time—• derlying order of the universe. His motivation is some neat and precise "exactly as a laboratory his fascination with the puzzle itself. His method, should look," and some as large as the sun itself, a curious interplay between idea and experiment. others as natural as a stagnant pool, or as small as His pleasures are those of any artist. High on a drop of water. the list of prerequisites for being a scientist is a The film concluded by showing that the sci­ quality that defines the rich human being as much entist's tools are anything his imagination can de­ as it does the man of science. That is, his ability vise or adapt to extend his senses or bring order and his desire to reach out with his mind and and precision to his observations. Finally, this his imagination to something outside himself."

"A laboratory can be anywhere that a scientist is drawn to look." BUILDING II—THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Building II, designed by Walter Dorwin Huge color murals showed also gentler things— Teague Associates in its entirety, told a unique arctic suns and snow fields, the shifting aurora, the story of the development of science from the simp­ flight of a gull, the sea, and the star-filled sky. lest beginnings to its present-day refinements, and Along a ramp leading down to the main floor, showed how man has improved his ability to see, nine exhibits showed how man's senses, which define, measure, and predict the events of the nat­ give him knowledge of the world around him ural world and has extended his knowledge of while satisfying his curiosity, are limited in scope some of its phenomena. and reliability. Visual, aural, and touch decep­ The introductory exhibits dealt with the ele­ tions consisting of rotating discs, hot and cold mental forces of nature that first provoked the coils, changing colors, or artfully drawn lines, curiosity of primitive man and caused him to won­ fooled the eyes, the ears, or the sense of touch. der about the workings of his world. They were followed by exhibits which tricked and deceived the senses—making the point that man's senses, unaided, are not always reliable tools for observ­ ing the facts of nature. Next came a series of exhibits on instruments—which man invented and developed to extend his natural senses and provide more precise data. Then a series of exhibits dealt with the growth of numbers and mathematics- sharpest tool in the scientist's kit—which was evolved to describe and impose order on the in­ creasingly complex interrelationships being dis­ covered in nature. The remainder of the exhibits showed the de­ velopment of man's knowledge in four classical areas of scientific research—the electromagnetic spectrum, the structure of matter, genetics, and the concept of the universe. The international character of scientific activity was stressed. It was emphasized that no man works independent­ "A touch-deception exhibit produced a burning sensation ly of his fellows, but that each scientist's dis­ by a slight temperature variance." coveries rest on a platform which his predeces­ sors have built, and each adds his bit to the expanding house of ideas. Two stationary balloons appeared alternately as Immediately inside the door to Building II was receding and approaching when inflated and de­ a large panel whose text explained that all science flated. A town street was distorted in vertical begins with curiosity: reference. What appeared to be a steep upgrade "The multiplicity of sights, the profusion of actually went down. On the platform of a sounds, the sometimes delightful, sometimes pain­ train, the rising and falling of its whistle gave a ful, sensations of touch—the variously delicious sense of motion because of one's interpretation or disgusting scents and tastes that primitive man of the Doppler effect as associated with motion. perceived unwittingly—as every child has since— Thus it was shown that if man wished to explore in time sparked thought, recall, then associa­ nature he must first recognize the limitations of tion of several phenomena, and CURIOSITY. Once awakened, man uses the very channels that his own senses. Then he must extend them by served to provoke his questions—his Natural instruments which would measure accurately, Senses—to satisfy his curiosity by more deliberate magnify the small, bring near the distant, slow observations of his environment—the Universe. the fast, speed the slow, or caich an instant and His curiosity is unlimited—turns sometimes to hold it. himself to study the functioning and limitations of his senses for perceiving natural phenomena, EXTENDING THE SENSES—SEEING to grasp an understanding—a better description— of the phenomena themselves." AND MEASURING THE UNSEEN Around a corner, some of the phenomena of na­ "The sounds you hear are pressure waves trans­ ture were illustrated. A volcano projected on a mitted through the air causing your eardrum to screen filled the hall with the taped roar of its vibrate. Your ear is an extraordinarily sensitive eruption. Lightning flashed on dark walls. instrument which can hear sounds so wTeak that

10 the movement within the ear is less than ten-bil­ Texts in simple language explained each instru­ lionth of an inch. With it you can also hear ment, e.g.: "The principle of the optical pyrome­ very loud noises, as those of jet engines nearby. ter is to match the color of a heated filament, The ear also has a remarkable range of frequen­ whose temperature is known, to the color of an cies. It can hear tone waves that pulse only 16 object, whose temperature is unknown." to 40 times per second, and high tones pulsing up to 18,000 times per second. Above this, the hu­ OBSERVING AND MEASURING THE man ear no longer responds, but a dog will hear up to twice this higher frequency, and bats even REMOTE higher. Man needs instruments to detect these The entire north wall of the building contained ultrasonic noises. On this oscilloscope we can see a gigantic sky mural with thousands of points of sound waves above our range of hearing." light—stars. A panel on it held Galileo's own Thus began the narration and text of a section words written in 1610 describing how he put two of Building II depicting the development of in­ simple lenses together at the ends of a tube and struments to extend man's imperfect sensory made a telescope which he turned on the heavens. equipment. The exhibits displayed actual exam­ The results of this step were dramatized by star­ ples, such as rocks which fluoresced under ultra­ tling modern photographs of the Andromeda violet light, juxtaposed to a graph of the visible Nebula, 2,200,000 light-years away. The text ex­ light spectrum. An exhibit demonstrated the plained that astronomers now learn about such uses of a high-speed camera in recording events far parts of the universe by joining the camera to too rapid for the human eye to glimpse, or time- the reflecting telescope. "Photographic plates lapse photography which creates meaningful mo­ can be exposed for a long time to record faint tion from events whose action is too slow to images that the eye cannot see. Thus, large re­ perceive. The lens, as well as light- electron- and flecting telescopes coupled to a camera can record ion-microscopes were demonstrated, as well as a images of stars more than a billion light years dis­ neutron spectrometer, counters, and scalers. tant—too faint to be discerned by the human eye. The images permanently recorded on plates can be stored, copied, and studied by astronomers."

Building II—Interior on an average day.

As instruments became more complicated, man needed to develop scales of comparison to com­ municate the data he observed. This develop­ ment was interestingly illustrated in exhibits on the history of temperature-measuring devices. On a stand was a replica of Galileo's first ther­ mometer, constructed in 1592. Next, was shown the contribution of Fahrenheit, who in 1714 se­ lected a scale on which water boiled at 212° and froze at 32°; then, Celsius, who in 1742 created the more practical centigrade scale. Finally, in 1848, Lord Kelvin devised his scale in which zero represents the complete absence of heat. Exam­ ples of modern temperature-measuring devices were shown, a thermoelectric pyrometer, an elec­ tric resistance thermometer, and an optical pyrom­ Building II—Interior view of the crowd on an average eter, through whose eyepiece visitors could look. day, with sky mural at right.

678410 O - 63 - 3 11 Another astronomer's instrument for examining As visitors watched, a digital plotter took instruc­ the vast and faraway is the spectroscope, which tions from the computer and traced a path show­ was diagrammatically illustrated. A small sec­ ing whether the space vehicle would orbit the earth tion of a dark-line absorption-spectrum of a giant or return to it. In dramatic contrast to the large G4 star was compared with a number of bright- modern computer was a replica of the first tiny line emission-spectra of elements on earth. A calculating machine, made in 1642 by Pascal. diagram showed how a spectroscope analyzes star­ The rest of the building was given over to four light and draws dark-line portraits of how some major groups of exhibits showing how man's of the star's energy is absorbed by different gas­ knowledge of his world in four distinct areas has eous elements through which it must pass. "The been built up—how scientists build on the work dark lines in the absorption spectrum may also of their predecessors, or tear down the walls of shift according to the Doppler effect, telling us scientific tradition and start anew. whether the star is approaching or receding, and at what rate," the text of the exhibit concluded. ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND NUMBERS AND MATHEMATICS THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPEC­ "I often say . . . that when you can measure TRUM what you are speaking about, and express it in The story of electricity introduced this section. numbers, you know something about it; but when It began with the work of two Italians, Galvani you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, knowledge is a meager and unsatis­ and Volta, continued with the work of the Dane, factory kind." Oersted, and culminated with Faraday's discovery Thus Lord Kelvin was quoted in the exhibits of the principle of the electric generator. on mathematics, which were introduced by artis­ tic plastic panels, tracing the concept of number from its nebulous beginnings in prehistory through the abacus found in many cultures, and finally, to the invention of the concept of nothing. "The unknown Hindu who invented the zero in the first centuries of our era", the text continued, "did not see in the '0' the symbol of nothing; he was merely trying to make an unambiguous record of a counting frame operation—the empty col­ umn—0. His blind discovery of the Principle of Position now assumes the proportions of a world event—a revolutionary step. With a base of 10, only 9 other characters are needed to express any number, however large. . . . "Mathematics, the Language of Science, is a language of action using nouns and verbs just as in ordinary grammar, with equations serving as sentences. Nouns are numbers. Proper or com­ mon ones are 200, 50,4, etc. Abstract or collective ones are d, r, t, etc. . . . "When the behavior of many phenomena has been correctly described mathematically, unsus­ pected behavioral similarities among apparently unrelated phenomena can be seen by comparison of their several equations. Once types of behav­ ior or functions are recognized, they can be antici­ pated and used to predict behavior in new situations." Audience participation exhibits on the theory of The above texts formed part of several panels electro-magnetism. - dealing with mathematics and leading up to the final exhibit in this section. An electronic com­ The Faraday exhibit was particularly moving puter, programed to calculate the behavior of a since it contained replicas of his crude, wire- vehicle launched from earth into space. After wrapped iron ring, and laboratory notebooks from explaining its operation and parts, an attendant which the dynamo was launched. These relics, fed data into the computer on the burn-out speed together with a replica of Faraday's first gen­ of the rocket, and the heading angle at launch. erator, were donated by the British Government.

12 The content of the exhibit did not stop with "There must be some point beyond which we can­ these, but went on to explain how Faraday de­ not go in its division. The existence of ultimate veloped his idea of fields filling all space with particles of matter can scarcely be doubted* though electric, magnetic, radiant, or gravitational they are probably much too small ever to be ex­ forces. "All I can say is, that I do not perceive in hibited by microscopic improvements. I HAVE any part of space, whether vacant or filled with CHOSEN THE WORD 'ATOM' TO SIGNIFY matter, anything but forces and the lines in which THESE ULTIMATE PARTICLES." they are exerted," Faraday wrote in his diary in The basic difference between elements, said 1846. Dalton, is that the atoms of one element differ in The series of exhibits concluded with panels ex­ weight from the atoms of all other elements. But plaining howT another Englishman, Maxwell, to weigh them was not easy. translated Faraday's concept of force lines and Joseph Louis Proust showed that a given com­ other vibrations into exact mathematical descrip­ pound, whether formed in nature or the labora­ tions, and how Hertz, a German, proved these tory, contained the same elements combined in the ^descriptions experimentally, and developed our same proportion by weight. present knowledge of the electromagnetic spec­ Joseph Gay-Lussae found that when certain trum, a large chart of which closed the story. gases combine to form compound gases, the volume of the resulting compound often exceeded the THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER volume of at least one of the components. Amedeo Avogadro reconciled this apparent con­ Leaving the electromagnetic chart behind, one flict arising in atomic weight by postulating poly­ rounded a corner to stand before a replica of atomic molecules. Antoine Lavoisier's "balance," or scale, donated Next, Dimitri Mendeleev arranged the elements by the French Government, used by Lavoisier in his periodic table by atomic weight and discov­ in the 18th century to study the composition of ered that elements with similar chemical proper­ materials by burning them, collecting and ties recurred at definite intervals of eight. separating the gases given off, and weighing each substance derived from the original material. This Lavoisier relic introduced the exhibits in a large circular room surrounded by imaginative and beautiful panels telling the story of the de­ velopment of man's present concept of the struc­ ture of matter.

General view of exhibits on the structure of matter. First, three large plastic bubbles illustrated John Dalton's concept of the three states of mat­ ter: "We recognize in steam a perfectly elastic fluid (gas), in water a perfect liquid, and in ice, a solid." While Lavoisier had concluded that all matter was composed of distinct chemical elements, Dalton expressed the concept that every element consists of identical indestructible atoms, which cannot be divided, created or destroyed. Exhibit on the work of J. J. Thompson which led to the "Matter * * * is not infinitely divisible," he said. discovery of the electron. 13 By 1896 scientists studying matter thought they EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY—FROM had arrived at a description of indivisible DARWIN TO DNA particles of matter, the atoms. But as man created finer tools for measurement and explora­ The next series of exhibits, on biology and ge­ tion his understanding of matter grew and netics, reemphasized that man's understanding of changed. Like a mystery story, the ending was a the living world has proceeded from description surprise. On the next panel a visitor could read to increasingly more fundamental explanation. a description of /. /. Thomson's experiment lead­ The work of Charles Darwin began the series. ing to the discovery of the electron and his con­ In 1859, Darwin, struck by the variety of living viction that there are particles within atoms like forms, offered a revolutionary explanation of their seeds in a watermelon. origin. A large introductory panel bore the open­ Then Henri Beequerel found his photographic ing words of The Origin of Species: "While on plates fogged by uranium ore—an accident which board H.M.S. Beagle, as a naturalist, I was much led to the discovery of radioactivity. struck with certain facts in the distribution of the A visitor was next shown in diagram how Ernest organic beings inhabiting South America, and in Rutherford directed a stream of alpha particles at the geological relations of the present to the past a gold-foil target and observed the scatter pattern inhabitants of that continent." resulting from collision of particles with atoms "Delight is a weak term," Darwin wrote, "to ex­ in the foil. Only a dense core could have deflected press the feelings of a naturalist who for the first the particles, he concluded. But since most of time has wandered by himself in a Brazilian for­ the particles passed through, the atomic core must est." A narrow corridor walled with arching occupy only a small part of the total space. The stylized trees framed giant color photos of the life next panel showed how Rutherford's pupil, Niels of the Brazilian rain forest and enabled a visitor Bohr, introduced a new idea to our concept of the to travel with Darwin through the impressions atom in 1913 by declaring that electrons circle the that formed his thinking. Inserted in each color nucleus in only a few specific orbits, emitting no photo was a spot of motion; a butterfly alighting, energy as electromagnetic waves— but when they a snake crawling. This unique combination of jump from one orbit to another they either absorb still and moving color images was thought by or emit energy in discrete bits. This led to a new many to be one of the most appealing exhibits in kind of mechanics concerned with "jumps" in the building. behavior. . . Next, a panel showed how physicists then began to use cloud chambers to study particles given off by atoms. In 1932, HideM Yukawa suggested the existence of even more particles hold­ ing the atomic nucleus together. He predicted a mass between that of protons and electrons- mesons. Five years later they were found m cosmic rays. Since then, the text explained, many other fun­ damental particles serving as "nuclear glue" have been found and identified—enough in fact for a whole new table. This table, like Mendeleev's, has been useful in predicting the existence of still more particles and their behavior. A copy of the table, in the light of our present knowledge, termi­ nated the series of panels on the structure of matter. But so rapid are scientific advances that another particle was discovered while the Exposi­ tion was in progress! Out of these new understandings, the series of exhibits made plain, a new picture of the atom had emerged, as well as a new explanatory basis of chemistry. This was illustrated by today's peri­ odic table of the elements, containing 15 new ele­ ments created by synthesis in atomic piles or nu­ clear accelerators. Our new knowledge of atomic structure now provides a much better understand­ ing of the chemical properties of elements, with "A narrow corridor walled with arching stylized trees the number of the electrons in the outer shell now framed giant color photos of the life of the Brazilian appearing to play the crucial role. rain forest." 14 With these and many other impressions Darwin a series of reactions required to make a vitamin. returned to England to write and think. In 1859 The only way to account for this, they felt, was to he published his definitive explanation of evolu­ assume that each gene is a model for each enzyme. tion by natural selection. "This preservation of The chemical nature and location of the gene favorable individual differences and variations, became more certain when bacteriologist Fred and the destruction of those which are injurious, I Griffith altered one strain of the pneumonia bac­ have called natural selection." terium by mixing it with nucleic acid from an­ The next exhibit dealt with the work of Gregor other strain. While nucleic acid had been known Mendel, who, in the very year when Darwin was since 1869 to be made of adenine, guanine, cytosine publishing his elegant generalizations on environ­ and thymine, its role had never been clear. Now mental factors, was approaching an answer to the it seemed clearer—the nucleic acid had contained question as to how heredity traits were transmitted a gene. from one generation to another. The compounds making up nucleic acid, when A large animated panel showed how Mendel combined in different sequences and bonded by a cross-bred flowering peas and discovered the rules sugar molecule, make deoxyribonucleic acid for the distribution of inherited characteristics by (DNA), which appeared to transfer genetic in­ offspring. The principle was further illustrated formation. But how ? In 1953 James D. Watson in human terms by an animated diagram of off­ and F. H. C. Crick proposed a model of the DNA spring from brown- and blue-eyed parents. molecule, recognized today as the chemical blue­ But the story was far from ended. Though print for inherited traits. Almost infinite varia­ Darwin described the influence of environment, tions of this molecule appear in every living cell. and Mendel formulated the rules of inheritance, The model Crick and Watson proposed stood, some the question remained: Through what mecha­ 15 feet high, at the end of the exhibit series in the nism were heredity traits transmitted? The an­ form of a large double helix. Each element (car­ swer was found in the cell, a basic unit of life com­ bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus) mon to all living things. The remaining exhibits which composed this giant model of a DNA mole­ portrayed the work of scientists who have devel­ cule was represented by a ball of a different color. oped our present knowledge of this subject, THE CELL The cell itself, the visitor read, had been de­ scribed in 1665 by Robert Hooke. Cell division had been noted by 1879, and it had been learned that organisms grow when cells mature and divide. Text and diagrams explained the tw^o kinds of cell division—mitosis and meiosis—as well as the probable importance of chromosomes in heredity. But a puzzle still existed. The number of chromosomes in man was small (now known to be 23 pairs), yet he inherits billions of combinations of characteristics. Some smaller and more funda­ "The model Crick and Watson proposed stood at the end mental unit of heredity transmission must exist. of the exhibit series." In 1911, the exhibit went on to explain, T. M. Morgan inferred from study of fruit flies that he­ The manner of information storage was clarified redity carriers, now known as genes, must be ar­ through analogy by a second DNA model formed ranged in a row on the chromosome. Others built by the aces of the four card suits in which dia­ on this concept. monds could only pair with spades and hearts only Physicists and chemists joined the biologists to with clubs. On a card ladder one could see how search for the mechanism of the heredity process. each successive positioning in the long chain could More powerful microscopes revealed the cell as it be occupied by any of the four suits. The possible divided. Chemical analysis of increasing preci­ combinations were almost infinite and constituted sion came closer and closer to the answer. It was a genetic code through which the DNA molecule learned that genes could change places along the carries complicated heredity instructions. chromosome, and it was found possible to change When such a ladder or chain divides as in or mutate them by neutrons, ionizing radiation, or meiosis, the text explained, each separate chain ultraviolet light. Thus it seemed likely that flex­ draws new "cards" to fill the ladder. Since cer­ ibility of recombination of genes, and gene tain compounds will only unite with certain others, changes, or mutation, gave rise to the evolutionary the ladder duplicates itself. But error can occur. development Darwin described. These infrequent "mistakes" account for the phe­ In 1941, George W. Beadle and Edward L. nomena of evolutionary change—which Darwin Tatum showed that a mutated gene permanently so dramatically described and related to environ­ alters all its descendants by blocking one step in ment.

15 MOTION AND THE UNIVERSE motion: "A stone that is projected is by the pres­ sure of its own weight forced out of the rectilinear The final series of exhibits in Building II dealt path, which by the initial projection alone it with the development of man's changing concept should have pursued, and made to describe a of the macrocosm. An introductory panel bore curved line in the air; and through that crooked the poetic text: way is at last brought down to the ground; and T 4 The rhythmical succession of days, the regular circuit the greater the velocity is with w hich it is pro­ of the sun, pressed consciousness of the sky on prim­ jected, the farther it goes before it falls to the itive man. earth. We may therefore suppose the velocity to Every civilization has formed ideas about the phe­ nomena displayed overhead. be so increased, . . . till at last, exceeding the lim­ Man's conception of these—variously emotional and its of the earth, it should pass into space without logical—has been constantly changing. touching it. ... its -velocity, when it returns to Starting with Pythagoras and ending with the mountain, will be no less than it was at first; Einstein, illustrated panels with texts of consider­ and retaining the same velocity, it will describe able sophistication told the story of man's evolving the same curve over and over, by the same law." concept of his universe, beginning with the concept Newton expressed the commonsense idea that of the first natural philosophers that uniform cir­ there is absolute space without relation to any­ cular motion is the perfect form and movement of thing external, remaining always similar and im­ heavenly bodies and culminating in Einstein's 20th movable. Likewise there is absolute time, mathe­ century elaboration that no motion is absolute, matical and true, flowing from its own nature but that only an object's motion relative to other without relation to anything external. From this bodies has physical meaning. it follows there must be absolute motion. Pythagoras, in the sixth century B.C. imagined But a revolution was coming, the next panel ex­ that the "divine" heavenly bodies and the earth plained. In one of the greatest scientific general­ were spheres in uniform circular motion. This izations, Albert Einstein (1879-1955), suggested belief was shared by all astronomers for more than that no motion is absolute, and only the relative 2,000 years. motion of an object in respect to others has phys­ Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-120 B.C.) made the ical meaning—hence "relativity." He presented most accurate observations of antiquity. Com­ a geometry of gravitation in his General Theory. paring these, he discovered the precession of equi­ The forces of gravity were manifestations of what noxes, and explained the irregular paths of the became known as the space-time continuum. This planets. continuum implied unity of space and time con­ Ptolemy of Alexandria}s (A.D. 127-151) great ceived of in four-dimensional curved space. work, known later as the Almagest, offered a A puzzled reader could refer to a model of a mathematical description of the universe which 6-months version of Einstein's Space-Time Con­ remained unchanged until Kepler. tinuum. A central vertical shaft represented the Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), a Pole, ob­ path of the sun during that time. Around it served that planetary orbits would be simpler if swept a green helical path—a serpent-like line. looked at from the sun rather than from earth. Another yellow serpent curved around the shaft Tycho Brake (1546-1601), a Dane, was a patient showing the path of a point on the equator of the and accurate observer. From the greatest observ­ revolving sun. One could thus see that space and atory of his time on an island off Copenhagen, he time in this model were not independent, as New­ made very accurate measurements with the fine ton stated, but part of a related, four-dimensional instruments he designed. A replica of Brahe's curved space, in which the helical path taken by beautiful Armillary Sphere, on loan from the the earth was the shortest distance between two Smithsonian Institution, stood in the middle of points. the exhibit. The exhibit series terminated with two para­ Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), a German and doxical relativity twins, Go and No-Go. Identical Brahe's student, stretched the orbits into ellipses twins, dummies with backs to the audience, sat be­ and in 1618 stated "the squares of the period of fore control panels of identical space ships. While revolution round the sun are proportional to the one traveled at the speed of light toward a distant cubes of the distances." star, the other remained on earth. They conversed. Galileo Galilei (1564-1643), discovered the laws What a strange conversation! Hurtling along of falling bodies, and worked out the fact that at nearly the speed of light, twin Go felt almost no distance increases as the square of the time. His passage of time. His brother, No-Go reported the ball experiment was illustrated, along with the passage of years. Go's length diminished when he text: "We rolled the ball . . . along the channel, and his space ship contracted as his rocket energy noting . . . the time required to make the de­ was converted into mass. No-Go aged, while Go scent . . . we now rolled the ball only one-quarter remained young. Go, as young as when he left the length of the channel; and having measured earth, could only wonder which was right, his bio­ the time of its descent, we found it precisely one- logical age of 18 or his legal age of 38. half the former." Such phenomena, the demonstration closed by Isaac Newton (1642-1727) applied mathematics pointing out, are the implications of the new con­ to mechanics and discovered universal laws of cepts of motion-relativity, and space and time.

16 Tycho Brahe's armillary sphere, on loan from the Smithsonian Institution.

17 BUILDING III—THE SPACEARIUIY1

The concept of relativity and the macrocosm While the giant 10-element lens was being com­ formed a natural introduction to Building III— pleted, producers of the film faced other problems. The Spacearium—in which a 13-minute film, Normal motion pictures use 35mm film. Wide- "Journey to the Stars," was presented. In the screen systems use 65mm. The size of the Space­ storyline of the U.S. Science Exhibit, the purpose arium screen required 70mm film stock with square of the Spacearium was to convey some impression picture frames. Because of the large aperture, the of the immensity of the universe we inhabit, and film had to travel at 282 feet per minute. This to emphasize space as an area still largely un­ called for a redesign of cameras, optical printers, known where man's scientific curiosity and instru­ projectors, and other film-handling and processing ments are at work. equipment in tightly scheduled work stages. Ad­ The Spacearium (to which the Boeing Co. con­ ditional effort went into precise construction of tributed heavily) was a stand-up circular carpeted models of planets and sun, the careful study of theater with a projection booth in the middle of thousands of astronomical photos and the build­ the floor. An audience of 750 viewed a picture ing of a unique star dome that showed the loca­ projected on the largest screen in the world on a tions and magnitudes of hundreds of stars with geodesic dome 78 feet in diameter. scientific accuracy. To produce a bright image on this immense "Journey to the Stars" was produced by Fine screen required a new lens which could project Arts Productions, Hollywood, Calif. Gunther around the entire horizon in a 162° vertical arc— Schuller wrote the background music. Every 20° more than the widest lens then in existence. effort was made by numerous scientific consultants Because the lens was to be used first for filming as to keep all details scientifically accurate. The well as later for projecting, it had to be produced "journey" in the film was not of course an actual very quickly. This was accomplished with the aid trip but a voyage of the imagination. Even at of Felix Bednarz, lens designer for the Fairchild- the speed of light, billions of years would be needed Curtis Optical Company. to cover the distances described.

"Spaceborne, using the stars to steer by." The audience watches the Spacearium film.

18 A spiral nebula projected through the Spacearium lens.

A crash of music opened the film. The entire The Milky Way resolved itself into millions of dome was covered with a bright image of huge suns—stars of all descriptions, colors and magni­ shutters which opened, slid back, and disappeared. tudes. The Lagoon Nebula was pierced. Leaving There was the earth, partly illuminated by the sun the Milky Way behind, Andromeda appeared, and surrounded by countless stars. The sound­ nearest galaxy to our own. Now, one was in inter- track came up: "Spaceborn, using the stars to steer galactic space, 30 thousand billion billion miles by, we follow a curved path." The brown and from earth. As the camera turned back towards earth, a star exploded, creating a Super Nova. A blue earth fell away, and the pockmarked moon viewer entered his own galaxy. Venus and Mer­ rose up with its arid deserts and rugged moun­ cury slid past, Earth reappeared, the space traveler tains. Next the sun came into view, shooting gey­ settled down on it again, the shutters closed, and sers of glowing hydrogen millions of miles above the lights came up. its surface. Beyond in the distance a tiny red Creating the Spacearium film, lens, and projec­ speck began to grow. Then moons circling a red tion system was pioneering work. Nothing like planet appeared. The narrator spoke, "Mars may this had been done before. Many technical diffi­ support some form of life. Have thinking beings culties in production and projection were sur­ contrived to cultivate the red oxidized soil?" As mounted, but not all were completely overcome. Mars passed from view, asteroids of various sizes Nevertheless, the Spacearium was probably more and shapes appeared. Then Saturn and its rings. popular with the general public than anything else Then the imagination soared past Pluto, and out in the U.S. Science Pavilion. For most people, of the solar system, past the constellation Sagit­ "Journey to the Stars" was an impressive tarius and the giant red sun Antares. experience. 19

678410 O - 63 - BUILDING IV—THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

Building IV, largest of the 6 parts of the THE NATURE OF OUR Pavilion, contained 27 exhibits chosen to show how SURROUNDINGS scientists work in a variety of current fields of research. Entrances and pathways were planned WHAT IS INSIDE THE EARTH? A model of the so that large crowds had individual freedom of earth with a quarter section removed displayed movement. The exhibits concentrated on the tech­ its dense nickel-iron inner core. Illustrated pan­ niques of research and were grouped into six major els showed that, since man has not been able to subject areas: penetrate below^ the earth's crust, his knowledge of The nature of our surroundings the earth's core has had to come from indirect The sources of energy evidence such as gravity readings, meteorites, and The structure of matter seismological data. This was illustrated by a The nature of life recorded earthquake and simulated paths of dif­ The functioning of living organisms ferent types of shock waves passing through the layers of the earth model. The sources of behavior, animal and human. The exhibits w^ere designed to communicate on Proof of these indirect observations, as well as direct knowledge, will come from Project Mohole, various levels of understanding. Although their the exhibit explained, an attempt now under way basic purpose was to stimulate and inform the to bore deep into the Mohorovicic discontinuity. uninitiated, they had much to offer those with A model of Cuss I was displayed, the drilling ves­ more advanced backgrounds. Each began with sel that in 1961 made test borings off the Califor­ a question, and usually ended by posing more ques­ nia coast. Beneath the model hung three under­ tions. The challenge, they seemed to say, is al­ water buoys, illustrating the ingenious system ways to ask the right question—one that goes to which kept the ship in boring position. the heart of the problem—and can be answered WHAT IS THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH? This with the tools and information at the scientist's question was clearly and dramatically answered disposal. through a three-dimensional geometrical model The exhibits in this building again emphasized showing a slightly pear-shaped world, bulging the message of the introductory Eames film—that 250 feet in the region of the eastern equatorial there are many kinds of scientists, many kinds of Atlantic and Pacific oceans. How scientists have laboratories, and a profusion of methods and in­ learned this was shown by an extensive collec­ tion of models, diagrams, and actual demonstra­ struments called "scientific." tions of Project Transit showing how daily Just inside the door, a panel set forth the analysis of data from satellites provided the in­ theme: formation necessary to deduce the earth's true Here we see how scientists do their work. geometrical shape. Here are presented random samples of present day The heart of the exhibit consisted of an actual research which is still going on. They relate to : • Our environment—earth and space. • How matter is constructed. • How living things are built. • How living things behave. To learn about the world around us, we ask, ob­ serve, suppose, experiment and analyze: • In asking—the right questions must be posed. • In observing—the important must be distin­ guished from the unimportant. • In supposing—a probable answer (a hypoth­ esis) may be predicted, but we must be willing to abandon it. • In experimenting—the right instrument must be chosen, or borrowed imaginatively from the tool kit of some other branch of science. There is variety. Exhibits include: • The work of many scientists in different coun­ tries. (Communication among scientists is im­ portant. ) • Studies of the tiniest nuclear particles to phenomena of the scale of the universe. "Illustrated panels showed that, since man has not been • Work in conventional laboratories, below the able to penetrate below the earth's crust, his knowl­ sea, and even in space. edge of the earth's core has had to come from indirect • Studies of inanimate as well as living things. evidence." 20 Transit tracking station provided by the Bureau of Naval Weapons and staffed by the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins Univer­ sity. The first purpose of Project Transit had been to establish satellites in orbit as fixed refer­ ence points for a world-wide navigation system. Determination of the true shape of the earth was something of an accidental by-product of the In­ ternational Geophysical Year, and was made pos­ sible, the text explained, because of the extreme sensitivity of satellites to irregularities in the earth's shape. They thus constitute a unique new scientific tool. The rear of the exhibit was formed by the con­ trol panels and oscilloscopes of the tracking sta­ tion. Overhead hung a model of Transit 4A. A narrator explained the function of the various pieces of equipment, the construction of Transit and other satellites, and the scientific programs they furthered. WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM ASTRONOMICAL EADIO WAVES? "Until very recently man's only knowledge of the heavens was brought to him by light waves, by direct vision later aided by optical telescopes, photographic plates, and spectroscopes. Occasionally, man found and examined a meteorite." A new window on the universe opened in 1932 when Karl Jansky detected intense radio signals from the center of our galaxy. Radio waves, the visitor was told, often come from areas in the sky which look dark to the eye or the optical tele­ scope, through the great clouds of cosmic dust located far out in space. A new instrument has been devised to catch these signals. The radio telescope "reaches farther out into space than anything we have ever known before. It explores the universe billions of light years away." A map showed the location and photographs of the major radio telescopes in the world. A recording of a typical signal received from the stars was played. Graphics of the Crab Nebula and Jupiter portrayed some of the most active sources of radio waves. A map of our galaxy, as it might look if our eyes were sensitive to cosmic radiation, illustrated the dramatic picture of the universe radio telescopes draw. The map was layered with edge-lit transparent blue sheets of plexiglass, each representing a 10% difference in radiation intensity. "Optical and radio telescopes provide different kinds of 'pictures'. Areas of the sky blocked from optical vision by cosmic dust clouds can be readily penetrated by radio waves probing into regions hidden from sight." How CAN WE SEE PLANETS AND STARS MORE CLEARLY ? This exhibit demonstrated how scien­ tists surmount the dense blanket of atmosphere surrounding the earth. "The earth's atmosphere distorts and obscures astronomers' view of the heavens. Even on a "What can we learn from astronomical radio waves?" clear day, light is distorted by air turbulence. To 21 reduce these effects telescopes have been placed THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER on mountain tops, and balloons have been used to carry telescopes above the atmosphere." How CAN WE LEARN ABOUT ATOMS ? Since an A large photo-mural showed a giant balloon atom is far too small to see, its internal structure being inflated to carry Stratoscope I and its 12- and the forces which bind its particles together inch mirror and camera to 80,000 feet. A photo­ must be studied indirectly: "One way its structure graph of the sun's surface taken by Stratoscope I can be deduced is by bombarding it with particles at that elevation could be compared with a photo such as electrons and recording how these parti­ of the same subject taken through a telescope on cles are deflected and scattered. The principle Mt. Wilson, California. The one showed excel­ of the scatter technique is demonstrated here by lent detail, the other, heavy granulation. "A this machine firing steel balls at two targets. You new, larger instrument, Stratoscope II, is be­ can see the scatter pattern when the target is vis­ ing tested. Astronomers hope to get the first ible and then when the target is invisible you can good pictures of the distant planet Pluto with this deduce from the scatter pattern which one is being instrument. They also look forward to better used." pictures of Venus and Mars, and distant clouds of To produce such particles, the text went on to glowing gas in interstellar space. New pictures explain, scientists use accelerators such as the new may reveal life on Mars, or perhaps the surface Brookhaven Synchrotron which can speed protons of Venus through a hole in its clouds." to energies of 33 billion electron volts. This de­ WHAT CAUSES THE AURORA ? This exhibit pre­ vice was pictured, together with an animated sented the story of how scientists formulated an schematic diagram of how it speeded up orbiting explanation of aurora polaris, or polar light: protons in a powerful magnetic field. In contrast, "Our sun is a star of average size consisting of another panel explained how a linear accelerator gases of various densities. Inner gases are opaque moves particles in a long straight tube through from the center of the sun out to 425,000 miles, rapidly changing fields. where they become transparent. We call this An ingenious method of causing atoms to make transition the 'surface' of the sun. Out beyond their presence visible was also illustrated. A the surface, the gases are called the sun's 'corona,' visitor could actually look into an operating cloud a vast atmosphere of gas which extends millions chamber. "When a charged particle at high of miles into the solar system. Storms and winds speed moves through the chamber," the text ex­ in this atmosphere often envelop the earth." plained, "it knocks electrons from the outer orbits Films and diagrams showed how plasma of gas molecules, producing millions of charged (ionized gas made up of high energy protons and molecules along its path. These charged mole­ electrons) hurled outward from the sun pulled the cules, called ions, act as condensation centers. solar magnetic field lines with them. This plasma Thus, you do not see a particle, but the condensa­ interacted with the earth's magnetic field, creating tion trail it leaves behind. With experience one auroral displays. can tell what kind of particles produce a particular Rockets and satellites have carried instruments track. The long straight tracks are probably aloft to measure and define the radiation belts mesons or protons from cosmic ray collisions. around the earth. These were diagramed. De­ Many stubby tracks are made by nuclear frag­ vices such as the stormertron had also helped tQ ments. Those iy2 inches long are left by alpha show how auroras might occur. An actual stor­ particles coming from the decay of radon which mertron was displayed. This was a pyrex vacu­ is a radioactive gas present in the atmosphere in very small amounts." um globe, filled with mercury vapor and contain­ ing a magnetized earth model bombarded by a How Do WE PICTURE THE NUCLEUS ? The nu­ stream of electrons. Some electrons collided with cleus, a panel explained, is pictured as a unit of the mercury vapor in the tube and went into varying density. This picture was developed by trapped orbits around the earth model, causing scientists by bombarding the nucleus with high the vapor to glow. speed electrons, and mathematically analyzing the When a man-made aurora was created by Proj­ scatter pattern. In diagram and animation the ect Argus (a large-scale scientific experiment in­ scatter patterns were shown which had been drawn volving the explosion, of a nuclear device in the for three possible kinds of nuclei: a point, a soft upper atmosphere) an active and current theory sphere, or a unit of variable density. "Only the of the origin of the auroras was strengthened. variable density picture of the nucleus could pro­ vide the pattern observed in actual experiments." Project Argus was illustrated and explained. The narrator concluded: "Trapped particles from WHAT IS THE NUCLEUS MADE OF? Panels the sun interact with and ionize regions of the illustrated the text: high atmosphere to produce the auroral displays "At energies above 300 Mev, subatomic particles of light and color during magnetic disturbances. can smash individual protons and neutrons in the When protons enter the atmosphere, they capture nucleus. Using a synchrotron accelerator sci­ electrons from gas molecules and radiate light entists direct protons with energies up to 2 Bev at characteristic of hydrogen." protons and neutrons in a bubble chamber.

22 "A bubble chamber is a tank of liquid hydrogen. far reaches and by-gone eras of the universe. The nuclei of hydrogen are single protons or, in Who knows what secrets they may further the case of 'heavy' hydrogen, neutron-proton pairs. unlock?" When high energy particles pass through the tank, How Do WE GROW DIAMONDS? This exhibit, they 'boil' hydrogen and leave tracks of bubbles donated by the General Electric Co., began with a similar to vapor trails in a cloud chamber. color transparency of diamond crystals and con­ "Occasionally, a high-energy proton from the tinued on graphic panels the long history of the accelerator collides with a nucleus of hydrogen. attempt, begun in 1797 to synthesize the hardest Both particles may burst into 'strange' fragments substance known in nature. The text explained which leave tell-tale tracks. Scientists photo­ that the problem was not to be solved until 1954, graph these miniature explosions and try to recon­ when scientists found a way of maintaining pres­ struct the features of colliding particles by study­ sures up to 100,000 atmospheres with a tempera­ ing the number,* behavior and energy of their ture of 5,000° F. This, combined with use of a fragments. Studies reveal a bewildering array catalyst, made possible the transformation of of strange shortlived fragments which are some­ graphite into diamond. how extracted from protons and neutrons, or A visitor could examine diamond crystals under created by collisions. a magnifying glass and could see diffraction pat­ "By studying many thousands of such collisions, terns of natural and man-made diamonds. He scientists are forming new ideas about the proton could look, too, at a pile of diamonds—now manu­ and neutron, which only a few years ago were factured by the pound for industrial use. thought to be ultimate, indivisible, and structure­ Out of growing diamonds under superpressure less pieces of matter." has come advances in our knowledge in other WHERE Do COSMIC RAYS COME FROM? This fields—magnetism, conductivity, crystal growth, exhibit was introduced by a giant photographic and basic properties of materials. panel depicting a shower of cosmic rays recorded in a cloud chamber. The text explained that SOURCES OF ENERGY cosmic rays were composed of sub-atomic parti­ How CAN WE CONTROL NUCLEAR FUSION? A cles from outer space, bombarding the earth's large color transparency of the sun introduced atmosphere continually with energies greater this exhibit. The text depicted the sun as a than any produced in accelerators. An actual gigantic nuclear fusion furnace and suggested the functioning spark chamber filled with neon re­ essentials of the fusion process: "The sun's great vealed their presence also. Cosmic particles mov­ pressure and heat strip away electrons from hy­ ing through it stripped electrons from the gas, drogen atoms leaving bare nuclei which drift ionizing it and causing an electric current in the through the sun. Occasionally they collide and chamber to send sparks jumping along the charged fuse, creating helium and enormous amounts of paths left by the particles. Geiger-Mueller tubes energy. ... In this way, four million tons of set into the floor in a coincidence circuit as first mass are converted into energy every second in used by Bruno Rossi also signaled the cosmic the sun." events, amplified them, and flashed a lig*ht at a Man can produce small-scale fusion reactions, visitor's feet, indicating that a cosmic particle had using isotopes of hydrogen-deuterium (which passed through him. occurs naturally in water) and tritium (which can Finally, diagrams showed the layout of the be made by neutron bombardment of lithium). cosmic ray detectors spread over 3,000 acres at the Looking at a picture of the sea, a viewer was Volcano Ranch Observatory. These recorded a reminded that if man learned to control fusion on huge shower in 1961, in which, the text explained, a larger scale, two cubic miles of sea water could a cosmic particle with an energy of more than 10 supply all the energy used on earth to date. billion billion electron volts collided with a nucleus But controlling fusion is difficult. The raw high in the atmosphere. Fragments from this col­ stuff of fusion is plasma—bare nuclei and elec­ lision rained down and struck other nuclei. By the trons—produced when deuterium gas is raised to time the shower reached the earth, it had fanned 100,000°. While the spectator looked at the flame out in a large disk, thousands of feet, or perhaps of an actual plasma torch three times hotter than miles, wide. the sun's surf ace, the text explained that in fusion, "Studies of cosmic ray showers, such as those scientists must work with hydrogen plasmas, made at Volcano Ranch, have provided scientists 5,000 times hotter still. To make nuclei fuse, with a picture of the origin and make-up of typical plasma must be heated to 100 million degrees—and showers. The direction of the showers indicate confined. It must also be kept pure, and the many come from without our own galaxy. Many energy produced must be extracted. At present, new elementary particles have been discovered, the text explained, experimental efforts are di­ such as the positron, various mesons, and hy- rected towards ways of confining plasma. Illus­ perons. Thus cosmic ray studies have helped us trations showed some of the magnetic "bottles" determine the structure of matter. Such parti­ being used in attempts to confine plasma—a cles give us a kind of physical contact with the doughnut-shaped magnetic field created by pass-

23 ing a current through the plasma, a modification of this with a twist to better confine charged par­ ticles, and the magnetic "mirror." How CAN WE PRODUCE ELECTRIC ENERGY MORE DIRECTLY ? This exhibit, like the one on synthetic diamond, was also provided by the General Elec­ tric Company. "More than 99.9 percent of the electric power we use," the first panel stated, "is produced by rotating machinery—the dynamo, the electric generator." New needs, especially for small, compact, reliable sources of power (for example in satellites), have caused scientists to seek new ways to produce electricity. Schematic diagrams illustrated some of these: The thermionic converter, thermoelectric and magnetohydrodynamic generators, and photovol­ taic cells. Among the most promising devices is the fuel cell, which converts fuel and oxygen di­ rectly into electricity. A diagram showed its parts and explained its scientific basis. An actual cell, producing 3 watts of power, started when the Fair opened on April 21, 1962, was in operation. THE NATURE OF LIFE

WHAT Is LIFE?—This exhibit made clear that the basic unit in which life can be studied and described is the cell—life's factory site, the place where chemical manufacture takes place. Photo­ "In the center of the exhibit was a huge model of the cross-section of a typical celL" micrographs illustrated that the forms, shapes, and fashions of cells are as numerous as the forms triphosphate (ATP), holding energy so that it of life. A panel of photomicrographs showed is easily released for work in the cell. The text cells from the pollen-producing structures of the explained that in the ribosomes some of the energy African violet and the sperm cell of the bat—both of ATP is used to make proteins under the direc­ cells and both different in appearance. tion of the ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule. In the center of the exhibit was a huge model RNA is a messenger existing in thousands of of the cross-section of a typical cell. A visitor forms, each probably responsible for the formation looked down upon it as different parts were ani­ of a separate kind of protein. The information mated by colored lights and a narration described it carries comes from deoxyribonucleic acid the intricate detail and activities of this basic (DNA). When the chromosomes in the cell building block of all living things. model lit up, a viewer was reminded that DNA is A film explained the functioning of a cell. the active substance of these, and that it carries "Like Alice through the looking glass, the biolo­ the initial blueprint for a cell and its organism. gist enters a strange world, the world of the very How Do VIRUSES INFECT?—Are viruses alive? small.. . ," where he may pursue the elusive ques­ The exhibit began with a model of the T2 bacterio­ tion, "What is life?" Protozoa moved in a drop phage virus. At the scale of the model, a man's of water, and a cell divided. Then the cell mem­ height would equal the diameter of the earth. brane of the giant model lighted up. Next the The text explained that viruses are extremely organelles or "little organs," each having its func­ small particles, seemingly lifeless, but which re­ tion in the cell's life. Then cilia appeared, and produce themselves in living cells. Despite their protoplasm began to move, reminding a viewer tiny size, their complexity and their reproduction that the source of energy within the cell is chem­ (which is controlled by the sanie nucleic acids ical. Next, the film showed a protein molecule and described in the previous exhibit) make it hard explained that much of the cell's energy is devoted not to believe that they live. to manufacturing proteins tailored to its needs. Viral structure was illustrated by the above- Step by step the locations were shown where first mentioned three-dimensional colored model. The the big molecules of protein and fat are broken outer covering was made of six different proteins. down into simple chemicals, in turn to be com­ Inside the "head" was a tightly coiled thread of bined into proteins. The story continued and told DNA. A sheath contained ATP, a common how, in the mitochondrion, the chemicals are source of chemical energy in living cells. When burned or oxidized by the oxygen an animal in­ the tail of the virus attached itself to a bacterium, hales, resulting in a charged battery, or adenosine the DNA of the virus was injected, replaced the

24 Molecules, it was explained, can be labelled by substituting isotopes for normal atoms. Meselson and Stahl replaced the nitrogen in the DNA molecule with nitrogen-15. After obtaining bacteria in which substantially all the DNA con­ tained nitrogen-15, the medium in which the bacteria grew was provided with normal nitrogen. Samples from successive generations were spun in an ultracentifuge. The exhibit displayed photographs of the results. Separation of the two types of nitrogen were apparent, leading to the conclusion that the halves of the molecules re­ mained intact. Similar conclusions were drawn, the visitor was shown, from research by J. H. Tay­ lor at Brookhaven which labeled DNA in plant cells with thymidine. The techniques and tools of modern biology are as appealing and interesting as the information de­ rived from them. The ultracentrifuge used by Meselson and Stahl, the visitor could see, worked on the same principle as a cream separator, as was demonstrated by an analogue. Rotating at a speed which generated a centrifugal force a million times stronger than gravity, it could unscramble an egg or separate submicroscopic particles. A panel explained how photographs of centrifuge action can be taken. A stroboscopic light "stopped" the centrifuge test tube at one point on "The exhibit began with a model of the T2 bacteriophage its path, and photographed the separation of its virus." contents. Paper chromatography was also demonstrated healthy DNA of the cell, and took over the chemi­ at this exhibit as another of biology's important cal machinery of the cell to reproduce itself. A tools. A visitor was shown an actual chromatog­ film showed more illustrations of the shape and raphy analysis, called a chromatogram, in which form of other viruses and their varying ways of substances were identified by the patterns which entering a cell and taking over for themselves its they produced on filter paper submerged in a machinery for reproduction. solvent. Unknown ones could be cut out, washed How ARE GENES TRANSMITTED ?—In the exhib­ off the paper, and analyzed by other means. its dealing with life, a single thread appeared over and over: evolution, heredity, the gene, and the THE FUNCTIONING OF LIVING fundamental molecule DNA. The viewer had first seen a model of the DNA molecule in Build­ ORGANISMS ing II, which had located the DNA molecule in How CAN WE SPEED UP NERVE GROWTH ?—The the nucleus of a cell. In a previous exhibit it had functioning of the human nervous system was been identified as the key substance in viruses. explored in an exhibit sponsored by Abbott A series of colored slides now illustrated the Laboratories centered around the sympathetic fundamental importance of DNA, traced the way ganglion and recent findings about a nerve growth its role was uncovered through experiments with factor (NGF) which affects it. bacteria, and demonstrated its synthesis. The Over the exhibit hung a large plastic model of conclusive test of synthetic DNA, it was pointed a sympathetic ganglion. A model set in a panel out, would be to transmit genetic instructions to showed how a ganglion cell body is functionally bacteria through it. When this could be done, related to the heart muscle, and a panel of photo­ the door would open to preventing and perhaps micrographs showed the internal structure of such eliminating some of the hereditary diseases of man. a cell. A model of the human nervous system How DOES THE DNA MOLECULE DIVIDE ?—This etched on plastic lit up successively to distinguish exhibit was concerned with efforts to confirm the the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous Watson-Crick hypothesis that the halves of the system, the sensory nervous system and, finally, the DNA molecule remain intact during cell division. autonomic nervous system, which transmits im­ It portrayed experimental work done in 1958 at pulses from the central nervous system to the Cal Tech by Matthew Meselson and Franklin glands and involuntary muscles. Stahl, who used an ingenious technique called NGF was a substance which appeared exclu­ isotope labeling. sively to affect the growth of the sympathetic gan-

25 glion, a particular type of cell in the autonomic nervous system. A panel illustrated the history of its discovery. The exhibit then proceeded to show how studies were carried out on its effects. Culture of living tissue is the most fundamental tool. Some actual implements used in making a tissue culture were displayed. Then a visitor was shown how tissue was dissected from a chick embryo. Step by step, the preparation of a tissue culture and its final placing in a body-tempera­ ture incubator was set out in back-lighted transparencies. The introduction of a small amount of NGF, photomicrographs showed, brought dramatic results in the increase in the number of nerve fibers in a culture. With added concentrations, the growth rate increased until a point was reached where NGF stunted growth and eventually "A dramatic three-dimensional model of the human blocked it. brain and visual system helped answer the basic ques­ "Tests are underway to determine whether NGF tion—How do we see?" treatment may promote regeneration in healing of damaged nerves, just as it stimulates nerve activity in the eye of a horseshoe crab was growth in ganglia isolated in culture," the exhibit demonstrated. concluded. An important group of panels dealt with the How Do WE SEE?—This was the largest and ultimate basis of sight, the pigment rhodopsin, a most sophisticated exhibit in the Pavilion. A sensitive chemical which undergoes a change when dramatic three-dimensional model of the human exposed to light. One panel showed how scientists brain and visual system helped answer the basic examine the photoreceptors in the eye which con­ question while a narration described the functions tain rhodopsin. The method of obtaining a of various portions of the eye as the appropriate solution of rhodopsin from cattle eyes was parts of the model lit up. demonstrated. Details of the visual process were displayed The molecular change occuring in rhodopsin elsewhere. A panel showed photomicrographs of when light falls on it was diagrammed, and the the retina made by optical and electron micro­ process was related to the presence of vitamin A scopes. And a demonstration showed the time- and the production of other pigments in the eye. consuming process for preparing tissue for exam­ Just how these are related to the process of seeing ination under the electron microscope. is not yet clear. A model of the retina attached to an oscilloscope But one fact is clear, as the exhibit screen and loudspeaker recorded the activity in demonstrated. The first event in seeing is a man's complicated eye. For comparison, similar chemical change in visual pigments. In some way, electrical impulses are started which go to the brain and finally result in a sensation of sight. How Is PLANT GROWTH REGULATED ?—One sec­ tion of this exhibit explained how the amount of light affects plant cycles, especially flowering. Not only the amount of light, but the kind of light was described as crucial. Red light, particularly, affected both flowering and the germination of some seeds. The search for a light-sensitive pig­ ment led to the discovery in plants of phyto- chrome, a substance sensitive to red light. In plants growing naturally the phytochrome actually responds to the red light in sunlight, and then regulates chemical reactions that take place in the dark. Thus plant cycles were shown to de­ pend on a fundamental chemical event in a light- sensitive pigment, A second section of the exhibit dealt with gib- berellin research. Gibberellin was discovered by the Japanese, who separated it in 1940 from the An attendant explaining a portion of the exhibit on nutrient fluid in which they grew the mold gibber- "How do we see?" ella. This substance has been found to stimulate 26 plained how these lanterns were boiled, and the material dried, producing a powder, luciferin, which fluoresces under ultraviolet light, as a viewer could see. He saw it light up, too, when an enzyme, lucif erase, was added to it. Another sub­ stance wras also found to be essential to the light­ ing process, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy substance of cells. In fact, the exhibit ex­ plained, such a close relationship was found be­ tween ATP and the amount of light, that this relationship provides scientists with a valuable tool for detecting small amounts of ATP in other substances. Just how the luciferin-luciferase re­ action converts chemical energy into light is not yet known, the text pointed out, but information derived from such studies will help us to under­ stand how plants convert light into chemical en­ ergy, and how muscles convert chemical energy Audience participation at the exhibit on regulation of into mechanical motion. plant growth. the growth of many plants. Flowering plants THE BEHAVIOR OF LIVING which had been stimulated by gibberellin to grow ORGANISMS abnormally were shown, along with methods of applying gibberellin, and demonstrations of Why and how living things unite their activities further work on the isolating of similar substances into complex behavior patterns involves some of which affect and control plant growth. the most difficult questions man asks, A final How Do OUR MUSCLES WORK?—The electron series of six exhibits showed some of the ways in microscope has been repeatedly demonstrated as an which scientists are studying the source and de­ instrument invaluable to the biologist. In this velopment of animal and human behavior. exhibit there was an actual instrument. Its How Do WE TEACH SALMON To RESPOND TO ability and functioning were described by an VISUAL SIGNALS ?—Four tanks in this exhibit con­ attendant. Specimens were prepared, and ques­ tained live fish and demonstrated active testing go­ tions answered. ing on with steel-head salmon. Salmon, the visitor The illustrated story of how our muscles work was told, show a complex pattern of migration ac­ demonstrated the refined information which one tivity in spring from fresh to gait water. Since obtains with the electron microscope. Electron micrographs of the fine structure of muscles re­ most 15-month-old steel-heads migrate to the vealed details which help explain their function­ ocean at night, it seemed as though their move­ ing. In models and photographs, it was shown that ments might be controlled by artificial light. The the individual muscle fibers (myofibrils) change exhibit explained preliminary tests and training length at different states of contraction, and the being carried out to control salmon movement in filaments literally slide past each other. Why? The electron microscope revealed a possible chem­ ical explanation. The myofibrils are composed of two proteins, actin and myosin. Myosin is found in thick filaments, actin in thin ones. Electron micrographs showed tiny cross-bridges between the myosin and actin filaments. Scientists now believe that "these bridges may be locations of rapid chemical reactions between the actin of the thin filaments and the myosin in the thick fila­ ments, producing a ratchet-like action that causes relative movement between the two kinds of fila­ ments," the text of the exhibit concluded. WHAT MAKES FIREFLIES GLOW?—Some animals, this exhibit explained, are able to transform chem­ ical energy into light. The cold flashing of fire­ flies, one saw, is an example of this, and the means by which fireflies locate a mate. To study this cold light, the exhibit demon­ strated, scientists removed the "lanterns" -on the Apparatus demonstrating alcohol-water preferences in lower surface of firefly bodies. The text ex­ genetically defective mice.

678410 O - 63 - 5 27 are determined by events which happen to the ani­ mal when it is developing. This was made clear by an exhibit dealing with the work of Dr. Eckard Hess which contained an operating incubator and a circular runway. Live new^ly hatched chicks were placed in the runway before they had seen any moving object. "When chicks are hatched," the text explained, "the first moving object they see and follow is usually their mother. If they see some other moving object, they will follow it." With a built-in tendency to follow the first moving thing they saw, the chicks were imprinted to fol­ low a number of different objects, often a moving ball. A panel contained an interesting large photo­ graph of Dr. Konrad Lorenz, the discoverer of "The exhibit contained two baby rhesus monkeys in separate cages with surrogate mothers." this manner. In one tank salmon were being trained to avoid a shock by swimming away from a light. In a second tank, they received a shock if they swam toward a light. They quickly learned to swim away. But to train a fish to go toward a light took hundreds of trials, How DOES HEREDITY AFFECT ANIMAL BE­ HAVIOR?—A second exhibit contained unusual mice. Some preferred alcohol to water. Their drinking sources, one alcohol, the other water, were hooked to indicators showing the amount drunk from each and which mice preferred alcohol. While the cause of this preference was unknown, it was believed to be associated with a particular inheritance factor. Other mice pranced or pirouetted. Some shook, while others waddled. All these motor defects had been definitely traced to inheritance factors. "By collecting statistics on how often these defects turn up and with what traits they are associated, patterns of inheritance may be worked out," the exhibit concluded. WHAT CONTROLS BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS?— Some things which animals do are determined ex­ clusively by the genetic code in their cells. Others

Newly hatched chicks ready for "imprinting."

imprinting, showing young goslings following him across a field. A chart showed that there was a critical time period in imprinting. Chicks, for example, were most susceptible at 16 hours of age. "Imprinting has been successful not only in many kinds of birds, but also in insects, fish, and some mammals. The hope is to extend these studies to human infants." WHAT LEADS TO MOTHER-CHILD AFFECTION ? Dr. H. F. Harlow of the University of Wisconsin, using monkeys, has been studying the factors lead­ ing to the affection of a child for its mother. An "The chicks were imprinted to follow a number of understanding of this affection is fundamental to different objects, often a moving ball." the comprehension of future infant development. 28 "Fascinated visitors watched pigeons concentratedly pecking away."

This exhibit contained two baby rhesus monkeys, development was arrested, they were not able to living in separate cages with surrogate "mothers", mate successfully, nor were they able to adjust to one made of cloth with a wooden head, and a simi­ the role of being mothers themselves. lar mother made of wire. Each mother was How Do ANIMALS LEARN ?—All animal behav­ hooked to a timer showing the total amount of ior studies are not concerned with the origin of time an infant spent with it. Such equipment, existing behavior. Some investigate howT new be­ the text explained, was being used to try to find out havior patterns are learned. At probably the w^hat variables established the behavior of an in­ most popular exhibit in the Pavilion, fascinated fant toward its mother: nursing, warmth, rock­ visitors watched pigeons concentratedly pecking ing motion, or comfort of touch. Charts showed away matching patterns and colors as they ap­ what Dr. Harlow had found. Even though they peared in circles before them. If a pigeon made a received food from a wire mother, young monkeys mistake, the pattern or color reappeared, and con­ still preferred the cloth mother, which provided a tinued to do so until the pigeon matched it "comfort feeling." Photographs showed fright­ correctly. ened young monkeys seeking security on the laps An attendant explained that this exhibit was of the cloth mother. A film also showed the per­ based on the work of Dr. B. F. Skinner at Har­ manent psychological damage incurred by mon­ vard, wiio trained pigeons to match a number of keys raised without real mothers. Their social patterns and colors by giving them a reward of

29 "A student sat down at the typewriter and received instructional material and questions on a screen via the slide projector." food when a correct match was made. Thus the As visitors watched, a student sat down at the action was immediately "reinforced." After re­ typewriter and received instructional material and peated "reinforcements" the action becomes estab­ questions on a screen via the slide projector. He lished and the pigeons trained. responded by pressing an appropriate typewriter How Do HUMANS LEARN?—What scientists key. The computer analyzed his response and have learned about animal learning and human responded as necessary, telling him to proceed or learning methods can be coupled to new tech­ go back and review older material. A flow chart niques. The last exhibit displayed how a com­ allowed spectators to watch the student's progress. puter can be connected to an electric typewriter The exhibit explained that, just as pigeons can be and a slide projector so as to function both as a reinforced by rewards of food, humans obtain teaching machine and an instrument for research rewards from a satisfaction in the knowledge of on human learning methods. their progress.

30 The modern laboratory demonstrated some of the techniques of experimentation.

THE MODERN LABORATORY impulse when light struck the crab's optic nerve. By studying the oscilloscope patterns, much can be Somewhat outside the main storyline of the sci­ learned about the reception and transmission of entific exhibits in Building IV was a functioning light impulses. This process was illustrated and biology laboratory in which, so to speak, a visitor diagrammed in detail in the exhibit on vision re­ looked over the shoulder of a scientist and saw search. The laboratory also contained a radiation some of the techniques of experimentation. Tech­ source, cobalt-60, which, a technician explained, nicians, using the equipment of biological re­ was being used to study the effect of radiation on search, carried out laboratory processes, and ex­ the growth of bread mold. Elsewhere, another plained how they related to general studies. technician operated a Soxhlet extractor, and de­ Some of the work done in the laboratory was used scribed how it removed the water soluble chemi­ in completing experiments shown at other exhibits. cals from the leaf of an Indian plant the chewing of which dulls the taste buds. Such removal was For the public, one of the most interesting ex­ the first step in an effort to isolate the chemical periments performed involved a horseshoe crab. This primitive animal, with a single visual cell in responsible for its effects. the eye attached to a single optic nerve, is useful in These were but a few of the standard laboratory studying how a nerve impulse travels from a vis­ techniques demonstrated "live" in the laboratory, ual cell along the nerve fiber. An electrode em­ which always attracted a crowd and proved one of bedded in the nerve fiber and attached to an over­ the most entertaining and successful exhibits in head oscilloscope provided a visual record of the the building.

31 "One of the most interesting experiments involved a horseshoe crab."

The Modern Laboratory always attracted a crowd.

32 BUILDING V—THE HORIZONS OF SCIENCE

A moving floor carried a visitor past images, dioramas and films, in Building V.

The methods of science displayed in Building equipment. The voice continued. "All science is IV were many, the research activity, intense, and in a state of continual change, with new discov­ the questions arising from the answers more nu­ eries leading to new instruments, that in turn lead merous than the ones asked in the beginning. In to new discoveries." Building V the point was made that the advances of science cannot be expected to provide final an­ The wall on the left became a tower rising from swers. Science will continue to confront us with a a quiet pool. Here and there in the tower were number of moral, social, and economic dilemmas recesses with models recalling some of the pre­ which everyone—be he scientist or not—must help vious exhibits. Through louvres on the right solve. could be seen glimpses of an incubator, an X-ray The entrance to the building led into a dark, machine, an electron microscope, and electrocardi­ heavily carpeted hall that curved and was lost in ographic equipment. The narration continued: the shadows beyond. As eyes adjusted to the dim­ "Discoveries in electricity led to the dynamo, and ness, images appeared on the wall—a diffraction then, an explosive use of electric power for our pattern, a model of a cell, molecular models. A light, heat, telephones, and in hospitals for X-rays voice came from the walls. "What do so many and electron microscopes." experiments mean to us? How much do we re­ "Now, more and more people survive, and live member? Perhaps not the details. . . ." longer." Overhead a huge counter, constantly Walking on, the visitor reached a moving floor changing, represented the steady rise in the world that would carry him in a huge slow circle around population. Through the louvres could be seen the building, past exhibits and films, through zones the multiplying images of people, more and more of sound, all suggesting the future—the Horizons people, houses, buildings, and traffic jams. of Science. As the turntable slowly revolved, the narration A picture of the Faraday generator appeared, continued: "Man is getting more and more able and a progression of images succeeded it—dyna­ to control things. We may farm the oceans and mos, transformers, meters, radio tubes, and radar control the rain to make the deserts bloom. But

33 Opening scene of final film in Building V—"Out of infinite night, a flower bursts open, exploding star."

before we control things, we must know what is the delight of knowing the common laws that gov­ going to happen. . . ." Dioramas appeared ern things. ... It is the benefits of science that through the louvres—the ocean, a desert, rain men quarrel about, not science itself." clouds. While no particular message was intended by The succession of images continued—a computer, the U.S. Science Exhibit beyond the fact that a cyclotron, models of the atom, equipment for work in science is a high form of human joy—with studying atomic fusion, rockets. The voice went great responsibilities, great challenges, and great on: "Moon rockets are not basically different from promise—the creators of the Exhibit always in­ ancient skyrockets, but there is a long step in engi­ tended to emphasize the kinship between art neering between. In only 20 years, after the first and science. Both explore different aspects of use of atomic power, there are reactors every­ reality. Both in their own way explore the essence where." of things. The forms of art and the forms of As a viewer stepped off the turntable, high on the science are similar, as the exhibits in the Pavilion wall before him were seen continually changing made clear. This interdependence of science and images recalling the forms of science. Waves, the humanities was epitomized at the final exit of mathematical figures, paths of atomic particles, the Pavilion in a quotation from the poem "For amoebae, crystals growing—all combined into a the 1956 Opposition of Mars" by Robert Conquest: random exploration of the processes and events of Pure joy of knowledge rides as high as art. nature, the forms, structures, colors and textures The whole heart cannot keep alive on either. of the micro- and macro-worlds. Wills as of Drake and Shakespeare strike The voice spoke for the last time. "Everyone together. can appreciate the orderly scientific approach and Cultures turn rotten when they part.

Scene from final film in Building V—"A scientist's random exploration of the processes and events of nature, its forms and structures, micro- and macro-worlds, colors and textures, growths and decays." 34 4. THE JUNIOR LABORATORY OF SCIENCE

The idea of something for children in the United the specific content of exhibits. Such a committee States Science Exhibit is almost as old as the Ex­ was formed at once and met in Denver on June hibit itself. Departmental Order 167 of January 28 and 29. It made some excellent suggestions 20, 1960, establishing the Commissioner's Office in for children's science exhibits and indicated the the Department of Commerce, stated that one of principal scientific areas which it believed they his objectives, for example, should be "to encour­ should illuminate. The formulation of the recom­ age careers in science." mendations of this advisory committee was the An area had always been set aside in early plan­ first real step in planning the exhibits for a chil­ ning for a "Youth Center," and some thought had dren's area. In the final event, the Junior Labora­ been given in 1959 and 1960 to what might go into tory of Science conformed rather closely to the it. As the whole exhibit developed, however, the committee's original ideas. space available for the youth center began to seem The first need was to obtain science and design too small to contain anything really significant. coordinators. Through the assistance of the Na­ In addition, budgetary problems loomed. In the tional Science Teachers Association, the services early spring of 1961, accordingly, the space tenta­ of Robert Rice, head of the science department of tively reserved for children was converted to a the Berkeley, Calif., High School, and a past asso­ small theater and the idea of a children's area was ciation president, were obtained. Frederick dropped. Usher, of Frederick Usher/John Follis Associ­ It was revived shortly thereafter when prospects ates, Los Angeles, was retained as design director. for obtaining an additional appropriation from These men began work in the Commissioner's office Congress appeared favorable, and it was decided in early July 1961 and worked closely with the staff to make an area for children out of a large, other­ and its consultants throughout the summer and wise-vacant, basement which had been included in fall. The physical propinquity of those responsi­ the Pavilion as a fallout shelter at the request of ble for design and science content, together with the Office of Civil Defense. their consequent ability to consult immediately On May 22 a group of representatives of Gov­ with each other and with the staff as needed, was ernment and education met in the Commissioner's the chief reason why the 27 exhibits which office to advise on the problem. The group unani­ eventually formed the Junior Laboratory of mously confirmed the decision that the U.S. Science were conceived, designed, constructed, and Science Exhibit should include an area for chil­ installed within less than 10 months. dren, and that work should be started immediately After a hectic summer and fall, the scientific on design of an area for children separate from content and design of the exhibits of the Junior the main exhibits and based on the following Laboratory of Science were approved in Decem­ principles: ber 1961. By the first of February all exhibits were under contract with 12 exhibit builders. The 1. The age level aimed at should be 8 to 13. room itself was not ready for the exhibits until 2. The exhibits should not run on a fixed schedule. 3. Return visits should be encouraged. April 15. In the next 6 days, however, all exhibits 4. Maximum visitor participation should be encour­ were installed and the Junior Laboratory of aged. Science opened on schedule April 21. 5. So far as possible, the exhibits should teach the As finally evolved, the Junior Laboratory of basic laws on which nature operates. 6. The exhibits should embody good design, good Science consisted of a room with about 4,000 square science, and good pedagogy. feet. There was no set traffic pattern through its It was also strongly urged that an advisory exhibits. committee of teachers and scientists with experi­ The Junior Laboratory of Science was an ex­ ence with science teaching at the elementary level hibit which permitted children to learn science as be convened at once to advise on and recommend scientists learn it. It was meant that children

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Junior Laboratory of Science—View of entrance stairs. should observe and draw conclusions. In other mitted. During the first 2 weeks they greatly out­ words, they should learn but not be taught. The numbered children. Children could scarcely ap­ original intention was to plan exhibits so that an proach some exhibits, much less manipulate them. illiterate child could observe a process and carry Thereafter, all adults except teachers were ex­ away a clear memory of a definite experience. A cluded. The children were then able to take more more advanced youngster would not only observe time to play with the exhibits. They benefited but also draw one or two simple conclusions. A more because parents were no longer hurrying teen-ager would do these things and in addition them physically or mentally, reading texts aloud, read the questions, facts, and historical informa­ or announcing conclusions before the children had tion in the printed text. As the exhibits developed time to observe the data. they departed from this plan in many instances, The freedom given children to take their own but the plan was nowhere ignored. It was be­ time to learn and to be responsible for their own lieved that so far as exhibits established that behavior had a noticeable effect. Despite parental honest depth of understanding that allowed anxiety lest children misbehave, there were only Archimedes to shout "Eureka," they would be suc­ three occasions when a child had to be seriously dis­ cessful. The small child who left remembering ciplined and very few cases of vandalism. the sight of an ant hauling off a caterpillar four After a few days, it was discovered that texts times its size benefited as intended. So too did the relating an exhibit to prior childhood experience, adolescent who said to himself, "Now I see why a or pointing up the novelty, problem, or apparent rocket doesn't need air to make it work!" contradiction that an exhibit demonstrated, were The Junior Laboratory of Science was meant to more effective than enumerations of observable educate adults as well as children and demonstrate facts or scientific names for common processes. that science can be learned not merely from books The reading level of many children was found to but from climbing trees, blowing soap bubbles, or be low, and many fourth graders could scarcely doing things. On opening day adults were ad­ read at all. Consequently, the original text of

36 some exhibits was changed. Though texts had ically-felt concepts as the children pushed each always to be both scientifically correct and in sim­ other about, gave themselves independent propul­ ple English, they could not be complicated. It sion by throwing out suitable masses from the was discovered that it was best to frame very carts, or experimented with cart collisions. The simple questions which could be answered from design had many technical weaknesses, but when observation rather than from memory. Children it worked it was extremely popular and as (like scientists) could do this, and it satisfied educationally useful as any exhibit in the room. them. When operating, however, it required the constant An important factor in the success of audience- presence of an attendant—a definite minus! participation exhibits is maintenance. Children 4. SCATTERING PINBALL MACHINE.—Small balls subject exhibits to considerably greater wear and were projected over paths decided by choice, first tear than adults. A much more intensive main­ against seen, then against hidden targets of tenance effort is required. various shapes. The paths of the rebounds were The maintenance crew of the Junior Laboratory observed, and conclusions drawn regarding the of Science spent much time re-engineering ex­ shape of the hidden target. A well conceived hibits to make them operate. Ball bearings had scientific exhibit, the pinball machine called on a to be installed where there was only a bushing child to use inductive reasoning. before, aluminum replaced with steel, nails with screws, and apparently inaccessible cracks closed up. Microscopes used by children are subject to wear which they would never encounter in a lab­ oratory. A child knows that he must turn off a water faucet, tight. If a microscope focus knob stops turning, he gives it a last two-handed wrench just to make sure. His diligence is some­ times rewarded by a knob that comes off in his hand, or by a stripped rack and pinion. Thou­ sands of small arms cause push-buttons to go out through the other side of their mechanism. Thousands of gritty fingers scour off lettering, wear moving parts of aluminum or brass thin in a matter of weeks, and so on. Children's exhibits must be built initially to take such use. The 27 exhibits in the Junior Laboratory of Science were: 1. LINEAR ACCELERATOR.—Mechanical analogue particle accelerator, approximately 12 feet long. Children operating the scattering pinball machine (Exhibit No. 4). Its horizontal sections were moved up and down, alternate one in step, by a motor-driven cam shaft. 5. WEIGHT ON OTHER WORLDS.—This exhibit Returning balls were carried to upper level by a gave a child a simulated opportunity to lift a vertical push rod. Activated by a push button, grapefruit on the Moon, the Sun, Venus, Mars, its length of run was controlled by a programmed Jupiter, etc. Each grapefruit was differently motor. When the device started, five balls were balanced so that the illusion of different weights fed in and ran down a path to hit a target. The was produced. The device was often taken for exhibit had an impeccable design and was as popu­ a game, and grapefruits sometimes viewed as a lar as almost any in the room. Children were contest of strength, the winner being able to shake mesmerized by the motion of the balls and the the grapefruit out of its holder. The relative hope that one might miss its target. weights had to be fudged in order to make the 2. HARTL DISC.—A demonstration of optical re­ differences perceptible. flection and refraction. A child turned two 6. THE BERNOULLI EFFECT.—Streams of air knobs—one to bring a new lens into a light path impinged on lightweight balls and on other sur­ and the other to rotate the lens, This was a beauti­ faces, singly and paired, to show the "sidewise" ful and very popular exhibit and a fairly useful pressure differential. The principle was illus­ one from an educational point of view. The chil­ trated, then a chance wTas provided to predict what dren were quite careful with it. It required no w^ould happen under a new set of conditions. The maintenance—a definite plus ! exhibit involved only button pushing for some 3. LOW-FRICTION CARTS.—Cages hung from a children. It was popular, though many pushed beam on oil-pressure bearings designed to move the buttons only to hear the click of the relays with a minimum of friction. Although the which turned on the air. children were not called on to account for inertia, 7. How A TELESCOPE WORKS.—This exhibit momentum, or kinetic energy, these basic building showed how the lenses of a simple astronomical blocks of mechanics became realizable and phys­ telescope combine to produce the gross effect. A

37 model reflecting telescope was shown in the same manner. When an attendant lectured about this exhibit, the children were very interested and asked intelligent questions. 8. MEASURING DISTANCES IN SPACE.—This ex­ hibit showed how distances in space are measured by parallax. It consisted of a dark tunnel into which the child peered. By moving from side to side, he could guage the various distances of lights down the tunnel. Older children under­ stood the parallax principle clearly and were interested. Younger children liked to look in and see the lights. 9. CRYSTAL GROWTH.—To allow children to wit­ ness the development of crystals, a solid was placed in several small cavities in a transparent disc mounted so as to rotate these cavities under a microprojector and melt them in a heating coil. 13. AUDIOVISUAL STETHOSCOPE.—The exhibit showed a child's electrocardiogram (EKG) As the liquid cooled, crystals formed—the image visually and aurally. This was accomplished by of which was projected on a screen. The crystal having a child place his hands upon a sensitive growth exhibit was valuable educationally but not pickup and then view his EKG on a cathode ray popular, perhaps because of bad lighting and bad tube while each wave of his EKG was converted placement. to an audible signal. 10. MICROSCOPES.—Five binocular microscopes, 14. ELECTROMAGNETISM.—This exhibit guided each with a slide holding multiple specimens which children to rediscover Oersted's correlation be­ a child selected for viewing. The children liked tween a current of electricity and a magnetic field. what they saw. The exhibit needed little explana­ This was carried out with moving charges in a tion, but the microscopes had to be antivandalized wire, and wTith moving charges in a beam of elec­ with great care. trons in a vacuum. This exhibit was attractive to 11. MICRO-ORGANISMS.—Microprojection of the children because it moved and had lights, but it images of actual living micro-organisms in pond was hard for children to grasp because it presup­ water. Though this exhibit had many possibil­ posed that they understood a magnetic field. ities, it was not popular. Both it and the crystal 15. PROBABILITY CHECKERBOARD.—When a chip growth exhibit usually had no one watching them was tossed onto a geometrical pattern, it might at any random sampling of exhibit popularity. come to rest entirely on white. Given the size 12. GYROSCOPE.—A rotating metal disk suspend­ and shape of the pattern and the diameter of the ed in a plastic ball on a free-moving turntable counter, the probability was arranged so there demonstrated the phenomena of inertia and pre­ was 1 chance in 4 of a chip falling on white on any cession. After much reengineering and of 6 boards. If a child tossed 20 times, there was machining, the gyroscope became one of the most more chance of getting 5 "wins" than any other popular and educational exhibits, though it al­ number. But 4 and 6 were quite likely, 3 and 7 ways required considerable maintenance. less likely, etc. The text explained that scientists carried out many experiments based on essentially :IMMH the same theory. The probability exhibit required less maintenance than any other. It was popular, though subject to considerable pilferage of chips— most of which were later recovered from the fountains. 16. ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER.—Water was separated into hydrogen and oxygen by the pas­ sage of an electric current. The gases were then brought together, exploded by a spark, and re­ united to form water. This exhibit was popular. Children older than 12 understod it well and were interested, especially when the water was reformed by the explosion. 17. PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY—Paper chroma­ tography was shown as a useful method of separating mixtures of substances for analysis of constituents. A child was offered a special paper "ticket." He marked this with two common inks. How a telescope works (Exhibit No. 7). The paper was then dipped into a solution which

38 pump evacuating a bell jar containing a balloon— was extremely popular and as well understood as any exhibit in the room. 23. PEEP SHOWS.—Individual 8mm movie pro­ jectors displayed five charming 3-minute films made by Charles Eames on basic mathematical concepts. The specially designed continuous-loop projectors broke down often and demanded undue maintenance. They were taken out after 3 months. 24. RIPPLE TANKS.—Images of waves generated in a thin sheet of water in a glass-bottomed tray were projected on a large screen. By analogy, propagation time, reflection from obstacles and other behavior of waves in general were illus­ trated. The exhibit was understood best by older children. They were interested in it and under­ caused migration of the constituent dyes at vary­ stood it when it worked properly. ing rates. The sample could then be dried and 25. ELECTRIC FISH.—A series of attractively taken home. This was one of the most popular mounted small fish tanks were connected to oscil­ exhibits, though rather delicate. Children were loscopes and loudspeakers which picked up the interested in it, though most of them did not under­ emanations of the fish. This exhibit was not suc­ stand its implications. cessful because it was too hard to obtain and keep 18. PHOTOSYNTHESIS.—The plant elodea, in the fairly delicate African knife fish alive in the water, which photosynthesizes if it is kept fresh small aquaria. When it did work, it was hard for and cool, was played on by a light filtered by young children to understand what the electric disks of different colors. By changing the filters, fish did that caused the image to appear on the photosynthesis could be induced or halted. When oscilloscope and the noise to come from the loud­ the elodea was fresh, the exhibit worked well. speaker. The daily maintenance was consider­ Grown-ups were always very much attracted by able. The exhibit was closed after four months. this exhibit. 26. How WE HEAR.—A model of the ear with 19 ANT NEST.—An elaborate, large-size develop­ lights showing its various parts. A child listened ment of the customary ant nest showing various activities of four colonies. The ant nest was ex­ tremely popular, but hard to maintain because of the delicacy of the livestock. 20. GRAVITY WELL.—Models of the earth and moon rested within exponentially curved wells in a common surface. A small ball, projected from the depths of the well surrounding the earth, rolled out over the curved common surface and might enter the depression surrounding the moon, de­ pending upon the direction of aim and the initial thrust. The child observed trajectories cor­ responding to satellites or other passive space objects launched from earth against the target moon. The gravity table was a very popular ex­ hibit of considerable mathematical sophistication. 21. SPEECH STOPPER.—The purpose of this ex­ hibit was to present the idea that continuous feed­ back is necessary for human behavior. The ap­ paratus consisted of a tape recorder with playback head a few inches removed from the record head. A child talked into a microphone and heard his own voice played back a fraction of a second later. For most, this delay made it difficult to continue to talk. It was extremely popular but probably of limited pedagogical usefulness. 22. VACUUM PHENOMENA.—A series of bell jars containing various devices operable from with­ out were evacuated. The comparison between the effects of air or vacuum was illustrated by various phenomena. One part of this exhibit—a hand Inspecting the Crystal Growth Exhibit (No. 9). 39 Children at the Bernoulli Effect Exhibit (No. 6).

to a talk from a hand phone. Of limited scientific educational value. 27. RAIN FOREST.—A large colored mural of the Brazilian jungle. This exhibit was not noticed by most children, though adults noticed it and were interested. As an educational tool, the Junior Laboratory of Science, like the entire U.S. Science Exhibit, represented pioneering work. Daily visitors averaged well over 2,000. At any given time 100 to 300 children might be present, depending on weather and time of year. "The average child stayed about 15 minutes. Few stayed less than 10. About 25 percent stayed more than three- quarters of an hour. While it may not have edu­ cated children to the extent first hoped for, the Junior Laboratory of Science demonstrated that the potential for exhibits of this kind is almost limitless. It showed what is possible and pointed The Gyroscope Exhibit (No. 12)—One of the most new paths. Others in the future will stumble less popular exhibits. frequently in consequence. 40 The Ant Nest Exhibit (No. 19) with an interested visitor, and some of the livestock.

As a device for capturing children's interest and leading them to think inductively, the Junior Laboratory of Science was neither failure nor complete success. It certainly succeeded in capti­ vating and amusing children (and adults), but the level of understanding was often superficial. It was a rare child who used the exhibits as intended, read the texts with attention, or asked intelligent questions. Many, however, undoubtedly enlarged their horizons and understanding from experi­ ences at the exhibits. For example, a large per­ centage experienced precession at the gyroscope exhibit. Although they do not, and may never, understand the phenomenon, they will remember the feeling if they study the concept later. The staff of science exhibits from which children are to learn must be people who understand both children and the scentific principles of the exhi­ bits. The U.S. Science Exhibit was greatly in­ debted to Clarence McCormack, Robert Okano, Looking at one of the mathematics "peep shows" and George Hawksford of the Seattle school sys- (Exhibit No. 23).

41 Children at the Gravity Well (Exhibit No. 20).

tern, who directed, instructed and encouraged the that one does not always get what one pays for in children, rebuilt and maintained the equipment, children's science exhibits. Neither pedagogical and worked out explanatory texts and traffic effectiveness, popularity, nor ease of maintenance control. had much relation to original cost, The U.S. Science Exhibit is also indebted to the supervisors of the Junior Laboratory of Science, JUNIOR LABORATORY OF SCIENCE Michael Butler of the Shady Hill School, Cam­ bridge, Mass., (April-August), and Dr. Asher A. Summary of Cost, Use, and Effectiveness of Exhibits Hyatt of the Monsanto Research Corp., Everett, Mass. (September-October) whose devoted efforts Origi­ 6- Time Popu­ Edu­ nal month in op­ larity cation­ contributed markedly to the success of the under­ cost main­ eration at any al effect taking. tenance instant The experience of creating the Junior Labora­ Esti­ Esti­ Esti­ Esti­ tory of Science showed clearly that the responsi­ mated mated mated mated Dollars dollars percent percent percent bility for subject matter, design, engineering, fab­ Linear Accelerator 10,303 450 95 4.0 40 Hartl Disk 5,184 40 100 1.3 100 rication, and installation of children's science Low Friction Carts 10,000 510 15 0.0 50 exhibits should be given to an individual or small Pinball Scattering 9,000 570 70 8.6 60 Weight on Other Worlds... 11,417 275 60 2.8 30 group who can initiate and carry through the de­ Bernoulli Effect 6,800 525 95 2.3 50 How a Telescope Works... 13,388 150 95 4.0 60 velopment of the exhibits and supervise their use. Measuring Distances in The Junior Laboratory of Science was fortunate Space 11,131 730 65 4.5 60 Crystal Growth 4,294 505 95 1.6 90 in its designers, Frederick Usher and John Follis. Microscopes 8,952 555 85 5.6 90 Pond Water Micro-organ­ Although having only a layman's knowledge of isms 2,196 650 85 0.0 80 science, and no experience in teaching, they Gyroscope Effect 4,474 200 70 11.8 70 Audio-Visual Stethoscope.. 15.132 51S 50 3.7 90 brought taste, imagination, and common sense to Electromagnetism 4,800 82 95 2.4 50 Probability Checkerboard. 5,216 5Q 100 5.0 40 their tasks. Their effort was great and their suc­ Electrolysis of Water 3,093 140 85 1.3 Paper Chromatography 10,000 100 80 3.4 cess considerable. Photosynthesis 2,640 30 30 1.5 20 The most successful exhibits were those which Ant Colonies 15,82C 690 100 3.7 60 Gravity Well 42,000 710 70 11.0 70 demonstrated a fundamental scientific principle, Speech Stopper 8,500 300 95 4.8 40 Vacuum Phenomena 10,100 400 50 3.4 90 were built with a high degree of craftsmanship, Peep Shows 7,415 600 35 5.4 60 and were designed with enough imagination and Ripple Tanks 20,788 560 70 4.2 90 Electric Fish __• 4,566 550 20 0.6 30 beauty to attract children. These were not always How We Hear 8,500 250 95 2.7 80 the most expensive. The following tables show Rain Forest Mural 2,800 10 100 0.0 40 42 5. THE SCIENCE THEATER

Building II of the United States Science Pa­ University, and his staff. These proved extremely vilion contained a 200-seat theater with a stage, popular from their inception, and added much to lecture desk, and 16mm projection equipment. the over-all appeal and impact of the Science Ex­ Each day throughout the Fair a continuous pro­ hibit. Although many people had to sit on the gram of carefully-selected science films was pre­ steps or floor, or stand an entire hour, the theater sented free to the general public. Each day's was always jammed. program was different. A library was compiled Dr. Alyea was assisted by the following: Ken­ of about 200 U.S. and foreign films on science, neth Jackman, James Taylor, Ray Sass, and Mi­ carefully chosen from the best available. A list chael Jackman, the Hill School, Pottstown, Pa.; of these films and their sources is given on page Dean Soule, Denvery Ulery, and Chris Kato, the Lakeside School, Seattle; Robert Barnard, Mon­ From June 15 through Labor Day the Science tana Sate College; LeRoy Hornbeck, University 1 heater was also used daily for an imaginative of Washington; Patricia Rice, University of series of science presentations at a fairly technical Washington; and many local high school science level staged by Dr. Hubert N. Alyea, Princeton teachers and their pupils.

Dr. Hubert Alyea lecturing in the Science Theater.

43 The following series of daily lectures was You—The Electronic Computer repeated each fortnight: Chemical Clocks Chemical Chit-Chat Dr. Hubert Alyea.— Foams, Films, and Perfumes The Air We Breathe Atomic Energy—Weapon for Peace On 9 Wednesday evenings 2-hour special teach­ Chemical Clocks er-training lectures were given for about 150 local Man-Made Molecules high school teachers of the Washington Education What is Research Like? Association. Lucky Accidents—Great Discoveries and the Each Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday Prepared Mind morning during August, a special hour show was Kenneth Jackman.— presented during which experiments and demon­ Rockets and Combustion strations suitable for overhead projection in the Rocket to the Moon classroom w^ere shown. The purpose of this series Foams, Films, and Perfumes was to improve the efficiency of high school science Unfolding the Mystery of the Atom teaching. The demonstrations involved simple Peering Inside the Atom physical or chemical experiments and the micro­ scope-TV viewing of biological or chemical phe­ You—The Electronic Computer nomena, as well as descriptions and demonstra­ Dean Soule.— tions of original devices developed for this Laboratory Glassblowing (each Wednesday) classroom technique. Each morning during June and July half-hour Many of the devices and experiments demon­ TV shows open to the public were taped by strated were developed by teams of students and KIRO-TV, Channel 7, and later broadcast in the teachers who came to the Science Exhibit to work evenings during July and August, They caused directly under Dr. Alyea in a specially fitted lab­ such favorable comment that the series was re­ oratory adjoining the Science Theater. In each peated on Channel 9, the University of Washing­ case the team set out to develop a device or experi­ ton educational channel. National distribution ment suitable for overhead projection. In the is now a possibility. This series, Atoms in Action, end every team succeeded. Beginning in Febru­ consisted of the following lecture-demonstrations: ary 1963, their results are being published in The Man into Space (Parts I and II) Science Teacher, in a series entitled "Tops at Great Discoveries—Lucky Accidents and the Century 21." Prepared Mind Much credit is due Dr. Alyea and Mr. Jackman Atomic Energy—Weapon for Peace for developing and putting on such an imagina­ The Atom (Parts I, II, and III) tive series of programs. The interest in and un­ The Air We Breathe derstanding of science of all those privileged to What is Research Like? have seen them was significantly enlarged.

44 6. BOOKS AT THE SCIENCE EXHIBIT

The Science Pavilion book booth.

No exhibit, intellectual in nature like the best science books available in English in three United States Science Exhibit, would be complete categories: Hard-cover books for adults, paper- without books. Such an exhibit, if effective, bounds at the adolescent level, and children's arouses the curiosity of its viewers. This curios­ books. Emphasis w^as placed on science books for ity should be satisfied. The best way to do this is the layman, since the audience to be reached con­ through books—carefully selected science books sisted of those whose interest in science was dealing with the subject of the exhibits. aroused for the first time or extended in new di­ Books as part of the Exhibit were definitely rections. Textbooks and books of great com­ wanted, but to sell books entails obvious adminis­ plexity were omitted. trative headaches. In addition, any resulting in­ As soon as the book booth opened it was unex­ come must go by law into the Miscellaneous Re­ pectedly successful. Children's books were im­ ceipts account of the Treasury and could not bene­ mediate best sellers, not only to parents but to the fit the U.S. Science Exhibit in any way. The children, who eagerly spent their own money to problem was solved by asking the University learn more about exhibits they had seen. Paper­ Book Store, a cooperative associated with the Uni­ backs also sold well and were often reordered one versity of Washington, to staff and manage a or two hundred at a time. Hard-cover books book booth in the Science Pavilion. The Univer­ moved more slowly but continued to sell well all sity Book Store agreed, on the understanding that summer. profits from the operation would go towards the Operating without any advertising or signs general scholarship funds of the university. The (not even an indication the books were for sale), store agreed, however, with reluctance, since some the book booth proved an unqualified success and doubted that many visitors to a World's Fair contributed a great deal to the Science Exhibit as would want to purchase serious books on science. a whole. Many visitors requested lists of the A simple, attractive display booth was designed books to take away with them. Others sent their in harmony with other exhibits in Building IV, friends to look over the "exciting" display. Ship­ before whose exit the booth was situated. With ments were made to every State and numerous the assistance of the American Library Associa­ countries. Nearly 30,000 volumes on science tion and the American Association for the Ad­ reached the public at no cost to the Government, vancement of Science, a careful selection of about and over a thousand dollars was raised for schol­ 300 titles (see page 77) was made from the arship aid at the University of Washington.

45 7. FOREIGN PARTICIPATION

The extent of foreign participation in the The international nature of science is beyond United States Science Exhibit was uncertain for question. As planning of the U.S. Exhibit de­ a considerable period. Some members of the Na­ veloped, it became clear that no meaningful story tional Science Planning Board always intended of science could be told without discussing the that foreign nations be represented. One of the contributions of historical figures like Darwin, purposes of the Board stated in the original letter Faraday, Lavoisier, Galileo, and Mendeleev, to of invitation to its members from Senators Mag­ say nothing of more recent scientists, dead and nuson and Jackson was to "develop a realistic living. plan for involving the international science com­ Because of this, in early 1960, Mr. Evans, by munity in a manner which will demonstrate the that time Commissioner, sent a representative to unity of all the sciences, and the international Western Europe to determine the nature and ex­ character of scientific advancement." However, tent to which foreign participation in the U.S. this wras never spelled out very clearly in the pres­ Science Exhibit (not the Fair) was practical and entations to Congress, which indicated that if desirable. In May Mr. Evans spent a month foreign nations wished to participate in the Seat­ abroad for the same purpose. tle Fair they should do so with their own money. It became clear that many thought the U.S. The legislation finally drafted authorized the Government sponsored the Fair. They failed to President to invite foreign nations to the Fair, distinguish the U.S. Science Exhibit from the but said nothing about inviting them into the Fed­ Fair as a whole. eral Pavilion, though it instructed the Commis­ As late as March 1961 the situation was still sioner to "depict the role of science in modern confused. Some foreign nations were apparently civilization." hoping for an offer of space in the U.S. Science Official foreign participation in the U.S. Pavilion. Consequently, a detailed letter was sent Science Exhibit became confused in the minds of on March 6 to all science attaches in Washington representatives of foreign governments, who had outlining plans for the U.S. Science Exhibit and trouble clearly distinguishing between the respon­ making it very clear that, while this Government sibility of the U.S. Commissioner, representatives w^ould not underwrite official foreign science ex­ of the Fair (known for some time as the World hibits, it would welcome loans or donations of Science Pan-Pacific Exposition), and members of exhibit material, such as ancient instruments, or the National Science Planning Board who the sponsorship of certain already-deeided-on seemed to speak at times for the Commissioner exhibits in the U.S. Science Exhibit itself. Al­ and at times for the Fair. though this letter dampened the spirits of those On August 25, 1959, the first definite action to looking for free space, it effectively cleared up the encourage foreign participation in the Fair was prevalent confusion. taken in accordance with P.L. 85-880 by the Sec­ By opening day the United States had obtained retary of State, who by Circular Note invited 83 small but significant foreign help. Britain and foreign countries to take part. This was followed France loaned (and finally donated) models of by a second Circular Note on November 10, 1959, early Faraday and Lavoisier equipment, re­ reaffirming the invitation and advising that the spectively. Canada loaned a cobalt-60 source and Fair's opening had been postponed until 1962. its container. In addition, the film library of the Additional Circular Notes on the Fair were dis­ Exhibit was enriched by contributions of first- patched on February 8, 1960, and February 20, rate scientific films from Australia, Britain, 1961. Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The On January 9, 1960, the science attaches of Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland. selected countries were invited to a Washington In addition to the exhibit material outlined meeting with the NSPB in order to outline to above, the texts of the exhibits gave extensive them the program for international scientific par­ credit to numerous foreign scientists, living and ticipation within the Fair as a whole, then in­ dead. The international character of science was tended to be primarily scientific in nature. Philip well demonstrated. Every effort was made to M. Evans, Commissioner-designate, took the op­ avoid an impression of chauvinism—a fact noted portunity to explain the role which the U.S. Gov­ by every foreign visitor and upon which there ernment planned to play. was always favorable comment.

46 8. THE SCIENCE DEMONSTRATORS

As plans for the United States Science Exhibit summer.) The salary was set at $350 per month, developed, it seemed probable that a number of in­ making the job attractive to high-caliber appli­ dividuals would be needed to work at the exhibits, cants and avoiding later turn-over and drop-outs. explain them, and possibly guide visitors through Thirty-five of the original 40 girls were still with the Pavilion. Eventually, however, the plan to the program on closing day. use guides was abandoned, though the Pavilion did These Science Demonstrators were selected on use a corps of about 50 uniformed ushers. personality, appearance, scholastic record, recom­ In late 1961 it became certain that many exhibits mendations, outside activities and interests, science could be made more effective by someone to background, and general enthusiasm towards the demonstrate and explain them to visitors. Much U.S. Science Exhibit. All but one had been to thought was given to the selection of a group of college. Eight were graduates. Five were mar­ young women to do this. A short application ried. One had three children. Their interest was form was developed, incorporating a record of a intense, their morale and enthusiasm high. Their personal interview, college and high school tran­ obvious high caliber later led to their use in many scripts, a photograph, three letters of recommenda­ ways not originally contemplated—for example, as tion, and a birth certificate. Recruitment began in special escorts for important visitors. early December 1961 with an announcement in The girls reported for training on January 15, many local papers and magazines. 1962. An older woman with tact, understanding, The reaction was immediate from all over the and firmness was hired as supervisor and given country. By early January 40 girls ranging in complete charge of them. It was made clear at age from 18 to 26 had been selected from about 400 the outset that they were hired for a serious applicants. (Five more were later hired for the purpose, and that a great deal was expected from

47 them. Complete cooperation was required in the a Vassar student, was assigned the task of learn­ study program and home assignments. They were ing to inject radioactive isotopes into rats and given identical uniforms specially styled and make autoradiograms from their tissue. The selected by the firm of David Crystal, New York techniques involved were relatively new and far City. Their hair styling, makeup, etc., was re­ beyond those normally taught undergraduates. quired to conform to standard patterns. There In a short time she produced several excellent were no vacations, no time off, and an 8-hour day autoradiograms in which the movements of di­ until the Fair ended. All these conditions were viding cells could be traced by follow ing the path cheerfully accepted and continuously adhered to. of the isotope. An intensive course of study under the direction A second, from Goucher College, was asked to of the Science Coordinator and his staff was begun extract water-soluble products from leaves of gym- at once to acquaint the Demonstrators wTith the nema sylvestra, an Indian vine. To do this, she background of scientific subjects covered by the learned to use water and other solvents in the exhibits at which they would be working. The Soxhlet extractor, followed by the new thin-layer girls were divided into three groups based on their gell chromatography technique. She isolated the aptitudes and preferences. components from the extracted mixture, and in a The Modern Laboratory. few cases even succeeded in obtaining crystalline Monkeys, pigeons, mice, chick imprinting, and forms. The level she reached bordered on orig­ the Junior Laboratory of Science. inal work. The Satellite Tracking Station, the IBM 1620 All the Demonstrators ended their work with a computer, and the teaching machine exhibit. keen desire to return to college—even drop-outs Many outsiders lectured to them. Films and who originally had no such idea. Seven returned texts were extensively used, and frequent tests to the University of Washington in September and were given on the material covered. Because worked the night shift at the Science Exhibit in their personality and physical appearance would the fall in order to continue their education and contribute so significantly to their success, they still complete their responsibility to the Exhibit, were trained in physical conditioning, speech, The public's reaction to them was excellent. proper makeup, and posture. They were also Many gratuitous compliments were received on taught the basic elements of crowd handling and their intelligence, poise, helpfulness, and attrac­ psychology, what to do in case of fire, and gen­ tiveness. They contributed immeasurably to the erally how to handle themselves in emergencies, favorable public image of the U.S. Science This training paid off. No serious incident in Exhibit. which a Science Demonstrator was involved oc­ The following served as Science Demonstrators: curred during the Fair. Anne Louise Adams, Bothel, Wash.; Jeanne Louise After the Fair opened, a rotating schedule was Arvidson, Seattle; Kathleen M. Baginski, Chehalis, set up which gave each girl a change of position Wash.; Susan Bell, Seattle; Penelope Beppu, Seattle; Belinda R. Boone, Seattle; Mary Britton, Seattle; every other day for 32 days. This meant that Merlie Ann Burton, Seattle; Sandra G. Cruver, Bellevue, none had a long stretch of duty at any one exhibit, Wash.; Sue Sylvia De Ford, Seattle; Julie Ann Duyff, and routine and monotony were avoided. This Silverdale, Wash.; Mary Margaret Failor, Tacoma, schedule proved the most important factor in a Wash.; Lynn O. Fotheringill, Seattle; Fiona L. Foyston, Seattle; Elaine French, Seattle; Carole Goldsmith, Seat­ complicated program and an important morale tle ; Judith Lee Hanson, Seattle; Alice D. Harper, Seattle; booster. Each Demonstrator had an opportunity Nancy L. Harvey, Seattle; Julieann Hatch, Seattle; Julie to work with different exhibits and learn the pub­ D. Hill, Seattle; Suzanne J. Hurley, Seattle; Diane M. Johnson, Tukwila, Wash.; Judith Ann Johnston, Bellevue, lic's reaction to them. They took full responsibil­ Wash.; Gretchen A. Kasselman, Tacoma, Wash.; Jerri ity, too, when children were lost, animals needed Lynn Kinsman, Seattle; Ellen F. Kimura, Seattle; Susan special attention, and equipment broke down or Kay Kleinschmidt, Seattle; May Ann Kuhling, Seattle; needed replacement. They consulted with and Linda C. Lorenzen, Seattle; Susan E. Malstrom, Aberdeen, Wash.; Linda M. McLean, Seattle; Penelope G. Ness, helped each other when necessary. A team spirit Renton, Wash.; Joan Rae Peterson, Seattle; Peggy Lou arose which endured throughout the Fair. Pierce, Seattle; Barbara Roth, Seattle; Julie G. Schultz, Seattle; Barbara Sheerer, Seattle; Cornelia Randolph Two Demonstrators who worked in the Modern Spring, Bellevue, Wash.; Jane E. Swanson, Souderton, Laboratory were able, in addition to their regular Pa.; Alansa R. Tucker, Seattle; Katherine P. Wolf, Mer­ duties, to do particularly interesting work. One, cer Island, Wash., and Susan York, Seattle.

48 9. PUBLIC REACTION

The biggest proof of the success of the United world as it really exists are surer guarantees of a States Science Exhibit is the number of people peaceful brotherhood of man than sterile who took the trouble to see it—more than 6 mil­ technical achievements. lion individuals, 70 percent of the gate of the "Your Science Pavilion unites a praise of hu­ Seattle Fair. During its existence, and later, the man reason, with an enthusiasm for learning. Science Exhibit attracted much favorable com­ "I do not need to wish it success. The facts ment, a selection from which is set forth below: demonstrate it has already succeeded. I should • "Magnificent!"—Dr. B. G. Ballard, Na­ like with all my heart, however, to express the tional Research Council of Canada. wish that its noble message be widely heard, and • "Your Pavilion shows taste and imagination. propose a toast to the United States Science Ex­ It is a credit to your Government."—A Polish hibit."—The complete speech of Dr. Maurice architect (name not obtained). Bayen, Director of the Palais de la Decouverte, • "One of the finest displays ever conceived"— Paris, France, guest of honor at the dinner given Robert B. Widder, the Smithsonian Institution. by the French Commissioner General, Seattle, • "The hit of the Seattle World's Fair is the July 14, 1962 (Bastille Day). United States Science Pavilion, through which • "The largest, most expensive and most suc­ people move not saying much because they are so cessful exhibit on a single theme, ever, in bringing fascinated by its exhibits."—John Canaday in the science to terms with man."—Brian Shackel in New York Times, May 6,1962. Design, September 1962. • "A project for which our Government should • "In its 6 months' existence the United States be roundly applauded"—The Saturday Review, Science Pavilion has towered over every other ex­ May 26,1962. hibit in popularity as it does in distinction. ... It • "Observers noted that the majority of visitors is not possible, you say to yourself, that this seemed to be wholly absorbed by the exhibit. And Pavilion could begin to match inside the beauty of there is also evidence that visitors were giving its exterior. You are wrong. . . . The result is a the material enough attention to carry away both single philosophical conception of remarkable ma­ new facts and new ideas."—Bulletin of the Amer­ jesty and disinterestedness. . . . When Handel, ican Association for the Advancement of Science, writing the 'Messiah' through those 15 days and June 1962. nights in his Dublin garret, came to the Hallelu­ • "There is, first, the U.S. Pavilion whose 6 jah Chorus, he wrote that it was as if the Lord acres of magnificent exhibits and inspirational set­ God Almighty had appeared before him. Some­ ting make the meaning of pure science come alive thing of this sublimity comes to the layman who, with wonder and integrity."—San Francisco transported for an hour or two out of his single Chronicle, July 8,1962. culture of the humanities, finishes the magic trek • "Let me tell you once more my deep admira­ through this Pavilion."—Alistair Cooke, in the tion for the magnificent Science Pavilion. It Manchester Guardian Weekly, October 25, 1962. really honors a Government to have erected such a • "The biggest draw was the United States beautiful tribute not to the glorification of any Science Exhibit, a fully-realized combination of particular country or conception but to Science fine architecture, sophisticated intellectual exer­ and Scientists."—Claude Doumic, Paris, France, cise and plain entertainment."—The New York July 11, 1962. Times, November 11,1962. • "On several occasions yesterday during my • "The outstanding attraction was the United visit to the United States Science Exhibit, I ex­ States Science Exhibit. It was intrinsically perienced the key to the 21st Century—pure joy neither simpleminded, funny, nor erotic, but an of knowledge. unblushingly intellectual exercise and one, as well, "The eagerness of the children, to whom you with an unexpectedly religious aura about it. By first demonstrate the delights of experimenting, accident or design, the Science Pavilion domi­ shows the force of this joy, and invites confidence nated the Fair very much as a medieval cathedral in man's future. A desire to expand human did its city."—Gilbert Milstein in the New York knowledge, and a constant faithfulness to the Times, November 18,1962. 49 50 "The hit of the Seattle World's Fair is the United States Science Pavilion, a dreamlike building be­ fore which people stand murmuring, 'beautiful.' " "Probably no building put up in 1962 caused such a world of comment or brought into action so mariy cameras," said Time magazine. "It looked as if it could have been the setting from a poem by Coleridge. From any angle it cast a spell." Another U.S. critic says, "The half-dozen ex­ traordinarily beautiful white buildings designed by Minora Yamasaki are strongly ecclesiastical in feeling, from the rows of delicate Gothic arches carrying the walls to the soaring arches standing free above reflecting pools and plazas." "This most moving Pavilion," a distinguished British critic terms it, and continues, "it lies, hap­ pily, along the southern edge of the Fair, away Entrance stairs to central court. from the main architectural babel, but one appre­ ciates its dominance best from an aeroplane; five "There is no need to add more words of descrip­ high slender Gothic arches rising above graceful tion or praise of the Pavilion architecture by plots of buildings enclosing a court of pools punc- Minora Yamasaki. It speaks for itself in pictures, although no picture can capture the pleasure of ^walking for a while amid such grace. . . . The well nigh perfect design of the building and its interior lead the visitor skillfully and gently on a preplanned route. . . . After reading so much about the Science Pavilion I inevitably anticipated disappointment with the reality. My delight and response to it were therefore doubled on finding that it not merely justified the praises, but indeed surpasses in reality even the finest photographs showing its best points. . . . Everything is for­ given and of no consequence beside the purity and magnificence of the Yamasaki Pavilion." In the late fall of 1962 the U.S. Science- Pavil­ ion won the annual award of the Seattle chapter of the American Institute of Architects. The Pa­ vilion is also entered in the National Awards pro­ gram of the American Institute of Architects, and it seems probable that the structure is destined to View from arcade of Building I, showing crowd waiting for Eames movie on a typical day. accumulate other tokens of appreciation. tuated by jetting fountains. The six flanking buildings are slabs of prestressed concrete of such crystalline purity that even on dull days their reflection is as difficult to bear as Alpine snows. Their facades are evenly broken up with continu­ ous Gothic arches used as a kind of filigree. As you come closer and are surrounded by the con­ crete surfaces everywhere, and the delicate and rippling interplay of light and water, arches and scintillating stone, it is as if the Gothic style had passed without a break through the Renaissance and the 18th century, and in and out of Spain, and had achieved a final sensuous purity in the 20th century. It is as if Venice had just been rebuilt." Finally, a British designer and architectural critic writing for his compatriots in Design: View looking north from rest area across central court.

53 10. ARCHITECTURAL CRITIQUE OF THE PAVILION

The primary architect of the United States Finally, it was decided, to incorporate a tower, Science Pavilion was the firm of Minora Yama­ both because the Pavilion was situated on the saki and Associates, Birmingham, Mich. Its highest point of the Fair and because of the build­ construction was supervised by the associated ing's significance. This tower would dominate Seattle firm of Naramore, Bain, Brady, and the central axis of the Fair and lend a monumen­ Johanson. tal quality to the Pavilion in keeping with the The architects' aim was to create a beautiful, importance and dignity of its purpose. When serene, and dignified structure that interwove the Space Needle became a reality, however, it gardens and pools in a manner that provided re­ was realized that no tower could possibly com­ pose from the tumult implicit in any fair. After pete w^ith it, and five smaller towers were decided investigating previous exposition buildings, the on. architects were impressed by the general charac­ The platforms in the central court were raised ter of lightness and grace of the Swedish Pavilion above the high point of the Fair not only to pro­ at the New York World's Fair of 1939. There vide a view back over the fairgrounds but also to the visitor walked through a friendly open en­ bring a visitor in on the upper level, direct him trance into a breathtakingly lovely garden com­ through the exhibits, and out on the lower level. pletely contained by the building. It was de­ Thus two totally different views of the court were cided that the U.S. Science Pavilion should fol­ obtained, and the incoming and outgoing traffic low this model. completely separated. Since buildings in most previous fairs tended to As finally approved, the U.S. Science Pavilion compete with one another and create an impres­ consisted of five attached units and a covered ar­ sion of architectural disunity, the architects tried cade. Each was a simple rectangle, uncluttered to design a controlled and serene inner court as a by interior supports. The entire complex, which delightfully contrasting experience. It was in­ varied in height from 30 to 50 feet, was built tended that anyone approaching the entrance to from precast, prestressed concrete panels. Such the Pavilion should be given but little hint of panels not only unified six structures of various what lay before him. His first view of the court heights and sizes, but added a considerable element was planned as a delightful surprise. of economy. There was another advantage—rapid In the inviting Summer climate of Seattle, it construction. Moreover, it seemed important to was also thought that buildings which were construct the Federal building for a World's Fair totally an indoor experience would not be as pleas­ with the most modern technological methods ant or successful as structures which encouraged possible. a visitor to pass at times into the open air, in a All exterior walls were of a homogeneous white changing indoor-outdoor environment. quartzite and white cement, with the exterior Furthermore, as the architects went deeper into acid-etched to bring out the texture of the quartz. the problem it became apparent that a complex The exterior walls were also given additional sup­ of buildings would be better than a single monu­ port and decoration by means of integral vertical mental structure, since there were already several ribs which combined to give the effect of pointed large structures on the Fair site—the Civic Audi­ arches. The motif chosen for the decoration was torium, the Armory, the Stadium, and the new not deliberately Gothic, but was decided on after Coliseum. Consequently, an interconnected series trying several designs to achieve a feeling of up­ of smaller structures to house the five distinct lift and soaring. parts of the projected Science Exhibit seemed The precast quartz facade had a sharpness of more intimate and inviting than one overpower­ detail, elegance, and richness which could be ob­ ing structure, and considerably more flexible in tained in no other way. To contrast with the terms of residual use. color and motion of the exhibits, the interior walls

51 Northwest garden court. were merely painted, and the only architectural texture and subtle colors gave the walls a warm pattern was the legs of the concrete T-beams of feeling that contrasted pleasantly with the stark the ceiling panels. whiteness of the Pavilion. The main entrance was through a gap in a wall While the entire area surrounding the Science which effectively prevented sight into the central Pavilion was landscaped, two gardens located court until a visitor climbed a short flight of steps within the wall at the north corners of the grounds and stood beeneath the five open-work towers were especially noteworthy oases of calm, ar­ which dominated the five viewing platforms. Un­ ranged to shut out most of the sights and sounds derneath these, other platforms seemed to float on of the Fair. Rather small, they offered quiet the surface of the pools which floored the upper walks, grassy banks, shade of birch and pine, and court. neat flower beds displaying bursts of color ac­ The surface interest of the quartz aggregate of cording to the seasons. Throughout the gardens the exterior walls was picked up in the unpolished and rest areas stood a collection of non-objective terrazzo pavement of the walks and platforms. sculpture by local artists. Set off in regular patterns by plastic expansion The U.S. Science Pavilion made a strong im­ strips, the slightly larger aggregate of the ter­ pression on almost everyone who saw it. If con­ razzo subtly echoed the walls. The garden re­ temporary praise is any criterion, it has already taining walls and the front walls of the Pavilion taken rank as a significant example of contempo­ court were also of precast panels of exposed stone rary U.S. architecture. aggregate of 1-inch bank gravel. Their varied A widely read U.S. writer states for example,

52 -•!« MMv^m^^ T fcrnrn

54 11. RESIDUAL USE OF THE PAVILION

From the beginning the problem of residual A building on this site would close the north-south use of the Government exhibit building at the axis of the Fair and be the first thing seen by Seattle Fair preoccupied the Congress and those anyone approaching from downtown Seattle. planning the exhibit. When the proposal for Fed­ An important factor to be considered was the eral participation in the Fair was first made, the plan for post-Fair use of the grounds. The tem­ Fair was planned for 2 years. It seemed logical porary structures would be demolished, and the to suppose that any building built to last 2 years permanent structures such as the Coliseum, the would have some elements of permanence and Opera House, the Space Needle, the International residual utility. Fountain, and, hopefully, the Federal exhibit Public LawT 86-250, amending Public Law 85- building, would remain to form a complex thence­ 880, includes the sentence, "In the design and con­ forth to be known as The Seattle Center. The struction of such buildings and other structures, whole concept constituted a very forward-looking consideration, including consultations with the example of urban renewal and municipal plan­ General Services Administration, shall be given ning. Its development was one of the principal to their utility for governmental purposes and things that made the Fair possible. It seemed needs after the Fair." Committee hearings con­ logical to erect a Federal building on such a site tain many references to congressional views that with a view to a residual use compatible with the the Government building should be constructed residual public use of the other buildings of the with a view to serving a double purpose—first, future Seattle Center, and many interested local housing the exhibits, and, after the Fair, allevi­ groups at once began to advocate this. ating other Governmental needs. Testimony was It soon became obvious that there were only five given at that time that there was need for addi­ even remote possibilities for residual use of a Gov­ tional Federal office buildings in Seattle, and many ernment exhibit building on the intended site: believed that residual office use of the structure garage, warehouse, office building, scientific re­ was logical. search center, and permanent museum or exposi­ One of the first problems investigated by the tion hall. architects was whether the building should be tem­ Furthermore, the deeper the subject was in­ porary or permanent. It was soon determined vestigated the more impractical the suggested that a temporary structure could not justify its compromises appeared. It increasingly seemed cost because: that no exhibit building could succeed in its prime a. Significant hoped-for industrial contributions purpose if its design were compromised for such as the Boeing Planetarium/Spacearium prob­ ably could not be solicited for a temporary structure. drastically different residual use. b. The initial cost would be about 90 per cent that It was thought, for example, to be almost of a permanent structure (because of inflammable ridiculous to convert an exhibit building to a exhibits and the necessity for fireproofing temporary garage or warehouse. The quality of buildings building materials). c. Additional money would be needed for and gardens needed for a fair would be utterly demolition and site restoration. wasted if later converted to such commonplace use, d. It would have no residual value. and warehouse or garage space could be built at The architects next turned to the question of about a third the cost of an exhibit building. the building's probable residual use. In this, the Conversion to office use, as had been suggested nature of the site played an inescapable role. by many, also presented grave engineering and The land had been given to the Government in cost problems. The character and disposition of fee simple. The site covered a generally square spaces, services and utilities in an exhibit building area of 6^ acres along the south border of the are totally different from those required by an fairgrounds. Many thought it the finest location. efficient office building. To construct an exhibit It included the highest point on the grounds and building for later conversion to offices would result afforded a magnificent view to the south, and west in a building which served neither purpose well, to the Olympic Mountains across Puget Sound. which would cost a great deal to convert, and

55 which throughout its life would be excessively ex­ 1960. In Senate Report No. 1097, February 22, pensive to maintain and operate. 1960, page 2, the Committee stated, "The Commit­ Exhibit use requires large clear spans and high tee believes the Secretary should construct a build­ ceilings (32 to 50 feet). The exterior should be ing primarily suitable to the exposition, such windowless, since the interest is inward. In order building to be turned over to the General Services to remodel such a building into an office structure, Administration following the exposition." the w^alls would have to be rebuilt with some kind The architects accordingly were instructed to of modular window system. Two or three inter­ design efficient, permanent, and beautiful exhibit mediate floors would have to be inserted within buildings. the existing shells in order to use the volume ef­ The U.S. Science Pavilion as finally evolved fectively. This would entail both breaking served its purpose well. It proved probably the through the floor slab for new columns and pro­ most successful exhibit building so far erected by viding some type of fireproof floor system. New this Government. More than 6 million people spandrel beams would be required at the outside passed through it during the Fair. These vast walls, even if the columns were designed to accept crowds, except at certain few peak times, were the new^ loads. absorbed and handled easily and well. They were Beyond these almost insurmountable problems, impressed by that they saw—often as much by the Pavilion as by its contents—and many an un­ a neiv ventilating and air-conditioning system T w^ould be needed, including all fans, ductwork solicited comment w as received that a visitor felt and related equipment. Perimeter heating would proud of his Government for having conceived and probably be required, as well as new plumbing for erected such a structure. toilets, drinking fountains, and fire protection. As planning for and construction of the exhibits Additional sewer and water connections would be and Pavilion proceeded, much thought was given called for to accommodate the increased load. to the final disposition of the exhibit material and Electrically, a new lighting system would be need­ the residual use of the Pavilion. ed throughout, and a new under-floor duct system Section 6 of Public Law 85-880 stated : "After for electrical and telephone wiring. Possibly ad­ the close of the exposition, all property purchased ditional switchgear might also be necessary. or erected w^ith funds provided pursuant to this While some of this could be built into the original Act shall be disposed of in accordance with the building, these unused elements would put a Federal Property and Administrative Services premium on the construction cost which would Act of 1949, and other applicable Federal laws strain the allotted budget for participation in the relating to the disposition of excess and surplus Fair. property." The architects further advised that, because the For long it was thought that, following the pat­ needs of an office building are so completely dif­ tern of other fairs, the exhibits would be in part ferent from those of an exhibit building, the cost dismantled, in part returned to donors of exhibit of converting a properly designed exhibit build­ material, and in part, perhaps, made available to ing to subsequent office use could easily be greater other agencies of the Government having a use than that of an original office building. Yet, even for technical exhibits. It was also contemplated after conversion, the resulting structure could not that an empty Pavilion would be turned over to possibly perform its office function efficiently or GSA. with low operating costs. All who inquired about the building's final dis­ Conversion to a scientific research center would, position were referred to the Act of 1949 and told in the experience of the architects, have been more that the Pavilion would be disposed of by GSA difficult and expensive. The sensitive ventilation after the Fair in accordance with procedures long and air-conditioning requirements of such a established in law. structure would require vast mechanical changes. After the Fair opened this thinking changed. The flexible piping of water, gas, air, and elec­ The great popular success of the Pavilion and its tricity to laboratory equipment must be planned exhibits generated a popular demand that some from the beginning for efficient and economical way be found to assure that the Science Exhibit use, and to reduce the initial cost. remain intact for the continuing benefit of the Consequently, of all possibilities for residual region and nation. In particular, the National use, that which was most sympathetic to, and Science,Planning Board and the Science Advisory compatible with, the building's original purpose Committee, after viewing the Exhibit in early was the most logical and economical—permanent June 1962, went strongly on record that "sub­ exhibit or museum use. Such residual use would stantial values" could accrue through continuing require fewest compromises with the basic purpose use of the U.S. Science Exhibit. The National of the building, would require the lowest sub­ Science Foundation also associated itself with sequent conversion cost, and would fit in best these sentiments. with the long-range plans of the Seattle Center. During the summer of 1962 a number of meet­ This information was reported to the Senate ings of scientists, educators, and Seattle civic Committee on Appropriations on February 19, leaders took place, culminating in the formation

56 in July of a non-profit organization, the Pacific Under the terms of the license the Foundation is Science Center Foundation, which solicited the liable for protection and maintenance estimated privilege of renting the U.S. Science Exhibit and to cost $146,500 annually. The license is termina­ keeping it open. In early October the Foundation ble at will by either party. was given a grant by the National Science Foun­ When the Fair ended at midnight on October 21, dation to assist it in this task. with the approval of all concerned the Department On October 5, 1962, the Department of Com­ of Commerce surrendered custody of the build­ merce notified the General Services Administra­ ing and its contents to GSA, and the licensee, the tion that the U.S. Science Pavilion and its contents Pacific Science Center Foundation, took over. would be. surplus to its needs on October 22. The Exhibit remained open on a limited schedule. GSA, in turn, licensed use of the building and its During 1963 the Foundation will work to obtain contents to the Pacific Science Center Foundation sufficient community, regional, and national sup­ for 1 year in order to keep the display available to port, and public attendance, to justify the Govern­ the public. During this period further study will ment in permitting it permanently to continue the be given to problems of the long-range use of the U.S. States Science Exhibit as a living science U.S. Science Pavilion in the national interest center.

57 12. LESSONS FOR THE FUTURE

The United States Government has not often United States will wish to have a great national ex­ constructed an official national exhibit at an inter­ hibit—notably one in Ottawa in 1967. Such national exposition. There are few Americans things are well advertised in advance. There is who have had experience in such a project. little excuse for jumping into them hastily at the Though the examples of the U.S. exhibits at Brus­ last moment. Those who read these words should sels in 1958 and Moscow in 1959 were before it remember that they will save this country money (and the report on U.S. participation at the Brus­ and contribute to its better image abroad if they do sels Fair was particularly useful), the staff of the their best to insure that the decision on official Science Exhibit had to learn much for itself the U.S. participation is taken early. In this way the hard way—a state of affairs that seems almost an planners of a Federal exhibit will be enabled to inherent part of U.S. participation in similar produce the most for their exhibit dollars. events. A significant lesson learned at Seattle was the This need not be, A number of lessons were value of permanent buildings. Historically, ex­ learned at Seattle which may benefit future plan­ position architecture has been temporary. How­ ners and administrators of similar exhibits. ever, rising labor costs and modern building Many of them reinforce the wise conclusions methods and materials have caused much tempo­ drawn from the Brussels experience as found in rary construction to cost almost as much as perma­ the report of the U.S. Commissioner at Brussels, nent, One of the great permanent benefits of the page 28, et seq. His remarks concerning the U.S. Science Exhibit was the Pavilion, which, as necessity for administrative freedom, the impor­ explained in Section XII, cost only slightly more tance of having legal expertise on the staff, and than a temporary structure, Since there are so the value of private contributions to the Federal many worthy purposes which can be aided by effort, though not repeated here, are heartily permanent construction, it seems folly to waste endorsed. money on temporary exhibit buildings of no resid­ Nor is it thought necessary again to dwell un­ ual value. It is strongly recommended that care­ duly on the absolute necessity of time to plan great ful consideration be given in the future to the national exhibits worthy of this country. Every advantages of a permanent exhibit structure. exhibit administrator seems to finish his project It may be useful also to speak briefly about how wishing he had had more time—yet this is the one printed material concerning the Pavilion was han­ commodity, cheapest to obtain, which never seems dled. An exhibit the size of the U.S. Science to be provided him. Pavilion needs a free throwaway orientation hand­ Generally speaking, 3 years is an irreducible out. This can be printed on a single sheet at minimum in which to plan a sensible and econom­ comparatively small cost. Several million were ical exhibit of magnitude. These adjectives are handed out in Seattle. The dignity and impor­ emphasized because, if the planning period is cur­ tance of the Exhibit, however, called for something tailed, the time can be recovered in only two in greater depth. Its expense presented a prob­ ways—by exhorbitant overtime and premium lem, since its cost would have to come from the prices, or by reducing workmanship, contents, and exhibit budget. If it were sold, the proceeds general quality of the whole exhibit. Three would have to go into the Miscellaneous Receipts years, when available, allow proper time for (1) account of the Treasury and would be lost to the planning the theme and writing the storyline, (2) Science Exhibit. It could only be produced by planning a building to contain it, and (3) econom­ the Science Exhibit, therefore, at the price of seri­ ical construction of building and exhibits. If ous inroads into the budget. things are not done in this deliberate sequence, The dilemma was solved by finding publishers serious difficulties, thematic, financial, and admin­ willing to gamble their own funds in creating a istrative, will surely follow. Seattle was not Souvenir Guide Book and a portfolio of artwork immune. called Impressions of the United States Science There will be other expositions in which the Pavilion—both devoid of commercial advertising. 59 Both publishers signed an agreement under which, available to the public form a part of future U.S. once they recovered their production cost, they national exhibits. shared their profits equally with the Government. Finally, a useful lesson was learned concerning A small booth was provided for them in the the contribution that art and artists can make to Science Pavilion, and the public, at no cost to the a Federal exhibit. Today, when interest in the Government, was thereby afforded the opportunity arts is flourishing, and when the arts seem in­ of acquiring permanent records of the Exhibit, creasingly an expression of our national values, Also, the subject of books. The U.S. Science it seems highly appropriate that a Federal exhibit Exhibit was primarily intellectual in nature. It —of whatever kind—should draw on the resources was felt, therefore, that books should form a part of American artists for its decoration. The U.S. of it—particularly when so many excellent books Science Exhibit w^as fortunate in the cooperation on science existed. The story of how the Univer­ it was afforded by the Seattle Art Museum, the sity of Washington Book Store was invited to Portland Art Museum, and the Northwest Insti­ run a book booth has already been related in Sec­ tute of Sculptors, as wTell as by individual local tion 6. This was so successful that it is recom­ sculptors and artists. Their w^orks embellished mended, whenever possible, that good books the Pavilion and contributed greatly to its beauty.

60 APPENDIXES

61 NATIONAL SCIENCE PLANNING BOARD (August 1958)

Dr. FROELICH RAINEY, Chairman Dr. GLENN T. SEABORG University of Pennsylvania University of California Dr. DETLEV W. BRONK Dr. FREDERICK SEITZ Rockefeller Institute University of Illinois Dr. LEONARD CARMICHAEL Dr. HENRY BRADFORD WASHBURN, JR. The Smithsonian Institution Boston Museum of Science Dr. HAROLD J. COOLIDGE Dr. PAUL WEISS National Academy of Sciences The Rockefeller Foundation Dr. FRANK FREMONT-SMITH Dr. DAEL WOLFLE Josiah Macy, Jr., Foundation American Association for the Advancement of Science Dr. HARRY F. HARLOW University of Wisconsin Later additions included; Dr. DONALD LOUGHRIDGE General Motors Technical Center Dr. ALLEN V. ASTIN National Bureau of Standards Dr. DONALD H. MCLAUGHLIN Homestake Mining Company Dr. HERMAN F. MARK Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute Dr. DONALD H. MENZEL Harvard University Dr. ORR REYNOLDS Department of Defense JAMES H. MITCHELL National Science Foundation Dr. RICHARD H. BOLT National Science Foundation Dr. J. C. MORRIS (vice James Mitchell) Tulane University Dr. HOMER NEWELL, JR. Dr. HANS NEURATH National Aeronautics and Space Administration University of Washington Dr. JOHN P. HAGEN GERARD PIEL National Aeronautics and Space Administration The Scientific American (vice Dr. Newell)

62 THE SCIENCE ADVISORY COMMITTEE

(April 1960)

Dr. ORR REYNOLDS, Chairman Dr. DONALD H. MENZEL Department of Defense Harvard University Dr. A. E. PARR Dr. ERNEST ALLEN National Institutes of Health American Museum of Natural History Dr. FROELICH RAINEY Dr. ALLEN V. ASTIN University of Pennsylvania National Bureau of Standards Dr. DIXY LEE RAY (added May 1961) CARL R. CONRAD University of Washington Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Dr. DAEL WOLFLE American Association for the Advancement of Dr. JOHN P. HAGEN Science National Aeronautics and Space Administration WALTER DORWIN TEAGUE, Sr. Dr. GEORGE W. IRVING New York City Department of Agriculture (deceased December 1960)

63 CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS

During the 2y2 years when the content of the United States Science Exhibit was being planned, the staff, the National Science Planning Board, and the Science Advisory Committee drew heavily on the advice, assistance and dedication of more than 400 members of the scientific and design com­ munities. A list, certainly incomplete, follows of those whose assistance was given in countless ways:

Dr. Michael Abercrombie Dr. Frederick Bang Dr. Max Britten University College, London School of Hygiene & Public Health, Office of Naval Research Baltimore Norman Abrams Dr. Charles Brokaw University of Colorado Glen Bannerman University of Minnesota Ottawa, Canada Ruth Abramson Dr. Ray Bryan Sloan-Kettering Institute Robert Bareiss National Cancer Institute Dr. Ralph G. Adams Lessells Associates, Inc. Dr. John Buck U.S. Public Health Service Richard Barlow National Institutes of Health Los Angeles, Calif. Alexander Adler Dr. Theodore H. Bullock National Institutes of Health Dr. Peter Bartels University of California at Los E. Leitz, Inc. Angeles Dr. James Aldrich Educational Services, Inc. Willard Bascom Victor Buono Los Angeles, California Dr. Frank D. Allan National Academy of Sciences George Washington University Dr. C. C. Bates Dean F. Bumpus Department of Defense Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu­ Dr. A. C. Allison tion Oxford University Dr. Werner Baum Florida State University Dr. Dean Burk Dr. Hubert N. Alyea National Institutes of Health Princeton University Dr. Maurice Bay en Paris, France Michael Butler Dr. E. J. Ambrose Shady Hill School, Cambridge, Mass. Royal Cancer Hospital, London Felix Bednarz Los Angeles, Calif. Dr. H. B. Byers Richard I. A'Merie University of Chicago Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Dr. Michael Beer Johns Hopkins University Dr. James G. Callas Dr. Bruce Ames Kaiser Foundation Hospital, San National Institutes of Health Dr. Willard Bennett Francisco University of North Carolina David Amitin Dr. Allen Calvin Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Dr. William Benson Britannica Center for Studies in National Science Foundation Michael Amrine Learning Washington, D.C. Joseph Berger Dr. Francis Carlson Dr. Charles Anderson Silver Spring, Md. Johns Hopkins University Air Force Cambridge Research Dr. J. A. Bergeron James H. Carmel Laboratories Brookhaven National Laboratory Bloomfield Hills, Mich. Dr. Thomas F. Anderson Elmer Bernstein Dr. J. Lockwood Ohamberlin Institute for Cancer Research, Los Angeles, Calif. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Philadelphia Dr. Edwin Biel Robert W. Chambers Dr. Martin Annes Walter Dorwin Teague Associates American Science and Engineering, Rutgers University Inc. Rear Admiral William Chambliss Dr. Rupert E. Billingham Space Technology Laboratories Nicolas Apgar Wis tar Institute Dr. G. B. Chapman State University of New York Sam Blanc Cornell University Betty Appleton Denver, Colo. Dr. Martha Chase Office of Naval Research William Bonini University of Rochester Elbert Atkins Princeton University Wallace Cloud U.S. Weather Bureau Eugene Borghi Raymond Loe,wy/William Snaith, Dr. John G. Atkins Los Angeles, Calif. Inc. U.S. Department of Agriculture Dr. John Colter Dr. Harry A. Borthwick Wistar Institute, Philadelphia Dr. Krishna Bahadur U.S. Department of Agriculture Allahabad, India Dr. Dale Coman Franklyn Branley University of Pennsylvania John C. Bailer, Jr. Hayden Planetarium University of Illinois Thomas Conroy Dr. Sidney Breese Cinerama Inc. Dr. A. Bajer Plum Island Animal Disease La­ Cecil Cooke University of Cracow, Poland boratory London England Dr. J. Mole-Bajer Mrs. Carney B. Brewer Sam Cornell University of Cracow, Poland U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station Los Angeles, Calif. 64 Dr. Dean Cowie Gene Eppinger H. Lou Gibson Carnegie Institution Herman Miller, Inc. Eastman Kodak Co. Thomas Craig John Ewing Norman Goldstein Abbott Laboratories Lamont Geological Observatory San Anselmo, Calif. Robert H. Crandall Dr. Maurice Ewing Dr. William Gough Altadena, Calif. Lamont Geological Observatory Atomic Energy Commission Capt. Kenneth G. Crosby James Faber Dr. Samuel Graff U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Washington, D.C. Columbia University Dr. Robert Cunningham Philip T. Farnsworth Dr. Jesse L. Greenstein Air Force Cambridge Research San Francisco, Calif. Pasadena, Calif. Laboratories Dr. Donald W. Fawcett Dr. R. B. Gresham Mildred Dager Harvard Medical School National Naval Medical Center Department of the Navy Dr. Andrew A. Fejer Dr. W. W. Grigorieff Dr. Samuel Dales Illinois Institute of Technology Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Rockefeller Institute Dr. Humbert© Fernandez-Moran Studies Dr. Farrington Daniels Massachusetts General Hospital Arlene Grittner University of Wisconsin Dr. Richard Ferrell National Academy of Sciences Robert E. Danielson University of Maryland Dr. Jerome Gross Massachusetts General Hospital Princeton University Dr. Paul Fields Dr. Hillary Deason University of Washington Frances Gudemann American Association for the Ad­ Walter Dorwin Teague Associates vancement of Science Dr. John W. Firor The Carnegie Institution Gerald Gulotta Dr. Gib De Busk Raymond Loewy/William Snaith, Glen Fleck Inc. Florida State University Venice, Calif. Dr. Bowen Dees Dr. Richard Fleming Jan Hahn National Science Foundation Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti­ University of Washington tution Lucia De Respinis Ade R. Floreen George Nelson & Associates Dr. Leon Hall Leeds & Northrup Griffith Observatory Dr. Armin J. Deutsch John Follis Mt. Wilson and Palomar Observatory Lawrence Halprin Los Angeles, Calif. San Francisco, Calif. Dr. Russell L. de Valois University of Indiana E. P. Fortson, Jr. Dr. Viktor Hamburger Waterways Experiment Station Washington University John de Visser Dr. Sidney Fox The Martin Company, Baltimore Dr. Jean Hanson Florida State University Kings College, London John Dickey William Fredericks Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Tivo Rivers, Wis. Dr. Roy Hanson National Science Foundation Martin Dolgos Dr. Herbert Friedman Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Naval Research Laboratory Dean Hardy Dr. John Dowling Seattle, Wash. Harvard University Dr. Irving Fuhr Dr. William M. Harlow National Institutes of Health New York State College of Forestry Dr. Robert J. Downs Dr. Edward Fuller U.S. Department of Agriculture Robert J. Harper National Bureau of Standards Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Elisha Dubin Dr. John Fuller Los Angeles, Calif. Bar Harbor, Maine Dr. John Harris Dr. Frank D. Drake Thorndike Memorial Hospital, Bos­ National Radio Astronomy Ob­ Dr. Richard Fuller ton servatory Seattle Art Museum Peter Harrison James Fulton Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Ruth Dudley Raymond Loewy/William Snaith, National Institutes of Health Dr. H. K. Hartline Inc. Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re­ J. Glenn Dyer Dr. David Fultz search U.S. Weather Bureau University of Chicago Lawrence Harvey Charles & Ray Eames Dr. Paul M. Fye Los Angeles, Calif. Venice, Calif. Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti­ Dr. J. Woodland Hastings Lewis V. Eckhart tution Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti­ Tallahassee, Fla. Dr. Joseph G. Gall tution University of Minnesota Dr. Carl R. Ecklund Donald R. Henry Department of the Army Dr. George Gamov Walter Dorwin Teague Associates University of Colorado Dr. I. Eibl Eibesfeldt James M. Henry New York City Professor Antonio Garbasso Educational Services, Inc. Florence, Italy Dr. Roger Herriott L. C. Eichner Dr. Ronald Geballe Johns Hopkins University Clifton, N.J. University of Washington Dr. John B. Hersey George C. Ellerton W. J. Geisbusch Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ Vitro Laboratories, Md. Brookhaven National Laboratory nology 65 Dr. Alfred Hershey Frank Jones Dr. Helmut E. Lansberg The Carnegie Institution Walter Donvin Teague Associates U.S. Weather Bureau Dr. C. Hertzfeldt Dr. John Josse Helen Leavitt National Bureau of Standards Stanford University Washington, D.C. Dr. Eckard Hess Dr. Christian Junge Dr. Myron C. Ledbetter University of Chicago Air Force Cambridge Research Harvard University Dr. V. P. Hessler Laboratory Paul Lehr University of Alaska Dr. Abraham Kaplan Weather Satellite Laboratory Dr. Walter E. Heston Los Angeles, Calif. Luna B. Leopold National Cancer Institute Dr. Satish C. Kapoor U.S. Geological Survey Dr. Albert R. Hibbs University of Washington William Liittschwager Los Angeles, Calif. Dr. Jonathan Karas Cinerama, Inc. Dr. Walter F. Hiltner Dover, New Hampshire Gordon Lill The Boeing Company Dr. B. P. Kaufmann Office of Naval Research Dr. Robert Hofstadter The Carnegie Institution Norman Lindblom Stanford University Dr. E. Kellenberger Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory University of Geneva Dr. Alan Holden Andrew R. Littell Bell Laboratories Dr. Geoffrey Keller Educational Services, Inc. David Holmes National Science Foundation Dr. Elbert P. Little Weather Satellite Laboratory Richard Kenah Macalaster Bicknell Corp. John Holmstrom U.S. Geological Survey Cecil Love Los Angeles, Calif. Dr. John C. Kendrew Hollywood, Calif. Frank M. Holz Journal of Molecular Biology, Lon­ Dr. Hugh Loveland Washington, D.C. don St. James, Long Island Dr. Charles Hosier John Kessler Father Paul Luger Pennsylvania State University M.I.T. Lincoln Laboratory Seattle University Dr. Rollin Hotchkiss Arthur King Dr. Ruf us Lumry Rockefeller Institute for Medical Walter Dorwin Teague Associates University of Minnesota Research Edward Kinsley Dr. John Lyman Dr. David Hubel Texas Instruments Company National Science Foundation Harvard Medical School Nathan Kirpitznikoff Dr. Carl Maas R. Y. Hudson Raymond Loewy/William Snaith, Standard Oil Company of New Inc. Waterways Experiment Station Jersey Frank Hummelbaugh Dwight B. Kline William H. MacCallum University of California at Los U.S. Weather Bureau Modem Learning Aids Angeles Dr. Heinrich Kluver Dr. W. D. Maclay Dr. H. E. Huxley University of Chicago Agricultural Research Service University College, London Roland Kologrivov Dr. R. H. Magarvey Dr. Vernon Ingram Lamont Geological Observatory Acadia University, Nova Scotia Cambridge University Dr. Milan Kopac William Malkin Dr. Shinya Inoue New York University U.S. Weather Bureau Dartmouth College Dr. Hilary Koprowski Dr. John Mange Dr. Columbus O'D. Iselin Wistar Institute Naval Research Laboratory Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti­ tution Harold Mansfield Dr. Arthur Romberg The Boeing Company Stanford University Dr Harvey Itano Dr. Clement Markert National Institutes of Health H. J. Kostkos Johns Hopkins University Dr. W. H. Tttelson Bell Laboratories Dr. Paul C. Marth Brooklyn College Dr. John Kraus U.S. Department of Agriculture Dr. William Jakoby Ohio State University National Institutes of Health Dr. George Mases Dr. R. H. Kropschot University of Washington C. L. Jennings National Bureau of Standards William J. Matteson Lepel High Frequency Laboratory William Ku Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Perry B. Johanson Birmingham, Michigan William Mavlatt Seattle, Washington Dr. Thomas S. Kuhn Rutgers University Thomas H. John Los Angeles, California C. S. McCamy Walter Dorwin Teague Associates National Bureau of Standards Dr. Lawrence Kulp Dr. Charles Johnson Lamont Geological Observatory Dr. Joseph J. McCarthy Naval Research Laboratory University of Washington Dr. Lawrence M. Kushner Wendell Johnson National Bureau of Standards Dr. James McOonnell U.S. Army Corps of Engineers University of Michigan Camille H. Lafeve Dr. David Jones Waterways Experiment Station, Dr. M. J. McCormick University of Michigan Miss. Parke, Davis & Company

66 Robert McCormick Dr. Ukichiro Nakaya Richard Poulin U.S. Public Health Service U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Johns Hopkins University Dr. William D. McElroy Dr. Jerome Namias Peter Purpura Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti­ U.S. Weather Bureau Walter Dorwin Teague Associates tution Dr. Paul Nathan Dr. Floyd Ratliff Dr. F. J. McGuigan May Institute for Medical Research Rockefeller Institute for Medical Hollins College* Dr. Pinkney Near Research Major Kenneth E. Mclntyre Virginia Museum of Fine Arts Dr. Charles Ravitsky U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Diamond Ordnance Fuze Labora­ Boyce Nemec tories Dr. E. F. McNichol Reevesound, Inc. Johns Hopkins University Dr. Raymond L. Newburn, Jr. Dr. Thomas B. Reed William B. Mellor La Crescenta, Calif. Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ Herndon, Va. nology Irl Newlan William H. Regan Guy P. Meredith * Los Angeles, Calif. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Gilbert Oakley, Jr. Dr. Timothy Merz Educational Services, Inc. Nicholas Reisini Johns Hopkins University Cinerama, Inc. Dr. Severo Ochoa Dr. John Renner Dr. Matthew Meselson New York University Medical Center Harvard University National Science Teachers Associa­ Joseph Okada tion Dr. Benjamin Miller Naval Research Laboratory May Institute for Medical Research Robert Rice Dr. Jack Oliver National Science Teachers Associa­ Dr. Mason Miller Lamont Geological Observatory tion Washington State University Dr. Ray Owen Dr. Robert S. Richardson Dr. Richard Miller California Institute of Technology Griffith Observatory and Plane­ U.S. Steel Corporation Don Pack tarium Dr. Stanley Miller U.S. Weather Bureau Dr. Richard Roberts University of California Dr. George V. Packer Carnegie Institution Wilfred W. Miller U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Dr. C. F. Robinow Denver, Colorado Dr. Chester Page University of Western Ontario Dr. William H. Miller National Bureau of Standards J. Robinson Rockefeller Institute for Medical National Institutes of Health Research Dr. Howard Page National Science Foundation Eric Rondum Dr. J. Mitchell Cinerama, Inc. U.S. Steel Corporation Roland Paine National Science Foundation Dr. George Rose Dr. John W. Mitchell Houston, Tex. U.S. Department of Agriculture Dr. George Palade Rockefeller Institute for Medical Dr. Murray Rosenberg Phyllis Montgomery Research Rockefeller Institute for Medical Raymond Loewy/William Snaith, Research Inc. Dr. Sanford Palay National Institutes of Health Dr. Sherman Ross Frank L. Moore American Psychological Association Walter Dorwin Teague Associates David M. Paul, Jr. Atlantic Research Corporation George Rothwell Dr. Hilary B. Moore National Science Foundation University of Miami Dr. Linus Pauling Dr. John Moore California Institute of Technology Dr. Hunter Rouse Iowa State University Columbia University Ross Peavey Dr. Stanford Moore National Academy of Sciences Dr. Arthur Ruark U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Rockefeller Institute John Peckham Dr. Councilman Morgan Peckham Productions, Inc. Morton Rubin Columbia University U.S. Weather Bureau Professor L. S. Penrose J. Roland Morin University College, London Dr. George Rudkin Sylvania Electric Products, Inc. Institute for Cancer Research Dr. Pierre Piganiol Dr. Aron Moscona Paris, France Dr. Stanley Ruttenberg University of Chicago National Academy of Sciences George Pollack Dr. Isabel Mountain U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station Dr. S. Palmer Saunders Columbia Presbyterian Medical National Institutes of Health Center J. Polt Dr. Erwin Mueller University of Chicago Dr. Howard Schachman University of California Pennsylvania State University Dr. Stephen Polyak Dr. Margaret Murray University of Chicago Ray Schaffner Columbia University Shenandoah National Park Dr. C. M. Pomerat Dr. David Nachmansohn Pasadena Foundation for Medical Robert W. Schloemer College of Physicians and Surgeons Research U.S. Weather Bureau Dr. Manfred Nahmmacher Dr. R. F. Post Frederick B. Schmitt E. Leitz, Inc. Lawrence Radiation Laboratory Walter Dorwin Teague Associates 67 Dr. T. C. Schnierla Dr. Robert Stollberg Donald Weed American Museum of Natural San Francisco State College Hollywood, Calif. History Dr. Henry M. Stommel Dr. George Weiffenbach Gunther Schuller Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti­ Johns Hopkins University New) York City tution Dr. W. K. Weihe Richard Schulz Dr. James Strickland U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cedar Rapids, Iowa Educational Services, Inc Dr. Paul Weiss Dr. Guenter Schwarz Dr. Otto Struve Rockefeller Institute for Medical Florida State University National Radio Astronomy Observa­ Research Dr. Martin Schwarzchild tory J. E. Weldy Princeton University Neil E. Sullivan General Electric Co. Dr. Richard Schweet Hollins College Dr. Gerald Wendt Medical Research Institute, Calif. Dr. Gunnar Svaetichin New York City Caracas, Venezuela Dr. Raymond J. Seeger Dr. Glen W. Wensch National Science Foundation Dr. Carl Swanson U.S. Atomic Energy Commission John Hopkins University Dr. D. Gordon Sharp Dr. Emil White University of North Carolina Dr. Clifford Swartz Johns Hopkins University A. Neal Shedd Brookhaven National Laboratories Dr. Harvey White Department of Health, Education, William Szabo University of California and Welfare Reevesound, Inc. Dr. David Whitlock E. G. Sherburne, Jr. Dr. A. R. Taylor State University of Netv York American Association for the Ad­ Parke, Davis & Co. Robert Wickware vancement of Science Dr. Herbert Taylor Willimantic, Conn. Victor Showalter Columbia University Dr. Torsten Wiesel Columbus, Ohio Euclides P. Theoharides Harvard Medical School Dr. Francis B. Silsbee Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Dr. Robert Williams National Bureau of Standards Dr. Charles Thomas University of Washington Dr. Willys Silvers Johns Hopkins University Dr. Robley Williams Wistar Institute, Philadelphia Robert F. Thompson University of California H. B. Simmons Walter Dorwin Teague Associates John Wilson Waterways Experiment Station Dr. Yale J. Topper Texas Instrument Company Robert Simpson National Institutes of Health John D. Wilson U.S. Weather Bureau F. V. Topping Hollywood, Calif. H. D. Smith Electronics Ltd., Toronto Dr. Katherine Wilson Nova Scotia Research Foundation Dr. Donald Tower National Institutes of Health Dr. Malcolm Smith National Institutes of Health Dr. Robert S. Wiseman Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ Dr. James H. Trexler U.S. Army Corps of Engineers nology Naval Research Laboratory Dr. Myron L. Wolbarsht Robert F. Smith George Tsutakawa Naval Medical Research Institute Brookhaven National Laboratory Seattle, Wash. Dr. Charles Wolcott George Spacek Dr. Albert Tyler Educational Services, Inc. Venice, Calif. California Institute of Technology Dr. W. J. Sparks Charles Woron Frederick Usher Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa­ Esso Research Laboratory Los Angeles, Calif. tory Dr. Arnold H. Sparrow Brookhaven National Laboratary Richard Vanderlippe Helen Wright Grason-Stadler Company, Inc. Los Angeles, Calif. Dr. Melvin Spiegel Dr. Roman Vishniac Dartmouth College Redwood Wright Yeshiva University Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti­ R. R. Sponholz tution University of Wisconsin William H. Von Arx Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ Colonel H. E. Sprague nology Dr. Verner J. Wulff Masonic Research Laboratory U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Dr. Henry Wagner Dr. Nelson Spratt Naval Medical Research Hospital Dr. Herman Yagoda University of Minnesota Air Force Cambridge Research Dr. George Wald Center Dr. Franklin Stahl Harvard University Harvard University Dr. Charles Yanofsky Dr. Robert Walk Stanford University Albert A. Stanley George Washington University U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Arnold Washerman Dr. Jerrold R. Zacharias Dr. Gordon Stanley Raymond Loewy/William Snaith, Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ California Institute of Technology Inc. nology Dr. Malcolm Steinberg Dr. R. M. Watrous Rudolph F. Zallinger Johns Hopkins University Abbott Laboratories Yale University Dr. Edward Stern Dr. Matthew Wayner Dr. Paul C. Zamecnik University of Maryland Syracuse University Massachusetts General Hospital

68 PRIVATE CONTRIBUTORS The United States Science Exhibit was significantly supported by private industry and individuals. The potential advantages of private support was early recognized. At the same time it was recog­ nized that soliciting support from U.S. industry could raise troublesome problems, and force com­ promises on the design and content of the exhibits themselves if not skillfully handled. In other words, the industrial tail might have wagged the scientific dog, and the U.S. Science Pavilion could have degenerated into a showcase for the accomplishments of U.S. industry and applied research. Had more time been available, and had the exact content of the various exhibits been known earlier and more precisely, more could undoubtedly have been obtained. In the end, however, 140 companies, institutions and individuals contributed exhibit material valued at more than $1.5 million. The scope and variety of the exhibits were far greater than would otherwise have been the case, and the charm of the Pavilion greatly enhanced by loans of sculpture and paintings. The program of obtaining private support was carried on the following principles: 1. Early recognition of its importance. 2. Appointment of an officer with responsibility for coordination of the program. 3. Approaching a company initially at the top—preferably via personal call or personal letter from the Commissioner or Deputy Commissioner. 4. Insistence that final decisions as to styling and exhibit content would be made by the Government. 5. Prohibition of commercial advertising. In the end, cooperating companies—those who donated exhibits—were allowed a small inexpensive bronze plaque bearing the seal of the U.S. Science Exhibit and a brief credit line. Some two dozen plaques were put up. SPONSORS OF COMPLETE EXHIBITS 1. Abbot Laboratories, Inc Tissue Growth North Chicago, 111. 2. American Telephone & Telegraph Co a. Physics of Hearing New York City. b. Feedback 3. Applied Physics Laboratory _ "Transit" Silver Spring, Md. 4. Beckman Instrument Co Paper Chromatography Palo Alto, Calif. 5. The Boeing Company The "Spacearium" (Bldg. Ill) Seattle, Wash. 6. Her Britannic Majesty's Government Faraday's Generator 7. The French Government - Lavoisier's Scales 8. General Dynamics Corporation ; Gravity Well San Diego, Calif. 9. General Electric Company a. Artificial Diamond New York City b. Energy Conversion 10. International Business Machines Co The Computer as a Tool New York City 11. Leeds & Northrup Foundation Measuring Instruments Philadelphia, Pa. 12. Perkin-Elmer Corporation "Stratoscope" Norwalk, Conn. 13. The Smithsonian Institution Ty&ho Brahe's Armillary Sphere Washington, D.C. 14. United States Steel Corporation. Microscopy Pittsburgh, Pa. 15. University of California Linear Accelerator Berkeley, Calif. 69 DONORS OR LENDERS OF EQUIPMENT

1. Air Force-Cambridge Research Laboratories 39. International Telephone & Telegraph Co. Cambridge, Mass. San Fernando, Calif. 2. Air Reduction Company 40. Interstate Electronics Corporation Seattle, Wash. Anaheim, Calif. 3. Allied Chemical Corporation 41. Ion Corporation Norristown, N.J. Seattle, Wash. 4. Aloe Scientific Company 42. Walter Kidde, Inc. Seattle, Wash. Belleville, N.J. 5. American Express Company 43. J. Klinger Company New York City Jamaica, N.Y. 6. American Museum of Natural History 44. Laboratory Furniture Company New York City Mineola, N.Y. 7. American Sterilizer Company 45. E. Leitz, Inc. Erie, Pa. New York City 8. Ampex Corporation 46. Lick Observatory Redwood City, Calif. Mt. Hamilton, Calif. 9. A.R. & T. Electronics, Inc. 47. Life Publishing Co. Little Rock, Ark. New York City 10. Atomic Energy of Canada 48. Macalaster Bicknell Corporation Chalk River, Canada Cambridge, Mass. 11. Barnstead Still & Sterilizer Co. 49. M.I.T.—Lincoln Laboratory Boston, Mass. Lexington, Mass. 12. Bausch & Lomb Optical Company 50. Minnesota Mining & Mfg. Co. (Mincom. Div.) Rochester, N.Y. Los Angeles, Calif. 13. Beckman Instrument Co. (Spineo Div.) 51. Motorola, Inc. Palo Alto, Calif. Bellevue, Wash. 14. Bendix Corporation 52. Mt. Wilson and Palomar Observatory Detroit, Mich. Pasadena, Calif. 15. Bureau of Naval Weapons 53. National Radio Astronomy Observatory Washington, D.C. Green Bank, W. Va. 16. California Institute of Technology 54. New York Airbrake Co. (Kinney Vacuum Div.) Pasadena, Calif. Boston, Mass. 17. California Redwood Association 55. Northwest Institute of Sculptors San Francisco, Calif. Seattle, Wash. 18. Central Scientific Company 56. Ohio State University Chicago, 111. Columbus, Ohio 19. Cinerama, Inc. 57. Philips Electronics Instruments New York City Mt. Vernon, N.Y. 20. Chicago Museum of Natural History 58. Princeton University Chicago, 111. Princeton, N.J. 21. Clinton Misco Corporation 59. Raytheon Manufacturing Company Ann Arbor, Mich. Newton, Mass, 22. Consolidated Vacuum Corporation 60. Sacramento Peak Observatory Palo Alto, Calif. Sacramento, Calif. 23. Duke University Medical School 61. Sanborn Company Durham, N.C. Waltham, Mass. 24. Dumont Laboratories 62. Sears Roebuck & Company Dumont, N.J. Seattle, Wash. 25. E. I. Dupont de Nemours & Co. 63. Seattle Art Museum Wilmington, Del. Seattle, Wash. 26. Electronic Associates 64. Seattle University Long Beach, N.J. Seattle, Wash. 27. Equipto Electronics Corporation 65. Shielding, Inc. Naperville, 111. Riverton, N.J. 28. Ford Motor Company 66. Stanford University Seattle, Wash. Palo Alto, Calif. 29. General Radio Company 67. Technical Animations West Concord, Mass. Port Washington, N.Y. 30. John Graham & Co. 68. Technicon Company, Inc. New York City Chauncey, N.Y. 31.Grass Instrument Company 69. Technifax Corporation Quincy, Mass. Holyoke, Mass. 32. Gray Manufacturing Company 70. Tektronix, Inc. Hartford, Conn. Beaverton, Oreg. 33. Hamilton Manufacturing Company 71. Thermofax Corporation TWo Rivers, Wis. Seattle, Wash. 34. Heinicke Instrument Company 72. University of Alaska Hollywood, Fla. College, Alaska 35. Herman Miller Furniture Company 73. University of Washington Zeeland, Mich. Seattle, Wash. 36. Hotpoint Division (GE Company) 74. Varityper Corporation Seattle, Wash. Seattle, Wash. 37. Humble Oil & Refining Co. 75. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts Houston, Tex. Richmond, Va. 38. International Business Machines Co. 76. W. M. Welch Manufacturing Company New York City Chicago, 111. 70 DONORS OR LENDERS OF FILMS

1. The Australian Government 21. National Broadcasting Co., Inc. 2. British Broacasting Company New York City New York City 22. National Bureau of standards 3. The British Government Washington, D.C. 4. The Canadian Government 23. The Netherlands Government 5. Ciba Pharmaceutical Company 24. Parke, Davis & Company Summit, N.J\/ Detroit, Mich. 6. Columbia Broadcasting System Perkin Elmer Corporation New York City Norwalk, Conn. 7. The Danish Government 26 Charles Pfizer & Co., Inc. 8. Evinrude Motors Brooklyn, N.Y. Milwaukee, Wis. 27. The Polish Government 9. Film Associates of California 28. The Salk Institute Los Angeles, Calif. San Diego, Calif. 10. The French Government 29. Science Film Research Company 11. The German Government Minneapolis, Minn. 12. Global Marine Exploration Company 30. Shell Oil Company Los Angeles, Calif. New York City 13. International Business Machines Co. 31. Sutherland Educational Films New York City Los Angeles, Calif. 14. The Italian Government 32. The Swedish Government 15. The Japanese Government 33. The Swiss Government 16. Lockheed Aircraft Corporation 34. U.S. Army Ordnance Marietta, Ga. Washington, D.C. 17. Modern Learning Aids 35. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission New York City Washington, D.C. 18. Moody Institute of Science 36. U.S. Department of Agriculture Los Angeles, Calif. Washington, D.C. 19. National Academy of iSciences 37. U.S. Department of the Interior Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. 20. National Aeronautics and Space Administration 38. United States Information Agency Washington, D.C. Washington 25, D.C.

LENDERS OF WORKS OF ART

The Seattle Art Museum (11 paintings, 2 sculptures) Lee Kelly (sculpture), Portland, Oreg. The Fountain Gallery of Art (sculpture), Portland, Oreg. Hilda Morris (sculpture), Portland, Oreg. Glen E. Alps (sculpture), Seattle, Wash. Mr. and Mrs. David E. Skinner (sculpture), Seattle, Harold Balazs (sculpture), Spokane, Wash. Wash. Jack C. Fletcher (sculpture), Bellevue, Wash. Charles W. Smith (sculpture), Bellevue, Wash. James Lee Hansen (sculpture), Vancouver, Wash. Francois Stahly (sculpture), Seattle, Wash. Robert E. Hopkins (sculpture), Seattle, Wash. George Tsutakawa (fountain), Seattle, Wash. Jean Johanson (mosaic mural), Bellevue, Wash.

71 EXHIBIT DESIGNERS AND FABRICATORS By July 1961 the theme of the United States Science Exhibit had been established and design of the individual exhibits was well underway. The time was late and it became very evident that no single exhibit house could possibly construct all the exhibits being planned in time for the opening of the Fair^-April 21,1962. Although the decision involved obvious coordination problems, the job was split up into numerous exhibit packets and bids were solicited on these from exhibit houses from coast to coast. As the design of exhibits was finished and approved, they were sent out for bid according to staggered com­ pletion and installation schedules. Most exhibits were under contract by December 1961. Completed exhibits began to arrive in Seattle in February 1962. From then until opening day they were con­ tinuously being installed. The schedule was tight. The last few days before opening were hectic, but this was the only way the job could have been completed on time. Paint was wet, but the show was ready. Below are the 6 designers and 42 exhibit builders whose joint efforts created the United States Science Exhibit. Much credit is due them:

DESIGNERS Walter Dorwin Teague Associates Chief Exhibit Designer 415 Madison Avenue New York City Eaymond Loewy/William Snaith, Inc Associate Exhibit Designer 425 Park Avenue New York City George Nelson and Associates Associate Exhibit Designer 18 East 50th Street New York City Frederick Usher/John Follis & Associates Designer of the Junior Laboratory of Science 2124 West Venice Boulevard Los Angeles 6, Calif. Charles & Ray Eames Building I and the Introductory Film Venice, Calif. Fine Ar*3 Productions The Spacearium Film 7779 Sunset Blvd. Hollywood, Calif.

72 FABRICATORS

American Science and Engineering Hartwig Displays 85 Broadway 1325 North Van Buren Street Cambridge 42, Mass. Milwaukee 2, Wis. Applied Physics Laboratory Ivel Conlstruction Company Johns Hopkins University 53rd Street and 1st Avenue 8621 Georgia Avenue Brooklyn 32, N.Y. Silver Spring, Md. F. B. Jacquart Atkins and Merrill 20032 Pacific Coast Highway Sudbury, Mass. Malibu, Calif. Beckman Instrument Co. Jonathan Karas & Associates 1117 California Avenue 59 East 54th Street Palo Alto, Calif. New York, N.Y. Bell Telephone Laboratories Kenneth Koupal Scale Models Murray Hill, N.J. ~» 155 North LaBrea Avenue Los Angeles 36, Calif. Bendix Corporation Computer Division Mastercraft Associates 5630 Arbor Vitae Street 369 West 11th Street Los Angeles 45, Calif. New York 14, N.Y. Cinerama, Inc. Messmore & Damon Washington Boulevard 1461 Park Avenue Culver City, Calif. New York, N.Y. Conderback, Inc. Novelart Display Co., Inc. 355 Fremont Street 1420 Carroll Avenue San Francisco, Calif. San Francisco, Calif. Consolidated Vacuum Corporation Pacific Horizons, Inc. 4015 Fabian Way 1922 Mar Vista Palo Alto, Calif. Altadena, Calif. Displayers, Inc. Peckham Productions, Inc. 635 West 54th Street 15 East 48th Street New York 19, N.Y. New York 17, N.Y. Educational Services, Inc. Presentation Industries, Inc. 164 Main Street 445 South San Gabriel Boulevard Watertown, Mass. San Gabriel, Calif. L. C. Eichner Instrument Co. Reevesound Company, Inc. 19 Sebago Street 35-54 36th Street Clifton, N.J. Long Island City 6, N.Y. Exhibit Craft, Inc. Reynolds Display Fixtures, Inc. 18-35 38th Street 825 West 47th Street Long Island City 5, N.Y. Seattle 7, Wash. Floats, Inc. Rogay Models, Inc. 2107 Chico Avenue 5514 Dorsey Lane El Monte, Calif. Bethesda, Md. Gardner Displays 477 Melwood Avenue Sanborn Company Pittsburgh 13, Pa. 175 Wyman Street Waltham 54, Mass. Gardner, Robinson, Stierheim & Weis, Inc. 5875 Centre at Euclid Scenic Backgrounds, Inc. Pittsburgh 6, Pa. 8949 Sunset Boulevard Los Angeles 46, Calif. General Dynamics Corporation P.O. Box 1128 Search, Iiic. San Diego 12, Calif. P.O. Box 3172 Tallahassee, Fla. General Exhibits & Displays 2100 North Racine Avenue Structural Display Co., Inc. Chicago 14, 111. 12-12 33d Avenue Long Island City, N.Y. Glass Blowing Associates, Inc. 2405-07 Montgomery Street Synergetics, Inc. Silver Spring, Md. Raleigh, N.C. Norman Goldstein System Development Corporation 1327 Sir Francis Drake Boulevard 2500 Colorado Avenue San Anselmo, Calif. Santa Monica, Calif. Grason-Stadler Company, Inc. Warren Displays 15 Winthrop Street 555 West 23rd West Concord, Mass. New York, N.Y.

73 FILMS IN THE SCIENCE THEATER The films below constituted the 16mm film library of the United States Science Exhibit. Pre- screened and selected over a period of six months from the best films available, varying programs were presented daily in the Science Theater throughout the Fair.

Title Source Title Source A Light in Nature Shell Oil Co. Cosmic Rays National Academy of Sciences Active Vasomotion Indiana University Coulomb's Law Modern Learning Aids Allergic Dermatoses Swiss Embassy Counting Electrical Modern Learning Aids Arctic Jungle National Film Board of Can­ Charges in Motion. ada Crystals Modern Learning Aids Arnhem Land Australian Information Cycle of Life Netherlands Embassy Agency Day Before Tomorrow Department of Defense The Atom (three reels)— Indiana University Declassified Version of Hollywood Animators, Holly- Atom Comes to Town___ U.S. AEC Bio-Power, wood, Calif. Atom in Biological U.S. AEC Deflecting Forces Modern Learning Aids Science. Down In The Forest Australian Information Agency Atom and the Doctor U.S. AEC Earthquakes and Vol- Film Associates of California, Au Rythme Du Ciel French Embassy canoes. Los Angeles Australia in the Geo- Australian Information Em- Echo in Space NASA physical Year. bassy Eclipse of the Sun Film Research Co., Minneapolis Bacteriophage . Italian Embassy Electric Fields Modern Learning Aids Balloons and Spinifex Australian Information Electromagnetic Waves Modern Learning Aids Agency Electron Microscopy British Embassy Basic Nature of Sexual Indiana University Electronic Computers John Colburn Associates, Wil- Reproduction. and Applied Ma the- mette, 111. Battle of the Bugs Ken Middleham Productions, matics. Riverside, Calif. Elements Indiana University Behavior of Gases Modern Learning Aids, New York City Elements, Compounds, Modern Learning Aids Better Medicines Parke Davis & Co. Mixtures. Between the Tides British Embassy Embryonic Development National Film Board of Can- Biology and Control of Communicable Disease Center, of Fish. ada Domestic Mosquitoes. Atlanta, Ga. Endocrine Activity Indiana University Bioloji Des Atta (Biol- French Embassy ogy of the Ant). Energy and Work Modern Learning Aids The Black Chain Carousel Films, Inc., New York Exploring the Edge of Educational Testing Service, City Space. Princeton, N.J. Black Widow Spiders- Ken Middleham Productions Free Fall & Projectile Modern Learning Aids Blue Ice_ Australian Information Motion. Agency Faune Cavernicole (Cave French Embassy Britain's Nuclear Power British Embassy Life). Program. Flaming Sky National Academy of Sciences Bull's Sperm in Phase Netherlands Embassy Flow of Life Educational Testing Service Contrast. Flower Functions McGraw-Hill Carnivorous Insects French Embassy For Today and Tomor- German Embassy Challenge of the Oceans National Academy of Sciences row. Change of Scale Modern Learning Aids Force of Gravity National Academy of Sciences Changing Forest National Film Board of Can­ Forces Modern Learning Aids ada Frames of Reference Modern Learning Aids Characteristics of Plants Indiana University Franck-Hertz Experi- Modern Learning Aids & Animals. ment. Chemistry in the Nuclear British Embassy Fuel For Nuclear Power. British Embassy Age. Fundamental Principles British Information Agency Chemistry of Meteor NASA of Immunization. Vaporization. Galvani and Volta Italian Embassy The Chemistry of Water. Sutherland Educational Films, Gastrulation in the Am- Netherlands Embassy Los Angeles phibian Egg. Chlorophyll McGraw-Hill, New York City Genetics Indiana University Color of Life National Film Board of Can­ Gooney Birds Evinrude Motors, Milwaukee, ada Wis. Conservation of Energy Modern Learning Aids Hawaiian Volcano—1959- U.S. Geological Survey Coral Wonderland Australian Information 1960. Agency Health is Their Business- Australian Information Agency

74 Films in the Science Theater—Continued Title Source Title Source Heart Operation with Swedish Embassy Mohole Global Marine Expedition Co., an AGA Lung-Heart Los Angeles Machine. Mother Love Carousel Films High Arctic Life on National Film Board of Can- Movements and Develop- French Embassy Land, ada ment of Embryonic Hidden Earth National Academy of Sciences Organs in Vitro. High Energy Radiation U.S. AEC Movements of the Soft Netherlands Embassy for Mankind. Palate During Speech. Honey Bee AV-ED, Hollywood, Calif. Nature's Chemistry __— National Academy of Sciences Host-Seeking Behavior Netherlands Embassy Nearest Star National Academy of Sciences of Malaria Mosquitoes. Neutrons and the Heart Educational Testing Service How Locusts Fly Danish Information Agency of Matter. How Many Stars— Moody Institute of Science, Los New Lives for Old Educational Testing Service Angeles Night Out with Mr. Ken Middleham Productions How to make a Hanging- Netherlands Embassy Toad. Drop Preparation^ Nuclear Power Reactors. British Embassy Human Machine Moody Institute of Science Origin of the Weather Carousel Films In the Beginning USIA Oxidation-Reduction Sutherland Educational Films Inconstant Air National Academy of Sciences Parturition of the Guinea Netherlands Embassy Industrial Application of U.S. AEC Pig. Nuclear Explosives. Periodic Motion Modern Learning Aids Inertia Modern Learning Aids Petrified River U.S. AEC Inertial Mass Modern Learning Aids Photons Modern Learning Aids Infrared Spectroscopy— Perkin-Elmer Corp., Norwalk, Political Development of Australian Government Conn. New Guinea. Ingestion and Digestion— McGraw-Hill Power and Promise U.S. AEC Inoculation of Media Netherlands Embassy Pressure of Light Modern Learning Aids Inquisitive Giant British Embassy Project NPX/D German Embassy Interference of Photons Modern Learning Aids The Question Tree IBM, New York Introduction to Optics Modern Learning Aids Radiation National Film Board of Canada Introduction to Reaction Sutherland Educational Films Radiation Against Can- Swiss Embassy Kinetics. cer. Ionization and Ionic Indiana University Radio Waves National Academy of Sciences Equilibrium. Realm of the Galaxies Educational Testing Service Krakatoa Volcano in In- Netherlands Embassy Rendezvous 90° South Lockheed Aircraft Corp., Mari­ donesia and Its Erup­ etta, Ga. tions. Research and Life German Embassy La Microfaune Des Sa- French Embassy Research by Rockets National Academy of Sciences bles Marins. Research Secures our German Embassy Le Monde Sonore De French Embassy Future. Santerelles. Riddle of Photosynthesis. U.S. AEC Les Abeilles French Embassy River of Life British Government Life Before Birth Carousel Films, Inc., New Rockets: Principles and Film Associates of California, York Safety. Los Angeles Life of the Molds Charles Pfizer & Co. Roundup U.S. Department of Agriculture Lindo—Kanalen Swedish Embassy Rutherford Atom Modern Learning Aids Linnaeus Swedish Embassy Salmon's Struggle for National Film Board of Canada Living in a Reversed E. J. Mautner, Brooklyn, N.Y. Survival. World. Science of Fire National Board of Fire Under­ Magic Molecule —_ Phillips Chemical Co., Bartles- writers, N.Y. ville, Okla. Science in Space National Academy of Sciences Magnetic Force National Academy of Sciences Secrets of Ice National Academy of Sciences Magnet Laboratory Modern Learning Aids Secrets of the Volcano Carousel Films Mahnomen—Harvest of Film Research Company Seven Bridges of Koen- Bruce Cornwell, Prairie du Sac, the North. igsberg. Wis. Marvels in Miniature Australian Information Agency Shape of the Earth National Academy of Sciences Mathematician and the Educational Testing Service Short Time Intervals Modern Learning Aids River. Simple Waves Modern Learning Aids Measuring Large Dis- Modern Learning Aids Sisibakwat—The Ojib- Film Research Co., Minneapolis tances. way Maple Harvest. Mechanical and Thermal Modern Learning Aids Snow National Film Board of Canada Energy. Sources of Life German Embassy Men Against Fungus National Film Board of Can­ Speed of Light Modern Learning Aids ada Steam Galore Swedish Government Mendel's Segregation McGraw-Hill Story in the Rocks Shell Oil Co. Microorganisms: Harm- Indiana University Story of Forest Genet- U.S. Department of Agriculture ful Activities. ics—A Tree is Born. Microscopic Fungi National Film Board of Can­ Straight Line Kinemat- Modern Learning Aids ada ics. Millikan Experiment Modern Learning Aids Strange Birds of Midway. Solana Studios, Naples, Florida Mimer Swedish Embassy Stress National Film Board of Canada Mitosis and Meiosis Indiana University Studying Sugar German Embassy Modifications Morpholo- French Embassy Submarine Medicine CIBA, Summit, New Jersey giques du Canard Pe- Survival of the Heart French Embassy kin. Survival in the Sea Indiana University 75 Films in the Science Theater—Continued Title Source Title Source Saturn—A Giant Thrust NASA The Vibration of Mol- Sutherland Educational Films into Space. ecules. Thinking Machines Educational Testing Service Virus Italian Embassy Time and the Clock Modern Learning Aids Visual Perception Educational Testing Service Tjurunga . Australian Information Agency Voice of the Insect Carousel Films Trapping Free Radicals National Bureau of Stand- Walkabout Australian Information Agency at Low Temperatures. ards. Warning in the Dark E. J. Mauthner, Brooklyn, N.Y. Trout Stream ,_ National Film Board of Can­ Way to a New World Australian Information Agency ada Ways of Water British Embassy Universal Gravitation Modern Learning Aids Wenner-Gren Center Swedish Embassy Universe NASA What is a Cell? McGraw-Hill What's Under the Ocean? Film Associates of California Unlocking the Atom U.S. AEC Whooping Crane U.S. Department of the In­ Unmanned Space Craft._ NASA terior Unseen Enemies Shell Oil Co. Winter Quarters British Embassy Vascular Components Indiana University World in a Marsh National Film Board of Can­ Vascular Patterns Indiana University ada The Vibrating Larynx Netherlands Embassy Worlds of Dr. Vishniac Educational Testing Service

76 SCIENCE BOOKS AT THE EXHIBIT

(As selected by the American Library Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science)

Author Title Author Title Abbott, R. Tucker. «i Seashells of the World Boys, Chas. V Soap Bubbles and the Forces Abercrombie, Hickman, Dictionary of Biology Which Hold Them Johnson. Branley, Franklyn M Exploring by Astronaut Adams, Carsbie C Space Flight Branley, Franklyn M The Moon: Earth's Natural Adler, Irving How Life Began Satellite Adler, Irving The New Mathematics Branley, Franklyn M The Nine Planets Adler, Irving Thinking Machines Bronowski, Jacob The Common Sense of Science Alexander, Peter Atomic Radiation and Life Bronowski, J., G. Barry, The Doubleday Pictorial Li- Allee, W. C Cooperation Among Animals, J. Fisher & Julian brary of Science: Chemistry, with Human Implications Huxley. Physics, Astronomy Allee, W. C The Social Life of Animals Bushbaum, R. and Milne, Living Lower Animals of the Ames, Gerald and Rose The Giant Golden Book of Biol- L. J. World Wyler. ogy: An Introduction to the Butterfield, Herbert The Origins of Modern Science Science of Life Ashford, T. A From Atoms to Stars Caidin, Martin The Astronauts: The Story of Asimov, Isaac Inside the Atom Project Mercury Asimov, Isaac The Kingdom of the Sun Calder, Nigel Radio Astronomy Asimov, Isaac Life and Energy Carr, Marion The Sea and Shore Asimov, Isaac Only a Trillion: Speculations Carrington, Richard A Biography of the Sea & Explorations on the Mar­ Carson, Rachel Edge of the Sea vels of Science Carson, Rachel Sea Around Us Asimov, Isaac The Realm of Algebra Caron, Rachel . Silent Spring Asimov, Isaac The Realm of Numbers Chapman, Sydney IGY : Year of Discovery Asimov, Isaac Satellites in Outer Space Clason, Clyde B Exploring the Distant Stars Asimov, Isaac The Wellsprings of Life Cleater, P. E An Introduction to Space Asimov, Isaac The World of Carbon Travel Balchan, B. and Erik The Next Fifty Years of Flight Cochran, Doris M Living Amphibians of the Begaust. World Barnett, Lincoln The Universe & Dr. Einstein Cohen, I. B The Birth of a New Physics Barr, George More Research Ideas for Young Coker, E. E This Great and Wide Sea Scientists Colbert, E. H Dinosaurs Bascom, Willard A Hole in the Bottom of the Courant, Richard and What Is Mathematics? Sea Herbert Robbins. Bates, Marsten Man in Nature Crowther, J. G Radioastronomy and Radar Battan, Louis J The Nature of Violent Storms Curry, Duncan III and The Challenge of Fusion Beck, William S Modern Science and the Nature Bertram R. Newman. of Life Dampier, W. C — A Shorter History of Science Beeler, Nelson E Experiments in Sound Dantzig, Tobia Number, the Language of Bendick, Jeanne Archimedes and the Door of Science Science David, Clive E Messages from Space Bergaust, Erik Rockets to the Moon Dawson, E Seaweeds Bergman, Jules Ninety Seconds to Space: The deCamp, Sprague Engines X-15 Story deCamp, Sprague Man and Power Berkner, Lloyd V. and Science in Space Defant, Albert Ebb and Flow, the Tides of Hugh Odishaw. Earth, Air and Water Berman, W How to Dissect Dethier, V. G. and Eliot Animal Behavior Bitter, Francis Magnets Stellar. The Book of the Atom Bluemle, Andrew Saturday Science De Vries, Leonard New Worlds Through the Mi­ Blumenstock, David I— The Ocean of Air croscope Boehm, G. A. W - The New World of Math Disraeli, Robert Biological Basis of Human Bold, H. C Plant Kingdom Freedom Bondi, H. and W. B. Rival Theories of Cosmology Dobzhansky, Theodosius. A Short History of Science Bonner, R. A. Lyttle- Doubleday (ed.) Heredity, Race, and Society ton and G. J. Whitrow. Dunn, L. C. and T. Dob­ Bondi, Herman The Universe at Large Bonner, David Heredity zhansky. Benjamin Franklin Booth E Mammals Eberle, Irmengarde Space for Everyone Borek, Ernest The Atoms Within Us Egan, Philip S The Evolution of Physics Boyd, C. C. and M. V. De Physics Einstein, Albert and Leo- America's Space Vehicles: A Vault. pold Infeld. Pictorial Review 77 Science Books—Continued Author Title Author Title Eisner, Will Jarrett, Henry Science & Resources: Prospects Engel, Leonard New Worlds of Modern Science & Implications of Techno­ Epstein, S., and B First Book of the Ocean logical Advance Epstein, Sam, and Beryl— First Book of the Teaching Jeans, Sir James Growth of Physical Science Machine Jeans, Sir James New Background of Science Erlich, T. R Butterflies, How to Know Kasner, Edward, and Mathematics & The Imagina- Them James Newman. tion Fabre, J. Henri Insect World Kavaler, Lucy The Wonders of Algae Fabre, J. Henri Insect Adventures Kemeny, John G A Philospher Looks at Science Farraday, M Chemical History of a Candle Kiepenheuer, Karl The Sun Fermi, Laura Story of Atomic Energy Kirk, Ruth Olympic Seashores Finch, James K Story of Engineering Kleinman, Louis W Easy Science Experiments Fisher, J., J. Huxley, G. The Doubleday Pictorial Li- Kline, Morris Mathematics & The Physical Barry and J. Bronow- brary of Nature: Earth, World ski. Planets, and Animals Klots, Alexander and Living Insects of the World Freeman, Ira M All About Sound & Ultrasonics Elsie B. Freeman, Mae and Ira Fun with Science Knight, David C Isaac Newton: Mastermind Frisch, Otto R Atomic Physics Today Krauskopf, Konrad, and The Physical Universe Galambos, Robert Nerves and Muscles Beiser Gallant, Roy Exploring the Sun Kruse, W. and W. Dieck- The Stars Gallant, Roy Exploring Under the Earth voss. Gals ton, Arthur The Life of the Green Plant Kuoie, Nora First Book of Archaeology Gamow, George The Atom and its Nucleus Lalou, Etienne The Orion Book of the Sun Gamow, George Biography of Physics Land, Barbara & My rick The Quest of Isaac Newton Gamow, George The Creation of the Universe Landau, L. D. and G. B. What is Relativity Gamow, George Gravity Rummer. Gerard, R. W Unresting Cells LaPaz, Lincoln & Jean Space Nomads Gillespie, Charles C The Edge of Objectivity : An Larrison, E. J. and E. N. Field Guide To Birds of Wash- Essay in the History of Francq. ington State Scientific Ideas Le Lionnais, Francois The Orion Book of Time Gillette, Henry S Leonardo Da Vinci: Scientist Ley, Willy Rockets, Missiles, & Space Gilliard, E. T Living Birds of the World Travel Goetsch, Wilhelm The Ants Life Magazine Adaption._ Prehistoric Animals Griffin, Donald R Echos of Bats and Men Lorenz, Kourad King Solomon's Ring Hanrahan, James S., and Space Biology : The Human Lynde, C. J Science Experiences with David Bushnell. Factors in Space Flight Home Equipment Hanson, Earl D Animal Diversity Lynde, C. J Science Experiences with In­ Hapgood, C. H Great Mysteries of the Earth expensive Equipment Harland, W.B The Earth Lyon, Gene Our Sun Harris, R. J. C Cancer Macko, Stanley Satellite Tracking Hawkins, Gerald S Splendor in the Sky Maloney, Terry The Sky Is Our Window Herald, Earl Living Fishes of the World Marcus, Rebecca B Galileo and Experimental Hogben, L. D Mathematics for the Millions Science Hogben, L. D Science for the Citizen Marcus, Rebecca B Joseph Priestley: Pioneer Hogben, L. D The Wonderful World of Air Chemist Hogben, L. D The Wonderful World of Massey, Harris The New Age in Physics Energy May, Charles P James Clerk Maxwell and Hogben, L. D The Wonderful World of Math Electromagnetism Holden, A. and Phylis Crystals and Crystal Growing May, Charles P Michael Faraday and the Elec­ Singer. tric Dynamo Holmes, J America on the Moon Myall, Newton, and Mar- The Sky Observer's Guide Honegger, Lavater, War- Genetics gard, and Jerome ja, Burla, Hans. Wyckoff. Hooper, A Makers of Mathematics McElroy, W. S Cellular Physiology and Bio­ Hopfman, Rudolph, M.D. Heart chemistry and G. George. Meeuse, B. J. D — Story of Pollination Howard, N. E Standard Handbook for Tele­ Mehlin, Theodore G Astronomy scope Making Minnaert, M._ Nature of Light and Color in Hoyle, Fred Frontiers of Astronomy the Open Air Hoyle, Fred The Nature of the Universe Moore, Patrick The Amateur Astronomer Hughes. Donald J The Neutron Story Moore, Patrick Picture History of Astronomy Hurley, P. M How Old is the Earth? ^oore, Patrick The Solar System Hutchins, Carleen M Life's Key—DNA: A Biologi­ Moore, Ruth The Coil of Life : The (Story of cal Adventure Into the Un­ Great Ikscoveries in the Life known Sciences Hyde, Margaret O Animal Clocks and Compasses Murchie, Guy Music of the Spheres Hyde, Margaret Exploring Earth and Space Newman, James R What Is iScience? Inglis, Stuart J Planets, Stars, and Galaxies Norman, J. R A History of (Fishes Irving, Robert Electro-Magnetic Waves Orear, Jay Fundamental Physics Jackson, Shirley Science Projects Handbook Ovenden, M. W Life in the Universe: A Scien­ Jaffe, Bernard Michelson and the Speed of tific Discussion Light Parker, B. N Golden Book of Science Jahn, T. L Protozoa Parking, Lt. Col. C M. The Rocket Handbook for Jacques, H. E Economic Plants Jr. Amateurs 78 Science Books—Continued Author Title Author Title Partington, James R Short History of Chemistry Standfort, John Heat Engines Pearl, R How to Know the Minerals and Stanley, Wendell M., and Viruses and the Nature of Life Rocks Evans G. Valens. Pecker, Jean-Claude The Orion Book of the Sky Storer, John Webb of Life Peterson, Nai Prehistoric Life on Earth Strong, C. L The Amateur Scientist: The Peterson, Roger Tory Field Guide to Western Birds Scientific American Book of Peterson, Roger T How to Know the Birds Projects Pfeiffer, John The Changing Universe Stumpff, Karl Planet Earth Pfeiffer, John The Thinking Machine Sullivan, Walter Assault of the Unknown Phleger, Fred—z Red Tag Comes Back Sussman, Maurice Animal Growth and Develop­ Piatt, Rutherford This Green World ment Poole, Lynn and Gray Weird and Wonderful Ants Swanson, Carl P The Cell Prescott, G. W , Fresh Water Algae Swanson, Valerie Reptiles and Amphibians Ravielli, Anthony- An Adventure in Geometry Thompson, D'Arcy W On Growth and Form Reuben, Gabriel ~. Electronics for Children Thompson, Sir George The Foreseeable Future Richardson, Robertas The Fascinating World of As­ Udane, B. and H. W. New Students Handbook of tronomy Gillary. Science Romer, Alfred Man and the Vertebrates Untermeyer, Louis Makers of the Modern World Romer, Alfred The Restless Atom Uvarow and. Chapman Dictionary of Science Ross, Frank New Worlds in Science: The van Bergeijk, W. A., J. Waves and the Ear Story of Scientific Research R. Pierce and E. E. Rostand, Jean The Orion Book of Evolution David, Jr. Rubin, Elizabeth The Curies and Radium von Buddenbrock, W The Senses Ruchlis, Hyman Orbit von Frisch, Karl The Dancing Bees Ruchlis, Hyman The Wonder of Heat Energy Weart, Edith Lucie The Story of Your Brain & Ruchlis, Hyman The Wonder of Light Nerves Ruechardt, Edward Light, Visible and Invisible Weidel, Wolfhard Virus Russell, Bertrand The ABC of Relativity Wallace, Bruce and Adaptation Sanderson, Ivan T.__ Living Mammals of the World Adrian M. Sarton, George Ancient Science and Modern Welte, A. F., J. Dia- Your Science Fair Civilization mond, and A. Friedl. Schmidt, Karl P. and Living Reptiles of the World Weyl, Peter K Men, Ants, & Elephants Robert F. Inger. Whitehead, Alfred North. Science and the Modern World Schneider, Leo Space in Your Future Wilson, Robert R., and Accelerators, Machines of Scientific American (ed.)_ The New Astronomy Littauer Raphael. Nuclear Physics Scientific American (ed.) _ New Chemistry Witherspoon, J. D., and The Living Laboratory: 200 Scientific American (ed.) _ The Physics and Chemistry of Rebecca H. Experiments for Amateur Life Biologists Scientific American (ed.)_ The Universe Youden, W. J Experimentation and Mea­ Sootin, Harry Robert Boyle: Founder of surement Modern Chemistry Zim, Herbert S., and Birds Seidel, Alexander Water Mammals Gabrielson, Ira N. Shapiro, Ascher Shape and Flow Zim, Herbert S., and Fishes Shapley, Harlow Galaxies Shoemaker, Hurst H. Simpson, George G The Meaning of Evolution Zim, Herbert S., and Flowers Sinnett, Edmund W., L. Principles of Genetics Martin, Alexander C. C. Dunn and T. Dob- Zim, Herbert S., and Mammals zhansky. Hoffmeister, Donald F. Smith, Lynwood Common Seashore Life of Zim, Herbert S., and Dodge, Nate N__ Pacific Northwest Pacific Northwest Zim, Herbert S., and Smith, Hobart M_ Reptiles and Am­ Snow, C. P Two Cultures & the Scientific phibians Revolution Zim, Herbert S., and. Shaffer, Paul R_ Rocks and Min­ Spilhaus, Athelstan Satellite of the Sun erals Spilhaus, Athelstan Turn to the Sea Zim, Herbert S., and Ingle, Lester Seashores Spilhaus, Athelstan Weathercraft Zim, Herbert S., and Baker, Robert H_ Stars Sproul, Edith E The Science Book of the Zim, Herbert S., and Martin, Alex- Trees Human Body ander C. Sprunt, Alexander IV Gamehirds Zim, Herbert S. and others Weather and Herbert S. Zim. Zim, Herbert S. and others Zoology

79 ATTENDANCE PATTERN April (10 days) 243,000 May 834,000 June 1,186,000 July 1,275,000 August 1, 362,000 September _: 960, 000 October (21 days) 888,000 Total 6,748,000

BY WEEK April 21 and 22 66,000 July 16 295,000 „r . , July 23 254,000 Weekof July 30 264,000 Apr. 23 163,000 Aug. 6 348,000 Apr. 30 164,000 Aug. 13 325,000 May 7 170,000 Aug. 20 324,000 May 14 195,000 Aug. 27 262,000 May 2 19 ,00 ^ 8 203; 000 Se 4 249' 000 S^L 10 274' 00° JZI it:::::::::::::::::::: 3$ SSS &**•« ^ oo° June 18 317,000 Sept. 24 193,000 June 25 . 278,000 Oct. 1 228,000 July 2 312,000 Oct. 8 237,000 July 9 299,000 Oct. 15 423,000

Daily Average 36,672

Total paid Fair admissions 10,008,000

80 SUMMARY OF FINANCIAL OPERATIONS March 1, 1963 Original Appropriation (1959) (Public Law 86-383) $9,000,000 Supplemental Appropriation (1961) (Public Law 87-332) 900,000 Cash Gifts 20,666

9, 920, 666 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:

Architects Fees and Supervision $334, 350 Landscaping-_-;^ 85, 348 Pavilion Construction 3, 603, 940

Total Building Construction 4, 023, 638 EXHIBIT PROGRAM: Exhibit Design: 1. Buildings I through V $600,531 2. Junior Science Laboratory 90, 250 $690,781 Technical Consultants 212, 541 Exhibit Construction: 1. Building I___ $318, 788 2. Building II - 770, 326 3. Building III 289, 447 4. Building IV 700, 547 5. Building V 516, 928 6. Junior Science Laboratory 186, 020 2,782,056 Exhibit Maintenance and Operations: 1. Salaries 224, 044 2. Supplies- 262, 090 3. Insurance 3, 908 4. Strikedown 5,170 495, 212 Building Maintenance: 1. Salaries 125, 200 2. Supplies 13, 541 138,741 Public Information: 1. Complimentary Brochures 17, 887 2. Photography 3,478 3. Printing 12, 477 4. Other Expenses — 16,476 50,318 Official Representation 4,400 Total Exhibit program 4,374, 049

ADMINISTRATION: Salaries and Benefits $597,975 Travel and Relocation 111, 731 Rent, Utilities, and Communications: 1. Heat, Light, Power, and Water $40, 528 2. Telephone and Telegraph and Postage 37. 948 3. Rental—Offices and Equipment 28, 920 107, 396 Supplies and Miscellaneous 14, 409 Capital Assets 8, 895

Total Administration 840,406

Total Expenditures 9, 238, 093 Reserve for Unsettled Claims 15,000 Estimated Return to U.S. Treasury 667,573

9, 920, 666

81 UNITED STATES SCIENCE EXHIBIT

ORGANIZATIONAL CHART

COMMISSIONER

P. M. Evans

Dr. A. Spilhaus (Appointed April 18, 1961)

DEPUTY COMMISSIONER

F. D. Miller

C. Colgate, Jr. (Appointed Feb. 3, 1961)

EXEC. DIRECTOR H. M. Shine, Jr. (Resigned Feb. 28, 1961)

SCIENCE DESIGN ADMINISTRATIVE PUBLIC AND COORDINATOR COORDINATOR OFFICER INDUSTRIAL ( n order of succession) (in order of succession) (in order of succession RELATIONS 1 Dr. M. R. Robb 1. C. deM. Barnes 1. C. A. Malmi W. W. Phillips 2 Dr. L. F. Curtiss 2. L. W. Nederkorn 2. C. A. Ossola D. W. Peyton 3 Dr. S. N. Foner 3. E. A. Feeney A. F. Reeves 4 Dr. H. E. Page E. J. Devine 5 Dr. L. Augenstine P. G. Havnaer 6 E. G. Sherburne V. A. Passemante 7 Dr. L. VV . Beidler J. W. Buckley R. A. Haas R. A. Bleeck

R. L. STtallma n C. S. Randall Mrs. D. Gilmour M. V. Butler Dr. A. A. Hyatt

82 INDEX OF USSE FILES IN THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES The files of the United States Science Exhibit, after being organized and boxed, have been placed in the National Archives, where they will form a part of Record Group 43 dealing with United States participation in International Conferences, Commissions, and Expositions. A general index of U.S. Science Exhibit records which henceforth are available in the National Archives is set forth below: 1. General Files—alphabetically, by name and subject, consisting of correspondence, copies of con­ tracts and related correspondence, consultants' reports, miscellaneous other reports, and complete reading file of all outgoing letters and memos in chronological order 2. Exhibit Files—numerically, by exhibit number, consisting of exhibit planning material from earliest scientific and design research, through actual exhibit fabrication 3. Exhibit Artwork—filed by exhibit number in specifically constructed wooden cases, consisting of original artwork, designs, renderings, etc. 4. Blueprints—architectural and exhibit working drawings; one set of masters and one set of prints, filed by exhibit number 5. Photographs-—record of buildings and exhibits from preliminary stages through completion, includ­ ing photographs of each completed exhibit, and much photography taken during the Fair. a. Index b. Miscellaneous 8X10 glossy photos (several hundred) c. Binders of contact sheets of each roll of film d. Negatives, boxed and numbered to correspond with contact sheets e. Color transparencies in special holders numbered and indexed by area f. Miscellaneous reels of 35 mm, 16mm, and 8mm motion picture film, each labeled as to content, together with tapes of sound tracks used in individual exhibits. 6. Miscellaneous— a. Copies of 12-page U.S. Science Exhibit preview brochure b. Copies of 2-page "Guide to the U.S. Science Exhibit" c. Copies of "U.S. Science Exhibit Souvenir Book" d. Copies of "Impressions—U.S. Science Exhibit" e. Copies of complete text of all exhibits (in binder).

83 [PUBLIC LAW 85-880] S. 3680

Bghtg'fifth Congress of the United States of America AT THE SECOND SESSION

Begun and held at the CUy of Washington on Tuesday, the seventh day of January, one thousand nine hundred and fifty-eight

an act To provide for participation of the United States in the World Science-Pan Pacific Exposition to be held at Seattle, Washington, in 1961, and for other purposes. Be it enacted bv the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the President, through an executive department or independent agency designated by him, snail cooperate with the Washington State World Fair Commis­ sion with respect to, and determine the extent to which the United States shall be a participant and an exhibitor at, the World Science- Pan Pacific Exposition (hereafter in this Act referred to as the "expo­ sition") which is being held at Seattle, Washington, in 1961. The purposes of such exposition are to— (1) commemorate the centennial of the physical fixing of the boundary line between the United States of America and Canada, (2) depict the role of science in modern civilization, and (3) exhibit the varied cultures of the nations of the Pacific Rim. The President is authorized, by proclamation or in such other manner as he may deem proper, to invite the several States of the Union and foreign countries to take part in the exposition: Provided, That no Communist de facto government holding any people of the Pacific Rim in subjugation be invited to participate. Sac. 2. There shall be in the designated department or independent agency a Commissioner for the exposition who shall be appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and who shall receive compensation at the rate of $17,500 per annum. The head of the designated department or independent agency shall pre­ scribe the duties of the Commissioner and may delegate such powers and duties to him as are deemed advisable in order to carry out this Act SEC. 8. In carrying out the provisions of this Act, the head of the designated department or independent agency may— (1) appoint, without regard to the civil-service laws and the Classification Act of 1049, such persons as he deems to be necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act, except that no person appointed under wis paragraph shall receive compensation from the United States at a rate in excess of that received by persons under the Classification Act of 1949 for performing comparable duties; (2) enter into such contracts as may be necessary to provide for United States participation in the exposition; (8) erect such buildings and other structures as may be neces­ sary for United Statesparticipation in the exposition, on land owned by the State of Washington or by any local government of such State or any political subdivision or instrumentality of either: Provided, That all laborers and mechanics employed by contractors or subcontractors in the performance of work on such buildings and other structures shall be paid wages at rates not less than those prevailing on similar construction in the locality as determined by the Secretary of Labor in accordance with the Bacon-Davis Act, as amended (40 U. S. C, sec. 276a-276a-5); (4) purchase books of reference, newspapers, and periodicals; (5) incur such other expenses as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act; and (6) accept any gifts, loans, donations, or devices to be used in carrying out the provisions of this Act.

84 S. 8680—2 SEC. 4. The head of each department, agency, or instrumentality of the Federal Government is authorized— (1) to cooperate with the head of the designated department or independent agency with respect to UniteaStates participation in the exposition, and (2) to make available to the head of the designated depart­ ment or independent agency, from time to time, on a reimbursable basis, such personnel as may be necessary to assist the designated department or independent agency in carrying out its functions under this Act. Sic. 5. (a) The President shall report to the Congress during the first regular session of Congress which begins after the date of enact­ ment of this Act with respect to (1) the most effective manner of representation of the United States at the exposition, taking into account the avoidance of undue competition among governments, and (2) the amount of appropriations which are necessary to accomplish such representation. (b) The President shall report to the Congress within six months after the date of the official close of the exposition on the activities of the Federal Government pursuant to this Act, including a detailed statement of expenditures. Upon transmission of such report to the Congress, all appointments made under this Act shall terminate. SEC. 6. After the close of the exposition, all property purchased or erected with funds provided pursuant to this Act snail be disposed of in accordance with the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, and other applicable Federal laws relating to the disposi­ tion of excess and surplus property. SEC. 7. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated not to exceed $126,000 to carry out the provisions of this Act.

J£Z£/T^ rCs President of the United States and President of the Senate.

/}o^rJ^^^^

APPROVED SEP 2 1958

85 [PUBLIC LAW 86-250] II. R. 8374

3:ightpixth Congress of the United States of America

AT THE FIRST SESSION

Begun and held at the City of Washington on Wednesday, the seventh day of January, one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine

an act

To amend Public taw K.% MHO, and fur oilier |»iirp< *•«*«.

//*• iV enacted by the Semite and House of tleitre*e.ntatine.n of tfw. I'fUted State* of America in ConyrettK axttemhled, That the first «en- tence of section 1 of the Act of Septemlwr 2,1958 (Public Law 85-881); 72Stat. 1703), is hereby amended IIH follows: (a) After the phrase, "World Science—Pan Pacific Exposition", insert "now known as Century 21 Ex|M>sitioii". (b) Strike "1961" and insert in lieu thereof "11X11 and 1962". Sec. 2. (a) Clause (5) of section 3 of said Act is hereby amended to read as follows: to(5) incur such other expense** as may tie necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act, including but not limited to expenditures involved in the selection, purchase, rental, construction, and other acquisition of exhibits and materials and equipment therefor and the actual display thereof, and including but not limited to related expenditures for costs of transportation, insurance, installation, safekeeping, maintenance and operation, rental of space, and dis­ mantling; and". (b) Add a clause (7) to section 3 of said Act as follows: 44(7) procure services as authorized by the Act of August 2, 1946 (5 U.S.C. 55a), but at rates for individuals not to exceed $50 per diem." (c) Clause (3) of section 3 of said Act is hereby amended to read as follows: "(3) erect such buildings and other structures as may be appro- >riate for the United States participation in the exposition on {and (six and one-half acres or more and including land neces­ sary for ingress and egress) conveyed to the United States in fee simple and free and clear of liens and encumbrances, in consider­ ation of the participation by the United States in the exposition, and without other consideration. In the design and construction of such buildings and other structures consideration, including consultation with the General Services Administration, shall be given to their utility for governmental purposes and needs after the close of the exposition. SKC. 3. (a) Section 7 of said Act is hereby amended to read as follows: "SEC. 7. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated, to remain available until expended, not to exceed $12,500,000 to carry out the provisions of this Act, including participation in the exposition." (b) Add a new section 8 to said Act. as follows: "SEO. 8. The functions authorized in this Act may be performed without regard to the prohibitions and limitations of the following laws: section 3648, Revised Stattiteafas amended (31 U.S.C. 529); section 3735, Revised Statutes (41 VMC. 13)."

Sjfeaker of the House of fMpresentative*. d?JUv, APPROVED cs^e SEP 9-1'lfi!) Vwt, President of thm United flMte* ctsnd President of the Senate* ^ >. *'• * »'/* '*'

86

'U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1963 O—678410