Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California

United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2370-B

Prepared in cooperation with lnyo County and the Los Angeles Department of Water and ·Power GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA Owens Lake Vertically exaggerated perspective and oblique view of Owens Valley, California, showing th e dramatic change in topographic relief between the valley and surrounding mountains. 1 Chapter B Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California

By KENNETH J. HOLLETT, WESLEY R. DANSKIN, WILLIAM F. McCAFFREY, and CARYL L. WALTI

Prepared m cooperation w1th lnyo County and the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power

U S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 2370

HYDROLOGY AND SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR MANUEL LUJAN, jR., Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Dallas L. Peck, Director

Any use of trade, product, or f1rm names m th1s publication 1s for descnpt1ve purposes only and does not 1mply endorsement by the US Government

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON 1991

For sale by the Books and Open-F 1le Reports Sect1on U S Geolog1cal Survey Federal Center, Box 25425 Denver, CO 80225

L1brary of Congress Catalogmg-m-Pubhcatlon Data

Geology and water resources of Owens Valley, Cal1forn1a I by Kenneth J Hollett [et all p em -(US Geolog1cal Survey water-supply paper, 2370-B) (Hydrology and sod-water-plant relations 1n Owens Valley, Cal1forn1a, ch B) Includes b1bllograph1cal references Supt of Docs no I 19 13 2370-B 1 Geology-Cal1forn1a-Owens R1ver Valley 2 Water, Underground­ CalifOrnia-Owens R1ver Valley I Hollett, Kenneth J II Senes Ill Senes Hydrology and sod-water-plant relat1ons 1n Owens Valley, Californ1a ch B QE90 09G46 1990 553 7'09794'87-dc20 90-13807 CIP CONTENTS

Abstract Bl Introduction B2 Purpose and scope B3 Physical settmg B3 Physiography B3 Chmate BS Land and water use BS Previous mvestlgatwns BlO Acknowledgments B14 Geologic framework and Its relation to the hydrologic system B14 Regwnal geologic settmg B14 Structure of Owens Valley B20 Bishop Basm B21 Owens Lake Basm B25 Hydrologic charactenstlcs of geologic umts B27 Bedrock B27 Valley fill B29 DepositiOnal models B30 Alluvial fan deposits B31 TransitiOn-zone deposits B33 Glacial and talus deposits B33 Fluvial and lacustnne deposits B34 Ohvme basalt of Big Pme volcamc field B35 Bishop Tuff B35 Water resources B36 Surface water B36 Source, routmg, and discharge B36 Tnbutary streamflow B36 Owens River and Los Angeles Aqueduct system B38 Lower Owens River B40 Canals and ditches B40 Water quality B41 Ground water B41 Aqmfer system B42 Hydrogeologic framework B43 Source, occurrence, and movement of ground water B47 Hydraulic charactenstlcs of the hydrogeologic umts B47 Umt 1 charactenstlcs B48 Umt 2 charactenstlcs BSl Umt 3 charactenstlcs BSl Faults B52 Water quahty B53 Chemical quahty of ground water for IrrigatiOn use BSS Chemical quahty of ground water for pubhc supply B56 Water budget B56 Precipitation and evapotranspiratiOn B58 Tnbutary streams B59 Mountam-front recharge between tnbutary streams B61 Runoff from bedrock outcrops withm the valley fill B62 Owens River and Los Angeles Aqueduct system B62 Lower Owens River B63 Lakes and reservOirs B64 Canals, ditches, and ponds B64

Contents V Water resources-Contmued Ground water-Contmued Water budget-Contmued Irngation and watenng of livestock B66 Pumped and flowmg wells B66 Spnngs and seeps B66 Underflow B67 Summary B67 Selected references B70

FRONTISPIECE Vertically exaggerated perspective and oblique view of Owens Valley, California, showmg the dramatic change m topographic relief between the valley and surroundmg moun tams

PLATES [Plates are m pocket]

Gravity profiles and geologic sectiOns A-A' m Btshop, B-B' south of Btshop, C-C' near Btg Pme, D-D' south of Tmemaha Reservmr, E-E' m Independence, F -F' m Lone Pme, G-G' south across Btshop, and H -H' southwest across Tmemaha Reservmr m Owens Valley, California

2 Hydrogeologic sectiOns A-A' m Btshop, B-B' south of Btshop, C-C' near Btg Pme, D-D' south of Tmemaha Reservmr, E-E' m Independence, F-F' m Lone Pme, G-G' south across Btshop, and H-H' southwest across Tmemaha Reservmr m Owens Valley, California

FIGURES

Map showmg locatiOn of Owens Valley and Mono Basm dramage areas and physiOgraphic and cultural features B4 2 Photographs and computer-drawn vtews of landforms m Owens Valley, lookmg north along the ax1s, that emphastze the asymmetnc geomorphtc form of the valley B6 3 Map and graphs showmg average annual prectpttatwn for selected sttes m the Owens Valley dramage basm BS 4 Graph showmg average monthly air temperatures at Bishop and Independence NatiOnal Weather Bureau statiOns, 1931-85 BlO 5 Map showmg dtstnbutwn of land ownership m Owens Valley Bll 6 Map showmg dtstnbutwn and areal coverage of sources of geologtc, geophystc, and hydrologic data used m this report B12 7 Generalized geologtc map of the Owens Valley dramage basm B16 8 Dtagram showmg generalized geologtc column and hydrologtc charactensttcs of the valley ftll and bedrock umts withm the Btshop and Owens Lake Basms of the Owens Valley dramage basm area B18 9 Schematic block dtagram of Owens Valley that tllustrates the structural relatiOn between the mountam blocks (horsts) and the valley trough (graben) B21 10 Map showmg Isostatic residual gravtty anomalies, geologtc structure, and mferred position of the structurally lowest part of the Owens Valley graben B22 11 Map showmg structural divtston of Owens Valley mto Btshop and Owens Lake Basms B24 12 Borehole geophystcallogs of three wells m Btshop Basm and the geophystcal correlatiOn of maJor clay layers m the southern part of Btshop Basm B26 13 Photograph showmg onentatiOn of the Volcamc Tableland relative to the valley floor m the Btshop area B29

VI Contents 14 Schematic drawmgs of the generalized depositiOnal models m the valley fill m Owens Valley B32 15 Photograph showmg alignment of volcamc cones, rhyolitic dome, and spnngs along the faults m the Poverty Htlls area of Owens Valley B36 16 Map showmg Owens Valley dramage basm area and surface-dramage patterns for tnbutary streams, Owens Rtver, and Owens Rtver-Los Angeles Aqueduct system B37 17 Map showmg areal extent of defmed aqmfer system, occurrence of unconfined and confined conditions, boundary conditiOns, configuratiOn of potentiOmetnc surface m hydrogeologic umts 1 and 3, and directiOn of ground-water flow, spnng 1984 B44 18 Map showmg locatiOn of selected wells and spnngs sampled for water quality or used for analysts of aqmfer charactenstics, and approximate area of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power well ftelds 849 19 Graph showmg loganthmtc plot of drawdown compared to t/r for two observation wells south of Btg Pme B52 20 Graph showmg loganthmtc plot of drawdown compared to time for an observatiOn well south of Btg Pme usmg match pomt for leaky confmed matenal B53 21 Tnlinear dtagram showmg percentages of chemical constituents m well water and classificatiOn of maJor water types 855 22 Map showmg water gams and losses to lower Owens River 865

TABLES

Approximate range of values of honzontal hydraulic conductivity and specific yield for subumts m the valley fill and bedrock m Owens Valley B30 2 Maximum, mmimum, and mean annual discharge measured at base-of-mountams and Owens River-Los Angeles Aqueduct system gagmg statiOns for tnbutary streams m Owens Valley, water years 1935-84 839 3 Maximum, mmimum, and mean annual discharge of the Owens River-Los Angeles Aqueduct system and lower Owens River for selected penods of record B40 4 Chemical constituents and physical properties of water m Owens River downstream from Tmemaha ReservOir, water years 1974-85 B42 5 Chemical analyses of water from selected wells m Owens Valley B54 6 Ground-water budget of the Owens Valley aqmfer system B58 7 Vegetation charactenstics, water-level and precipitatiOn data, and range m evapotranspiratiOn estimates for selected sites m Owens Valley B60 8 Average annual rate of recharge between base-of-mountams and nver-aqueduct gages for selected streams m Owens Valley B62

Contents VII CONVERSION FACTORS

For readers who w1sh to convert measurements from the mch-pound system of un1ts to the metnc system of un1ts, the conversion factors are l1sted below

Multiply mch-pound umt By To obtam metnc umt

acre 0 405 square hectometer (hm2) 3 acre-foot (acre-ft) 0 001233 cubic hectometer (hm ) acre-foot per year (acre-ftJyr) 0 001233 cubic hectometer per year (hm3/yr) acre-foot per year per mile 0 0007663 cubic hectometer per year per kilometer [(acre-ftJyr)/mi] [(hm3/yr)/km] foot (ft) 0 3048 meter (m) foot per day (ftld) 0 3048 meter per day (m/d) foot per mile (ftlmi) 01895 meter per kilometer (m/km) foot per second (ftls) 0 3048 meter per second (m/s) foot per year (ftlyr) 0 3048 meter per year (m/yr) 2 2 square foot (ft ) 0 09294 square meter (m ) foot squared per day (ft2/d) 0 0929 meter squared per day (m2/d) 3 cubic foot (ft ) 0 02832 cubic meter (m3) cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0 02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s) gallon(gal) 3 785 hter (L) gallon per mmute (gal/mm) 0 06308 hter per second (Us) mch (m) 25 4 millimeter (mm) mch per year (m/yr) 25 4 millimeter per year (mrnlyr) mile (mi) 1609 kilometer (km) 2 2 square mile (mi ) 2 590 square kilometer (km ) 2 2 pounds per square foot (lb/ft ) 4 882 kilograms per square meter (kg/m )

Temperature IS giVen m degrees Fahrenheit (°F), whiCh can be converted to degrees CelSIUS (°C) by the followmg equatiOn Temp °C=(temp °F-32)/1 8

Defimtwns Ram year July 1 through June 30 Runoff year Apnl 1 through March 31 Water year October 1 through September 30 Calendar year January 1 through December 31

Abbreviations used mg/L- milhgram per hter mL-milhhter mS/cm-microsiemen per centimeter at 25 °Celsms

SEA LEVEL In th1s report, "sea level" refers to the Nat1onal Geodetic Vert1cal Datum of 1929 (NGVD of 1929)-a geodetiC datum denved from a general adjustment of the f1rst-order level nets of both the Un1ted States and Canada, formerly called Sea Level Datum of 1929

VIII Contents Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California

By Kenneth J. Hollett, Wesley R Danskm, W1ll1am F McCaffrey, and Caryl L. Walt1

Abstract

Owens Valley, a long, narrow valley located along the of the basms allowed separate development of fluv1al and east flank of the S1erra Nevada m east-central Cal1forn1a, 1s lacustrme depos1t1onal systems m each basm the mam source of water for the c1ty of Los Angeles The City Nearly all the ground water m Owens Valley flows through d1verts most of the surface water m the valley mto the Owens and 1s stored m the saturated valley fill The bedrock, wh1ch R1ver-Los Angeles Aqueduct system, wh1ch transports the water surrounds and underl1es the valley fill, IS VIrtually Imperme­ more than 200 miles south to areas of d1stnbut1on and use able Three hydrogeologic un1ts compose the valley-f1ll aqu1fer Add1t1onally, ground water IS pumped or flows from wells to system, a defmed subd1v1s1on of the ground-water system, supplement the surface-water d1vers1ons to the nver-aqueduct and a fourth represents the valley fill below the aqu1fer system system Pumpage from wells needed to supplement water and above the bedrock The aqu1fer system 1s d1v1ded mto export has mcreased smce 1970, when a second aqueduct honzontal hydrogeologic un~ts on the bas1s of e1ther (1) un1form was put mto serv1ce, and local concerns have been expressed hydrolog1c charactenst1cs of a spec1f1c l1tholog1c layer or (2) that the mcreased pumpage may have had a detnmental ef­ d1stnbut1on of the vert1cal hydraul1c head Hydrogeologic un1t fect on the env1ronment and the md1genous alkalme scrub 1 1s the upper un1t and represents the unconfmed part of the and meadow plant commun1t1es m the valley The scrub and system, hydrogeologic Unit 2 represents the confmmg un1t (or meadow commun1t1es depend on soli mo1sture denved from un~ts), and hydrogeologic un1t 3 represents the confmed part prec1p1tat1on and the unconfmed part of a multilayered aqUI­ of the aquifer system Hydrogeologic un1t 4 represents the fer system Th1s report, wh1ch descnbes the hydrogeology of deep part of the ground-water system and l1es below the the aqu1fer system and the water resources of the valley, 1s aqu1fer system Hydrogeologic un1t 4 transm1ts or stores much one m a senes des1gned to (1) evaluate the effects that ground­ less water than hydrogeologic un1t 3 and represents e1ther a water pumpmg has on scrub and meadow commun1t1es and moderately consol1dated valley fill or a geolog1c un~t m the (2) appra1se alternative strateg1es to m1t1gate any adverse ef­ valley fill defmed on the bas1s of geophys1cal data fects caused by. pumpmg Nearly all the recharge to the aqu1fer system 1s from Two pnnc1pal topographic features are the surface ex­ mflltrat1on of runoff from snowmelt and ramfall on the S1erra pression of the geolog1c framework-the h1gh, promment Nevada In contrast, l1ttle recharge occurs to the system by mountams on the east and west s1des of the valley and the runoff from the Wh1te and lnyo Mountams or from d1rect long, narrow mtermountam valley floor The mountams are pree1p1tat1on on the valley floor Ground water flows from the composed of sed1mentary, gran1t1c, and metamorphic rocks, margms of the valley toward the center of the valley, the mantled m part by volcan1c rocks as well as by glac1al, talus, ground water then flows south to the termmus of the system and fluv1al depos1ts The valley floor 1s underlam by valley fill at Owens Lake (dry) Ground water flows south from B1shop that cons1sts of unconsolidated to moderately consol1dated Basm to Owens Lake Basm through the "narrows" that con­ alluv1al fan, trans1t1on-zone, glac1al and talus, and fluv1al and stnct the flow oppos1te Poverty Hills The aqu1fer system m lacustrme depos1ts The valley fill also mcludes mterlayered the northern part of Owens Lake Basm 1s d1v1ded mto east recent volcan1c flows and pyroclastiC rocks The bedrock sur­ and west halves by the bamer effect caused by the Owens face beneath the valley fill 1s a narrow, steep-s1ded graben Valley fault D1scharge from the aqu1fer system 1s pnmanly by that 1s structurally separated mto the B1shop Basm to the north pumpage and evapotransp1rat1on, and to a lesser extent by and the Owens Lake Basm to the south These two structural flowmg wells, spnngs, underflow, and leakage to the Owens basms are separated by (1) a bedrock h1gh that 1s the upper R1ver-Los Angeles Aqueduct system Withdrawals from pumped bedrock block of an east-west normal fault, (2) a horst block or flowmg wells are the largest component of d1scharge and of bedrock (the Poverty H1lls), and (3) Quaternary basalt flows account for about 50 percent of the outflow from the system and Cinder cones that mtercalate and mtrude the sed1mentary Transp1rat1on by scrub and meadow plant commun1t1es, and depos1ts of the valley fill The resultmg structural separation to a lesser extent by 1mgated alfalfa pasture, accounts for about 40 percent of the system's d1scharge

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 81 Natural hydraulic conduct1v1ty ranges from less than 400 from sml m shallow-ground-water areas, and discharge from to about 12,000 feet per day m the basalt flows, the more spnngs Approximately 73,000 acres of the valley floor 1s permeable matenal m the aqu1fer system Where the basalts covered by phreatophytic (Dileams and Groeneveld, 1989, are fractured by explosives and dnllmg techn~ques, actual p D2) alkahne plant commumt1es These plant commum­ transmiSSIVItles can be greater than 1 mlll1on feet squared per ties have an annual evapotranspiratiOn loss from the day Hydraulic conductiVIties m sed1mentary depos1ts of the ground-water system of about 40 percent the annual natural aqu1fer system range from less than a few feet per day m lacustnne clays to more than 300 feet per day m gravel stnng­ recharge to the valley In the early 1970's, the phreato­ ers and beach depos1ts m the trans1t1on zone between alluv1al phytic plants covered about the same acreage, and condi­ fan depos1ts and fluv1al and lacustrme depos1ts tiOns were Similar to those observed between 1912 and 1921 Degree of confmement m the aqu1fer system generally (Gnepentrog and Groeneveld, 1981) In 1981, a loss of 20 mcreases to the south and east m both the B1shop and Owens to 100 percent of the plant cover on about 26,000 acres was Lake Basms The vert1cal hydraulic grad1ent across hydrogeo­ noted (Gnepentrog and Groeneveld, 1981) This reductiOn logic un1t 2 and confmmg beds m hydrogeologic un1ts 1 and was postulated to be a response to the mcreased pumpage 3 1s a funct1on of (1) the asymmetnc recharge and hydraulic of ground water and changes m surface-water use head created by the dommant recharge from S1erra Nevada Considerable pubhc concern was expressed because of the runoff and (2) the areal extent and th1ckness of the confmmg environmental 1mpact and the related loss of recreational beds Although most of the pumpage IS from hydrogeologic actiVIties and w1ldhfe hab1tats un1t 3, some comc1dent drawdown has been recorded m Th1s study was undertaken as part of a much larger nonpumped wells that tap un1t 1 Drawdown m hydrogeo­ logic un1t 1 1s a funct1on of changes m (1) lateral flow through effort In 1982 the U S Geological Survey, m cooperatiOn hydrogeologic un1t 1, (2) upward flow of ground water through w1th In yo County and the Los Angeles Department of Water the confmmg beds, (3) downward leakage of water from and Power, began a senes of comprehensive studies to de­ hydrogeologic un1t 1 to un1t 3 through wells, (4) d1rect With­ fme the ground-water system m Owens Valley and to deter­ drawal from well mtervals open to hydrogeologic un1t 1, and mme the effects of ground-water Withdrawals on native (5) mcreased evapotransp1rat1on vegetatiOn These stud1es are discussed more fully by Hollett The water m the aqu1fer system 1s generally of excellent ( 1987) and Danskm ( 1988) The results of the studies, as qual1ty for publ1c supply and 1rngat1on, w1th the except1on of well as a comprehensive summary, are presented m a U S water stored m th1ck sequences of lacustnne slits and clays Geolog1cal Survey Water-Supply Paper senes as the mter­ near Owens Lake The water 1s pnne~pally a calc1um blear­ pretlve products of the studies become avatlable The senes, bonate type, and d1ssolved-sol1ds concentrations range from "Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant RelatiOns m Owens Val­ approximately 104 to 325 mlll1grams per l1ter Water m the lacustrme sed1ments of Owens Lake (dry) 1s a sod1um blear­ ley, California," consists of e1ght chapters as follows bonate type, and d1ssolved-sol1ds concentrations are about A A summary of the hydrologic system and 5,400 m1ll1grams per l1ter soil-water-plant relatiOns m Owens Valley, Cahforn1a, 1982-87, w1th an evaluatiOn of management alternatives, INTRODUCTION B Geology and water resources of Owens Valley, Cahfornm (th1s report), Owens Valley, a long, narrow valley located on the C Esttmatmg sml matnc potential m Owens Val­ east flank of the S1erra Nevada m east-central Cahforn1a ley, Cahfornta, (frontispiece), 1s the mam source of water for the c1ty of D Osmotic potenttal and proJected drought toler­ Los Angeles The c1ty d1verts most of the surface water of ances of four phreatophytic shrub species m the valley mto the Owens Rtver-Los Angeles Aqueduct sys­ Owens Valley, Cahfornta, tem (subsequently referred to m th1s report as "the nver­ E Estimates of evapotranspiratiOn m alkahne scrub aqueduct system"), wh1ch transports the water more than and meadow commumties of Owens Valley, 200 m1 south to areas of d1stnbut10n and use Cahforma, usmg the Bowen-rat10, eddy­ AdditiOnally, ground water IS pumped or flows from correlatiOn, and Penman-combmatwn methods, wells and then 1s discharged mto the nver-aqueduct system F Influence of changes m sml water and depth to Pumpage vanes from year to year and 1s dependent on the ground water on transpiratiOn and canopy of ava1lab1hty of surface-water supphes Smce 1970, when a alkahne scrub commumties m Owens Valley, second aqueduct from Owens Valley to Los Angeles was California, put mto serv1ce, add1t10nal ground water has been pumped G VegetatiOn and soil-water responses to precipita­ as a result of the mcreased export capac1ty tiOn and changes m depth to ground water m Outflow of ground water also occurs naturally m Owens Valley, Cahfornm, and Owens Valley The pnnc1pal mechamsms mclude transpi­ H Numencal evaluatiOn of the hydrologic system ration by md1genous alkahne scrub and meadow plant com­ and selected water-management alternatives m munltles (Sorenson and others, 1989, p C2), evaporatiOn Owens Valley, California

82 Hydrology and So1I-Water-Piant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma Purpose and Scope and mountams that separate Mono Basm and Adobe Valley from Long and Chalfant Valleys and the Volcanic Table­ Thts report descnbes the geology and water resources land (fig 1) The dramage area mcludes Long Valley, the of Owens Valley wtth an emphasis on the ground-water-flow headwaters area of the Owens Rtver (ftg 1) system The development and use of the ground-water resources Is best achteved through an understandmg of the Physiography geologic framework and Its effect on the response of the hydrologic system to climate, plant community water demand, Physwgraphtcally, Owens Valley contrasts sharply and water-supply development Thts report provides the nec­ with the promment, Jagged mountams that surround It (ftg essary conceptual geologic framework and descnption of the 2) These mountams-the Sterra Nevada on the west and hydrologic system for the boundary and Initial conditiOns used the Whtte and Inyo Mountams on the east-nse more than m the companiOn report on the numencal evaluatiOn of the 9,000 ft above the valley floor The valley, charactenzed as hydrologic system (chapter H) htgh desert rangeland, ranges m altitude from about 4,500 The scope of this report mcludes a thorough literature ft north of Bishop to about 3,500 ft above sea level at search and compilatiOn of published and unpublished geo­ Owens Lake (dry) logic and hydrologic mformatton to determme what addi­ The valley floor Is charactenzed by alkalme scrub and tiOnal field studies were needed and to define the structural meadow plant-covered flat terram, mcised by one maJor trunk and geologic framework of the valley AdditiOnal background stream, the Owens Rtver, whtch meanders south through the for the report mcluded water-level measurements, streamflow valley Numerous tnbutaries dram the east face of the Sterra records, water-qualtty data, pumpmg data, aquifer test data, Nevada and have formed extensive coalesced alluvial fans dnllers' logs, borehole geophystcallogs, and reports from the along the west stde of the valley These fans form promment cooperatmg agencies Prelimmary ground-water-flow models alluvial aprons that extend east nearly to the center of the (Yen, 1985, Danskm, 1988, Guymon and Yen, 1990) were valley (fig 2) In contrast, the tnbutary streams and related used to evaluate the adequacy of background data, gmde the alluvtal fans are sohtary forms wtth no contmuous apron on destgn of new field studies, and help Identify the hydrologically the east stde of the valley Consequently, the Inyo and Whtte sensitive parts of the conceptual model of the flow system Mountams nse abruptly from the valley floor (fig 2) As a New field studies, which mcluded test dnlhng, exammatiOn result of this asymmetncal alluvial fan formation, the Owens of dnll cuttmgs, surface and borehole geophysical surveys, Rtver flows on the east stde of the valley and reconnaissance geologic mappmg, were used to refine the Owens Valley ts a closed dramage system Pnor to the hydrogeologic knowledge of the valley New water-level data, constructiOn of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, water that flowed particularly multilevel hydraulic-head measurements and from the moun tams as a result of prectpttation was transported pumpmg and aqmfer test data, were used to Improve the defi­ by the tnbutary streams to the Owens Rtver m both Long and nitiOn of the conceptual ground-water-flow system Data Owens Valleys and then south to Owens Lake, the natural collected as a part of a separate study by the Los Angeles termmus of the dramage system The gramttc and volcantc Department of Water and Power and Inyo County also were Coso Range, wluch has a poorly defined circular form, unhke used to better define the ground-water system the lmear forms of the Sterra Nevada or Whtte and lnyo Mountams (Duffield and others, 1980), forms a hamer at the south end of Owens Valley (fig 1) The Coso Range prevents Physical Setting downvalley streamflow at Owens Lake (dry) and blocks any stgntficant natural ground-water outflow from the lower end Owens Valley IS wtthm the Owens Valley dramage of the valley Pnor to 20th-century development m Owens basm area (ftg 1) and occupies the western part of the Valley, Owens Lake was a large body of water that covered Great Basm sectiOn of the Basm and Range provmce more than 100 mt2 and exceeded a depth of 20ft DiversiOn (Fenneman, 1931, Fenneman and Johnson, 1946) The Great of streamflow for liTigatiOn uses m the early 1900's and to the Basm sectiOn typically consists of hnear, roughly parallel, nver-aqueduct system after 1913, however, altered the water north-south mountam ranges separated by valleys, most of budget of the lake EvaporatiOn now exceeds mflow except m whtch are closed dramage basms (Hunt, 1974) The Owens very wet years, and the lake ts presently ( 1988) a playa Valley ground-water basm extends from Hatwee Reservoir The nver-aqueduct system m the Owens Valley m the south, northward to mclude Round, Chalfant, Hammtl, dramage area ts defmed for purposes of thts report as ( 1) and Benton Valleys (fig 1) The Owens Valley dramage the Owens Rtver from Its headwaters m Long Valley to the 2 area, about 3,300 mi , mcludes the mountam areas that ex­ mtake of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, (2) Mono Craters tend from the crest of the Sterra Nevada on the west to the Tunnel and streamflow dtverted from Mono Basm, (3) the crest of the White and Inyo Mountams on the east Also Los Angeles Aqueduct from the mtake to Hatwee Reser­ mcluded are part of Hatwee ReservOir and the crest of the vOir, and (4) all reservmrs along the defined system (fig 1) Coso Range on the south and the crest of the volcanic htlh The actual Owens Rtver between the aqueduct mtake and

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Califorma 83 30' 15' 118°00' 45' 117°30'

15' 125° 120° I

0 1-- "Y <::' 40 "~ {.; ('

,..(\ '1

·\. .. 115° > I ~Grant 35°- ~ Lake

45'

200 MILES 1--...... -'"--T-----' 200 KILOMETERS

30'

15'

EXPlANATION

GROUND-WATER BASIN FOR OWENS, ROUND, CHALFANT, HAMMIL, AND BENTON VALLEYS - Areas outside the 45' W ground-water basin include bedrock, the Volcanic Tableland, Long Valley, and isolated unconsolidated deposits

-··-BOUNDARY OF DRAINAGE BASIN

30' 0 10 20 30 40 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

Figure 1. Location of Owens Valley and Mono Basin drainage areas and physiographic and cultural features.

84 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California Owens Lake (dry), which IS mformally referred to as the area than m the Independence area but the seasonal pattern "lower Owens River," Is not a part of the nver-aqueduct and amplitudes are similar (fig 4) system Flow m the Owens River upstream of the aqueduct Wmd directiOn generally fluctuates north and south mtake (fig 1) IS an mtegral part of the nver-aqueduct sys­ along the center of the valley Studies by Duell (1990) dunng tem and IS controlled by releases from Pleasant Valley and the years 1984 through 1985 mdicated that wmdspeeds Tmemaha ReservOirs (fig 1) Flow m the lower Owens ranged from zero to more than 30 mi/h However, wmdspeed River Is dependent on releases from the nver-aqueduct sys­ was found to be highly vanable m the valley and no seasonal tem or discharge from the ground-water system trend was evident There are several reservmrs along the course of the Mmsture content and relative humidity of au are Im­ nver-aqueduct system These water bodies, pnncipally Grant portant factors m energy transport Actual water-vapor con­ Lake, Lake Crowley, and Pleasant Valley, Tmemaha, and tent m au can be expressed m terms of vapor density In Haiwee Reservmrs (fig 1), are used pnmanly to regulate Owens Valley, average vapor density m 1984 was about flows and to store water for the nver-aqueduct system 4 5 g/m3 (grams per cubic meter), and one-half-hour aver­ age vapor density ranged from 0 5 g/m3 (dunng wmter months) to 17 4 g/m3 (m August) (Duell, 1990) Relative Climate humidity generally ranges from 6 to 100 percent and aver­ The chmate m Owens Valley Is greatly mfluenced by ages less than 30 percent dunng the summer months and the Sierra Nevada PrecipitatiOn IS denved chiefly from more than 40 percent dunng the wmter months (Duell, 1990) mmsture-laden airmasses that ongmate over the Pacific Estimates of average annual evapotranspiratiOn for Ocean and move eastward Because of the orographic ef­ 1984 and 1985, which were calculated from Site-specific fect of the Sierra Nevada, a ram shadow IS present east of micrometeorological data, ranged from 12 m m alkaline the crest, precipitatiOn m the valley and on the White and scrub plant commumties to 41 m m alkalme meadow plant Inyo Mountams and Coso Range IS appreciably less Con­ commumties (Duell, 1990) Plant studies by Groeneveld sequently, the chmate m the valley IS semiarid to and and IS and others ( 1986a, b) mdicated that estimates of transpira­ charactenzed by low precipitation, abundant sunshme, warm tiOn by porometry methods nearly equal but are less than temperatures, frequent wmds, moderate to low humidity, the average annual evapotranspiratiOn estimated by and high potential evapotranspiratiOn mtcrometeorologtcal methods They further concluded that About 60 to 80 percent of the average annual precipita­ transpiratiOn, not evaporatiOn, accounts for most of the water tion m the dramage area falls as snow or rain m the Sierra lost from the scrub and meadow plant communities of Owens Nevada, pnmanly dunng the penod October to Apnl A lesser Valley on the basts of theu studies and the one by Duell amount falls dunng summer thunderstorms Average annual ( 1990) The evapotranspiration rate Is approximately twice precipitation at the crest of the range generally exceeds 40 m , the annual precipitatiOn rate from scrub plant commumttes whereas on the valley floor the average annual precipitation IS and eight ttmes the rate for meadow plant commumttes approximately 5 to 6 m (Groeneveld and others, 1986a, b, Duell, 1990) (fig 3) Conversely, the White and Inyo Moun­ Land and Water Use tams and Coso Range receive approximately 7 to 14 m/yr Graphs of average annual precipitatiOn for selected Sites m the Most of the land m the Owens Valley drainage basm drainage area show the large vanabihty m precipitatiOn from area IS owned by either the U S Government or the Los site to site and year to year (fig 3) The hnes of equal precipi­ Angeles Department of Water and Power (fig 5) Sigmfi­ tatiOn (fig 3), however, represent an average of more than 50 cantly less land IS owned by mumcipaltttes or pnvate ctttzens years of partial and contmuous record and represent the spatial US Government lands, either Forest Service or Bureau of distnbutiOn of average annual precipitation for the penod of Land Management, are generally located m the mountams record (Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, 1972, and along the edge of the mountains or on the VolcaniC 1976, 1978, 1979, NatiOnal Weather Bureau, wntten commun, Tableland (fig 5) Of the 307,000 acres owned by the Los 1983, Duell, 1990) Angeles Department of Water and Power m Owens Valley Air temperature m the. valley vanes greatly Contmu­ and Mono Basm drainage basms, most of the land (240,000 ous records from 1931 to 1985 at Bishop and Independence acres) Is located on the valley floor of Owens Valley National Weather Bureau statiOns mdicate that average The maJor actiVIties m the valley are livestock ranchmg monthly air temperature ranges from near freezmg m the and tounsm About 190,000 acres of the valley floor ts leased wmter to more than 80 °F m the summer (fig 4) Daily by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power to ranch­ changes m temperature, however, can span more than 50 °F ers for grazmg and about 12,400 addtt10nal acres ts leased for Measured wmter temperatures fall as low as -2 °F, whereas growmg alfalfa pasture Access to most lands m the moun­ summer temperatures have been measured at 107 °F, typi­ tains and valley IS open to the pubhc, and tens of thousands of cal of a semiand to and chmate The average monthly air people each year utihze the many natural recreational benefits temperatures are generally 1 to 3 °F cooler m the Bishop such as huntmg, fishmg, sklmg, and campmg

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 85 SIERRA NEVADA

Alabama Hills

SCENE 1

Figure 2. Landforms in Owens Valley, looking north along the axis, that emphasize the asymmetric geomorphic form of the valley (photographs by Spence Air Photo Company, August 1931, by permission of Geography Department, Univer­ sity of California, Los Angeles).

SIERRA NEVADA / Crater Mtn White Mts

SCENE 2

Figure 2. Continued.

86 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California VERTICAL EXAGGERATION APPROXIMATELY X 4

~ ~ t ~ North _ · :~ -z...... ''· i< l. ~ \:.- .. ~ ~-. '""' Of--...-'-r-____,..J20 MILES ""? f.<· ·•:•: •·•·· 5, 0 20 KILOMETERS \,• .. _._,j~· ·'\..· ·F

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION APPROXIMATELY X 2

Figure 2. Continued.

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 87 0

30' EXPlANATION

--20- LINE OF EQUAL AVERAGE --6-- ANNUAL PRECIPITATION- Interval, 1 and 10 inches

3 0 ~ PRECIPITATION STATIONS - • Closed diamonds are 15' continuous record and open diamonds are partial record stations. Symbol s indicates a snow survey station. Number corresponds to precipitation graphs which show rain year data BOUNDARYOFTHEOWENS 3roo VALLEY DRAINAGE BASIN

45

36 1

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

Figure 3. Average annual precipitation for selected sites in the Owens Valley drainage basin (data from Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, written commun., 1986; map modified and updated from Stetson, Strauss, and Dresselhaus, consulting engineers, written commun., 1961 ).

88 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California Water used within the valley is available either from for cultivation of alfalfa. Fish Springs and Blackrock fish surface-water diversions or ground-water pumping. About hatcheries (fig. 5) rely on ground water. The Mount Whitney 1,200--2,000 acre-ft/yr of ground water is supplied to the four fish hatchery (fig. 5) uses surface water diverted from tributary major towns in the valley-Bishop, population 8,700; Big runoff from the Sierra Nevada. A number of private wells in Pine, population 700; Independence, population 700; and Lone the valley, which are not maintained or monitored by the Los Pine, population 1,200. Other in valley use of water is for In­ Angeles Department of Water and Power, are used mostly for dian reservations, stockwater, and irrigation of pastures, and domestic water supply, primarily at Mount Whitney fish

35 I Lake Crowley 2 Rock Creek 3 White Mountain Number 1 30 Altitude 6;l81Jeet Altitude 9, 700 feet Altitude 10,150 teet 25 20 15 10 5 0 35 4 U.S. Weather Bureau, Bishop 5 Lake Sabrina 6 Tinemaha Reservoir 30 Altitude 4, 108 feet Altitude 9,100 feet Altitude 3,850 feet i" 25 r 20 l

(f) 15 w I 0 10 ~ 5 ~ z 0 L.______J 0 ~ 35~------~ ~ 7 U.S. Weather Bureau, Independence 8 Lone Pine 9 Cottonwood Gates 0:::: 30 Altitude 3,950 feet Altitude 3,661 feet Altitude 3t. 775 feet 0 I ~ 25 CL j 20 ·--~- 15 10 5 0 50 60 70 80 90 1930 40 50 60 70 80 90 35 10 North Haiwee Reservoir CALENDAR YEAR 30 Altitude 3,850 feet 25 20 15 10 5 0 1930 40 50 60 70 80 90 CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 3. Continued.

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 89 hatchery, Isolated ranches, m Bishop, and on the four small physical studies of the Owens Valley regiOn (PalGser and Indian reservations m the valley The reservations are about 1 others, 1964) and the Bishop and Volcamc Tableland area mi2 or less m size and are located near Bishop, Big Pme, (Bateman, 1965) were conducted Numerous small scale, north of Independence, and Lone Pme (fig 5) topical studies, pnmartly by umversitles, concemmg geo­ logic history and stratigraphy also have been completed The geological mvestigatiOns m the Owens Valley regiOn Previous Investigations have generally been supported by strong pubhc mterest m volcamc hazards and geothermal energy assessment, plate The geology and hydrology of Owens Valley have tectomc ImphcatiOns of the Sierra Nevada, recent volcan­ been studied extensively smce the late 1800's (fig 6) Be­ Ism, and seismiCity Selected discussions on regiOnal tec­ cause of extensive faultmg, glaciatiOn, volcamsm, and the tomsm m the Owens Valley regiOn can be found m Ohver presence of economic mmerals and geothermal resources, (1977), Stewart (1978), Prodehl (1979), and Blakely and the geologic history of the area has been a subject of con­ McKee (1985) tmumg mterest and debate Hydrologic mvesttgat10ns have paralleled geologic Investigations pnor to 1900 generally exammed the studies smce the early 1900's because of the abundance of geologic structure of the valley and proposed a geologic water m an otherwise and regiOn W T Lee ( 1906) and history for some of the maJor features (Walcott, 1897) At C H Lee (1912 and 1932) conducted prehmmary hydro­ the tum of the century, the number of geologic mvestiga­ logic mvestigatiOns and documented conditions m part of tiOns mcreased These were related to quantificatiOn and Owens Valley pnor to the diversiOn of surface water to Los understandmg of mmeral occurrence and to the regiOnal Angeles, which began m 1913 C H Lee (1912) divided geology (G E Batley, 1902, Spurr, 1903, Trowbndge, 1911, Owens Valley on the basis of topography mto four ground­ Gale, 1915, Knopf, 1918, Hess and Larsen, 1921) As an water regiOns Long Valley, Bishop-Big Pme, Independence, economic resource, tungsten contmued to be the subject of and Owens Lake Conkhng (1921) summarized the avail­ further geologic studies m the Bishop mmmg distnct from abihty and use of water m Mono Basm and Owens Valley 1934 to 1950 (Lemmon, 1941, Bateman and others, 1950) m order to evaluate the potential export of water from Mono Dunng the late 1950's and early 1960's, there was a resur­ Basm to Owens Valley Tolman (1937) recogmzed that the gence m geological mvestigatiOns, both detailed and re­ north and south parts of Owens Valley displayed different giOnal studies These studies were aimed at further mmeral hydrogeologic charactenstlcs He conceptually modeled the assessment, understandmg crustal evolutiOn and tectomcs, hydrologic relatiOn of the ground-water flow from the allu­ and evaluatiOn of geothermal resources along the eastern vial fans to lacustnne sediments, and he noted that mem­ front of the Sierra Nevada As a result of these numerous bers of the Bishop Tuff buned m the sediments near Bishop studies, geologic quadrangle maps were completed for nearly were Important water-beanng formations all parts of the Owens Valley dramage basm area (fig 6) As demand for water m Los Angeles mcreased, the In additiOn, comprehensive regional structural and geo- Los Angeles Department of Water and Power collected large quantities of data on streamflow and ground-water pumpage throughout much of the valley Although most of these data I- ~ 90~~--~~--~~--~----~--.-----~~ have not been published, four summanes are available m­ z w cludmg three versiOns of an environmental Impact report a: I 80 (Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, 1972, 1976, <( 1.1.. 1978, 1979) and reports associated with the constructiOn (f) and mamtenance of the aqueduct (Los Angeles Board of ttJ 70 a: Pubhc Service Commissioners, 1916, Los Angeles Depart­ CJ w ment of Water and Power, wntten commun, 1913-87) 0 60 z Cahfomta Department of Water Resources ( 1960) attempted u.i to calculate the quantity of water m the valley that could be ~ 50 used for vanous recreational activities DE Wilhams (1969) I­ <( mvestigated methods for mcreasmg ground-water storage 40 ffia... and developed a mathematical ground-water-flow model for ~ w a part of the south half of Owens Valley P B Wilhams I- 30 L.____.,L___ L___--L... __ .L....,-----1.... __ _.___,_ __ ~,-----''----'---~---' a: z rna: a: CJ 1-- o (1978) used a regression model to analyze the relatiOn be­ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ 8 ~ tween water-level declmes, precipitatiOn, and ground-water pumpage Hardt (1980) summanzed current understandmg F1gure 4. Average monthly arr temperatures at Brshop and of the multilayer, ground-water system m the valley and Independence Natrona! Weather Bureau statrons, 1931- 85 (Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, wrrtten answered hydrologic questions that remamed unresolved commun, 1985, as modrfred by Duell, 1990) Gnepentrog and Groeneveld (1981) mvestigated the

810 Hydrology and Sod-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma /

30'

15' Piute - Shoshone Indian Reservation

Big Pine Indian Rancheria

h..t:l~'7"1"r-~'"------t- Rsh Springs fish hatchery eservoir 37 00 Death EXPlANATION

lAND OWNERSHIP

City of Los Angeles, Department of D Water and Power

45 D U.S. Forest Service D U.S. Bu!"eau of Land Management D U.S. National Park or Monument

Private, military, Indian reservation, or municipal Lone Pine Indian D - parcels smaller than one section not shown Reservation 30' - ··-BOUNDARY OF THE OWENS VALLEY DRAINAGE BASIN

---BOUNDARY OF THE GROUND-WATER BASIN FOR OWENS, ROUND, CHALFANT, HAMMIL, AND BENTON VALLEYS

36 5'

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

Figure 5. Distribution of land ownership in Owens Valley. Only major parcels are shown. Isolated, privately owned parcels less than one section (640 acres) are not shown (modified from U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1976a, b, c and 1978a, b, c).

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 811 6

36

15'

EXPlANATION 18 CJvALLEYRLL

DBEDROCK

-··-BOUNDARY OF THE 45' OW£NSVALLEY~------~--~~~~~~~¢r~4-~~----~ DRAINAGE BASIN 27

36'

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

Figure 6. Distribution and areal coverage of sources of geologic, geophysic, and hydrologic data used in this report.

812 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California hydrology of the valley and the Impacts of recent water­ twns as well as a prehmmary evaluatiOn of the ground­ level dechnes on the valley plant commumties , water-flow system of the valley, the reader IS dtrected to Yen (1985) and Guymon and Yen (1990) used a Danskm (1988) deterrmmsttc-probabthsttc analysts of the simulated ground­ InvestigatiOns of water quahty have been mcluded as water-flow system to evaluate what effect uncertamty m sections m other reports but have not been as promment as model parameters may have on computed hydrauhc heads studies of water quantity Thts lack of attention probably re­ An (1985) and Nork (1987) both studted the vanous factors sults because both the surface and ground water are generally that control water-table fluctuations m the valley For a of good qualtty A few exceptions exist and these wtll be more complete dtscusston of prevtous hydrologic mvestiga- addressed m the sectiOns of thts report on water quality

EXPlANATION FOR FIGURE 6 -Contmued

Sources of geologtc, geophys1cal, and hydrological data Add1t1onal mfonnatlon that mcludes all or a large part of Owens Valley 1 Sorey and others (1978), Batley and others (1976) Bateman ( 1961) 2 Krauskopf and Bateman (1977) Bateman and others (1963) 3 Crowder and others (1972) Bateman and Memam (1954) 4 Rmehart and Ross (1957) Bateman and Wahrhafttg (1966) 5 Crowder and Shendan (1972) S l Beanland (Umv of New Zealand, wntten commun , 1986) 6 Krauskopf (1971) Beaty (1963) 7 Bateman (1965) Btrman (1964) 8 Nelson (1966a) Blackwelder (1928, 1954) 9 Bateman and Moore ( 1965) Blakely and McKee (1985) 10 Nelson (1966b) Bryant (1984) 11 Huber and Rmehart (1965) Cahforma Dtvtston of Mmes and Geology (1982) 12 Moore (1963) Chapman and others (1973) 13 Ross (1965) Chnstensen (1966) 14 DC Ross (US Geologtcal Survey, wntten commun, 1965) Cleveland (1958) 15 du Bray and Moore (1985) Conkhng (1921) 16 Stmson (1977a) Conrad and McKee (1985) 17 Stmson ( 1977b) Conrad and others ( 1987) 18 Ross (1967) Dalrymple ( 1963, 1964a, b) 19 J E Conrad (US Geologtcal Survey, wntten commun, 1984) Evernden and Kistler (1970) 20 Duffteld and others (1980), Duffteld and Bacon (1981), Gale (1915) Bacon and others (1982) Gtllespte (1982) 21 Martel (1984a, b) Gtovannettt (1979a, b) 22 Rtchardson (1975), Beanland and Clark (1987) Gnepentrog and Groeneveld (1981) 23 Bachman (1974, 1978) Jennmgs (1975) 24 Dalrymple and others (1965) Kane and Paktser (1961) 25 Stone and Stevens (1987) Knopf (1918) 26 Crowder and others (1973), McKee and others langenhetm and others ( 1982a, b) (1985) lee (1906) 27 J l Burnett and RA Matthews (Cahfomta Dtvtston of lemmon (1941) Mmes and Geology, wntten commun, 1965) los Angeles Department of Water and Power (1972, 1976, 28 Rmehart and Ross (1964) 1978, 1979) 29 Sherlock and Hamtlton (1958) McKee and others ( 1985) 30 Hall and MacKevett (1962) Moore and Dodge (1980) 31 Johnson(1968) Nelson (1962) 32 lee (1912) Ohver and Robbms (1982) 33 lubetkm and Clark (1985, 1987) Paktser and others (1964) 34 Smtth and Pratt (1957) Ross (1962, 1969) 35 Stevens and Olson (1972) DB Slemmons and others (Umverstty of Nevada, wntten 36 Bateman (1978) commun, 1970) 37 Nelson and others (1978) Spurr (1903) 38 lopes (1988) Trowbndge (1911) US Geologtcal Survey (1983a, b, c) Van Wormer and Ryall (1980) Walcott (1897) Wtlhams (1966, 1969, 1970)

Figure 6. Contmued

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 813 Acknowledgments The Volcamc Tableland at the north end of the study area consists of layers of volcamc tuff and ash, many of The authors are grateful to many mdtvtduals of the whtch were welded dunng depositiOn and later verttcally Inyo County Water Department and of the Los Angeles faulted The Volcamc Tableland geomorphtcally separates Department of Water and Power, who atded Immeasurably Round Valley from Chalfant, Hammtl, and Benton Valleys, m all phases of the study Spectftcally, Melvm L Blevms, the three northern surface expressiOns of Owens Valley (fig John F Mann, Jr , Eugene L Coufel, and Russell H Rawson, 1) The welded tuff of the Volcamc Tableland ts VIrtually representmg the Los Angeles Department of Water and Impermeable and caps valley sedtments, thus, for purposes Power, and Gregory L James, Wilham R Hutchison, and of thts report, It IS mcluded as part of the bedrock Thomas E Gnepentrog, representmg the Inyo County Water The valley floor Is underlam by thick sequences of Department, were particularly helpful These mdtvtduals, unconsolidated to moderately consolidated alluvial fan, and thetr many associates, supphed logistical and data sup­ transition-zone, glactal and talus, and fluvial and lacustn11e port, as well as detailed mformation on the culture, htstory, deposits mtercalated With and overlam by Quaternary vol­ and hydrology of the valley Much of thts mformatwn was camc rocks Collectively, the deposits and volcamc rocks based on personal expenence and knowledge gamed from are termed the "valley fill " many years m the valley The authors also express thetr The geologic framework determmes and controls many appreciatiOn to Fredenck Ftsher, US Soil Conservation hydrologic charactenstics of the surface- and ground-water­ Service, Sarah Beanland, New Zealand Geologtcal Survey, flow systems Structural deformatiOn, volcamsm, and ero­ Allen Gtllespte, Umverstty of Washmgton, Lester Lubetkm, Sion determme the geometry of the moun tam ranges as well US Forest Servtce, Cratg dePolo, Umverstty of Nevada, as the extent and depth of the valley The lithology and and Peter Wetgand, Robert Howard, and Susan Benham, structure strongly control the permeability and storage char­ Cahfornta State Umverstty, Northndge, for contnbutmg actenstics of the rocks Specifically, these geologic factors geologtc mformatwn, much of whtch ts m preparation and can be related to the hydrologic system m the followmg unpublished In addttiOn, U S Geological Survey colleagues manner Richard J Blakely, James Conrad, Malcolm M Clark, 1 The altitude, surface area, and slope of the moun­ Donald Ross, and Edwm H McKee added greatly to our tams are the Important physiographic factors that determme understandmg of the geologtc and geophysical charactens­ the amount of precipitatiOn that will be available to the tics of Owens Valley surface-water system or to recharge the ground-water sys­ tem For closed-basm systems, virtually all streamflow and recharge to the ground-water system result from runoff of GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK AND ITS RELATION ram and snowmelt from the surroundmg highlands, m Owens TO THE HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM Valley the runoff recharge IS predommantly from the Sierra Nevada The geologtc framework-the mterrelatwn of the 2 The quantity of ground water that IS stored and vanous sedtments and rocks-Is defm~d by the form and flows m the saturated matenals IS largely a functiOn of the development of the structural valley, as well as tts lithol­ areal extent, thickness, and type of sedimentary deposits ogy, and by the placement of volcantc rocks and deposi­ that underlie Owens Valley tiOnal environments of the sedtments withm the valley The 3 The rocks of the mountams and hills that structur­ crystalline granitic, metamorphic, volcantc, and sedimentary ally confine the valley fill may transmit water to the ground­ rocks surround and underlie the valley water system through fractures, faults, or solutiOn openmgs In the Owens Valley dramage basm area, two pnnci­ m carbonate rocks The quantity of water from this source, pal topographic features represent the surface expressiOn of however, IS considered msigmftcant compared to the quan­ the geologic framework-the mountam ranges, and the long, tity of water mfiltratmg from streams or the quantity of narrow mtermountam valley floor The Sterra Nevada to ground-water underflow through the volcanic rocks or sedi­ the west consists pnmanly of uplifted, faulted, and exhumed mentary deposits bathohthtc grantttc and associated metamorphic rocks These gramttc rocks are locally mantled by volcamc rocks and glactal and alluvtal deposits (figs 7 and 8) The Whtte and Regional Geologic Setting Inyo Mountams to the east consist of ttlted and faulted PaleozOic sedimentary rocks that have been mtruded by The earliest known geologic history m the Owens gramtic plutons and are mantled m places by volcamc and Valley regwn IS recorded m the rocks of surroundmg moun­ metamorphic rocks and by Holocene sedtments For pur­ tams and has been summanzed m numerous references cited poses of thts report, the rocks of the Sterra Nevada, Whtte m figure 6 and m the geologic column m figure 8 Outcrops and Inyo Mountams, and Coso Range will be referred to as of marme sedimentary rocks m the White and lnyo Moun­ the "bedrock " tams and mountam ranges to the east (fig 8) support the

814 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma Interpretation that this regiOn was on the margm of an an­ Waucobt Embayment (Hay, 1964, Bachman, 1974, 1978) cestral Pacific Ocean contmental shelf dunng the late (fig 7), all mdtcate that the north-trendmg normal faults Precambnan and PaleozOic Era Dunng the middle and late that form Owens Valley are younger than 6 mtlhon years PaleozOic, the manne sediments were folded and faulted by old On the basts of the age of formatiOn, Owens Valley Is the Antler and Sonoma orogemes (Russel and Nokleberg, one of the youngest valleys m the Basm and Range prov­ 1977, McKee and others, 1982, Langenheim and others, mce Recent setsmtctty and surface disruptiOn along the 1982a) DeformatiOn contmued mto the MesozOic with the maJor faults m the valley demonstrate that Owens Valley Is onset of the Nevadan orogeny and the mtrusion of the Sierra still tectomcally active (Kahle and others, 1986, Lienkaemper Nevada batholith The early CenozOic Era was a penod of and others, 1987, dePolo, 1988) both regiOnal uphft and erosiOn that may account for the Uphft and tiltmg of the Sterra Nevada by Basm and absence of rocks of this age m Owens Valley Range faultmg brought mcreased elevatiOn and subsequent Basm and Range faultmg, which followed early alpme glaciation dunng the Pleistocene and Holocene to CenozOic uphft and erosiOn m the late Tertiary, produced tnbutanes of the Owens River (Blackwelder, 1931, Sharp the present Owens Valley structure Evidence of Basm and and Birman, 1963, Gillespie, 1982) Glactal advances m the Range faultmg m the western part of the Great Basm sec­ Sierra Nevada have been dated at 3 2 million years tiOn has been studied m areas about 60 mi north of Owens (Dalrymple, 1964a, b) to as recent as 400 years ago Valley m the Carson, Smtth, and Mason Valleys (Gilbert (Gillespie, 1982) Some Pleistocene glaciers extended to and Reynolds, 1973) Other evidence has been found m the mountam front, pushmg morames onto the edge of Death Valley (Schweig, 1986) and m the vtctmty of the Owens Valley, but neoglacial (late Holocene) activity has Nevada Test Stte north of Las Vegas (Ekren and others, been confined to the higher canyon altitudes Penods of 1968) Evidence found as a part of these studies mdicates glaciatiOn have produced abundant glactal deposits The two different episodes of faultmg, distmgmshed by different largest accumulations of glacial deposits m the Owens River regiOnal fault onentations An early episode, which occurred dramage basm are located m the canyons west of Btg Pme dunng the MIOcene and Pliocene, produced northeast- and and Btshop (fig 7) Streams have breached the Pleistocene northwest-trendmg faults This early episode of faultmg IS morames, and debns rangmg m stze from boulders to glacial not readily apparent m Owens Valley because It may be flour IS transported mto Owens Valley, where It forms part concealed by recent volcamc rocks and extensive sediments of the valley ftll The northwest-trendmg faults located near Poverty Hills Contemporaneous wtth Basm and Range faultmg, and m the White and Inyo Mountams (fig 7) may be rem­ glaciation, and the development of the graben that underlies nants of this earlier episode of faultmg (Cleveland, 1958, Owens Valley was the deposition of Quaternary and Tertiary Martel, 1984a, b, this study) Bateman (1965), however, sediments and volcamc matenal dunng the past 6 mtlhon attnbuted some of the northwest-trendmg faults m the Whtte years Owens Valley IS the present termmus for the Owens and In yo Moun tams to pre-Basm and Range faultmg Stud­ River dramage basm area and final depository of sediments Ies by dePolo and dePolo (1987) showed that northwest­ eroded from the surroundmg htghlands Dunng the pluvial trendmg fault systems are still seismically active m the stages of the Pleistocene, Owens Valley was mtegrated mto Bishop area Other mdirect evtdence of the earher episode a more extensive Owens Rtver dramage system This Pleis­ IS found m the Coso FormatiOn of late Tertiary age (Schultz, tocene dramage system mcluded at vanous times, Mono, 1937) and the lake deposits of the Waucobi Embayment Adobe, Long, Indtan Wells, Searles, Panammt, and Death (Walcott, 1897) which were deposited m basms that were Valleys-whtch now he adJacent to and north, east, and precursors to the present Owens Valley (Bachman, 1978, south of Owens Valley (G E Batley, 1902, Gale, 1915, Bacon and others, 1982) The configuratiOn of these precur­ Memzer, 1922, Blackwelder, 1931, 1954, Mayo, 1934, sory basms IS still unknown Miller, 1946, Hubbs and Mtller, 1948, Putnam, 1950, Feth, The later episode of Basm and Range faultmg Is char­ 1964, Snyder and others, 1964, Wtlhams and Bedmger, actenzed by north-south-trendmg normal faults that delin­ 1984, Janmk and others, 1987) Owens Valley, located at eate the edges of the mountam ranges and valleys In the the base of many glaciers m the Sterra Nevada, was a sedi­ western part of the Great Basm sectiOn Thts later eptsode ment trap for the Pleistocene Owens Rtver dramage basm occurred about 13 mtlhon years ago m Death Valley, 50 mi area The present Owens Lake Is a remnant of the more east of Owens Valley, and gradually migrated westward extensive Pleistocene Lake Owens, w'hich occupted Owens reachmg Owens Valley between 3 and 6 milhon years ago Valley dunng pluvial stages Downstream from Lake Owens, (Schweig, 1986) Radiometric ages of faults that cut volcanic m the Pleistocene dramage system, lakes m Indian Wells, rocks along the Sterra Nevada (Dalrymple, 1964a, b), the Searles, and Death Valleys recetved the overflow from datmg and correlatiOn of rocks m the Coso Range and Owens Valley (Gale, 1915, Janmk and others, 1987) Smtth southern lnyo Mountams (GIOvannetti, 1979a, b, Duffield (1979) and Smtth and others (1983) correlated the pluvtal and others, 1980, Bacon and others, 1982), and the datmg stages of Lake Searles wtth the Sterra Nevada glacial stages and depositiOnal trend of the Waucobt Lake deposits m the Although Lake Searles completely dned at times, the drymg

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 815 GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC UNITS

Valley Fill (segregated by subunit) ~ YOUNGER ALLUVIAL FAN DEPOSITS - Poorly 120° sorted, unconsolidated, gravel, sand, silt, and clay I OLDER ALLUVIAL FAN DEPOSITS- Very poorly sorted, unconsolidated to moderately consolidated gravel, sand, silt, and clay

GLACIAL AND TALUS DEPOSITS- Poorly to moderately sorted, unconsolidated to consolidated silty-sandy gravels, some clay 0 FLUVIAL AND LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS- Moderately to well-sorted, unconsolidated, lenses and layers of sand, silty sand, and gravelly sand; layers, lenses, or massive beds of silty clay

OLMNE BASALT - Rows and cones with extensive interflow breccia and clinker zones; collectively named the Big Pine volcanic field 0 10 20 30 40 MILES I I I I I I I I I I I I J II I I I I I I I I I I I 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS ~------~~------~------~------~ '~0 15'

Figure 7. Generalized geologic map of the Owens Valley drainage basin (geology compiled from sources shown in fig. 6 and this study).

816 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California 'JO~O ' ' j

MOUNTAINS IN YO

SIERRA NEVADA

EXPLANATION

15'

Bedrock

VOLCANIC TABLELAND - Bedrock unit of the ------GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC CONTACT upper Bishop Tuff member composed of welded or agglutinated ash and tuff that grades laterally u D ? --···· FAULT - Dashed where inferred, dotted and vertically to the upper valley-fill member where concealed, queried where uncertain. D, downthrown side; U, upthrown side; VOLCANIC FLOWS AND PYROClASTIC arrows indicate relative direction of lateral ROCKS, UNDIFFERENTIATED - Includes rocks movement of the Coso volcanic field

GRANITIC ROCKS, BATHOLITHIC AND ---· · -- BOUNDARY OF THE OWENS VALLEY UNDIFFERENTIATED DRAINAGE BASIN

METAMORPHIC ROCKS, UNDIFFERENTIATED

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, UNDIFFERENTIATED

Geology compiled by W.F. McCaffrey

Figure 7. Continued.

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 817 of Lake Owens during the middle through late Pleistocene Pleistocene beach terrace levels from Lake Owens, how­ is considered unlikely owing to the absence of any evaporites ever, do not support W.T. Lee's (1906) single-lake hypoth­ in a 920-foot-long core from the Owens Lake playa (Smith esis. The altitude of terrace levels has been mapped at 3,790 and Pratt, 1957). The water level in Lake Owens probably ft (C.H. Lee, 1912): 3,790 and 3,800 ft (Knopf, 1918); 3,753 fluctuated numerous times, as indicated by the variation in ft (Lubetkin and Clark, 1985); and 3,860 ft above sea level overflow to Lake Searles (Jannik and others, 1987) and (S.L. Beanland, New Zealand Geological Survey, oral from the location of lake margin sediments in the vertical commun., 1985). A geologic reconstruction of the alluvial geologic record in the valley. fan surface at Haiwee Reservoir is about 3,865 ft above sea The water-level fluctuations in Lake Owens caused level prior to downcutting of the gorge by the Pleistocene broad shifts in the depositional environment across the gentle Owens River. The surface altitude of this alluvial fan agrees slope of the valley floor. W.T. Lee (1906) suggested that well with beach terrace levels measured by S.L. Beanland Lake Owens once extended as far north as Bishop. (University of New Zealand, oral commun., 1985) and may

LAND SURFACE

u >- "6 N 0 (f) ~ Q) 0::: ~

:::::>~ 0

VALLEY FILL

~0:::

~:::::> 0 LLlg:

u "6 N 0 Q) &

Figure 8. Generalized geologic column and hydrologic characteristics of the valley fill and bedrock units within the Bishop and Owens Lake Basins (see fig. 11) of the Owens Valley drainage basin area.

818 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California represent the highest level of Lake Owens that was present altitude of the base of the Owens River in the gorge at in the valley before spilling and downcutting of the gorge at Haiwee Reservoir. Prior to construction of the reservoir, Haiwee Reservoir. The lowest natural outlet of Pleistocene topographic surveys of the gorge measured the highest base Lake Owens or the present Owens Lake is controlled by the of the river in the gorge at 3,755 ft above sea level (Los

EXPLANATION

QUATERNARY VAllEY Fill (Segregated by subunit)

YOUNGER ALLUVIAL FAN DEPOSITS - Poorly sorted clays and sands, some pebbles and cobbles. Generally low storage and D low hydraulic conductivity

OLDER ALLUVIAL FAN DEPOSITS - Very poorly sorted, consisting of clays to boulders in discontinuous lenses. Parts are D moderately consolidated. Low storage and hydraulic conductivity

FLUVIAL AND LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS - SILT AND CLAY BEDS AND LENSES - Lacustrine and flood -plain deposits. Extensive lacustrine and flood-plain deposits along the axis of the valley. Undifferentiated. Lenses are discontinuous, but a series of overlapping lenses act as a single bed of low conductivity

FLUVIAL AND LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS- MODERATELY TO WELL-SORTED SANDS - Lacustrine and river-channel origin. D Generally moderate to low storage and hydraulic conductivities, depending on the amount of clay or silt present

OLMNE BASALT- Includes flows and cones with clinker zones, flow breccia, and pyroclastic beds. Rows interbed with valley-fill deposits. Very anisotropic, low storage, and very high hydraulic conductivity. High secondary permeability caused by fractures and joints

TRANSffiON -ZONE DEPOSITS - GRAVELS OF BEACHES AND RIVER CHANNELS- Moderately to well sorted, forming lenses and stringers. Beach deposits originate within the transition area between alluvial fan deposition and fluvial-lacustrine deposition where alluvial deposits have been reworked and are moderately to well sorted. Deposits within this zone generally have moderate to high storage and hydraulic conductivities

BISHOP TUFF - Upper member composed of friable ash, pumice, and tuff. Moderate storage and hydraulic conductivity

BISHOP TUFF - Lower basal member composed of pumice, generally high storage and hydraulic conductivity

QUATERNARY BEDROCK

VOLCANIC TABLELAND - Part of upper member of the Bishop Tuff and composed of welded or agglutinated ash and tuff. Low storage and hydraulic conductivity except where jointed or faulted, which creates moderate to high secondary permeability

PRE- QUATERNARY BEDROCK

VOLCANIC ROCKS, UNDIFFERENTIATED - Composed of basalt, rhyolite, and volcanic rocks of intermediate composition

D GRANITIC ROCKS, UNDIFFERENTIATED - Varying in composition from granite to diorite

META VOLCANICS AND METASEDIMENTARY ROCKS, UNDIFFERENTIATED - Metamorphic rocks derived from other bedrock deposits

- SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, UNDIFFERENTIATED - Composed of limestones, dolomites, and shales. Sandstones and conglomerates locally contact metamorphosed

0 UNKNOWN LITHOLOGIES

Figure 8. Continued.

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 819 Angeles [ctty of] Board of Pubhc Servtce Commtsstoners, The use of a contoured spattal dtstnbutton of tsostattc 1916, pl 11) The altitude of the natural outlets of Lake restdual gravtty anomalies enables the mvesttgator to Iso­ Owens and Owens Lake probably ranged between 3,755 to late denstty mhomogenettles and contrasts created by less 3,865 ft above sea level But even at the htghest level, the dense valley fill m contact wtth more dense bedrock When lake dtd not extend north of Poverty Htlls and mto the north contoured, the anomalies gtve a three-dtmensiOnal approxi­ half of the valley, whtch are at htgher altitudes Mmor fluc­ matiOn of the bedrock surface Typtcally, complete Bouguer tuatiOns of water level below the altttude of the outlet as restdual gravtty maps have been used to model the depth of mdtcated by water-level fluctuatiOns recorded m Searles bedrock However, because of the extreme topographic relief Lake (Smtth and others, 1983) would cause broad north­ m some mountamous areas, such as the area surroundmg south shtfts m the depositional envuonment across the val­ Owens Valley, smaller gravtty anomalies that represent ley floor at the north end of Lake Owens subtle geologtc changes m the near surface can be masked by long-penod anomalies that anse from Isostatic compen­ sation of topography (Jachens and Gnscom, 1986) Isostati­ Structure of Owens Valley cally compensated gravtty anomaly data were used m thts study to better understand the geologtc structure and depth Owens Valley ts a downdropped block of bedrock (gra­ to bedrock m Owens Valley ben) that ts bounded on the west and east by steep mountam The Isostatic restdual gravtty anomaly map of the blocks (horsts) of virtually Impermeable bedrock (fig 9) These Owens Valley dramage basm area reflects the general shape bedrock blocks were faulted, tilted, rotated, and warped, then of the structural valley as well as the onentat10n of many of sculptured by eroston and partly buned by sedtments and vol­ the maJor faults (fig 10) The faults that are shown overlatd caruc rocks Thts type of structural valley form ts typtcal of on the gravtty map comctde wtth steep gradtents of hon­ the Basm and Range provmce V anous models of Basm and zontal change m gravtty m the zone between the more dense Range structural form and evolutiOn have been presented by bedrock of the mountams and the less dense valley fill Gilbert (1938), Nolan (1943), Roberts (1968), Stewart (1971, Hachures on closed contours mdtcate the duectton of low­ 1978), Anderson and others (1983), and Allmendmger and est gravtty Generally the deepest parts of the basm are others (1987) The generally accepted models of Basm and tdenttfied by the lowest, closed gravtty hnes and are bounded Range formation mvolve a senes of structurally complex gra­ by steep normal faults that delmeate the stde of the valley bens (basms or valleys) separated by horsts (mountam blocks), graben The mferred positiOn of the lowest parts of the together which create a hnear arrangement of valleys or ba­ graben are Illustrated by bold hnes (fig 10) The mtense sms and mountam ranges The structure of Owens Valley low shown m the northwest part of the dramage basm area strongly affects ground-water storage and flow represents the Long Valley caldera (fig 10) The shape of the graben beneath Owens Valley (fig 9) The Poverty Htlls, located JUSt south of Btg Pme (ftgs has been mferred pnmanly from geophystcal studtes (Paklser, 1, 7, and 10), were mterpreted by Paktser and others (1964) 1960, Kane and Paklser, 1961, Paklser and others, 1964, as a gravtty slide block restmg atop valley-ftll sedtments Blakely and McKee, 1985, thts study) Gravtty, setsmtc re­ The slide block mterpretat10n may allow for a potentially fractiOn, aeromagnetic, and vertical electnc surveys are the stgmftcant quantity of ground water to move through the pnnctpal geophystcal methods that have been used to define valley-ftll sedtments beneath the structure Martel (1984a, the form and depth of the buned bedrock surface, the extent b) remterpreted the structure of Poverty Htlls as a bedrock and dtstnbution of maJor normal faults, and concealed uncon­ horst uplifted by dtfferenttal, left-lateral, stnke-shp solidated sediments Paklser and others ( 1964) used gravtty movement of the Owens Valley fault (figs 7 and 10) Thts and setsmtc refraction methods to do an extensive analysts of remterpretatton suggests a bedrock core beneath Poverty the regiOnal structure of the valley Therr analysts served as Htlls-an mterpretatton that ts supported by the geologtc the background for this study Recent geophystcal studtes by and geophystcal mterpretattons of this study The virtually Blakely and McKee (1985) expanded the geophystcal data Impermeable bedrock horst of Poverty Htlls acts as a bar­ base of Paklser and others (1964) by addmg more than 400 ner that dtverts ground-water flow around the htlls new gravtty statiOns m the Whtte and Inyo Mountams, edttmg The Alabama Hills, located west of Lone Pme (figs the combmed data set, and adjustmg the data to a common 1, 7, and 10), also represent an erostonal remnant of the gravity base Thts data set also was adjusted for the regiOnal gramtic bedrock and are a part of the Sterra Nevada batho­ gravtty field by usmg an Arry Isostatic model (Stmpson and lith Prevtous mvesttgators (Paktser and others, 1964, others, 1983) to produce an tsostattc restdual gravtty anomaly Rtchardson, 1975) postulated that the north end of the htlls for each statton More than 6,700 pomts from thts data set was truncated by a west-trendmg normal fault, wtth the (R J Blakely, US Geologtcal Survey, wntten commun, 1985) north stde down Beanland and Clark ( 1987), when map­ were gndded and contoured (fig 10), and selected profiles pmg Quaternary faults near the Alabama Htlls, observed no modeled two-dimensiOnally, for the structural analysts m thts evtdence of a maJor fault at the north end of the htlls study Gravtty data (ftg 10) support the Interpretation of Beanland

820 Hydrology and Sod-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, Cahforma and Clark and further suggest that the Alabama Hills ex­ surface resulting from a distributive system of faults along tend northward in the subsurface as a bedrock block, east the eastern Sierra Nevada north of Big Pine (Knopf, 1918; side down (figs. 7, 9, and 10). The east margin of this block Pakiser and others, 1964; Bateman, 1965). The warp ex­ can be traced as a nearly continuous series of normal faults tends beneath the valley fill toward Bishop (Pakiser and (east side down), north to the Poverty Hills (figs. 7 and 10 others, 1964). A discontinuous series of faults in the uncon­ and pl. 1). The east margin of the buried bedrock block is solidated valley-fill sediments extends along the east flank coincident with a few springs and lineaments that may rep­ of the warp toward Fish Slough (fig. 7; Bryant, 1984; this resent older surface ruptures found between the Alabama study). This discontinuous trend of fault segments may be Hills and Independence. the result of a deeper buried fault zone. North of the Pov­ The graben that underlies Owens Valley can be di­ erty Hills (Martel, 1984a, b) the Owens Valley fault (fig. 7) vided into two structural basins (fig. 11)-Bishop Basin steps to the west and is located along the west margin of the and Owens Lake Basin--on the basis of geophysical and valley, where it is concealed by the valley fill east of the structural information. The extent and orientation of each Coyote warp and north of Big Pine. basin is defined by the deepest part of the graben (fig. 10) Pakiser and others ( 1964) inferred that the northern limit and the major faults that offset bedrock blocks to form the of the Owens Valley graben (Bishop Basin of this study) is graben (figs. 7 and 10 and pl. 1). Bishop Basin is displaced buried beneath the Bishop Tuff, the nearly horizontal layers east relative to Owens Lake Basin (fig. 11 ). of tuff and ash that make up the Volcanic Tableland. This inference is supported by recent geophysical and geologic information (figs. 7, 10, and 11). Bishop Basin and Long Bishop Basin Valley do not appear to be connected by a relict valley be­ Bishop Basin is bounded on the east by the White neath the Volcanic Tableland as postulated by the California Mountain fault and on the west by the Coyote warp section Department of Water Resources ( 1960). Instead, Long Valley of the Sierra Nevada (fig. 7). The warp is a broad flexural and Bishop Basin are separated by a granitic ridge that trends

EXPlANATION HORST FAULT - Dashed where inferred. Arrows indicate relative direction of vertical movement

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 2

Figure 9. Schematic block diagram of Owens Valley that illustrates the structural relation between the mountain blocks (horsts) and the valley trough (graben).

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 821 u----

0 10 20 30 40 MILES ~ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II II I I I I I I I I 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS I ~------~~------~------~L------~~ '~ 0 ir ~ ~ ~ 1:,

Figure 10. Isostatic residual gravity anomalies, geologic structure, and inferred position of the structurally lowest part of the Owens Valley graben.

822 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California _,.--- MOUNTAINS ~ - tNYO

( -

'cs I'

EXPLANATION

-- 20- LINE OF EQUAL ISOSTATIC RESIDUAL GRAvnY ANOMALY- Interval 2 milligals, hachures on closed lows (gravity data from R.J. Blakely, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 1985)

INFERRED POSITION OF THE STRUcnJRALLY LOWEST PART OF THE GRABEN +-?-····· FAULT - Dashed where inferred, dotted where concealed, queried where uncertain. U, upthrown side; D, downthrown side

BEDROCK CONTACT

~ =+-GROUND-WATER BASIN FOR OWENS, ROUND, CHALFANT, HAMMIL, AND ~ BENTON VALLEYS - Areas outside the ground-water basin include bedrock, the Volcanic Tableland, Long Valley, and isolated unconsolidated deposits

BOUNDARY OF THE OWENS VALLEY DRAINAGE BASIN

Figure 10. Continued.

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 823 /

15'

EXPlANATION D BISHOP BASIN 37"00' D OWENS LAKE BASIN D VALLEY ALL BEDROCK : D \ BEDROCK OR VOLCANIC CONfACf 45' --?- FAULT - Generalized location of major faults that define the boundaries or subdivide the basin. Dashed where inferred, queried where uncertain

-·· -BOUNDARY OF THE OWENS VALLEY DRAINAGE BASIN

- - ?- BOUNDARY OF BISHOP OR OWENS LAKE BASIN- Queried where uncertain

36' .!>

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

Figure 11. Structural division of Owens Valley into Bishop and Owens Lake Basins, hydrologically connected through the geomorphic "narrows" east of and adjacent to Poverty Hills.

824 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California northeast to southwest from the south end of the Benton Range report) The blue-green clay, for example, extends and thms to the Sterra Nevada (umt pQg, fig 7) Thts ndge IS exposed from the "narrows" to about Btg P10e (ftgs 11 and 12) The m the Owens Rtver gorge that cuts the Volcanic Tableland blue-green clay IS not found m the sediments south of the between Lake Crowley and the Btshop area Near the bottom "narrows " The basalt flows that formed a dam to down­ of the gorge, granitic rocks are drrectly overlam by basalt and valley streamflow at the "narrows" were probably later tuff East of the exposure, the ndge IS buned beneath the breached by the ancient Owens Rtver Alternat10g beds of Volcanic Tableland The position of the ndge where buned lacustnne clay and fluvtal sands and gravels 10 the strati­ has been delineated by the abrupt change m the gravity gradi­ graphic sequence at the "narrows" (ftg 12) suggest that the ent (fig 10) process of blockage and breach10g may have occurred sev­ Beneath the Volcanic Tableland, Btshop Basm bifur­ eral times The surface and near-surface fluvial sediments cates along the buned granltlc ndge to form Round Valley to at the "narrows," JUSt pnor to constructiOn of T10emaha the west and Chalfant, Hammd, and Benton Valleys to the ReservOir, reflect a breached condition and mdtcate that the east A zone of north- to northeast-trendmg dtscontmuous hydraulic connectiOn between the Btshop and Owens Lake faults along Fish Slough north of Btshop (figs 1 and 7) mark Bas10s has been present dur10g recent time Less than 1,500 the east stde of the subsurface extension of Chalfant, Hammtl, ft of valley fill underlies the "narrows," mcludmg mterca­ and Benton Valleys, whtch Is buned beneath the Volcanic lated volcamc flows (pl 1, sectiOn H-H') Thts thickness Tableland (fig 7) Farther east the valleys are bounded by the contrasts markedly wtth the more than 4,000 ft of valley fill Whtte Mountams along the Whtte Mountam fault (fig 7) found m the deepest part of Btshop Basm north of Btg Pme Round Valley IS bounded on the north, west, and south by The deepest part of Btshop Basm IS mdtcated by the pro­ grant tic rocks of the Sterra Nevada batholith nounced gravity low 10 figure 10 The southern limit of Btshop Basm Is marked by an The northern extensiOn of the valley graben under mferred normal fault that crosses the valley m a northwest­ Chalfant, Hml, and Benton Valleys IS partly Isolated from southeast dtrectiOn across the north stde of Poverty Htlls the deepest part of Btshop Basm by a bedrock slump block A (Cleveland, 1958, C M dePolo, Umverstty of Nevada, wnt­ high, Isolated gravity anomaly depicted m the contoured gravity ten commun , 1986, this study, figs 7, 10, and 11) The northeast of Btshop and west of the Whtte Mounta10 fault bedrock offset along this fault IS north stde down and IS zone defines the extent of the buned slump block of the concealed by recent sediments and mterstrattfied basalt flows bedrock that parttally obstructs the south end of the Chalfant of the Btg Pme volcanic field Thts normal fault Is a part of Valley (fig 10) The Isolated gravity high was first recogmzed the southern structural termmus of the Btshop Basm, whtch by Paktser and others ( 1964) and postulated as a slump block forms a bedrock htgh between the Btshop Basm and the by Bateman ( 1965) Recent vertical electnc sound10g data Owens Lake Basm to the south seem to support the theory of a slump block and mdtcate that The bedrock htgh, adJacent and to the east of Poverty the top surface of the block Is about 1,2~ 1,400 ft below Htlls, VIrtually Isolated the depositiOnal system of the Btshop land surface A pronounced alluvial fan has formed westward Basm from that of the Owens Lake Basm dunng much of across the slump block The protrusiOn of the buned slump the time Owens Valley was bemg ftlled wtth sediments block at the south end of Chalfant Valley, conJunctive wtth Graben subsidence was contemporaneous wtth fluvial and the overlymg fan, probably deflects deep ground water­ shallow lake depositiOn m both basms until mtddle-to-late flow10g south along Chalfant, Hammd, and Benton Valleys stages of valley formation When depositiOn exceeded gra­ to the Btshop Basm-farther west beneath the southeastern ben subsidence, the bedrock htgh or ndge was buned and part of the Volcamc Tableland near Fish Slough Thts IS west the two basms acted as one Follow10g bunal of the ndge, of where underflow would be expected on the basts of present mterbasm fluvial deposition contmued until 10terrupted by topography the Btg Pme volcanic episode Thts volcanic episode ex­ truded surface flows, c10der cones, and dtkes of basalt, pre­ Owens Lake Basin sumably along the cross-cuttmg faults m the Poverty Htlls area These volcamc extrusiOns 10terrupted the surface Owens Lake Basm extends from the "narrows" near dramage between basms and formed a lake or senes of Poverty Htlls south to the Coso Range (ftg 11) The east lakes m Btshop Bas10 margm of the basm ts delineated by a fault zone that con­ The numerous episodes of lacustnne sedimentatiOn 10 sists of a 2-mile-wtde belt of west-stde-down normal faults the southern part of the Btshop Basm have formed exten­ present along the Inyo Mountams The fault zone IS de­ sive layers of clay m the stratigraphic sequence of the valley scnbed more fully by Langenhetm and others (1982a, b) fill Some layers, such as the blue and green clay located m The west stde of the basm IS bounded by a fault zone that the southern part of the Btshop Basm, are laterally exten­ trends north-south along the east stde of the Sterra Nevada sive (fig 12) The lower blue clay Is m contact wtth the Thts fault zone, partly descnbed by Paktser and others green clay, and together they form a smgle layer of blue­ (1964), IS a complex system of faults and downdropped green clay (as they wtll be referred to subsequently m this blocks wedged between the Sterra Nevada escarpment and

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 825 .-----USGS WELL 16 ------, r------USGS WELL 17------. Land-surface altitude 3,910 feet Land-surface altitude 3,884 feet

w 0 <( l.L a: :::) (/) 0 z <( _j ~ 0 _j 0 w 0 a:J 0 ~ N"

L_ SP__j L SPR-' L--L __J ( ··l/\.

EXPlANATION

C]vALLEYRLL

DBEDROCK

lYPES OF GEOPHYSICAL LOGS SP Spontaneous potential, in volts SPR Single point resistance, in ohms c Caliper, in inches L 6-foot lateral resistivity, in ohm-meters N64 64-inch normal resistivity, in ohm-meters NG Natural gamma, in counts per second GG Gamma-gamma, in counts per second N Neutron, in counts per second

CLAY UNITS- Part of the fluvial and lacustrine deposits in figures 7 and 8

- Blue clay - Blue- green clay 0 10 20 MILES

WELL AND SITE NUMBER­ 0 10 20 KILOMETERS •16 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) well and site number @375 Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) well and site number

BOUNDARY OF THE OWENS VALLEY DRAINAGE BASIN

Figure 12. Borehole geophysical logs of three wells in Bishop Basin and the geophysical correlation of major clay layers in the southern part of Bishop Basin.

826 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California the Owens Valley fault (figs 7 and 11) The Sierra Nevada crystalline rocks, volcaruc rocks commonly contam extensive escarpment has normal east-side-down displacement with mterflow brecctation, fractures, and lava tubes that can transmit no apprectable stnke-shp movement (Gillespie, 1982) large volumes of water to wells (Wood and Fernandez, 1988) North of the Alabama Hills, the Owens Valley fault There are three sequences of Quaternary volcaruc rocks m IS m close proximity to the axis of the valley (fig 7) and Owens Valley the Pleistocene Bishop Tuff, olivme basalts of effectively divides the northern part of the Owens Lake the Big Pme volcaruc field, and the Coso volcaruc field (Paktser Basm mto east and west ground-water-flow systems The and others, 1964) Volcaruc rocks m the Big Pme volcanic Owens Valley fault forms the west side of the valley graben field and the buned parts of the Bishop Tuff m the Bishop (figs 7 and 9 and pl 1, sectiOn E-E') West of the Owens Basm are mcluded with the valley fill (fig 7) The volcaruc Valley fault, the bedrock nses m a senes of blocks before rocks of the Coso Range volcanic field and the exposed part bemg exposed m the Sierra Nevada (fig 9) Displacement of the Bishop Tuff that makes up the Volcanic Tableland are on the Owens Valley fault IS nght lateral coupled with mmor mcluded with the bedrock (fig 7) east-side-down normal movement (Bateman, 1961, Ross, The Quaternary valley fill consists of the sedimentary 1962, Lubetkm, 1980, Martel, 1984a, b, Lubetkm and Clark, deposits and volcanic rocks that fill the valley between the 1985, 1987, Beanland and Clark, 1987) Pakiser and others bedrock mountams and hills, cover the lower mountam slopes, (1964) mterpreted the Owens Valley fault as a left-lateral and fill the mountam valleys and canyons Sedimentary stnke-shp fault More current studies (Lubetkm and Clark, deposits make up the largest part of the valley fill They range 1985, Beanland and Clark, 1987) demonstrated that late m thickness from a few feet on the margms of the valley, to Quaternary movement along the Owens Valley fault has nearly 1,500 ft m the "narrows," to more than 4,000 ft m the been dommantly nght lateral with lesser amounts of normal depositiOnal center of the Bishop Basm, and to more than displacement occumng near the Alabama Hills Right-lateral 8,000 ft beneath Owens Lake (dry) The valley fill 1s sub­ stnke shp along the Owens Valley fault IS consistent with dtvtded on the basts of mode of deposition The followmg relative movement determmed for faults m valleys to the descnptions of the bedrock, the volcanic rocks, and the valley east of Owens Valley (Stewart, 1967, Wnght and Troxel, fill emphasize therr hydrologic charactensttcs 1967, Casteel, 1986) The deepest, widest part of the valley graben under­ Bedrock lies the Owens Lake (dry) Between the Alabama Hills and the fault zone along the west margm of the In yo Moun tams, The bedrock of Owens Valley consists of pre-Quaternary the bedrock floor of the graben dips to more than 8,000 ft granitic, metamorphic, sedimentary, and to a lesser extent, below the dry lakebed (figs 7, 9, and 10) To the north, the pre-Quaternary and Quaternary volcaniC rocks The combmed sides of the graben converge, and the width of the graben granitic and metamorphic rock assemblage IS referred to as dimimshes almost to extmctwn m the "narrows" near the crystallme bedrock Granitic plutons of the Sierra Nevada Poverty Hills The floor of the graben nses south to north to batholith form the core of the Sierra Nevada and Coso Range less than 1,500 ft below land surface m the "narrows " (Moore, 1963, Bateman and others, 1963, Rmehart and Ross, 1964, Bateman, 1965, Bateman and Wahrhaftig, 1966, Duffield and others, 1980, Duffield and Bacon, 1981) Hydrologic Characteristics of Geologic Units Additionally, plutons of the Sierra Nevada batholith underlie large areas of the White and Inyo Mountains (Knopf, 1918, The pre-Quaternary bedrock, which consists of grarutic, Nelson, 1966a, b, Crowder and others, 1972, 1973, Crowder metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks that surround and underlie and Shendan, 1972, Sylvester and others, 1978, Blakely and Owens Valley, has sigmficantly smaller quantities of water McKee, 1985, McKee and others, 1985) The plutons vary m than the more porous and hydraulically conductive valley fill composition from gabbro to quartz monzorute, with quartz Where fractures or dissolution of bedrock matenal are present, dwnte makmg up the bulk of plutoruc rock Correlation of the some water can be stored or transmitted, but this source of plutons across Owens Valley (Ross, 1962) Implies that the water IS difficult to locate and develop and would likely yield granitic rock IS continuous across the valley beneath the valley minimal quantities of water to wells Because the geologic fill umts of the bedrock do not store or transmit large quantities A regwnal system of conJugate JOints IS present m most of water, they form the structural boundary of the ground­ granitic rocks of the Sierra Nevada (Bateman, 1965) The water-flow system JOints trend either northwest or northeast and are most Quaternary volcanic rocks constitute a umque geologic conspicuous m areas of low rehef because of a greater rate of umt m the valley (figs 7 and 8) These volcanic rocks can be weathenng along fractures Ross ( 1969) recorded a similar considered a part of the valley fill or the bedrock, dependmg pattern m the Santa Rita Flat pluton, located about 5 mi east on therr hydraulic charactenstics, therr hydraulic connection of Poverty Hills m the lnyo Mountams (fig 7) The granitic to the saturated valley fill, or stratigraphic relation to either rocks of the Sierra Nevada batholith have low porosity and the valley fill or the bedrock Although generally classified as hydraulic conductivity, except along fractures and JOint mter-

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 827 sectiOns where weathered rock and alluvtal deposits are pres­ fractures No known wells have been developed m the sedi­ ent Locally, fractures are mterconnected hydraulically m the mentary rocks m the dramage basm area granitic rocks and thus provide a means for some water pro­ The Volcamc Tableland, north of Btshop (ftg 7), was duction from wells and for small quantities of recharge to the formed by the Btshop Tuff, whtch IS descnbed by Gilbert valley fill The quantity of recharge through the gramtic rocks, (1938) as a pumice and welded ash that ongmated m the however, Is mstgmficant relative to recharge through the alluvial Long Valley area The Volcanic Tableland consists pnma­ fans and stream channels m the valley nly of an agglutmated member, a welded ash that was fused Metamorphic rocks are present m both the Sterra dunng tmplacement (Bateman, 1965) The welded member Nevada and Whtte Mountams (Moore, 1963, Rmehart and grades laterally and vertically to an unconsolidated mem­ Ross, 1964, Bateman, 1965, Crowder and Shendan, 1972, ber The unconsolidated member becomes more prevalent Richardson, 1975, Elliott and McKee, 1982, McKee and at the distal margms of the Btshop Tuff near Btshop and others, 1982) The metamorphic rocks, of sedimentary and Laws and IS the dommant member buned m the valley fill volcanic ongm, consist of slate, phyllite, schist, metaquartz­ m the Btshop Basm (Bateman, 1965) Thts eastern part of tte, metaconglomerate, marble, hornfels, and altered tuffs, the tableland has been mapped by Bateman ( 1965) as breccias, and lattte flows The metamorphic rocks m the dommantly unconsolidated tuff Most of the Btshop Tuff IS Sterra Nevada occur as roof pendants, parts of whtch crop underlam by a basal member composed of air-fall pumice out m the downdropped foothills wtthm Owens Valley that probably was deposited pnor to the release of the (Moore, 1963, Rmehart and Ross, 1964, Bateman, 1965, superheated ash that formed the welded tuff (Bateman, Richardson, 1975) Eqmvalent metasedimentary rocks are 1965) Bateman (1965, p 155) also recogmzed that the present m the Whtte and lnyo Mountams (Rmehart and downward-fimng, honzontally layered sequences of the basal Ross, 1964, Ross, 1965) The correlation of the limited pumice member probably mdtcate that It was deposited m exposures of metasedimentary rocks across Owens Valley standmg water, supportmg the contention of this study that suggests that there IS a contmmty m parts of the bedrock a large lake was present part of the time m the Btshop area underlymg the valley fill A belt of metamorphic rocks m dunng formation of the valley Deposition of the Btshop the Whtte Mountams crosses the range near Whtte Moun­ Tuff predates the collapse of the Long Valley caldera and tam Peak and crops out along the Whtte Mountam fault has been dated at about 0 9 to 0 7 million years B P (R A zone (Crowder and Shendan, 1972, McKee and others, Bailey and others, 1976) The mmeralogy and petrology of 1982) McKee and others (1982) considered these meta­ the Btshop Tuff Is discussed m more detail by Shendan morphic rocks to be allochthonous, havmg been thrust to (1965) therr present location pnor to the plutomc mtrus10ns The Volcanic Tableland consists dommantly of the The metamorphic rocks of both ranges are dense and welded member of the Btshop Tuff Except where fractured have low porosity Foliation and sheanng m some locatiOns or composed of consolidated tuff, the tableland IS virtually may mcrease secondary porosity and hydraulic conductiv­ Impermeable and therefore has been mcluded as a geologic Ity, but the limited areal and vertical extent of these rocks umt m the bedrock In parts of the tableland, the Btshop reduces the chance of stgmftcant recharge to the ground­ Tuff lies m contact wtth crystalline bedrock Thts IS evident water system No wells are known to have been developed along the north margm of the Btshop Basm, as evidenced m m the metamorphic rocks of the valley the sequence mapped by Gilbert ( 1938) m the gorge cut The lithology, stratigraphy, and dtstnbutiOn of the mto the tableland by the Owens Rtver The welded and ProterozOic and PaleozOic sedimentary rocks were exten­ Impermeable tuff of the tableland contmues south and east sively descnbed by Krrk (1918), Nelson (1962, 1966a, b), and overlies valley fill of the Btshop Basm (fig 11 and Merriam (1963), Bateman (1965), Ross (1965, 1969), pl 1) The exposed tuff of the tableland generally termi­ Crowder and others (1972), Crowder and Shendan (1972), nates m abrupt bluffs along the southwest, south, and east Stmson (1977b ), Langenhetm and others (1982a), McKee margms of the tableland (fig 13) and along Fish Slough and others (1982), Conrad and McKee (1985), and J E Along the south margm of the tableland, the Owens Rtver Conrad (US Geological Survey, wntten commun, Febru­ has eroded through the tuff sequence (pl 1, sectiOn G-G'), ary 1986), they are mapped as undifferentiated sedimentary exposmg the basal pumice layer and the underlymg valley rocks m figure 7 The dommant sedimentary rocks are rna­ fill As evidenced from dnllers' logs, the Btshop Tuff IS nne shale, siltstone, sandstone, limestone, and dolomite, present almost 8 m1 south, buned m the valley fill as a whtch are well mdurated and, relative to the valley fill, are nearly contmuous bed of unconsolidated tuff and whtte stgmficantly less permeable These sedimentary rocks have pumice (pl 1, sectiOn A-A') The unconsolidated tuff and been locally metamorphosed where m contact wtth plutomc pumice have hydraulic conductivities comparable to fluvtal rocks (Memam, 1963, Ross, 1965, McKee and others, 1982, and lacustnne sand m the valley ftll (table 1) Recharge of 1985, Conrad and McKee, 1985) The sedimentary rocks precipitatiOn and runoff through exposed parts of the un­ are fractured by numerous htgh- and low-angle faults and consolidated tuff member IS likely, particularly along the may contam small quantities of water along mterconnected Owens Rtver north of Btshop and m the unconsolidated tuff

1828 IHiydrology and So1I-Water-1Piant !Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforn1a east of Fish Slough. Recharge to the valley fill through the sediments that were transported into and deposited in Owens welded tuff that composes most of the tableland is unlikely, Valley. Perennial streams in the Sierra Nevada have replaced except along fractures and faults, in the Owens River gorge, the glaciers and continue to erode the bedrock and transport and through erosional windows in the tableland. glacial, alluvial, and colluvial debris from the steep canyons The Coso volcanic field, at the south end of Owens into the valley. Ephemeral streams and debris flows transport Valley in the Coso Range and Inyo Mountains, consists of a a much lesser amount of sediments from the White and Inyo series of flows and pyroclastic deposits that range in composi­ Mountains to the valley floor. tion from rhyolite to basalt. The field was formed from a The valley fill is primarily a heterogeneous mixture of series of vent eruptions atop the Coso Range and constitutes a unconsolidated to moderately consolidated gravel, sand, silt, volcanic cap on the mountains (Duffield and Bacon, 1981; and clay that has been entrained, transported, and deposited in Bacon and others, 1982). No wells are known to be present in the valley by running water, glaciation, and mass wasting. these volcanic rocks, and their hydrologic characteristics are The processes of entrainment, transportation, and deposition unknown. are responsible for the lateral and vertical distribution of the valley-fill deposits and, consequently, the hydrologic charac­ Valley Fill teristics of those deposits. Changing depositional environments during the filling of the valley have created a complex ar­ The major source of ground water in Owens Valley is rangement of irregular overlapping and interfmgering lenses from the unconsolidated and moderately consolidated and layers of fluvial, lacustrine, alluvial fan, littoral, deltaic, Quaternary sedimentary deposits and interstratified volcanic colluvial, and glacial deposits. Each depositional sequence has rocks that fill the valley. The predominant source of the deposits produced a characteristic sediment texture-an orientation, is from the surrounding mountains, in particular the Sierra sorting, and grading of sediment grains-that determines the Nevada. Glaciation of the Sierra Nevada produced abundant hydrologic characteristics of a particular lens, layer, or body

SIERRA NEVADA

Figure 13. Orientation of the Volcanic Tableland relative to the valley floor in the Bishop area (photographs by Spence Air Photo, August 1931, by permission of the Geography Department, University of California, Los Angeles).

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 829 Table 1. Approximate range of values of honzontal hydraulic conduct1v1ty and spec1f1c y1eld for subumts m the valley fill and bedrock m Owens Valley

[Values mod1fied from Dav1s (1969), Freeze and Cherry (1979), Lohman (1979), and th1s study --,no data <,less than]

Honzontal hydrauhc Specific Subunits Typical materials conductiVIty yteld (feet per day)

Alluvial fan deposits . Mixed clay, silt, sand, and gravel .. 10-100 0 05-015 Do ...... Sand and gravel . . . .. 20-150 010-0 25 Transition-zone deposits ...... Sandy gravel and gravel ...... 50-300 010-0 30 Glacial deposits Mixed sand, silt, clay, and gravel <10-70 Talus deposits ...... Sand and gravel ...... 90-160 FluVIal and lacustrine deposits .. Silty clay to clay . . . . . 0 001-3 0 <0 01-0 05 Do ...... Mixed silt, sand, and gravel 10-120 010-0 20 Do ...... Sand 20-150 010-0 25 Do ...... Gravel 70-250 015-0 25 OhVlDe basalt of Big Pine Brecciated and fractured lava- 400-12,000 0 05-0 30 volcanic field. flow rocks. Do ...... Dense lava flows ...... 0 00003-0 000003 <001 Bishop Tuff ...... Friable ash, pumtce, and tuff .. 20-150 <0 05-015 Volcanic Tableland ...... Welded tuff ...... 0 0001-0.000001 <001

of sediment Later reworking and redeposition of some parts drauhc coeffictents estimated from aqmfer tests and smgle-well of the valley fill by fluvtal and beach processes has further pumpmg tests complicated mterpretatton of the sedimentary sequences Thus, correlatiOn of textural or sedimentary sequences m the valley fillts difficult Even correlation of hthologtc data among nearby Depos1t1onal Models wells m a giVen area ts dtfficult In order to better understand and defme the complex Models of depositiOnal patterns proposed by Miall mterrelation of the many sedtmentary sequences m the valley ( 1981, 1984) provtded the basts for the depositiOnal models fill, subsurface data from well logs and borehole and surface developed for the valley-ftll depostts A number of modes geophystcal methods were correlated to modes of depositiOn of depositiOn stmtlar to those descnbed by Mtall (1981) are These modes were further correlated to depostttonal subumts found m the valley No one mode of deposition ts domi­ (facies) by use of specific depostttonal models that explam, m nant, however, because of the abrupt fluctuations from one a predictable manner, the modes of sedimentatiOn m the val­ depositional envuonment to another caused by chmatic ley fill On the basts of textural, hydrologtc, and hydrauhc changes and tectomc events Mtall ( 1981) supenmposed a charactenstics and modes of deposttton, the valley-fill depos­ number of tectomc settmgs on hts depositional models, of Its were subdtvtded mto the followmg deposltlonal subumts whtch only one, that of a "pull-apart" basm, was promment younger and older alluvtal fans, transttton zone between fluvtal m the Owens Valley The modes of deposition Identtfted m and lacustrme depostts and alluvtal fans, glactal and talus de­ the valley fill were used to better define the dtstnbutiOn of posits, fluvtal and lacustnne depostts, and two mtercalated hydrauhc charactenstics of the vanous depositiOnal sub­ volcanic rock subumts-the ohvme basalt of the Btg Pme umts Thts techmque was particularly useful m areas of the volcanic field and the Btshop Tuff (pl 2) The hydrologtc valley where aqmfer or smgle-well pumpmg-test data were charactensttcs of specific textural parts of each subumt (lenses, hmtted but where the depositiOnal subumts were readily beds, layers, and masstve beds of gravel, sand, stlt, or clay) definable were averaged, usmg thtckness and areal extent of the textural The depositiOnal models of Mtall ( 1981, 1984) de­ parts to develop compostte (verttcally averaged) hydrauhc­ scnbe the proximal, medial, and dtstal parts of a general­ property values for each parttcular subumt (table 1) These Ized paleo-dramage system Streamflow and, consequently, compostte values were venfied, to a hmited extent, by hy- the sedimentary depositiOnal patterns have been stmphfted

830 Hydrology and So1I-Water-Piant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma to either transverse (perpendicular) or longttudmal (paral­ transition penod that occurred between depositiOn of de­ lel) relative to the structural trend of the valley Those spe­ posits that are represented by models 1 and 2 cific environments that contnbuted to the vanous patterns of deposition m the valley fill of Owens Valley are (1) transverse alluvial fans, (2) etther transverse or longttudmal Alluv1al Fan Depos1ts low-smuostty fluvial (low degree of meandenng), (3) longt­ tudmal htgh-smuostty fluvial (htgh degree of meandenng) Alluvial fan deposits mterfinger wtth the west and wtth associated flood plam, (4) longttudmal nver-dommated east stdes of the valley-center fluvial and lacustnne depos­ delta, (5) longttudmal littoral beach and bar, and (6) lacus­ Its through the transition zone (pl 1) The valley alluvial tnne The depositiOnal subumts m Owens Valley result from fan deposits have been descnbed by a number of mvesttga­ contemporaneous environmental processes that have oper­ tors (W T Lee, 1906, Trowbndge, 1911, C H Lee, 1912, ated across both modem and relict surfaces of the valley Knopf, 1918, Beaty, 1963, Bateman, 1965, Ross, 1965, The depositional subumts m the valley fill were defmed on Gtllespte, 1982) A descnpt10n of the morphologic and the basts of dnll hole, geophysical, and geomorphic mfor­ lithologiC differences between the vanous types and ages of matwn and were dtvtded mto three generalized depositional fans m the valley by Trowbndge (1911), Knopf (1918), and models to atd m defmmg the hydrologic regimes and the Gtllespte ( 1982) was used as the basts for fan charactenza­ dtstnbutwn of hydraulic charactensttcs The models are Il­ tion m this report (fig 7) The alluvial fans m Owens Valley lustrated m ftgure 14 and bnefly descnbed below are charactenzed as older or younger on the basts of surface Model 1 Alluvzal fan to fluvzal and lacustrzne plazn morphology and degree of mduratwn The older alluvial to trunk nver - Thts model consists of a smgle fan or apron fans are dissected and entrenched by modem stream chan­ of coalesced alluvial fans that build out onto a fluvial or nels and overlam m part by younger alluvial fans These lacustnne plam and are mctsed by a smgle, meandenng older fans are more mdurated and therefore less permeable trunk nver The alluvial fan(s) are deposited transverse to than the younger fans The entrenchment of tnbutary streams the axis of the valley and the trunk stream The lacustnne m older alluvial fans along the Sterra Nevada has resulted sediments exposed at the surface were deposited dunng the m the formatiOn of younger alluvial fans and a shtft m last htgh lake level dunng the Pleistocene Holocene allu­ deposition away from the mountams (Gillespie, 1982) The vial fans have buned the ancient lake shore Fluvial erosiOn younger alluvial fans are deposited over the margm of older and deposition dommate the model Low-smuostty tnbu­ fluvial and lacustnne deposits Buned beneath the younger tary streams mctse the alluvial fans, redeposit matenal at fans are older fan deposits that, m parts of the valley, are m the toe of the fans, and mtersect the trunk stream trans­ contact wtth transition-zone deposits versely Terraces m the center of the valley are moderately The older alluvial fans are composed of a mixture of developed by the trunk stream, and the comctdent delta IS fme to very coarse colluvmm transported by debns flows small and localized Thts depositional model descnbes the from the mountam valleys to the heads of the alluvial fans present conditiOn m Owens Valley (Blackwelder, 1928, Beaty, 1963, Trowbndge, 1911) The Model 2 Alluvzal fan to lake -The depositional pat­ result IS an extremely heterogeneous, poorly sorted, deposit tern m this model IS a smgle fan or apron of coalesced wtth a matnx of stlt and clay that IS distnbuted m a radial alluvial fans deposited transverse to a lake margm Medial pattern away from the canyon mouth and laps onto the valley alluvial fan matenal IS deposited by tnbutary streams and floor Sections of the older alluvial fans along the Sierra sheetwash at the margm of the lake Fme matenal IS trans­ Nevada are exposed m the banks of tnbutary streams that ported out mto the lake, where It settles Well-sorted me­ mcise the fans Outcrops and logs from dnll holes that penetrate dmm to coarse sand and gravel form longitudmal beach and the alluvial fans mdtcate that the older alluvial fan deposits bar deposits along the lake margm Thts model represents are poorly sorted and dtsplay mdefmtte beddmg The older the depositional system as It probably was m the valley alluvial fan deposits are moderately consolidated, but the extent dunng the last pluvial penod of the Pleistocene of consolidation Is not uniform throughout the fan The con­ Model 3 Alluvzal fan to trunk nver to lake margzn solidation does, however, produce hydraulic conductivities wlth localtzed nver-domznated delta - Thts model depicts a and specific ytelds m the older alluvial fan deposits that are smgle fan or apron of coalesced alluvial fans that bmld onto lower than those m the younger alluvial fan deposits a nver-dommated flood plam mctsed by a gradational low­ The younger alluvial fans, located pnmanly along the to htgh-smuostty trunk stream that flows to a lake Delta west stde of the valley, tend to be better sorted and have buildup IS locally dommant but not vertically extensive better defmed beddmg than the underlymg, older alluvial FluctuatiOns m lake level, coupled wtth tectomc activity, fans Thts difference may be partly due to more mudflow produce altematmg vertical sequences of coarse sediments deposits wtthm the younger alluvial fan matenal, whtch are associated wtth dtstal alluvial fan and transition-zone de­ typical m alluvial fan formatiOn descnbed by Rachockt posits and fme lacustnne deposits near the toe of the alluvi­ ( 1981) The younger alluvial fans are unconsolidated and, al fans Thts depositional pattern Is representative of the where saturated, yteld more water to wells than the older

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 831 Modell - Alluvial fan to fluvial and lacustrine plain to trunk river.

Model 2 - Alluvial fan to lake.

North/

EXPlANATION (Drawings are greatly simplified - glacial and talus deposits and volcanic rocks are not shown)

FLWIAL AND LACUSTRINE D ALLWIAL FAN DEPOSITS, DEPOSITS- BEDROCK, UNDIF­ UNDIFFERENTIATED- Includes younger D FERENTIATED and older fan deposits, transverse cut-and-fill Lacustrine deposits- Includes channel deposits indicated by lens symbol deltaic deposits FAULT- Arrows A uvial deposits - Includes indicate relative TRANSITION -ZONE DEPOSITS ­ channel gravels and over­ vertical movement Includes beach and bar deposits bank deposits

Figure 14. Schematic drawings of the generalized depositional models in the valley fill in Owens Valley.

832 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California alluvial fan deposits Because the younger alluvial fans are formation of alluvial fans (Rachockl, 1981) The north-to­ moderately layered, honzontal hydraulic conductivity IS south onentat10n of the transitiOn-zone deposits suggests that generally greater than the vertical conductivity The ap­ they are a combmat10n of beach, bar, or nver-channel proximate ratios, however, have not been determmed On sediments As beach sediment, these deposits delmeate the the basis of aqmfer tests m similar matenal m Anzona ancient lake margm m depositional models 2 or 3 If fluvial (Hollett and Mane, 1986), the ratio of honzontal to vertical sediments, they would best fit either depositiOnal models 1 or hydraulic conductivity IS estimated to be between 10 and 3 Knopf (1918) and Lubetkln and Clark (1985) reported beach 20 to 1 Owmg to the poorly sorted alluvial fan deposits, sediments m the valley fill of Owens Lake Basm Knopf the honzontal hydraulic conductivity IS low, It ranges from (1918) descnbed a 10-foot-high surficial bar m the Owens 1 to 30 ft/d but may be as high as 100 ft/d m localized areas Lake Basm that consists of well-rounded, shmgled, and hon­ (table 1) Specific yield IS generally less than 0 15 zontally stratified gravel Beach sediments also have been The younger, und1ssected and older, dissected allu­ reported m other lake basms m the Pleistocene Owens River vial fans along the White and Inyo Mountams (fig 7) gen­ drrunage system (Russell, 1889, Mayo, 1934, Blackwelder, erally have similar hydrologic charactenstics to those of the 1954, Hunt and Mabey, 1966, Srmth, 1979) Hunt and Mabey older alluvial fans of the Sierra Nevada The older, dis­ (1966) descnbed nearshore gravel bars m Death Valley as sected allu-vial fans of the White Mountams m the Bishop bemg 20 ft high, 500 ft wide, and 0 25 to 0 50 mi long Basm east of B1g Pme (Waucob1 Embayment) are typically In parts of the valley, the long1tudmal transitiOn zones fault termmated at the base of the mountams (fig 7) The can be Identified by a d1scontmuous line of spnngs, particu­ older alluvial fan remnants on the upthrown bedrock block larly along the west margms near the toes of alluvial fans are dissected by mterm1ttent streams Faults, which have These spnngs were first noted by C H Lee (1912) Some of JUXtaposed fmer Waucob1 Lake deposits with the older allu­ the spnngs and seeps probably are caused 'by an abrupt vial fans m the Waucob1 Embayment, deflect ground water decrease m honzontal hydraulic conductivity such as will that flows toward the center of the valley either to the sur­ occur from transition zone sandy gravel or highly perme­ face as spnngs or deeper mto the valley fill beneath confin­ able volcanic rocks to lacustnne Silt and clay Abrupt changes mg beds m a manner similar to that of the long1tudmal m honzontal hydraulic conductiVIty also can occur between faults observed on the west side of the Owens Lake Basm matenals m the valley fill that are JUXtaposed one to an­ A few spnngs near the mouth of the Waucob1 Embayment other by displacement along faults Hydrauhc conductivity have been observed, but the discharge either evaporates of sandy-gravel stnngers m the transitiOn zone generally rapidly or returns to the valley fill on the west side of the ranges from 50 to 300 ft/d and m ohvme basalts of the Big fault Pme volcamc field from 400 to 12,000 ft/d, m lacustnne silt and clay, the hydraulic conductivity ranges from 0 001 to 3 0 ft/d (table 1) These abrupt changes m hydrauhc con­ Trans1t1on-Zone Depos1ts ductivity force ground water movmg from the mountam areas either to the surface or to flow beneath the lacustnne Along the margm of the valley floor m both the Bishop clay layers Hunt ( 197 4) observed a Similar phenomenon m and Owens Lake Basms, a transitiOn zone of long1tudmally Death Valley onented lenses of coarse sed1ment Is present m the subsurface The most promment line of spnngs m the valley Is between the fluvial and lacustnne and alluvial fan deposits evident along the west side of the valley on a line that extends (pl 1) This zone Is well developed m the subsurface on the from north of Alabama Hills to near Poverty Hills South of west side of the valley along the toes of the coalesced alluvial Independence, most of the spnngs overlie the valley side of a fans (pl 1) A limited and less extensive transition zone prob­ sandy-gravel transitiOn zone or are associated with long1tudmal ably occurs along the east margm of the valley, but the data normal faults North of Independence and .south of Poverty are lirmted or not defimtive The transitiOn zone Is recogmzed Hills, spnngs and seeps are associated with abrupt changes m m well records and logs by stnngers of well-sorted sandy hydraulic conductivity where basalt flows are JUXtaposed by gravel or cobble layers These layers are charactenzed by lacustnne clay layers or along normal faults where fluvial and better sortmg, farrly contmuous north to south correlatiOn, lacustnne deposits are JUXtaposed In each case, the occurrence and greater hydraulic conductivity than the poorly sorted allu­ and onentat10n of spnngs and seeps ruded m 1dent1fymg sub­ vial fan sediments that are deposited transversely (Trowbndge, surface honzontal changes m hydraulic conductivity, owmg 1911, Gillespie, 1982) or the basm-center fluvial and lacus­ to structure or change m depositiOnal suburuts tnne deposits (fig 8 and table 1) The contmmty of the transi­ tion zone Is mterrupted by transverse cut-and-fill deposits left by recent and ancient tnbutary streams and deltas common to GlaCial and Talus Depos1ts alluvial fans descnbed by McPherson and others (1987) Lay­ enng m the transition zone also IS enhanced by silty-clay and Alpme glaciatiOn of the Sierra Nevada durmg and clay lenses denved from mud flows that typically occur m smce the Pleistocene has left extensive glacial deposits m

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 833 the form of morames m the tnbutary-stream valleys (Moore, Few contmuous beds or lenses of similar texture m 1963, Bateman, 1965, Gillespie, 1982) (f1g 7) A few the fluvial and lacustnne deposits can be reliably correlated morames extend onto the heads of the alluvial fans, but over large distances, md1catmg that the beds and lenses are extensive morames that protrude from the mountam front, generally lenticular This lenticular form Is repeated con­ common m Round Valley and areas farther north, are tmuously, both vertically and areally, across the valley and noticeably absent m the Owens Lake Basm The morames produces a charactenst1c mterfingenng and overlappmg form consist of poorly sorted, unstratified dnft Runoff that In­ m most areas These charactenstics are generally the result filtrates the morames which mantle the heads of the fans of either meandermg channels of depositional model 1 or either provides base flow to perenmal streams or recharge shallow, lacustnne-delta sequences of model 3 DepositiOnal to the alluvial fan No wells are known to tap these glacial model 2 usually produces massive silt and clay beds with deposits mtercalated lenses of bar sand and gravel Talus IS found as small Isolated patches of coarse In one part of the fluvial and lacustnne deposits a sand and angular blocks of vaned sizes, some as large as massive clay layer can be correlated over a large area of the boulders, at the base of steep canyon walls or at scattered valley Lacustnne blue and green clay layers m the subsur­ locatiOns along the base of the Sierra Nevada The deposits face south of B1g Pme extend over most of the southern generally he on the heads of alluvial fans or are buned by part of the Bishop Basm (fig 12) These clay beds repre­ subsequent alluvial depositiOn The talus deposits are gen­ sent depositional model 2m the southern part of the Bishop erally unsaturated, and any mfiltratmg water flows rapidly Basm and were defmed on the basis of charactenstic bore­ through the loosely packed coarse matenal to the adJacent hole geophysical signatures and megascopic textural and stream, morame, or alluvial fan color charactenstics of dnll cuttmgs m hand specimen The green clay IS not found m the fluvial and lacustnne deposits of the Owens Lake Basm south of the "narrows " The blue Fluv1al and Lacustrme Depos1ts and green clays were deposited as a part of the fluvial and lacustnne deposits m the Bishop Basm m a lake that was The fluvial and lacustnne deposits of Owens Valley dammed by an episode of volcamc eruptions from the B1g constitute most of the valley fill along the axis of the valley Pme volcanic field and, to a lesser extent, by structural (fig 7 and pl 1) These deposits consist of mterbedded offsets created by faultmg The lower blue clay IS m contact gravel, sand, silt, and clay whose form IS controlled by with the green clay m Bishop Basm, and together they form either depositional model 1, 2, or 3 Beds commonly mter­ a smgle bed of blue-green clay about 100 ft thick begmmng fmger or are present as lenses w1thm other beds Exposures at a depth of about 175 ft below land surface (fig 12) The of these beds and lenses are seen m the banks of the mc1sed upper and lower blue clay layers can be d1stmgmshed from channel of the Owens River and are most promment m the a green clay layer by higher natural gamma mtensities The Owens Lake Basm Exposures m the Bishop Basm are lim­ different gamma mtens1ties probably are the result of dif­ Ited to Isolated banks and terraces along the nver Addi­ ferent states of radioactive decay of the rad1ogemc mmerals tional data for the surface geology were denved from soil m the blue and green clays General th1ckemng of the blue p1ts and auger holes InterpretatiOn of the shallow beds was clay to the west suggests a young source rock m the Sierra extended mto the subsurface by the use of well logs and Nevada Th1ckemng green clay to the east, however, sug­ borehole and surface geophysical data gests a source m the older more radwgemcally depleted The fluvial and lacustnne deposits mcorporate all or ohve-green Paleozmc marme shales of the White Moun­ part of the lacustnne and valley-fill deposits of Knopf (1918), tams The blue and blue-green clay layers are contmuous lacustnne deposits of Mar have (1934 ), the valley fill of throughout the southern part of Bishop Basm and are Ross ( 1965) and Nelson ( 1966a, b), the alluvmm, the ter­ d1stmgmshable from other valley-fill matenal by theu geo­ race gravel, and the few small sand dunes associated with physical signatures and geological charactenstics These the terrace gravel west of Bishop of Bateman (1965) The layers thm to the north from the "narrows," opposite Poverty older alluvmm and terrace gravel descnbed by Bateman Hills (1965) are generally crudely stratified layers of poorly sorted The hydrologic character of the heterogeneous fluvial sand and cobbles Bateman reported that gravel of the older and lacustnne deposits m the Bishop Basm Is highly van­ terrace alluvmm IS coarser than the present channel gravel able An analysis of mne well logs that mclude depths rang­ of the Owens River and suggested that the gravel was de­ mg from 200 to 700 ft of the fluvial and lacustnne deposits posited by the large, fast-flowmg nvers of the Pleistocene m the Bishop Basm md1cates that about 21 percent of the Generally, the gravel de-posits grade from coarse texture m deposits were descnbed as "gravel" beds These gravel beds the Bishop Basm to finer texture m the Owens Lake Basm are pnnc1pally fluvial The average thickness of these gravel Sediment at the surface m the Bishop and B1g Pme areas IS beds IS 14ft, the most common thickness IS 3 ft The thick­ mamly sand and silty-sand fmmg to a sandy-silt and clay m ness of gravel beds ranged from 2 to 74ft With exception the Independence area of some massive beds of clay and mtercalated volcanic rocks

834 Hydrology and Soli-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma m the Btshop Basm (pl 1), zones of overlappmg and Isolat­ a Holocene appearance, but generally they are of Pleisto­ ed lenses of stlty-clay and clay generally are present cene age and have ·large sectiOns partly buned by older throughout the sand and gravel of the fluvial and lacustrine alluvial fan deposits (pl 1, sections C-C', D-D', and H-H') deposits The combmed effect of the layered gravel and The buned and saturated basalt flows m the valley are highly sand wtth mterlayered silty-clay and clay lenses produces a transmiSSive and are the most permeable subumt m the heterogeneous subumt with honzontal hydraulic conduc­ ground-water system The movement of ground water m tivities that range from 70 to 120 ft/d m the Btshop Basm the flows IS facthtated by extensive clinker zones, flow-top Vertical hydraulic conductivities range from one-tenth to rubble, flow breccta, pyroclastic beds, lava tubes, and one-thirtieth the honzontal conductiVIties m the subumt shnnkage cracks (Wood and Fernandez, 1988) The buned In Owens Lake Basm, well and borehole geophysical flows overlap one another and form a dtscontmuous logs mdtcate that the layered sediment generally consists of honzontal network of flows m the subsurface (sections C-C', alternatmg gravel, sand, silty-clay, and clay beds and lenses D-D', and H-H', pl 1) The vertical distributiOn and charac­ similar to the layered sequences m the Btshop Basm How­ ter of the flows are less well known On the east stde of the ever, the overall gram size of the subumt m the Owens valley, the buned basalts were extruded along fault zones Lake Basm IS fmer than m the Btshop Basm Peat also has that cut the upper slopes of the older alluvial fans and flowed been noted m the subumt by some dnllers m logs of wells downslope toward the valley center formmg a senes of east of Independence Peat probably IS associated with a overlappmg tongues of volcanic rock The lava flows, which depositional pattern similar to models 1 or 3 Hydraulic are mterlayered wtth the valley-fill deposits, recetve their conductivtttes of fluvtal and lacustrine depostts m the Owens recharge m the upper slopes of the alluvial fans and provide Lake Basm range from 100 ft/d m moderately to well-sorted a condUit for rapid movement of ground water toward the sand and gravel to less than 30 ft/d m poorly sorted sands valley center Wells that pnncipally tap volcanic flows of and silts Massive clay beds m the Owens Lake Basm are the Big Pme volcanic field are capable of yteldmg thou­ generally associated with long penods of lacustnne deposi­ sands of gallons per mmute for sustamed penods With mim­ tion (model 2), such beds are the thick sequences of bedded mal drawdown Hydraulic conductivities for the saturated clays associated wtth Pleistocene Lake Owens and Holo­ ohvme basaltic rocks m the Btg Pme volcanic field range cene Owens Lake A log for an 823-foot-deep Lone Pme from about 400 ft/d to 12,000 ft/d and average about 3,000 StatiOn (railroad) well located east of Lone Pme that mter­ ft/d (table 1) sects these clay beds (sectiOn F-F', pl 1) records only one 6-foot-thtck bed of "gravel with mtxed sand and clay " A 920-foot dnll core m Owens Lake (dry) records no gravel B1shop Tuff for tts entire length (Smtth and Pratt, 1957) In the analysts of the 920-foot Owens Lake core, clay accounted for 48 South of the Volcamc Tableland, the Pleistocene percent of the beds wtth an average thtckness of 15 ft and Btshop Tuff IS mterstratified With the fluvtal and lacustnne 22 percent was sand with an average bed thickness of 11 ft beds m the Btshop Basm Bateman (1965) suggested that The most frequently occumng bed thickness for both clay the buned tuff IS composed of the basal pumice and overly­ and sand was 3 ft mg unconsolidated tuff members Bateman (1965) descnbed m detail the subsurface structure and dtstnbutwn of the Btshop Tuff The tuff hes at mcreasmg depths southward m Ollvme Basalt of B1g Pme Volcamc F1eld the Btshop Basm and progressively thms to the south as well as to the east and west margms of the basm (pl 1, The ohvme basalt of Btg Pme volcanic field, and parts sections A-A' and G-G') Northwest of Bishop and south of thereof, has been descnbed by numerous mvestigators (W T the Owens Rtver, the basal pumice and unconsolidated tuff Lee, 1906, Knopf, 1918, Mayo, 1934, Moore, 1963, Paktser members are overlam by coarse fluvial terrace gravel, and and others, 1964, Bateman, 1965, DE Wtlhams, 1966, 1969, the consolidated tuff IS noticeably absent (Bateman, 1965) Gillespie, 1982) It IS composed of ohvme basalt lava flows Thts relation suggests that a part of the thmmng of the and cmder cones that have generally erupted along faults (figs Bishop Tuff m the Btshop Basm Is erosiOnal rather than 7 and 15) One rhyolitic dome (fig 15) IS present wtthm the depositiOnal The "hard tuff' member descnbed by some volcanic field west of the Poverty Hills and IS more lithologi­ well dnllers m the Btshop Basm may be the erosiOnal rem­ cally similar to the Btshop Tuff than the ohvme basalt of the nant of the welded tuff or erosional mounds of welded tuff Btg Pme volcanic field This dome ts of hmtted surface extent Similar to those mapped on the surface of the Volcanic and does not constitute a sigmficant subumt of the valley fill Tableland (Bateman, 1965) The hydraulic properties of the It probably acts more as a slight deflector of ground water basal pumice and unconsolidated tuff layers are believed to that flows downgradtent west of the Poverty Htlls be similar to the fluvial and lacustrine sand deposits (table On the basts of weathenng patterns, the ohvme basalt 1) and are considered to be good aqmfer matenals (Tolman, flows and cmder cones of the Big Pme volcamc fteld have 1937, Bateman, 1965)

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 835 WATER RESOURCES Owens Valley drainage basin area, its tributaries, and the river-aqueduct system are shown in figure 16. Surface Water

Source, Routing, and Discharge Tributary Streamflow

The primary source of surface water in Owens Val­ Many of the natural channels of tributary streams have ley is precipitation that falls on the slopes of the Sierra been modified by the Los Angeles Department of Water Nevada, forming small rivulets which in turn form tributary and Power for operation of the river-aqueduct system. Nearly streams. These streams flow down mountain canyons, across all streams have had diversion structures installed, and some the alluvial fans, and out onto the valley floor. In the Bishop streams, such as Goodale Creek, have had parts of their natu­ Basin, the tributary streams are captured by the trunk stream ral channels straightened. Other streams, namely Bishop Creek, of the valley, the Owens River, which has its headwaters in Thibaut Creek, Division Creek, and Coldwater Canyon Creek, Long Valley. In the Owens Lake Basin, the streams are are diverted to pipes for much of their length. In the Bishop diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct about 2 mi west of Basin, most of the tributary streamflow that reaches the valley the natural channel of the lower Owens River. The com­ floor is diverted to canals that distribute water for agricultural bined waters of the river-aqueduct system and the diverted uses, wildlife habitat areas, or ground-water recharge. Excess tributary streams are routed south out of the valley through water is returned to the canals and eventually to the Owens Haiwee Reservoir. Any water remaining in the lower Owens River. Approximately 5 mi downstream (south) of Tinemaha River flows into Owens Lake (dry) and evaporates. The Reservoir, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power

/ North

Figure 15. Alignment of volcanic cones (Crater and Red Mountains), rhyolitic dome, and springs (s) along the faults in the Poverty Hills area of Owens Valley. Relative direction of vertical movement on faults is shown as downthrown side (D) and upthrown side (U) (photographs by Spence Air Photo, August 1931, by permission of the Geography Department, University of California, Los Angeles). Faults dotted where inferred.

836 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California 20. Oak Creek north fork 21. Oak Creek south fork 45' 22. Oak Creek below forks 23. Independence Creek 24. Mazourka Canyon Creek 25. Symmes Creek 26. Shepherd Creek ,. 27. Bairs Creek north fork r.-~ 28. Bairs Creek south fork 29. Bairs Creek below forks 30. George Creek 30' 31. Hogback Creek 32. Lone Pine Creek 33. Tuttle Creek 34. Lubkin Creek 35. Carroll Creek EXPlANATION 36. Cottonwood Creek 37. Braley Creek D VALLEYRLL 38. Ash Creek 11)' 39. Owens River at Pleasant D BEDROCK Valley Reservoir 40. Owens River at Tinemaha OWENSRNER- Reservoir ~ LOS ANGELES 41. Owens River at Charlies Butte \ AQUEDUCT SYSTEM 42. Lower Owens River below Los Angeles Aqueduct _.2 STREAM-GAGING SITE ­ intake spillgates Number is indexed to name 43. Lower Owens River at Keeler of tributary stream Bridge 44. Los Angeles Aqueduct at SITE NUMBERS AND NAMES - Alabama Gates 1. Horton Creek 2. McGee, Birch, and Coyote Creeks at Bishop Creek 45 3. Bishop Creek ~ 4. Freeman Creek at Keough 0 c. 5. Rawson Creek 6. Coldwater Canyon Creek 7. Silver Canyon Creek 8. Ash Slough ([!_ 9. Baker Creek ~ 10. Big Pine Creek -:P }7 30 11 . Birch Creek 12. Fuller Creek 13. Tinemaha Creek 14. Red Mountain Creek 15. Taboose Creek 16. Goodale Creek 17. Division Creek 18. Sawmill Creek 36 15 19. Thibaut Creek

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

Figure 16. Owens Valley drainage basin area and surface-drainage patterns for tributary streams, Owens River, and Owens River­ Los Angeles Aqueduct system .

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 837 diverts nearly all streamflow mto the Los Angeles Aqueduct m streamflow among the tributaries IS a result of diffenng The upstream end of the Los Angeles Aqueduct Is referred to dramage basm area, quantities of precipitatiOn per area, and as the mtak:e Any water not diverted mto the aqueduct contm­ rates of mfiltrat10n ues to flow east of the aqueduct m the natural channel of the lower Owens River In years of average runoff, little or no surface water flows to the lower Owens River Durmg wet Owens R1ver and Los Angeles Aqueduct System years when surface water IS abundant, tributary streamflow exceeds the capacity of the nver-aqueduct system, and some The nver-aqueduct system extends from Mono Basm of the tributary streamflow either Is diverted onto the alluvial to Hruwee Reservoir (fig 1) Stream-discharge data for selected fans to recharge the ground-water system or Is allowed to stations along the nver-aqueduct system between Pleasant contmue flowmg across the valley floor toward the lower Valley Reservoir and Haiwee ReservOir are summanzed m Owens River table 3 Tnbutary streamflow m Owens Valley IS gaged con­ At the northernmost pomt of the nver-aqueduct system tmuously by the Los Angeles Department of Water and m Mono Basm, streams flowmg out of the Sierra Nevada are Power at more than 60 sites on 34 tnbutanes On many of diverted mto a concrete-lined channel The diverted water Is the tributanes, at least two sites are gaged Typically, one routed to Grant Lake m Mono Basm and eventually IS gage IS located at the base of the mountams, and the other conveyed to the Owens River m Long Valley through the IS located close to the nver-aqueduct system The locatiOn Mono Craters Tunnel, an 11 3-mile-long tunnel (figs 1 and of gages at the base of the mountams and a selected few at 16) The mean annual discharge through the tunnel Is about the nver-aqueduct system are shown m figure 16 A com­ 72,000 acre-ft At the end of the Mono Craters Tunnel, water plete record at these sites, except for occasiOnal short gaps, from Mono Basm JOinS the upper reach of the Owens Rtver IS available for water years 1934-87 (Los Angeles Depart­ and together flows about 12 mi to Lake Crowley, also known ment of Water and Power, wntten commun, 1987) A 50- as Long Valley Reservmr Lake Crowley, whtch IS the largest year penod of record, water years 1935-84, was used for reservoir m the nver-aqueduct system, regulates the flow of the analyses m this report and m the related numencal water through a pipelme that connects Lake Crowley m Long evaluation of the hydrologic system (W R Danskm, U S Valley with Pleasant Valley Reservoir m Owens Valley (fig Geological Survey, wntten commun , 1988) 16) The natural channel of the Owens Rtver through the Table 2 summanzes maximum, mmimum, and mean Volcanic Tableland Is used Infrequently to convey flood waters annual discharge at the base-of-mountams and nver-aqueduct or to divert water dunng maintenance of the pipelme Three sites for contmuously gaged tnbutanes withm Owens Val­ hydroelectric plants located along the pipelme generate elec­ ley Between the two sites, the tnbutary streams generally tricity as a result of a drop m altitude of 1,600 ft from Long lose water' as a result of streambed leakage, diversiOns of Valley to Owens Valley The mean annual discharge of the streamflow onto the alluvial fans, and, to a lesser extent, Owens River at Pleasant Valley Reservoir was 271,871 acre-ft evapotranspiratiOn from areas along the stream channel for water years 1935-84 (table 3) Maximum and mmimum Several streams also receive water from pumped wells JUSt annual flows were 444,436 and 165,634 acre-ft, respectively upstream of the nver-aqueduct site, and a few streams re­ Pleasant Valley Reservoir regulates flow to the natural ceive water from spnngs, canals, or diversiOns from other channel of the Owens River downstream from the spillgates streams Some streams may gam water m lower reaches of Pleasant Valley Dam The Owens River contmues south, because of local seepage of ground water caused by faults, grumng water from tributary streams and from pumped and shallow bedrock, or changes m the hydraulic charactenstics flowmg wells, before dtschargmg mto Tmemaha ReservOir at of the depositiOnal matenal Although discharge at the base­ the south end of Btshop Basm The mean annual discharge of of-mountams and nver-aqueduct sites IS gaged contmuously the Owens River at Tmemaha ReservOir was 354,537 acre-ft and well pumpage Is metered, other gams to or losses from for water years 1935-84 Flow m the Owens River resumes tnbutary streams generally are not measured or are not south of the reservoir and contmues for approximately 5 mi measured contmuously until virtually all water IS diverted mto the unlined channel of Mean annual discharge for tributaries measured at base­ the Los Angeles Aqueduct Flowmg along the toes of the of-mountains gagmg statiOns ranged from 51 to 67,748 acre-ft western alluvial fans, the aqueduct gruns additional water from (table 2) Individual tributanes havmg the greatest flow m­ streams and wells At Alabama Gates, on the north stde of clude Bishop, Big Pme, Cottonwood, Independence, and Lone Alabama Hills, the aqueduct changes to a concrete-lined Pme Creeks Mean annual discharge for most streams was channel, and the mean annual discharge was 369,603 acre-ft about 6,000 acre-ft Maximum and mmimum mean annual for water years 1945-84 By the time the aqueduct reaches discharge values given m table 2 Illustrate the general range Hat wee ReservOir, at the southern boundary of the study area, of flow conditiOns durmg the 50-year penod of record, but mean annual discharge IS 391,023 acre-ft, or about 1 5 trrnes these annual values can mask penods of even higher or lower the mean annual discharge at Pleasant Valley ReservOir flows occumng withm a smgle year The extreme vanability Hruwee Reservoir regulates and temporanly stores water before

838 Hydrology and So1I-Water-Piant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma Table 2. Max1mum, mm1mum, and mean annual d1scharge 'measured at base-of-mountams and Owens R1ver-Los Angeles Aqueduct system gagmg stat1ons for tnbutary streams m Owens Valley, water years 1935-84

[Discharge data from Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (wntten commun, 1985) --,no data Discharge m acre-feet per year]

Stations at S1te Stations at Owens Rtver-Los Angeles No Name base of mountams Agueduct Remarks (fig 16) Maxtmum M1mmum Mean Mruamum Mm1mum Mean

1 Horton Creek 13,520 2,900 6,138 21,549 2,814 7,380 2 McGee, Btrch, and Coyote Creeks at B1shop Creek 16,220 7,142 11,140 3 Btshop Creek 120,148 32,665 67,748 (1) 4 Freeman Creek at Keough 650 0 45 5 Rawson Creek 1,727 960 1,~7 6 Coldwater Canyon Creek 1,384 423 741 7 Stiver Canyon Creek 2,556 488 1,233 CZ) 8 Ftsh Slough 7,877 5,176 6,066 7,050 1,431 5,248 e) 9 Baker Creek 17,946 2,998 6,212 (1) 10 Btg Pme Creek 60,838 19,059 31,334 49,923 8,354 22,079 11 Btrch Creek 11,384 2,895 5,559 8,335 0 2,316 (4) 12 Fuller Creek 378 2 143 13 Tmemaha Creek 10,966 2,358 5,741 12,126 2,113 7,202 14 Red Mountam Creek 8,097 1,431 3,829 ( 1) 15 Taboose Creek 12,352 3,691 6,685 19,318 634 5,325 (1, 5) 16 Goodale Creek 9,493 2,623 5,194 14,860 257 3,167 (5) 17 Dtvtston Creek 6,104 1,582 4,433 6,749 87 3,698 (1, 5) 18 Sawnull Creek 8,528 1,895 3,840 3,893 1,052 2,153 (5) 19 Thtbaut Creek 1,205 3 371 (1, 6) 20 Oak Creek, north fork 11,194 3,339 7,104 e) 21 Oak Creek, south fork 7,996 1,693 4,888 (1) 22 Oak Creek, below forks 7,447 0 633 23 Independence Creek 21,322 3,184 10,133 9,003 66 2,932 24 Mazourka Canyon Creek 457 0 51 cJ) 25 Symmes Creek 6,058 696 2,799 276 0 30 (1) 26 Shepherd Creek 16,597 2,619 7,865 9,618 1,071 4,398 (5) 27 Batrs Creek, north fork 5,823 546 2,094 28 Ba1rs Creek, south fork 5,413 345 1,665 29 Batrs Creek, below forks 2,375 0 528 (5) 30 George Creek 13,562 2,285 6,444 6,420 0 2,271 (1· 5) 31 Hogback Creek 7,835 950 2,978 2,658 0 766 32 Lone Pme Creek 21,280 4,848 9,417 16,393 0 3,294 33 Tuttle Creek 11,699 2,794 5,562 5,857 0 808 (8) 34 Lubkm Creek 1,891 113 412 35 Carroll Creek 1,545 0 254 36 Cottonwood Creek 50,447 3,196 16,406 44,549 0 9,668 37 Braley Creek 3,186 379 1,041 38 Ash Creek 11,261 306 3,128

1Dtvers1ons are made upstream from the base-of-mountams statton 2Includes data for three dtfferent base-of-mountams stattons 3Includes data for two dtfferent base-of-mountams stations, penod of record ts water years 1945-84 for the nver-aqueduct statton 4Penod of record ts water years 1945-84 for the uver-aqueduct statton 5 Well d1scharge IS added to the stream above the nver-aqueduct statton 6 Base-of-mountams station IS located mtdway down alluvtal fan 7Penod of record ts water years 1961-72 8Dtscharge for the nver-aqueduct statiOn ts a measurement of flow d1verted mto the Los Angeles Aqueduct and does not mclude und1verted flow

releasmg It to the dual-channel aqueduct system that conveys As shown m table 3, discharge m the over-aqueduct the water to the Los Angeles area system does not remam constant for the length of the valley

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 839 Table 3 Max1mum, mm1mum, and mean annual d1scharge of the Owens R1ver-Los Angeles Aqueduct system and lower Owens R1ver for selected penods of record [Dtscharge data from Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (wntten commun, 1985)]

Stte Penod of No Name record Annual dtscharge (acre-feet Qer year) (ftg 16) (water year) Max1mum Mtmmum Mean

39 Owens River at Pleasant Valley ReservOir 1935-84 444,436 165,634 271,871

40 Owens Rlver at Tmemaha Reservoir 1935-84 551,184 209,067 354,537

41 Owens Rlver at Charhe's Butte1 1912-75 543,675 126,858 282,711

42 Lower Owens Rlver below Los Angeles Aqueduct mtake sptll gates2 1945-84 107,743 0 5,156

43 Lower Owens River at Keeler Bndge3 1927-86 4220,400 42,153 17,447

44 Los Angeles Aqueduct at Alabama Gates 1945-84 511,034 266,583 369,603

45 North Hatwee Reservotr 1945-84 5541,060 5285,775 5391,023

1Dtscontmued m 1975 2Dtscharge to the lower Owens River 3Dtscharge to Owens Lake 4Values for water years 1961-84 5Calculated tnflow usmg reservOir storage changes and evaporative losses

From Pleasant Valley Reservorr to Hruwee Reservorr, the dis­ water flowmg out of Tmemaha ReservOir IS diverted mto the charge IS contmually altered by gruns of water from streams, nver-aqueduct system, most water that reaches Owens Lake spnngs, pumped wells, flowmg wells, and the ground-water (dry) vta the Owens River Is water that IS returned to the nver system as well as by losses of water to rrngation and the from ditches and undiverted tnbutary streamflow or ground ground-water system Between Pleasant Valley Reservorr and water that seeps mto the nver An exception to thts occurs Tmemaha Reservorr, the Owens River gamed a net average dunng extremely wet years when runoff exceeds the capactty of more than 80,000 acre-ft of water dunng water years 1935- of the nver-aqueduct system For water years 1938--60, mean 84, pnmanly from diverted streamflow and pumped wells annual discharge at Keeler Bndge was about 20,000 acre-ft Between Tmemaha and Hruwee Reservorrs, tnbutary streams (DE Wtlbams, 1969) are smaller and more numerous, and there are fewer diver­ sions for agncultural uses The average net grun of water m this section of the nver-aqueduct system was 21,000 acre-ft Canals and D1tches dunng water years 1945-84 Pnor to development of the nver-aqueduct system, the Canals and ditches cnsscross the valley, providmg Owens River was the pnmary drrun of both the surface- and water for Imgatwn, ground-water recharge, and vanous other ground-water systems Presently (1988), the nver-aqueduct uses They range m length from tens of feet to tens of miles system drruns the surface-water system and the Owens River and may have partially or completely hned channels Hts­ contmues to dram, though to a lesser degree, most parts of the toncal records (lnyo Register Newspaper, Feb 12, 1891, ground-water system A more detailed discussion of the Inter­ from files of Los Angeles Department of Water and Power) action of the surface- and ground-water systems can be found mdtcate that the first ditch m the valley was dug m 1872, m the section "Water Budget" although It Is probable that unrecorded dttches were used pnor to thts date By 1890, there were about 250 mt of ditches m the valley (Los Angeles Department of Water Lower Owens R1ver and Power, wntten commun , 1988) The ongmal purpose of many of the dttches m the Btshop area was to dram the Flow m the lower Owens River IS measured contmu­ soils so that the land could be farmed Agncultural activi­ ously at Keeler Bndge (fig 16, site 43) Because nearly all ties mcreased rapidly between 1870 and 1920 and Irrigated

840 Hydrology and Sod-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforn1a farmlands expanded from about 5,000 to 75,000 acres In a green algae (Dzctyosphaenum) and blue-green algae 1920, dunng the peak of farmmg activtty, there was about (Anabaena) were the most abundant organtsms present m 24,000 acres of cultivated cropland, whereas about 51,000 the samples The locat10n of th1s samphng stat10n, duectly acres was flood tmgated and used as pasture (Los Angeles downstream from Tmemaha Reservmr, suggests that the Department of Water and Power, wntten commun, 1988) phytoplankton found m the samples are more representative In 1978, trngated farmlands had dechned to about 17,000 of cond1t10ns wtthm the reservmr and may be considerably acres, whtch was due pnmanly to purchase of land by the dtfferent from conditions m the nver 1tself (S K Sorenson, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and subse­ U S Geologtcal Survey, wntten commun , 1987) No other quent retuement of land from tmgated use Therefore, dur­ phytoplankton data for the Owens River are available to mg the past hundred years m the valley there has been a compare wtth these data general shtft m land use from a large consumption of water The second set of b10logical analyses were for fecal to less consumpt10n and from a large number of small farms cohform and fecal streptococci bactena Fecal coliform bac­ to fewer large farms tena ranged from 1 to 50 colomes per 100 mL of water, Presently (1988), most of the dttches and canals m whereas fecal streptococci bactena ranged from 1 to greater Owens Valley are used mtermtttently for purposes of flood than 1,000 colomes per 100 mL The fecal streptococci bacte­ control, ungat10n, stockwater, recreat10n, wlldhfe habttats, na are generally an mdicator of hvestock actlvttles, rather and spreadmg of water for recharge The Btshop area has than human activities There are no published standards for the htghest dens tty of canals and dttches m the valley, wtth different contammant levels of fecal streptococci bactena State many of the larger ones still bemg operated dunng much of standards for fecal cohform bactena (Caltfomia Department the year South of Btshop, canals and ditches are concen­ of Health Services, 1983), however, establish 1 colony per trated m agncultural areas near the towns of Btg Pme and 100 mL as the maximum level permissible m dnnkmg water Lone Pme and m the vtctmty of Oak Creek near The nver water at the samplmg site exceeded these levels for Independence nearly all water sampled Analyses of the bactenal data also mdicate that the number of colomes of fecal cohform and fecal streptococci have mcreased steadily dunng the penod of Water Quahty measurement, 1974-85 These analyses from a smgle station The quahty of surface water m Owens Valley 1s gen­ should not be viewed as conclusive evidence that there IS a erally good and smtable for most uses wtth appropnate health hazard when usmg the untreated nver water for pubhc treatment Because the water quahty of most surface water supply, but they are an mdicator that a hazard may be present m the valley IS considered good, only one representative and further samplmg 1s needed samphng s1te, located at the gagmg stat10n on the nver­ aqueduct system downstream from the outflow from Tmemaha Reservmr, was used to evaluate temporal changes Ground Water m water quahty The water was sampled at the s1te as a part of the US Geologtcal Survey's Nat10nal Stream Quahty Ground water IS used as the mam source of water to Accountmg Network (NASQAN) on approximately a supplement surface-water runoff used for export and also bt-monthly basts from October 1974 through June 1985 for pubhc supply and some 1mgat10n uses m the valley Under the NASQAN program, the water was analyzed for Ground water 1s denved mamly from the valley fill, m chemtcal and b10log1cal constituents The water m the contrast, ground water m the bedrock IS scarce nver-aqueduct system has dissolved sohds that represent a Nearly all the recoverable ground water m the valley number of chemtcal constituents averagmg 181 mg/L and Is m the unconsohdated to moderately consolidated rangmg from 66 to 274 mg/L (table 4) Sodmm, sulfate, sedimentary deposits and mtercalated volcanic flows and calcmm, and btcarbonate (mferred from alkahmty) are the pyroclastic rocks that fill the basm Where saturated, these pnnctpaltons sedimentary deposits and volcamc rocks make up the The water also was analyzed for b10log1cal constitu­ ground-water system The pnmary part of the ground-water ents as part of the NASQAN program Phytoplankton were system, referred to m this report and m the related report sampled dunng the warmer growmg months from 197 4 that descnbes numencal evaluat10n of the hydrologtc system through 1981 Dunng the last three years of samphng (1979- (W R Danskm, U S Geologtcal Survey, wntten commun , 81), phytoplankton numbers ranged from 280 cells/mL m 1988) as the "aqmfer system," 1s capable of yteldmg stg­ September 1981 to 42,000 cells/mL m March 1981 From mficant quantities of ground water to wells and to the scrub March through June and agam m September through and meadow plant commumtles The followmg discussion November (except m September 1980), dtatoms were the descnbes the hydrogeologic framework of the defined aqm­ most abundant organtsm found m the samples Cyclotella, fer system, the source, occurrence, and movement of water Stephanodzscus, Meloszra, and Asterwnella were the most m the system, and the hydrauhc charactenstics of the hy­ common genera of dtatoms present In the summer months drogeologic umts m the system

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 841 Table 4. Chem1cal constituents and phys1cal propert1es of water m Owens R1ver downstream from Tmemaha Reservo1r, water years 197 4-85 [ft3/s, cubic feet per second, J.LS/cm at 25 °C, microstemens per centimeter at 25 oc Constituent values reported m milligrams per hter]

Property Number or of Mean Standard Range constituent samples deviation

Discharge, mstantaneous (ft3 /s) 766 4763 200 5-951 Specific conductance (J-£S/cm at 25 °C) 766 295 430 158-422 pH, field (units) 109 81 05 7 1-9 6 Oxygen, wssolved 73 94 19 7 0-18 2 Hardness, total ( CaC03) 102 703 138 5 7-106 Hardness, noncarbonate 79 02 14 0 0-12 Calcmm, wssolved ( Ca) 102 216 41 0 8-32 Magnesmm, wssolved (Mg) 101 40 10 9-6 3 Sodmm, dissolved (Na) 101 319 82 55-54 Potassmm, dissolved (K) 102 39 08 18-5 9 Alkahmty, field (CaC03) 89 997 201 39-140 Sulfate, dissolved (S04) 100 226 76 5-46 Chloride, dissolved ( Cl) 102 130 42 4 2-25 Fluonde, wssolved (F) . 102 06 01 0 4-0 9 Silica, dissolved (SI02) 102 234 50 13-35 Sohds, wssolved calculated 101 181 371 66-274 Nitrogen, nitrate plus mtnte (as N) 81 01 01 0 0-0 9 Phosphorus, total (P) 101 009 005 0 03-0 44 Arsenic, total recoverable (As) 30 0028 0008 0 01-0 046 Bar1um, total recoverable (Ba) 17 0115 012 0 050-0 5 Cadmium, total recoverable ( Cd) 31 0005 0004 0 0-0 01 Chromium, total recoverable ( Cr) 32 0006 0008 0 0-0 03 Cobalt, total recoverable (Co) 32 0019 0025 0 0-0 05 Copper, total recoverable ( Cu) 32 0023 0021 0 0-0 11 Iron, total recoverable (Fe) 32 07 043 0 17-17 Lead, total recoverable (Pb) 29 0064 0052 0 0-0 2 Manganese, total recoverable (Mn) 31 0048 0038 0 005-0 2 Mercury, total recoverable (Hg) 28 00003 00004 0 0-0 002 Selenium, total recoverable (Se) 31 00004 00002 0 0-0 001 Silver, total recoverable (Ag) 23 00007 00021 0 0-0 01 Zmc, total recoverable (Zn) 30 0062 0146 0 01-0 83

Aquifer System upper boundary surface of the aqmfer system IS the water The aqmfer system IS a three-d1mens10nal body of val­ table and the lower surface IS either a bedrock contact, the ley fill that IS saturated with ground water This saturated top of moderately consolidated valley fill, or an arbitrary volume of valley fill IS bounded on all sides by a "boundary depth based on the depth of pumped wells The sides of the surface" (Franke and others, 1987) The boundary surface aqmfer system are either bedrock or a part of a lateral allows water to either flow m or out of the system, such as at boundary surface that allows ground water to flow m or out the water table, or acts as a barner to flow, which allows httle of the aqmfer system, termed a "flow boundary " Thus water or no water to enter or leave the system across the boundary can flow laterally m (recharge) or out (discharge) of the surface, such as at a bedrock contact aqmfer system only through a flow boundary Lateral m­ In Owens Valley the aqmfer system IS a part of the flow boundanes mclude sections along the southeast end of total ground-water system, It IS delmeated m figure 17 The Round Valley, south end of Chalfant Valley, and that part

842 Hydrology and Sod-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma of the two valleys overlam by the Volcamc Tableland (figs clays m southern Btshop Basm, and a thm clay bed at about 11 and 17) Underflow also enters the aqmfer system from 100 ft below the land surface m the Independence area are Btshop and Btg Pme Creek dramages and from Waucobt examples of valley-ftll matenals that exhtbit umform hy­ Embayment The lateral outflow boundary of the system IS draulic charactenstics These matenals can be segregated as a sectiOn that crosses the valley approximately east-west at a smgle hydrogeologic umt The bulk of the valley ftll, the south end of the Alabama Htlls Recharge and discharge however, ts a heterogeneous mixture of dtfferent deposi­ to the Owens Valley aqmfer system occurs also at wells, tional matenals that are dtscontmuous and vertically spnngs, nvers, and the water table complex The second cntenon used to define hydrogeologic umts was based_ on the dtstnbutiOn of vertical hydraulic Hydrogeologic Framework head The defmition of hydrogeologic umts becomes more dtfficult m the thtck sequences of valley fill where The hydrogeologic framework of the aqmfer system mterfingenng and lateral dtscontmmty cause complex het­ controls the vertical and honzontal flow of ground water m erogeneity Thts conditiOn IS particularly evtdent m the allu­ the system The hydrogeologic framework was simplified VIal fan, transition zone, and fluvial and lacustnne deposi­ mto a vertical senes of umts that represent etther ground­ tiOnal subumts In many parts of these subumts, hydraulic water-producmg zones or maJor zones of confmement to properties are based on a composite or vertical average of vertical flow These umts will be referred to as "hydrogeo­ the hydraulic charactenstics of the mdividual deposits, beds, logic umts" and are numbered 1 to 3, top to bottom m the and lenses wtthm the depositional subumt Composite aqutfer system (pl 2) Saturated valley fill that lies below hydraulic charactenstics were helpful m dehneatmg gross the defmed aqmfer system and m contact wtth the bedrock hydrogeologic boundanes The umformity of the vertical IS referred to as hydrogeologic umt 4, this umt IS not a part distnbutiOn of hydrologic head withm a subumt or part of a of the aqutfer system Honzontal segregatiOn of the hydro­ subumt proved to be the cnttcal cntenon used to subdtvtde geologic umts mto subumts was done on the basts of previ­ large parts of the aqmfer system mto hydrogeologic umts ously defmed depositiOnal models (fig 14) that descnbe shown on plate 2 the lateral depositional patterns The hydrauhc charactens­ The configuratiOn of the water table m Owens Val­ tics of the hydrogeologic umts and 'Subumts represent the ley, which represents the upper boundary of the aqutfer conceptualized framework and control the flow of ground system, ts shown m figure 17 Water-level data for this map water m the aqmfer system were compiled from more than 500 wells from records of The hydrogeologic umts m the aqmfet system were the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power ( wntten dtvtded pnmanly on the basts of hydraulic cntena rather commun , 1986) and from data collected from wells dnlled than stnctly geologtc or stratigraphic cntena The hydraulic comcident wtth this study The water levels represent the cntena were based on etther umform hydraulic properties conditiOns m the valley dunng spnng (March and Apnl) or a substantial dtfference m vertical hydraulic head These 1984, when pumpmg for ImgatiOn and export had been two hydraulic cntena were modified from those developed fauly constant for several years Spnng 1984 also repre­ by Wetss and Williamson (1985), who used these cntena to sents a wet year, one with above-normal runoff and recharge simplify a thtck sedimentary sequence located m the Gulf The penod 1981-84 was a senes of wet years when pumpmg Coastal Plam on a hydraulic basts rather than on a purely was mmtmal and constant, recharge was htgh enough to stratigraphic and hthologtc basts In both the application by virtually mamtam a "full" aqmfer system, and ground-water Wetss and Williamson (1985) and thts study, the mam pur­ flow through the aqmfer system approximated steady-state pose of combmmg and stmphfymg heterogeneous sedimen­ conditiOns m which mflow equaled outflow tary and volcamc subumts on the basts of hydraulic cntena The water table IS the upper surface of the unconfined was to be able to simplify and delimit the aqmfer system part of the aqmfer system and ranges from the land surface to for subsequent three-dimensiOnal ground-water-flow simu­ more than 15ft below the surface of the valley floor Beneath latiOn as a part of an evaluatiOn of the hydrologic system the alluvial fans along the Sterra Nevada, depths to water can (W R Danskm, U S Geological Survey, wntten commun , be several hundreds of feet The unconfined part of the aquifer 1988) system occurs everywhere throughout the study area and IS Bnefly, the first cntenon used to subdtvtde the aqm­ represented by hydrogeologic umt 1 (fig 17 and pl 2) fer system IS a quast-three-dtmensiOnal method that defmes Hydrogeologic umt 1 consists of mterbedded layers of clay, the hydrogeologic umts on the basts of umform hydraulic silt, sand, and gravel and contains thm clay layers that may properttes Thts method worked well for some parts of the locally confine vertical movement of ground water The verti­ aqmfer system but not for most of It The hydrogeologic cal hydraulic gradient commonly does not vary more than 1 sectiOns on plate 2 show the hydrogeologic umts supenm­ to 3 ft Withm the hydrogeologic umt, except for large vertical posed on the geologic sectiOns of plate 1 The volcamc gradients that are produced along the extreme margms and m rocks of Btg Pme volcamc fteld, the blue and blue-green localtzed areas such as beneath tnbutary streams For most of

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 843 .·---· .{__/ ..

VALLEYRLL

BEDROCK

---CONTACT

---FAULT- Selected faults {from figure 7) that affect the path of ground-water flow and the distribution of the potentiometric head in unit 1 and unit 3 (pl. 2) 0 5 10 15 20 MILES

0 5 10 15 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 17. Areal extent of defined aquifer system, occurrence of unconfined and confined conditions, boundary conditions, configuration of potentiometric surface in hydrogeologic units 1 and 3, and direction of ground-water flow, spring 1984.

844 Hydrology and Soil-Water-Plant Relations in Owens Valley, California SIERRA EXPLANATION

--3800-- POTENTIOMETRIC CONTOUR- Shows APPROXIMATE EXTENT OF THE ---3750--- approximate altitude of the water table D CONFINED PART OF THE AQUIFER in unit 1, the unconfined part of the aquifer system, spring 1984. Contour interval BOUNDARY OF THE AQUIFER SYSTEM - 50 feet. Datum is sea level As defined in this report. Arrows indicate the direction of ground-water flow, moving to or from adjacent permeable materials --3800--POTENTIOMETRIC CONTOUR- Shows - -3750- - altitude of the potentiometric head in unit 3, ooooooooo GROUND-WATER DMDE- Approximately including confined and unconfined parts located of the aquifer system, spring 1984. Contour interval 50 feet. Datum is sea level --··--BOUNDARY OF THE OWENS VALLEY DRAINAGE BASIN ----~·- GENERALIZED DIRECTION OF GROUND­ WATER FLOW - Combined direction of ground-water flow for unit 1 and unit 3 Jo-

Figure 17. Continued.

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 845 the valley, however, the composite potentiometric head m soundmgs of less than about 30 ohm-meters (this study) urut 1 approximates the water-table altitude and for purposes and from seismic-refractiOn velocities of greater than 6,500 of this report will be assumed to be analogous The saturated ft/s (Pakiser and others, 1964) The geophysical properties thickness of hydrogeologic umt 1 ranges from approximately of hydrogeologic umt 4 m the Bishop Basm are similar to 30 ft to as much as 100 ft (fig 17 and pl 2) those observed m the moderately consolidated deposits (hy­ A number of confmed zones are present m the aqmfer drogeologic umt 4) m the Independence area Little Is known system and have been combmed mto hydrogeologic umt 3 about the lithology or hydraulic properties of this lower The confined part of the aqmfer system generally extends hydrogeologic umt m the Bishop Basm, however, because from the toes of the alluvial fans along the Sierra Nevada to no wells have penetrated hydrogeologic umt 4 The the toes of the alluvial fans along the White and lnyo geophysical contact between hydrogeologic umts 3 and 4 Mountams and extends along nearly the full length of the probably IS hydraulically significant because of a possible valley (fig 17) Confmement Is created by a number of abrupt decrease m hydrauhc conductiVIty The defmed base lenticular-to-contmuous, flat-lymg fluvial and lacustnne clay of hydrogeologic umt 3 m the Bishop Basm generally ap­ and silty-clay beds Confmement also can be created by proximates or IS deeper than 1A times the depth of the fine matenal deposited by mudflows, which Rachocki (1981, deepest productive wells m the area p 5 and 9) descnbed as a maJor agent m shapmg most In some parts of the valley fill m the Owens Lake alluvial fans These confmmg beds thm to extmction along Basm, a subtle depositiOnal contact between the unconsoli­ the margms of the valley AdditiOnal areas of confmement dated to moderately consolidated valley-fill deposits repre­ may be formed by the Bishop Tuff and volcamc flows of sents the base of the aqmfer system The contact between the Big Pme volcanic fteld, but an absence of data m these the unconsolidated and moderately consolidated valley-fill areas prevents a more detailed analysis deposits m the Independence area was estimated from dnll­ Where hydrogeologic umts 1 and 3 are m contact, hole and surface geophysical data This subtle contact be­ confmement IS not sigmficant Both umts have nearly the tween hydrogeologic umts 3 and 4 probably represents a same head(± 2-3ft), and unconfined conditiOns are present decrease m hydraulic conductiVIty and storage coefficient at the bottom of the aqmfer system In this combmed hy­ from the overlymg unconsolidated to underlymg moder­ drogeologic umt (umts 1 and 3), unconfmed conditions are ately consolidated sediments The contact IS nearly honzon­ prevalent north of Laws m Chalfant Valley and m the tal and IS displaced deeper to the east of the normal fault proximal and medial fan areas along the Sierra Nevada and that extends south to north from the Alabama Hills through the White and Inyo Mountams (fig 17 and pl 2) the Independence area (fig 7 and pl 2, sectiOn E-E') The Hydrogeologic umt 2 IS defmed as a confmmg bed base Is displaced even deeper m the graben east of the and IS either a contmuous clay bed or a senes of lenticular Owens Valley fault (pl 2, sectiOn E-E') clay beds thick enough to store ground water that could be In areas of the Owens Lake Basm where there IS msuf­ released from storage dunng penods of stressed conditiOns ficient InformatiOn to map the top of the moderately consoli­ m the aquifer system (pl 2) The confmmg beds m umt 2 dated valley fill and where bedrock Is greater than 1,000 ft retard the upward and downward flow of ground water be­ below land surface, the base of hydrogeologic umt 3 was tween hydrogeologic umts 1 and 3 The quantity of ground arbitranly chosen at 1A times the depth of the deepest produc­ water that flows across a confmmg bed IS a functiOn of the tiOn wells m the area The arbitrary base was selected to thickness of the confmmg bed, Its lateral contmmty, the generally nunuruze the effect of specifymg a no-flow boundary vertical hydrauhc conductivity of the bed, and the hydrauhc condition m the subsequent simulatiOn of the aqmfer system head at the top and bottom of the confmmg bed A number This arbitrary base Is deep enough below the pumped system of clay beds that he close together and cover a broad area that the vertical component of ground-water flow 1s assumed can form a smgle confmmg bed In Owens Valley, this to be mmrrnal and can be neglected Valley-fill matenal that configuratiOn IS much more common There are, however, hes below hydrogeologic umt 3 and above the bedrock IS at least two contmuous beds of clay that extend for miles­ collectively mcluded m hydrogeologic umt 4 for example, the blue and blue-green clays m the subsur­ Volcamc rocks are present m hydrogeologic umts 1, 2, face of the Bishop Basm (fig 12 and pl 1) and 3 The volcamc rock subumt can usually be differentiated The base of the defmed aqmfer system IS the base of from the deposltlonal subumts by the d1stmct geologic defml­ hydrogeologiC umt 3 and IS the bedrock contact m the allu­ tiOn of the upper and lower surfaces of the subumt Volcamc vial fan areas or, m the thick valley-fill sections of the rocks mcluded as a part of the valley fill generally represent valley, IS a depositiOnal contact or an arbitrary depth based permeable aqmfer matenal Volcanic flows, however, can be on the depth of pumped wells (pl 2) In the Bishop Basm, very amsotrop1c Flows, particularly the brecciated tops and the base of hydrogeologic umt 3 IS the top of an extensively bottoms of layered aa flows, have extremely high honzontal thick and probably moderately consolidated fluvial and hydrauhc conductivities (table 1), whereas the vertical lacustnne subumt (hydrogeologic umt 4, pl 2) The base of hydraulic conductivities of layered flows, because of the dense hydrogeologic umt 3 IS defmed from vertical electnc crystallme mner cores, can be extremely low, thus retardmg

846 Hydrology and So1I-Water-Piant Relat1ons m Owens Valley, Cahforma vertical movement of ground water The degree of retardation tical (pl 2) Thts honzontal flow of ground water Is split by Is a function of how fractured the mner core IS Thus, the confmmg beds of hydrogeologic umt 2 that mterfmger unfractured to moderately fractured flows can act as confirung with the alluvial fans and the transitiOn zone and direct the beds m the aqmfer system To some extent this confirung flow of water mto hydrogeologic umts 1 and 3 (fig 17 and effect Is evident m the Poverty Htlls-Btg Pme area, where pl 2) Discharge from hydrogeologic umt 3 IS generally volcanic rocks have been mcluded m hydrogeologic urut 2 upward through hydrogeologic umt 2 to umt 1, from wells, (pl 2, sections C-C' and D-D') or through the valley fill to the south end of the valley Ground water that ongmates as underflow from Round and Chalfant Valleys enters hydrogeologic umt 3 m the Source, Occurrence, and Movement of Ground Water Btshop Basm Thts water mixes with water recharged along the toes of the alluvial fans and through the volcamc rocks VIrtually all the ground water m the Owens Valley and moves south along the valley toward the "narrows" aqmfer system IS denved from precipitatiOn that falls wtthm (fig 11) Discharge from hydrogeologic umt 3 IS pnmanly the Owens Valley dramage basm area Deep mfiltrat10n to wells, upward to hydrogeologic umt 1, or underflow south (recharge) occurs pnmanly through the alluvial fans as water to Owens Lake Basm through the "narrows", whereas dis­ runs off the Sterra Nevada as a result of snowmelt or rrunfall charge from hydrogeologic umt 1 IS pnnctpally to evapo­ Most of the runoff mfiltrates through the heads of the alluvial transpiratiOn and wells fans and through the tnbutary stream channels Lesser quanti­ Water that enters the aqmfer system m the Owens ties of recharge result from mfiltration of water m canals and Lake Basm as underflow through the "narrows" or as re­ ditches pnmanly on the valley floor, through the volcanic charge through the alluvial fans moves south to Owens Lake rocks, from runoff m bedrock areas wtthm the valley fill (for (dry) Ground water m hydrogeologic umt 3 discharges to example the Poverty and Alabama Htlls), by leakage from the wells or upward to hydrogeologic umt 1 Water m hydro­ over-aqueduct system, and by underflow from Chalfant and geologic umt 1 discharges pnmanly by evapotranspiratiOn Round Valleys Underflow to the Btshop Basm from Chalfant and wells, and a lesser amount to spnngs and as base flow Valley also mcludes water movmg south from Hammd and to the lower Owens Rtver What happens, however, to Benton Valleys Most of the ground water from Chalfant, ground water that flows to the south end of the ground-water Hammil, and Benton Valleys enters the Bishop Basm near system at Owens Lake (dry) Is not known With certamty Fish Slough beneath the southeastern part of the Volcaruc The bulk of the ground water probably flows vertically up­ Tableland Recharge to the aqmfer system IS mtrumal from ward and IS discharged as evaporation from the dry lake percolatiOn of water that moves through bedrock fractures to Mmor quantities of water may flow at depth through the the zone of saturation or, because of the htgh evapotranspira­ fractured bedrock beneath Hat wee ReservOir to Rose Valley, tion, from water that percolates directly to t11e water table located south of Owens Valley from ramfall on the valley floor Ground water moves along permeable zones from areas of htgher hydraulic head to areas of lower hydraulic Hydraulic Charactenst1cs of the Hydrogeologic Un1ts head The directiOn of ground-water flow IS approximately perpendicular to lines of equal hydrologic head The areal The hydraulic charactensttcs-saturated thickness, pattern of ground-water flow m the valley Is shown m figure honzontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities, 17, and the vertical flow directiOns m hydrogeologic umts transmissivity, specific yteld, and storage coefficient-were 1, 2, and 3 are shown on plate 2 The Darcian rate of flow estimated from pumped-well and aquifer tests, dnll-hole along the Illustrated flow paths IS determmed by the hy­ data, and geophysical data draulic gradient, the hydraulic conductiVIty, and the cross­ The vertical movement of water from hydrogeologic sectiOnal area of flow Typical rates m the valley range umt 3 to umt 1 IS one of the pnnctpal sources of water m from less than a foot per year m clay and silt to hundreds of umt 1 The recharge of hydrogeologic umt 1 IS of particular feet per year m the more permeable basalt Rates of hon­ Impor-tance m Owens Valley because of transpiratiOn de­ zontal flow of water m hydrogeologic umts 1 and 3 gener­ mand exerted by the alkaline scrub and meadow commum­ ally range from 50 to 200 ft/yr ties on soil mmsture denved from the shallow water table Ground water flows from areas of recharge to areas (Ddeams and Groeneveld, 1989, Sorenson and others, 1989, of discharge Discharge can be from spnngs, wells, evapo­ Duell, 1990) Vertical hydraulic conductivity m combma­ transpiratiOn, or gams to the Owens Rivet In general, tion with the differ-ence m hydraulic head between two ground-water flow IS from the margms of the valley, mamly hydrogeologic umts deter-mmes the rate of water movement the west margm, toward the center of the valley and then from one hydrogeologic umt to another The vertical hy­ south toward Owens Lake (ftg 17) As ground water flows draulic conductivities m the Owens Valley aqmfer system downgradient to the toes of the alluvial fans and the transi­ are the least well known of the hydraulic charactensttcs tiOn zones, the flow Is pnmardy honzontal rather than ver- (Danskm, 1988)

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 847 Three methods are typtcally used to determme verti­ draulic conducttvtty and storage coeffictent (Davts, 1969, cal hydraulic conducttvtty Ftrst, laboratory measurements Freeze and Cherry, 1979, Lohman, 1979) Thts approach, can be used to determme the vertical hydraulic conducttvtty although valid tf other data are absent, generally ytelds a of core samples taken from the aqmfer system Second, much broader range of values than would be estimated or aqmfer tests, whtch yteld fteld esttmates of verttcal hydrau­ determmed from etther aqmfer tests or model calibration lic conductlvtty, can be conducted Third, a ground-water­ Published values for hydraulic charactensttcs were modt­ flow model can be used to esttmate vertiCal hydraulic fied and used as background mformatmn to develop table 1 conducttvtty by usmg a method of tnal and adJustment to These values were then modtfted to fit condttmns prevalent match htstoncal hydraulic heads m hydrogeologtc umts 1 m Owens Valley on the basts of well-efftctency tests, aqm­ and 3 Prelimmary ground-water-flow models of the Owens fer tests, and calibratton of cross-sectiOnal and areal ground­ Valley aqmfer system were tmtially used to evaluate the water-flow models dtstnbutmn of hydraulic charactensttcs (Yen, 1985, Danskm, 1988) Danskm (1988) noted, m parttcular, that further studtes were needed to quanttfy verttcal hydraulic conduc­ Umt 1 Charactenst1cs ttvtttes In thts study, multiple-well aqmfer tests were used to record the response of the aqmfer system and these re­ Honzontal hydraulic charactensttcs of hydrogeologtc sults were then stmulated m detailed cross-sectmnal ground­ umt 1 commonly change m a systemattc fasruon that ts related water-flow models m order to test and refine the esttmates to the deposttmnal models dtscussed previOusly (fig 14) The of hydraulic charactensttcs, parttcularly verttcal hydraulic pnnctpal patterns of deposttton m the valley fill are etther conducttvttles The analysts of these tests ts descnbed more fluvial and lacustrine or alluvtal fan The alluvial fan depostts fully by W R Danskm (U S Geologtcal Survey, wntten generally are more poorly sorted and have a broader range of commun, 1988) sedtment gram stze than the fluvial and lacustrine sedtments Well-effictency and some aqmfer tests were conducted Consequently, the alluvtal fan depostts have a lower hydraulic usmg Los Angeles Department of Water and Power pro­ conducttvtty and spectfic yteld The transttton zone that ts ductiOn wells and the wells dnlled for thts study Many of located between the two depositiOnal subumts and overlam the department's productiOn wells m the valley, however, by younger alluvtal fan depostts represents a zone wtth htgher are perforated m both hydrogeologtc umts 1 and 3 and values of hydraulic conducttvtty and spectfic yteld than etther therefore present some problems for use m aqmfer tests the alluvtal fan or fluvtal and lacustnne sedtments These destgned to charactenze the hydraulic properttes of each htgher values result because the transttton zone matenals are spectftc hydrogeologtc umt As a part of thts study, 20 wells better sorted and are entirely coarse sand and gravel, denved were dnlled and left open to spectfic umts to determme the from the accumulation of beach, bar, and nver-channel hydrologtc charactensttcs of hydrogeologtc umts 1 and 3 depostts Sectmns that tllustrate the relatiOn between the fluvtal The shallow wells fully penetrated hydrogeologtc umt 1 and lacustnne and alluvtal fan subumts and the buned transttion Deep wells were mstalled at 10 of the sttes The deep wells zone are shown on plate 2 were perforated only m hydrogeologtc umt 3 and were tso­ Hydrogeologic umt 1 generally conststs of a highly lated from umt 1 by bentomte seals that were set oppostte complex mtxture of different stze lenses or beds of fme and confmmg beds of hydrogeologtc umt 2 coarse sedtment and, to a lesser extent, mterlayered vol­ Many of the department's productiOn wells used for camc rocks The texture of the sediment combmed wtth the the tests are located m one of the mne well fields (fig 18) arrangement of the lenses of sedtment and rocks determmes Therefore, the dtstnbutmn of field-determmed values of the the composite hydraulic charactenstlcs of the hydrogeologic aqmfer hydraulic charactensttcs are concentrated m small umt The textural fabnc, the axial arrangement of mdividual, areas near the well fields A slightly more umform coverage elongate, or platy grams, and the lenses of the fme or coarse of the aqmfer system was achteved usmg wells mstalled as sedtment tend to be honzontal m the valley fill This hon­ a part of thts study (fig 18) Even so, hydraulic charactens­ zontal onentatmn creates a ground-water-flow component ttcs for large parts of the aqmfer system are sttll lackmg, that 1s dommantly honzontal w1thm each subumt Ranges parttcularly between Btshop and Btg Pme, along the center of hydraulic-charactensttcs values for the varmus subumts of the valley and east of the Owens Rtver m the Owens are shown m table 1 Lake Basm, east of Lone Pme, and along the alluvtal fans The vertical flow of ground water IS controlled by the Because the spatial dtstnbutton of the aqmfer hydrau­ textural fabnc and the extent and distnbutton of lenses or lic charactensttcs m the valley ts limtted, charactensttcs beds of volcanic rock or fme or coarse sediment m the vertical denved from tsolated field tests had to be extrapolated to sectiOn Ground water that flows vertically across the textural broad areas One method to extend hydraulic data to parts fabnc 1s retarded severely m relatiOn to honzontal flow Flow of the valley fill where there ts little or no hydraulic mfor­ IS further retarded by low-hydraulic-conductivity lenses and matton mvolves usmg generalized relatiOns between types beds m the sectmn When the vertical arrangement of rock or of deposttmnal condtttons or lithology and values of hy- fine and coarse sed1ment lenses or beds are randomly or

848 Hydrology and So1l-Water-Piant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma 45'

30'

15

37°00' EXPlANATION

D VALLEYFILL D BEDROCK

~LLANDSITENUMBER - 45' •6 U.S. Geological Survey well and site number @344 Los Angeles Department of Water and Power well and site number

<>v- SPRING

}) LOS ANGELES DEPARTMENT OF 30. Lone Pine WATER AND PO~R ~LL FIELD

- ··- BOUNDARY OF THE O~NS VALLEY DRAINAGE BASIN

36' 15

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

Figure 18. Location of selected wells and springs sampled for water quality or used for analysis of aquifer characteristics, and approximate area of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power well fields.

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 849 nonumformly distributed, or a particular lens of sand or clay pumped well Geophysical and dnllers' logs md1cate that IS less likely to occur than the other, the vertical hydraulic overlappmg and mterlayered clay lenses are present conductivity can be mathematically averaged This average throughout umt 1 m the Independence area and that hydro­ represents a composite vertical hydraulic conductivity value geologic umt lis separated from similar matenals m hydro­ for the hydrogeologic umt When, however, a sigmficant geologic umt 3 by a 15-foot-thick tight and sticky clay A thickness of rock or clay IS present m the vertical sectiOn, the 43-hour-long, constant-discharge test was conducted m the retardation effect on vertical flow IS controlled to a greater area by usmg a pumped well and four observation wells at extent by the hydraulic conductivity of the mdividual lens or USGS 8 (fig 18) The observatiOn wells were located radi­ bed The composite vertical hydraulic conductiVIty of the umt ally about the pumped well at various distances, and all Is no longer computed as a simple mathematical average, the wells were perforated m the same 50-foot mterval at the top lower hydraulic conductivity of dommant lenses or beds must of hydrogeologic umt 1 Although the total thickness of be geometrically averaged on the basis of mdtvidual hydraulic hydrogeologic umt 1m this area was estimated to be approx­ conductivities, lens or bed thickness, and vertical position m Imately 90ft, potential effects of partially penetratmg wells the section Typically m the valley fill, the lenses or beds of were determmed not to be sigmficant fme and coarse sediment m hydrogeologic umt 1 are ran­ Drawdown response m the observation wells at USGS domly onented, and a Simple mathematical average of verti­ 8 yielded calculated transmiSSIVIties that mcreased with radial cal hydraulic conductivities suffices as the composite value distance from the pumped well The apparent mcrease m Several aqmfer tests were conducted m hydrogeologic transmiSSIVIty with distance for observation wells at greater umt 1 as a part of these studies The hydraulic conductivities distance from the pumped well mdicates a contributiOn or and specific yields estimated from these tests generally repre­ leakage of water to the drawdown cone other than from the sent the average composite values for the specific subumt aqmfer matenal surroundmg the well Recharge from canals, Water-level-response data collected from observatiOn wells ditches, or the nver and aqueduct system was discounted be­ dunng aqmfer tests md1cate that hydrogeologic umt 1 of the cause of therr distance from the test Site Return-flow mfiltra­ aquifer system responded to delayed gravity drrunage Data tion from the discharge water from the pumped well also was obtained from a test conducted m the fluvial and lacustrine discounted because It was removed from the site by a pipe sediment or subumt of hydrogeologic umt 1 were analyzed by The most likely explanatiOn was upward leakage of water usmg the method descnbed by Neuman (1975) This tech­ from the moderately confined layers withm hydrogeologic mque enables the calculatiOn of the ratio of vertical hydraulic umt 1 that had a slightly higher hydraulic head (1 to 3 ft) than conductivity to honzontal hydraulic conductivity for the the water table or from hydrogeologic umt 3 that had a much unconfmed zone, often referred to as the anisotropy ratio The higher hydraulic head (33ft) than the water table The leaky honzontal hydraulic conductivity was found to be about 15 conditiOns observed at USGS 8 probably are typical of most times greater than the vertical hydraulic conductivity m the parts of the valley where hydrogeologic umt 1 mcludes flu­ fluvial and lacustrine subumt, with an amsotropy ratiO of 0 066 vial and lacustrine deposits Honzontal hydraulic conduct1v1t1es determmed for the The greatest hydraulic conductivity of the saturated, fluvial and lacustrine subunit of hydrogeologic umt 1 from buned olivme basalt flows occurs m breccia and clmker zones aqmfer tests ranged from 11 to 59 ft/d Specific yields for the that form at the top and bottom of the flows The dense subumt ranged from about 0 002 to 0 042 These specific centers of flows are less permeable than the mterflow breccia yield values are too low and not representative of actual values and clinker zones As a result, water IS channeled parallel to because the tests were not of long enough duration Delayed the plane of layered basalt flows much more easily than verti­ gravity dramage still controlled the test response, and a late cally between flows However, vertical fractures that occurred time-eqmlibnum condition was not achieved More reasonable after the flows had cooled might enable water to move verti­ specific yields would range from 0 10 to 0 15 for the vanable cally from one permeable zone to another llus Interconnection fluvial and lacustrine deposits No tests have been conducted of flowpaths can create a confusmg distributiOn of hydraulic m the alluvial fan deposits of hydrogeologic umt 1, but hy­ heads and, when wells are bemg pumped, can generate both draulic conductiVIty and specific yield should be lower than confined and unconfmed responses over short distances for the fluvial and lacustrine deposits because the deposits are Therefore, aqmfer tests conducted m the basaltic rocks of more poorly sorted Also, hydraulic conductiVIties and specif­ Owens Valley present umque problems, similar to those found IC yield of volcanic rocks, although mcluded m part of hydro­ m tests of saturated fractured rock For example, at some well geologic umt 1, are discussed separately because oftherr umque sites m Owens Valley, discharge rates high enough to mduce charactenstics drawdown, even m observation wells close to the pumped In parts of the aqmfer system, hydrogeologic umt 1 IS well, are difficult to attain Because of the extremely high partially confined or leaky An example of leaky conditiOns transmiSSIVIties of these saturated rocks, dynamic eqmlibnum Is found m the Independence area where specific yields were IS attained withm mmutes and, consequently very little draw­ much lower than those observed m other parts of umt 1 and down data can be obtamed Natural hydraulic conductivities calculated transmiSSIVIties mcreased with distance from the of ohvme basalt estimated from aquifer tests average about

850 Hydrology and Sod-Water-IPiant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma 1,200 ft/d and range from 400 to 12,000 ft/d Actual transmis­ Umt 3 Charactenst1cs SIVIties 10 the basalt flows are generally greater than 1 million ft2/d as a result of fracturing created by dnll10g techniques Hydrogeologic umt 3 Is a composite of many confined and use of explosives 10 the well bore alluvial fan and fluvial and lacustnne beds and some An 10teresting hydrologic phenomenon has been ob­ 10terlayered oliv10e basalt and layers of Bishop Tuff Umt 3 served 10 wells that tap the volcanic flows of the Los Angeles represents the most heavily pumped part of the aqmfer sys­ Department of Water and Power well field at Big P10e (fig tem 10 the valley More than 100 production wells dtstnbuted 18) Aqmfer tests conducted 10 the well field us10g produc­ among mne well fields (fig 18) withdraw water from thts tion wells located at the south end of Crater Mountain (fig hydrogeologic umt The predommant honzontal layenng of 18) created drawdown 10 a well3 2 mi north after the pumped sedimentary beds, lenses, and textural fabnc 10 hydrogeologic well was shut down Tins well response 10dicated that a pres­ umt 3 IS similar to that of hydrogeologic umt 1 The distnbution sure transient was transmitted along predom10ant volcanic of small lenses and beds of f10e and coarse sedrment IS random flows and fractures to other parts of the well field (M L or nonumform 10 hydrogeologic umt 3 as 10 umt 1 However, Blev10s, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, wntten the relatively htgh honzontal hydraulic conductivities of the commun , 1986) 10terconnected and 10terlayered lenses and beds of sedrment create a nearly umform dtstnbutton of hydraulic head 10 hydrogeologic umt 3 Tins umform distnbution of head enables Umt 2 Charactenst1cs hydrogeologic umt 3 to be conceptualized as a s10gle umt of similar transmissivity and storage coefficient As 10 hydrogeo­ Whether hydrogeologic umt 2 IS represented by a um­ logic umt 1, the lateral changes 10 hydraulic charactenstics form and massive clay bed, such as the blue and blue-green can be estimated over broad areas by asstgroog hydraulic clays near Big P10e (fig 12), or overlapp10g lenses or beds of charactensttcs to particular depositiOnal or rock subunits on clay typical 10 the valley fill, the vertical hydraulic conductiv­ the basts of the depositiOnal models (fig 14) Ity and specific storage were estimated us10g one of three Because many of the Los Angeles Department of Water methods The first two methods use aqmfer-test data collected and Power production wells 10 the valley are open to both 10 hydrogeologic umts 1 and 3 The first method IS descnbed hydrogeologic umts 1 and 3, many of the aquifer tests 10volv10g by Han tush ( 1960) for the calculatiOn of transmiSSIVIty and these wells were difficult to 10terpret Responses 10 observa­ storage coefficient of a leaky, confined aqmfer and accounts tion wells often could not be attnbuted to stress 10 hydrogeo­ for water dtverted from storage w1th10 a conf10mg bed or logic units 1 or 3 only Therefore, many of the aqmfer tests 10 beds The transmiSSIVIty then was dtvtded by bed thickness to hydrogeologic umt 3 were conducted us10g wells dnlled as a determ10e hydraulic conductivity The second method IS re­ part of this cooperative study and perforated 10 lrmtted parts ferred to as the ratio method (Neuman and Witherspoon, 1971) of the subumt Constant-discharge tests were conducted, gen­ and uses the ratio of drawdowns 10 the confin10g bed(s) and erally lasting 48 hours or less, to estimate the hydraulic char­ aqmfer(s) to calculate the hydraulic conductivities of the con­ actenstics of hydrogeologic umt 3 Hydraulic charactensttcs f1010g bed(s) The thrrd method estrmates vertical hydraulic from these tests then were used to rud 10 10terprettng s10gle conductivity through calibratiOn of dtstnbuted-parameter, and multiple well tests 10 the Los Angeles Department of ground-water-flow models, both areal three-dimensiOnal and Water and Power well fields (fig 18) us10g small-scale, cross­ cross-sectional The use of models 10 the numencal analysts sectiOnal, ground-water-flow models (W R Dansk10, U S of the hydrologic system IS discussed more fully by W R Geological Survey, wntten commun, 1988) On the basts of Danskm (U S Geological Survey, wntten commun , 1988) the results from the tests and models, honzontal hydraulic On the basts of these methods, the vert1cal hydraulic conductivity was estrmated to range from 12 to 150 ft/d, and conductivity of hydrogeologic umt 2 was estimated to range the storage coefficient ranged from 0 0001 to 0 00044 for from 0 002 ft/d for poorly sorted deposits of clay wtth gravel fluvial and lacustnne deposits 10 hydrogeologic umt 3 to 0 00083 ft/d 10 the massive blue-green clay beds Field Results of aqmfer tests 10 hydrogeologic umt 3 mdt­ data were not sufficient to estimate specific storage, so values cate that the clay members that confine the umt may con­ denved by Neuman and Witherspoon (1971) for similar sedi­ tnbute water taken from storage In two observation wells, ments were used and tested us10g ground-water-flow models drawdown response due to pump10g was compared to time The specific storage of clay used 10 thts study ts about 0 00024 dtvtded by the square of the radial distance from the pumped Vertical hydraulic conductivity and storage values were not well (t/fl) (ftg 19) This test was conducted 10 wells that estimated for the volcanic rock subumt from field data because penetrate hydrogeologic umt 3 below the blue-green clay of the pauctty of data Instead, 10ter-act1ve calibratiOn of pre­ that composes hydrogeologic umt 2 10 the Btg P10e area hmmary and cross-sectiOnal ground-water-flow models were (ftg 12 and pl 2, section C-C') The wells are located 1 m1 used to estimate vertical hydraulic conductivity and storage south of Big P10e at USGS site 14 (fig 18) As descnbed of the volcanic rocks 10 hydrogeologic umt 2 (W R Dansk10, for a test 10 hydrogeologic umt 1, the vertical shtft 10 water­ U S Geological Survey, wntten commun , 1988) level response caused by pump10g for the two observatiOP

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 851 wells mdicates an extra contributiOn of water In this case, beanng strata Immediately adJacent to the faults that can hydrogeologic umt 3 IS charactenzed by a lower head than distort layered sediments to the extent of becommg virtu­ IS hydrogeologic umt 1 Because of the short duratiOn of ally parallel to the fault, (3) the JUXtaposition of pervious the test (22 hours), It IS not hkely that water moved from matenal opposite ImperviOus matenal, and ( 4) partial hydrogeologic umt 1 to umt 3 through the thick blue-green cementatiOn of the sediments near the fault produced by clay confmmg bed of umt 2, nor IS It hkely that water precipitatiOn of calcmm carbonate as carbon diOXIde degasses moved up from umt 4 The most hkely explanatiOn IS that from ground water deflected upward along the fault All water was released from storage m the 90-foot-thick these processes, m combmatiOn or alone, affect the hydrau­ blue-green clay In a plot that considers water denved from hc conductivity of the valley fill near faults Similar ground­ storage m confimng beds (fig 20), the log-log plot of draw­ water-retardation effects have been observed along faults m down and time for an observation well located 1 ,000 ft the MoJave Desert regiOn of southeast California (J S Bader, from the pumped well was supenmposed on type curves U S Geological Survey, wntten commun , 1987) developed by Hantush ( 1960) for leaky confined aqmfers The Owens Valley fault, which bisects the northern Curve matchmg With the Hantush-type curve (~=0 05) part of the Owens Lake Basm (fig 7), has offset clay and yielded a transmiSSIVIty of 11,700 ft2/d and a storage coeffi­ sand-gravel lenses and beds and creates a sigmficant hamer Cient of 0 00045 for the fluvial and lacustrine subumt m to ground water that flows from west to east (fig 17) On hydrogeologic umt 3 Differences between data and the type the basis of a number of vertical electnc soundmgs that curve dunng the first 10 mmutes of test are beheved to be define an east-west sectiOn through Independence (pl 1, caused by vanatwns m the Initial pumpmg rate The chmce of match pomts IS subJective and may vary shghtly from one worker to another However, when 100~----~~------~------~~------~~----. storage from confmmg beds IS suspected, the use of Han tush's ( 1960) leaky artesian curves rather than the stan­ dard Theis (1935) non-leaky curve IS mdicated Usmg a tiJ 10 - -- w saturated thickness of about 180 ft m the area near USGS lL z site 14, the perforated mterval below the clay, honzontal c;;- hydrauhc conductiVIty m hydrogeologic umt 3 was esti­ z 1 f-­ - mated to be about 60 ft/d This value agrees well With other ~ 0 tests conducted m Owens Valley m Similar deposits of 0 ~ hydrogeologic umt 3 of moderately to well-sorted fluvtal <( deposits, fine gravels, and fine to coarse sands ~ 0 H- --

A

I I I I Faults 0 01 1\ 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2

In addition to amsotropic conditions created by vertical TIME RELATED TO DISTANCE (tjr2) and lateral lithologtc changes m the aquifer matenals, faults create abrupt lateral changes m hydraulic charactenstlcs Evi­ EXPLANATION dence of faults that cut the valley fill IS well demonstrated m OBSERVATION WELLS the valley by offsets m topography, ahgnment of volcanic cones, dense hnear commumtles of scrub and meadow plants, o U S Geolog1cal Survey well14 at rad1us 135 feet hnes of spnngs (W T Lee, 1906), or abrupt changes m hydrau­ A Los Angeles Department of Water and Power well 375 at rad1us 1,000 feet lic head (fig 17) Many of the faults that create these features are onented north-south and are generally onented perpendicu­ PUMPED WELL lar to the dommant ground-water flow path ongmatlng m re­ Los Angeles Department of Water and Power well 37 4 Constant discharge 1s 2,055 gallons per mmute charge areas along the west margm of the valley An mterestlng feature assoctated with these faults Is therr ability to deflect or DATE OF TEST retard ground-water flow (DE Williams, 1970) May 29 - 30, 1986 The retardmg effect of faults can vary from nearly t-- TIME, IN MINUTES SINCE PUMPING BEGAN Impermeable barners to ground-water flow to fairly perme­ r-DISTANCE, IN FEET FROM OBSERVATION able features with a mmimal retardmg effect The water­ WELL TO PUMPING WELL retardmg effect of a fault or fault zone IS generally the result of (1) the alteratiOn of valley-fill texture by compac­ Figure 19. Loganthm1c plot of drawdown compared to t/fl tiOn and extreme deformation created along the fault due to for two observation wells (see f1g 18 for location) south of squeezmg, stretching, and sbppmg, (2) drag-foldmg of water- B1g Pme

852 Hydrology and So1I-Water-Piant Relat1ons m Owens Valley, Cahforma sectiOn E-E'), lacustnne-clay layers are vertically offset and spnngs, and create boundary effects and dtstorted cones of drag-folded along the fault These clay layers he JUXtaposed depression near pumped wells wtth fluvtal sand and gravel on each stde of the fault Dnll­ ers' logs and water levels from wells located east and west Water Quality of the fault support the mterpretatlon of a stgmficant ground­ water hamer Water levels m wells on oppostte stdes of the The chemtcal analyses of ground water from etght fault dtffer by as much as 50 ft m hydrogeologic umt 3 wells m the valley mdtcate a fatrly small range of These dtfferences mdtcate hmtted transmiSSIOn of ground concentratiOns for dtssolved constituents wtth exceptiOn of water across the fault The water-retardmg effect of the the well named "Dtrty Socks" (table 5) The Dtrty Socks Owens Valley fault extends from JUSt north of the Alabama well ts located at the extreme south end of the valley (fig Htlls to JUSt south of the Poverty Htlls (figs 7 and 17) 18) m the htghly sahne lacustnne clays of Owens Lake Other faults m the Btshop and Owens Lake Basms (dry) On the basis of the maJor-Ion chemistry of the water also create a water-retardmg effect to ground-water flow from all the wells except Dtrty Socks, one chemtcal type Fault dtsruptiOn of the layered valley-fill sedtments has been was prevalent-a calcmm bicarbonate water Water from noted along the fault that traces the east margm of the the Dirty Socks well Is a sodmm chlonde bicarbonate type Alabama Htlls and contmues north through the Independ­ The classificatiOn of the water IS Illustrated m a tnlm­ ence area to Poverty Htlls (figs 7, 11, and 17) Thts fault ts ear diagram (fig 21). All the values for the well water used a less effective hamer to ground-water flow than the Owens for domestic or Imgatton purposes fall withm the calcmm Valley fault, but It does retard ground-water flow, produce bicarbonate sectiOn of the diagram The same water had

MATCH POINT

H ( U, B)= 1 0

1/u = 1 0 s = 2 7 feet t = 14 mrnutes 10

(;) -1 z OBSERVATION WELL ~ !::. Los Angeles Department of Water and Power well 0 0 375 at radrus 1 ,000 feet ~

0 1 Match pomt for leaky confrned matenal (Hantush, 1960) Transmrssrvrty rs 11,700 feet squared per day Storage coeffrcrent rs 0 00045 H(u, B) rs well functron defmed by Hantush (1960)

DATE OF TEST May 29 - 30, 1986

1,000 10,000 100,000

TIME (t ), IN MINUTES

F1gure 20. Loganthmrc plot of drawdown compared to trme for an observatron well (see frg 18 for locatron) south of Brg Prne usrng match pornt for leaky confrned matenal

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 853 Table 5. Chemrcal analyses of water from selected wells rn Owens Valley

[Values m milligrams per hter, except spectfic conductance m mtcrostemens per centimeter at 25 °C, pH m umts, temperature m degrees Celsms, and sodmm-adsorptlon ratto --, no data]

Sodtum Well Date Spe- Tern- Hard- Cal- Magne- Sodt- Potas- adsorp- Alka- number of ClfiC pH, pera- ness ClUffi stum urn Sturn tlon hmty or name sample conduc- field ture (as (Ca) (Mg) (Na) (K) ratio (as (ftg 18) tance CaC03) (SAR) CaC03)

Dtrty Socks 4..()()...45 8,400 34.5 410 48 70 2,000 431 2,460 Do 11-17-54 8,780 76 400 51 66 2,000 99 440 2,460 344 2-28-78 192 72 15 0 73 23 39 12 10 6 75 344 8-25-78 61 20 28 84 20 5 66 357 8-25-78 180 190 56 18 28 15 15 9 57 57 3-22-78 184 75 155 56 18 24 17 10 10 60 223 2-08-78 404 75 170 109 27 95 49 41 20 173 235 7-12-78 165 73 145 64 21 29 75 18 4 73 244 3-08-78 379 77 215 130 42 59 26 40 10 135 365 8-23-78 430 340 190 50 15 0 30 45 10 160

Table 5. Chemrcal analyses of water from selected wells rn Owens Valley-Contrnued

Dts- Nttrate Well Sul- Chlo- Fluo- solved plus Arse- Bo- Man- number fate nde nde Sthca sohds, mtnte me ron Iron ga-

or name (S04) (Cl) (F) (StO~ calcu- (N03 +N02 (As) (B) (Fe) nese (fig 18) lated as N) (Mn)

Dtrty Socks 520 1,600 94 5,400 0 19 Do 630 1,600 10 5,400 28 344 120 67 2 27 123 001 0 12 001 344 98 46 1 27 108 35 08 04 001 357 180 100 1 19 113 .54 19 05 03 57 160 78 1 17 109 04 24 01 223 230 15 0 3 37 252 11 010 38 01 235 67 11 14 26 104 04 001 01 01 244 560 32 21 71 276 02 010 08 03 365 810 63 20 58 325 75 109 04 01

dissolved-solids concentratiOns that ranged from 104 to 325 Power tested all thetr well fields (fig 18), and water was mg/L and averaged 176 sampled at vanous discharge rates The results of theu A study by the Los Angeles Department of Water and chemical analyses, though not so detailed as those given m Power (1974) also evaluated quality of well water m the table 5, did not mdicate any maJor differences One mmor valley That study was done to evaluate ( 1) the present and exceptiOn should be noted, however, for quality of well histoncal quality of ground water m each of the Los Angeles water pumped from the Taboose-Aberdeen well field (ftg Department of Water and Power well ftelds, (2) the stgmft­ 18) Ground water m this field was found to be slightly cance of the quality of ground water m terms of tts poten­ higher m dtssolved solids than water from theu other well tial effect on water quahty wtthm the Los Angeles fields The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power Department of Water and Power dtstnbutiOn system, and (1974) attnbuted the htgher dissolved solids, about 456 (3) any condtttons of pumpmg that may result m degrada­ mg/L, to localized natural deposits of soluble mmerals They tiOn of quality The Los Angeles Department of Water and also concluded that no stgmftcant changes have occurred m

854 Hydrology and So1l-Water-Piant Relations 1n Owens Valley, Cahforma ground-water quality m the valley dunng the past 10 to 35 ents The sahmty hazard depends on the concentratiOn of years dissolved sohds, whtch usually IS estimated by fteld or laboratory measurements of spectftc conductance of the water and expressed m mtcrostemens per centimeter at 25 Chem1cal Qual1ty of Ground Water for Jrngat1on Use oc The specific conductance IS an approximate measure of the total concentratiOns of the 10mzed constituents m the The smtabthty of most water for tmgatiOn depends water On the basts of chemical analyses shown m table 5, on the amount and types of dissolved constituents m the dtssolved sohds m ground water m the valley can be esti­ water, on the soil type, and on the types of crops to be mated by multiplymg the specific conductance by an aver­ grown Smtabthty of ground water for tmgatlon m the val­ age conversion value of 0 63 (based on values from thts ley was evaluated on the basts of the sahmty and sodmm study and Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, (alkahmty) hazards, boron, and other dtssolved constitu- 1974)

/'\ I \ I \ I \ I \ ~ I \ <::> ~~I \ 0- ~ ,.. I \ " ~ttt X ><£> I \ I v· I \ I \\ I \ I \ I \ I \ I \ I \ I 36~ \ 1 \ I 244• \ I \ \ 344• • 357 X ) \ I \ \235 •57 I \ I \• I \ I \ I \ I \ I \ I \ f223 \ I \ I \ I \I ~X D1rty Socks.;~ CO\ ~~\ v> \ I \ I 50 ------­ \ I \ \ \ I \ No \ I \ dommant \ I 'v \ type Calcmm ~365 344 .. 2~4 \.357 235

---ca CJ----- CATIONS ANIONS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Figure 21. Percentages of chem1cal constituents m well water and classification of maJor water types (see f1g 18 for well locations)

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 855 The sodmm or alkali hazard IS mdtcated by the sodiUm­ medmm salimty, where the solution of calcmm from adsorptiOn ratio (SAR), whtch IS defmed by the equatiOn the soil or use of gypsum or other amendments may make the use of these waters feasible (U S Saltmty Laboratory, 1954, p 81) SAR = (1) Water from the Dtrty Socks well (table 5), which taps the lacustnne sediments of Owens Lake, IS classified as C4-S4, an extremely poor-quahty water for tmgatiOn In general, m which concentrations are expressed m millieqmvalents per the ground water withdrawn from the valley fill m Owens hter The classificatiOn of liTigatiOn water with respect to SAR Valley, exclusive of lacustnne (lakebed) sediments, IS of IS based pnmanly on the effect of exchangeable sodmm on excellent quality and smtable for rrngat10n use the physical conditiOns of the soil If the proportiOn of sodmm among the cations IS high (high value of SAR), the sodmm hazard Is high, but If calcmm and magnesmm tons dommate Chem1cal Quality of Ground Water for Public Supply (low value of SAR), the sodmm hazard IS low TheUS Salmity Laboratory (1954, p 79-81) classi­ CheiDical-quality cntena used m determmmg the sUit­ fied water wtth respect to salimty and sodmm hazards wtth ability of water for use m public-supply systems are generally a four-tiered scale for each hazard For all well water sampled more strmgent than cntena for water to be used m agncul­ m the Owens Valley (table 5), wtth exception of water from ture The US Envrronmental Protection Agency (1977a, b, beneath Owens Lake bed, the salimty hazard was either C 1 1986) has established national regulatiOns and gmdelmes for (100-250 JlS/cm) or C2 (250-750 JlS/cm) and C4 (greater the quality of water provided by public-supply water systems than 2,250 JlS/cm, at the Dirty Socks well only), where m the Uruted States Primary drmkmg-water regulations govern levels of constituents m drmkmg water that have been shown Low-salmtty water (Cl) can be used for liTigatiOn to affect human health Secondary drmkmg-water regulatiOns wtth most crops on most smls wtth little likelihood apply to levels of constituents that affect esthetic quality The that soil salimty will develop Some leachmg Is re­ regulations express lliDlts, such as "maximum contammant qurred, but this occurs under normal rrngatton prac­ levels," where contaiDinant means any chemical, biological, tices except m smls of extremely low permeability, or radiOlogical substance m water On the basis of such lliDlts, water from nearly all wells m Owens Valley, agam with ex­ Medmm-salmtty water (C2) can be used tf a moder­ ception of wells that tap extensive layers of lacustrme clays ate amount of leachmg occurs Most plants wtth mod­ and silts, does not contam concentrations of any constituents erate salt tolerance can be grown without special that are greater than the maximum contammant levels accept­ practices for salmtty control, able for public supply

Very htgh-salmity water (C4) IS not smtable for liTI­ Water Budget gation under ordmary conditions, but It may be used occasiOnally under very special crrcumstances The A ground-water budget IS an accountmg of the mflow soils must be permeable, dramage must be adequate, to and outflow from the aquifer system and changes m the 1mgat10n water must be applied m excess to provide volume of ground water m storage If mflow equals outflow considerable leachmg, and very salt-tolerant crops and tf the change m the volume of ground water IS zero, then should be selected the aqmfer Is m an eqmhbnum or steady-state condition Eqmhbnum IS mdtcated by nearly constant water levels or Wtth respect to the classification for sodmm hazard, the even fluctuations of water levels with no long-term nse or water was classified S 1 (SAR of 0 to 10) or S4 (SAR greater declme If total mflow does not equal total outflow, then the than 26, at the Dirty Socks well only), where aqmfer IS m a noneqmhbnum or transient condition, and the change m the volume of ground water m storage Is reflected Low-sodmm water (S1) can be used for liTigatiOn on m the changmg water levels almost all smls wtth httle danger of the development Several previous mvesttgattons have summanzed water of harmful levels of exchangeable sodmm However, budgets for the hydrologic system m Owens Valley C H Lee sodmm-sensitive crops such as stone fruit trees and (1912) estimated some of the components of an overall water avocados may accumulate mJunous concentrations of budget for the southern part of Owens Valley usmg data col­ sodmm, lected for water years 1908-11 Conklmg ( 1921) summanzed surface-water conditions m Mono Basm, Long Valley, and Very high-sodmm water (S4) IS generally unsatisfac­ the northern part of Owens Valley for the penod 1895 through tory for tmgatiOn purposes except at low and perhaps 1920 The Caltforrua Department of Water Resources (1960)

856 Hydrology and So1I-Water-Piant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma compiled values of surface-water runoff and estimated water water years 1963-69 and water years 1970-84, are presented use m Mono Basm, Long Valley, and Owens Valley for an m table 6 along wtth the hkely range of average values for the unspecified penod of time between 1894 and 1959 D E more recent penod The values and ranges were defmed usmg Wtlhams (1969) compiled a generaliZed water budget for data from previous studtes, new evapotranspiration and stream­ Owens Valley between Btg Pme and Hruwee ReservOir for loss data~collected dunng thts 5-year study, and results of water years 1938-60 detailed simulatiOns of the ground-water-flow system Much more complete analyses were done by the Los In general, the values of recharge and discharge gtven Angeles Department of Water and Power (1972, 1974, 1976, m table 6 are slightly less than those m previous water budgets 1978, and 1979) for eqmhbnum conditions dunng water years This decrease results pnmanly from changes m five compo­ 1935-69 and 1936-66 and for noneqmhbnum conditiOns dur­ nents ( 1) less precipitation on alluvial fan deposits and volcamc mg water years 1971-77 As many as three different budgets, rocks recharges the ground-water system, (2) less ground water mcludmg a ground-water budget, a combmed surface- and enters the system as underflow from Round and Chalfant ground-water budget for the valley fill, and a more compre­ Valleys, (3) less recharge occurs from canals, ditches, and hensive budget that also mcluded the hill and mountain areas, ponds, (4) less mfiltrat10n occurs from rrngat10n and stock were developed for the part of Owens Valley extendmg from watenng, and (5) less ground water Is discharged by evapo­ north of Btshop, excludmg Round Valley, to south of Lone transpiratiOn from the valley floor Pme, mcludmg Owens Lake Gnepentrog rutd Groeneveld The values of mdtvtdual components m table 6 Illus­ ( 1981) designed a detailed schematic of a valleywtde water trate the general differences between ground-water budgets budget but dtd not calculate specific values Hutchison ( 1986a) before and after 1970 After the diversiOn of tnbutary streams extended previous work by analyzmg a more recent penod of to the aqueduct m 1913 and pnor to 1970 when ground-water approximate eqmhbnum, runoff years 1971-86 Hts approach pumpage was substantially mcreased, the aqmfer system differed from that of previous mvesttgators m that he used probably was m a long-term penod of approximate equlhbnum stream recharge as the residual term m the water budget m­ After 1970, the quantity of ground-water withdrawn from stead of evapotranspiratiOn pumped wells was mcreased, and the water budget adJusted Danskm ( 1988) reviewed each of the previous water accordmgly Most of the mcrease m pumpage was balanced budgets, except that of Hutchison (1986a), and compared the by decreased spnng flows and by less evapotranspiration from respective components of mflow and outflow He noted that the valley floor To a lesser degree, the mcrease m pumpage data from the studtes, mcludmg several by the Los Angeles was balanced by less ground water dtschargmg mto the nver­ Department of Water and Power, were difficult to compare aqueduct system and by a decrease m the volume of ground because they covered either different areas or d1fferent penods water m storage, particularly m the Laws and Btg Pme areas of time In addition, some of the budgets used the same com­ Thts report emphasizes the lumped values of a ground­ ponents of Inflow and outflow but wtth different defimt10ns water budget That IS, a component m the budget, such as Danskm (1988) concluded that a complete

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 857 Table 6. Ground-water budget of the Owens Valley aqu1fer system

[Values of water-budget components for mdtvtdual years may vary constderably from the average values presented m thts table Uncertamttes m the measurement and esttmatton of each water-budget component for water years 1970-84 are reflected m the hkely range of average values The hkely ranges for total recharge, total dtscharge, and change m ground-water storage are estimated separately for the overall aqutfer system and are somewhat less than what would be computed by summmg the mdtvtdual ranges for respective water-budget components Values m acre-feet per year Plus(+) mdtcates recharge to the aqmfer system, mmus (-) mdtcates dtscharge from the aqutfer system]

Likely range of average values Average values for water years Component Water years Water years 1970-84 1963-69 1970-84 Mimmum Maxtmum

PrecipitatiOn +2,000 +2,000 0 +5,000 Evapotranspiration -112,000 -72,000 -50,000 -90,000 Tnbutary streams +106,000 +103,000 +90,000 + 115,000 Mountam-front recharge between tnbutary streams +26,000 +26,000 +15,000 +35,000 Runoff from bedrock outcrops within the valley fill +1,000 +1,000 0 +2,000 Owens River and Los Angeles Aqueduct system: Channel seepage -16,000 -3,000 0 -20,000 Spill gates . +6,000 +6,000 +3,000 + 10,000 Lower Owens River -5,000 -3,000 -1,000 -8,000 Lakes and reservorrs +1,000 +1,000 -5,000 +5,000 Canals, ditches, and ponds .. +32,000 +31,000 + 15,000 +60,000 Irngatlon and watering of hvestock +18,000 + 10,000 +5,000 +20,000 Pumped and flowmg wells ...... -20,000 -98,000 -90,000 -110,000 Springs and seeps -26,000 -6,000 -4,000 -10,000 Underflow: Into the aqwfer system +4,000 +4,000 +3,000 + 10,000 Out of the aqwfer system -10,000 -10,000 -5,000 -20,000

Total recharge +196,000 +184,000 +170,000 +210,000 Total discharge . . . -189,000 -192,000 -175,000 -225,000 Change m ground-water storage1 -7,000 +8,000 +5,000 + 15,000

1Negauve change m storage mdlcates water gmng mto ground-water storage, positive change m storage mdicates water coming out of ground-water storage human mtervent10n Changes m recharge or discharge, such as effects are determmed largely by the hydraulic properties and occurred m 1913 and 1970, are reflected m changes m the boundary conditions of the aqmfer system, not by the water magmtude of several different components of the water bud­ budget For this reason, the related numencal evaluat10n IS a get In general, the mteract10n between the components IS cntical part of understandmg the operat10n of the aqmfer sys­ complex, and the magmtude of the changes to the hydrologic tem and the potential effects of water-management decisions system cannot be estrrnated from the budget alone Bredehoeft and others (1982) reviewed some of the common pitfalls of usmg a ground-water budget for plannmg purposes For exam­ PreCipitation and Evapotransp1rat1on ple, they stated that the magmtude of ground-water develop­ ment depends on the hydrologic effects that can be tolerated, In general, precipitation slightly exceeds evapotran­ not on the quantity of natural recharge- or discharge These spiration m the valley, which produces a small net recharge

858 Hydrology and Sod-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma through the alluvtal fan deposits and volcantc rocks How­ tern Thts amount would equate to between about 1 25 and ever, there ts a substantial net dtscharge by evapotranspira­ 2 75 m/yr of recharge Stmulatwn studtes by W R tiOn from the valley floor The pattern of ptectpttatwn on Danskm (U S Geologtcal Survey, wntten commun , the valley fill ts strongly mfluenced by altitude, and It var­ 1988), Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (P D Ies m a predictable manner from approximately 6 m/yr on Rogalsky, oral commun , 1988), and In yo County Water the valley floor to approximately 18 m/yr at the top of Department (W R Hutchison, oral commun , 1988) alluvtal fans on the west stde of the valley (ftg 3) On the suggest that these rates may be too htgh and that values of east stde of the valley, prectpttatton follows a stmilar pat­ 0 5 to 1 0 m/yr are more hkely The total quantity of mfil­ tern, but wtth somewhat lower rates because of the ram­ tratwn from dtrect prectpttatwn, pnmanly on the alluvtal shadow effect caused by the Sterra Nevada fan deposits and volcantc rocks, IS estimated to average Extenstve evapotranspiratiOn measurements by Duell approximately 2,000 acre-ft/yr (table 6) ( 1990) are summanzed m table 7 and show that average The conclusiOns drawn from thts study on recharge evapotranspiratiOn rates on the valley floor dunng 1984-85 from prectpttatwn and dtscharge from evapotranspiratiOn ranged from about 15 m/yr to 40 m/yr, dependmg on the are m general agreement wtth the assumptiOns made m pre­ type and percentage of vegetative cover Assurmng that these vious water-budget studtes by C H Lee (1912), Los Angeles rates are representative of average conditions on the valley Department of Water and Power (1972, 1976, 1978, 1979), floor, where the depth to water ts approximately 3 to 15 ft, Hutchtson (1986a), and Danskm (1988), and m sml-mmsture then evapotranspiratiOn ts about 3 to 6 times greater than studtes by Groeneveld (1986), Groeneveld and others (1986a, the quantity of prectpttatwn that ts available b), and Sorenson and others (1989) All the studtes assume In a few areas of the valley floor, mfiltratwn to the that a mmtmal quantity of recharge occurs from direct pre­ water table may occur dunng part of the year For ex­ ctpttatwn on the valley floor, generally less than 10 percent ample, m meadow areas, such as east of Independence, of the average prectpttatton rate, and that a somewhat greater the water table ts nearly at the land surface m wmter potential for recharge from dtrect prectpttatwn ts present on months, and some prectpttatton would hkely percolate to the alluvtal fan deposits and volcamc rocks the saturated ground-water system However, the large An llllportant difference between thts study and those annual evapotranspiratiOn rates observed by Duell ( 1990) pnor to 1983, when the fieldwork and model simulatiOns for m those areas mdtcate that the meadow areas are net dis­ thts study were begun, 1s the assumptiOn m this study of a charge pomts from the ground-water system Any water lower mfiltratwn rate from direct precipitatiOn on the alluvial that mftltrates m wmter would be removed m summer fan and volcanic areas The lower mfiltration rate multiplied In other areas of the valley floor, such as small alkah by the large Size of the affected area results m a substantially flats or patches that are almost devmd of vegetatiOn, net lower value of recharge to the saturated ground-water system mftltratwn may result dunng unusually wet penods This decrease m recharge IS matched by a similar decrease m when ramfall or local runoff exceeds evapotranspiratiOn dtscharge by evapotranspiratiOn from the valley floor In gen­ As m the meadow areas, these condttwns generally are eral, average evapotranspiration rates measured by Duell (1990) present only m wmter, and the quantity of mfiltratwn, and transprratwn rates measured by Groeneveld and others perhaps wtth some additiOnal ground water, would hkely (1986a, b) are lower than previOus estlffiates and support the be removed m summer when evapotranspiratiOn rates m­ assumption of lower recharge rates from drrect precipitatiOn. crease markedly (Duell, 1990) For the area of the valley Because of the recent collection of detailed evapotranspira­ fill shown m ftgure 17, average net dtscharge by tiOn data on the valley floor, recharge from dtrect precipita­ evapotranspiratiOn from the saturated ground-water sys­ tion on the alluvial fan deposits and volcanic rocks ts now the tem was estimated to decrease from 112,000 acre-ft/yr least quantified part of the water budget Additional evapo­ for water years 1963-69 to 72,000 acre-ft/yr for water transprratton measurements or sml-mmsture studies m these years 1970-84 (table 6) areas would be helpful to confirm present water-budget On the alluvtal fan depostts and volcanic rocks, the estlffiates depth to water ranges from many tens to hundreds of feet ExtractiOn of water by plants from the saturated ground­ water system ts not posstble, and the plants substst on di­ Tnbutary Streams rect prectpttatwn Because the prectpttatwn rates are higher than on the valley floor, some recharge to the The largest quantity of recharge to the ground-water ground-water system may occur Any precipitatiOn that system Is from the more than 30 tnbutary streams that collect does mftltrate past the root zone would eventually water from precipitatiOn m the Sterra Nevada and flow out recharge the saturated ground-water system and flow to­ across the alluvial fans (ftg 16) Streamflow data for a 50- ward the center of the valley Studtes by C H Lee (1912) year penod, water years 1935-84, were used to determme suggested that about 16 percent of the dtrect prectpttatton the recharge for each stream and the total quanttty of re­ on the alluvtal fan areas recharged the ground-water sys- charge from all tnbutary streams wtthm the defmed aqmfer

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 859 Table 7. Vegetation charactenst1cs, water-level and pree1p1tat1on data, and range m evapotransp1rat1on estrmates for selected ' srtes m Owens Valley

[VegetatiOn data from Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (wntten commun, 1984, 1987), evapotransptratwn estimates are from Duell, 1990]

Stte MQ§t £2mmQn nlsmt ~ Total Range of Annual Annual evapotransprratlon destgna- Plant Composttlon of vegetattve water levels preapttatlon estunates for 1984-85 bon commumty Common name total vegetation cover for 1984 for 1984 (ms;h~§) (fig 18) (percent) (percent) (feet below (mches) Maxunum Mmunum Average land surface)

Alkah meadow Alkah sacaton 43 42 105-15 5 336 309 323 Russtan thistle 22

2 do Saltgrass 34 35 10 2-114 59 218 148 185 Rubber rabbttbrush 25

3 Alkah scrub Rubber rabbttbrush 24 26 10 2-109 236 235 236 Alkah sacaton 23 Mormon tea 8

5 do Saltgrass 34 24 80-90 63 189 119 152 Greasewood 27

6 Alkah meadow Saltgrass 30 33 71-89 258 228 243 Alkah sacaton 13 Rubber rabbttbrush 9

7 do Nevada saltbush 29 50 47-72 330 310 320 Alkah sacaton 21 Rubber rabbttbrush 16

10 do Saltgrass 20 72 01-39 31 448 331 405 Alkah sacaton 17 Baltlc rush 15

system (fig 17) The basic techmque used to estimate hnear regressiOn equatiOn m order to determme the average stream recharge IS similar to that of C H Lee (1912) and recharge rate, defined as stream recharge (a), divided by uses the followmg general equation discharge at the base-of-mountams gage (b) From the regres­ sion equatiOn, the quantity of recharge between the gages (a) (b) (c) can be calculated for any known or estimated discharge at the base-of-mountams gage For water years 1963-84, an­ Stream ] [Discharge [Discharge] [ recharge = at base -of- l- at nver- + nual discharge at each base-of-mountams gage was esti­ mountams aqueduct mated by multiplymg the 50-year average discharge at the base-of-mountams gage (table 3) by an mdex of valleywide gage gage runoff for a particular water year Recharge above or below the gaged sectiOn of the stream was determmed from gaged (d) (e) records of diversions and by companng respective lengths Evapo- of stream channels m the gaged and ungaged sectiOns The [Addt-lt10ns _ trans- (2) relation for total recharge for a stream (z) m water year (J) can from piratiOn be expressed as wells losses 1 along the [Recharge I, J = [( ~~~ ) x ( Dtscharge,) x (RunoffJ] + stream (3) channel [ Rabove l,j J + [Rbelow l,j J. where Annual discharge data for streams and wells were used to calculate annual recharge values for the sectiOn of Recharge IS the total recharge for stream z m water each stream between the base-of-mountams and over­ year J, aqueduct gages These recharge values were evaluated m a Rate IS the average recharge rate, m percent, for stream

860 Hydrology and Sod-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma l as determmed from the regression analysts, evapotranspiratiOn losses from vegetation surroundmg the Discharge ts the long-term mean annual discharge at stream channel do not appear to be stgmficant The total the base-of-mountams gage for stream l, recharge for the stream also wtll be affected by sections of Runoff IS a ratio of valleywtde runoff for water year J the stream above or below the gaged section, but m most compared to long-term average valleywtde runoff, cases this additiOnal recharge dtd not stgmficantly mcrease Rabove IS an estimated quantity of recharge that occurs the total quantity of recharge for the stream above the base-of-mountams gage for stream l m

water year J, and Mountam-Front Recharge Between Tnbutary Streams Rbelow IS an estimated quantity of recharge that occurs below the nver-aqueduct gage for stream l m water Most runoff from precipitation fallmg on the mountams yearJ surroundmg Owens Valley IS measured at the base-of­ By use of this relation, recharge for each ~tream can be mountains gagmg stations on the maJor tnbutary streams Some estimated both for htstoncal penods and hypothetical sce­ runoff, however, occurs from precipitatiOn fa1hng on ungaged narios, such as those used m the numencal evaluations of drrunage areas between gaged tnbutary streams Precipitation the hydrologic system and discussed by W R Danskm (U S m these small, tnangular-shaped areas mapped and descnbed Geological Survey, wntten commun , 1988) by C H Lee (1912, p 13 and pl 1) runs off as sheet flow, m Several of the streams could not be evaluated usmg nvulets, or m small mtermtttently flowmg streams Most of this approach because only a smgle gagmg station was op­ the runoff disappears mto the alluvial fans a short distance erated on the stream, because unquantifted diversions were from the edge of the mountams and contnbutes recharge to made from one stream to another, or because a spnng be­ the ground-water system A few of the larger streams flow far tween the two gages added an unknown quantity of water enough down the alluvial fans to JOin a maJor tnbutary stream to the stream In these cases, an average recharge rate per below the base-of-mountains gage This addition of water to foot of stream channel was calculated for streams wtth two the gaged tnbutanes IS not accounted for m the estimates of gages (table 8) These recharge rates were applied to streams stream recharge descnbed earher wtth similar annual discharge rates and flowmg over simi­ The quantity of ungaged surface-water mflow andre­ lar types of matenals For a few streams, the long length of sultmg ground-water recharge can be estimated from pre­ channel above the base-of-mountams gage produced an un­ cipitatiOn records, runoff coefficients calculated for gaged realistically htgh quantity of recharge, mdtcatmg that the dramage areas, and assumptions about the percentage of stream may have been flowmg on top of a narrow, fully runoff that percolates to the ground-water system Usmg saturated, alluvtal fan or glacial "deposit that was not ca­ this approach, C H Lee (1912, p 66-67 and table 61) pable of recetvmg additiOnal water from the stream (figs 7 estimated the quantity of ground-water recharge resultmg and 16) For these sections of streams, recharge estimates from precipitatiOn on the ungaged dramage areas m the were scaled downward, on the basts of a shorter recharge southwestern part of Owens Valley He estimated that as length for the stream and on recharge values for stmilar much as 75 percent of the total volume of precipitatiOn m nearby streams Usmg these methods, the average annual these areas recharged the ground-water system Lee noted recharge for all tnbutary streams m the aqmfer system was that the htgh rate was a result of steep mountam slopes, estimated to be 106,000 acre-ft/yr for water years 1963-69 rapid meltmg of snow, and extremely permeable matenals and 103,000 acre-ft/yr for water years 1970-84 (table 6) In the present study, recharge for each of the ungaged Data for those streams with virtually constant recharge dramage areas was estimated m a similar manner, but usmg rates over the entire 50-year penod are shown m table 8 A dtfferent percolatiOn rates dependmg on the part of the val­ few other streams, such as Lone Pme Creek, have a calcu­ ley bemg analyzed Recharge for each area along the south­ lated recharge rate that fluctuates markedly from one year west stde of the valley was calculated usmg the average to another These fluctuatiOns probably result from dtffer­ annual precipitatiOn from figure 3 and the 75-percent per­ ent management practices that alter the quantity of water colatiOn rate suggested by C H Lee (1912) Recharge for diverted to or from the stream As shown m table 8, the areas along the northwest side of the valley was somewhat average recharge rates calcutated from the long-term dis­ lower because of smaller dramage areas, lower precipita­ charge data are generally htgher than those reported by C H tiOn values, and abundance of mountam meadows that Lee (1912) The cause of the mcrease IS not known, but It probably discharge the ungaged water as evapotranspuaiton may result from the gaged sections bemg slightly longer, before It can reach the valley ground-water system Recharge additional diversiOns of water from the streams, or changes for the Volcanic Tableland was stgmftcantly less than for to the channels, such as wtdemng, to facthtate recharge areas on the west stde of the valley because precipitatiOn Because part of the water diverted out of the natural chan­ rates are much lower and potential evaporation Is much nel mto recharge canals may be lost to evapotranspiration, htgher owmg to the htgher average temperature Recharge the average recharge rate m table 8 should be regarded as a for areas on the east stde of the basm was almost zero maximum rate for the section between the gages Estimated because virtually no runoff occurs between the mterm1t-

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 861 Table 8. Average annual rate of recharge between base-of-mountams and nver-aqueduct gages for selected streams m Owens Valley

[Acre-ft/yr, acre-feet per year]

Average !&n&th Qf §tr~im! chmm~l (feet) Estunated A v~r~W' mmY! rat~ Qf r~chi!!g~ gaged mflow Above Below rate of Wat"r ~~ar§ 12J,2-~ Lee Stte Name at base-of- base-of- Between nver- evapotrans- (percent) (acre-ft/yr (1912)2 No mountams moun tams gages aqueduct prratlon1 per foot (percent) (fig 16) gage gage gage (acre-ft/yr) of stream (acre-ft/yr) channel)

15 Taboose Creek 6,685 310,400 30,400 0 41 56 0125 50 16 Goodale Creek 5,194 3,200 42,100 0 57 69 086 48 18 Sawmill Creek 3,840 0 49,400 0 13 54 221 20-22 Oak Creek 11,992 24,400 31,700 0 43 594 356 32 23 Independence Creek 10,133 Ju,soo 31,000 600 42 69 235 25 Symmes Creek 2,799 7,300 36,000 800 49 97 077 50 26 Shepherd Creek 7,865 9,200 30,800 1,900 42 46 120 36 27-29 Barrs Creek 3,759 1,500 52,100 0 70 82 061 29 30 George Creek 6,444 900 36,000 0 49 68 124 38

1Assummg channel wtdth of 50 feet, 30 percent vegetative cover, and 47 mches per year of evapotransprratlon 2Calculated usmg data pomts and a zero mtercept from Lee (1912) 3Recharge may not occur along the entue length of stream channel above base-of-mountams gage 4Stream flows m a ptpe for an addttlonal 10,500 feet 5Rate 1s stgmficantly affected by many dtverstons tently flowmg tnbutary streams, particularly those south of If sigmficant ground-water withdrawals occur m an area Coldwater Canyon Creek close to the nver, then the hydrauhc gradient between the Recharge contributed from all ungaged areas was esti­ ground-water system and the nver may be reversed and the mated to average approximately 26,000 acre-ft/yr for both nver will lose water to the ground-water system Hydro­ water years 1963--69 and 1970-84 (table 6) In order to esti­ graphs of wells near the nver mdicate that a reversal of mate ungaged recharge for different water years, the average gradients may occur near the Laws well field (fig 17) dur­ recharge rates were multiplied by the ratio of valleywide run­ mg penods of sigmficant ground-water withdrawals Under off for a particular year divided by average valleywide runoff these conditiOns, the Owens River would lose watet and (refer to equation 3) Although a high degree of uncertamty Is contnbute recharge to the well field associated With the values of recharge between tributary Similar conditions may be present near the Big Pme streams, for most areas of the valley, recharge from ungaged well field The blue-green clay (hydrogeologic umt 2, pl 2 areas IS a relatively small component of the water budget and fig 12) m this area, however, acts as a maJor confimng bed and hmits the effect of large ground-water withdrawals from hydrogeologic umt 3 on hydraulic heads m hydrogeo­ Runoff From Bedrock Outcrops W1thm the Valley Fill logic umt 1, which Is m contact with the Owens River In the A small quantity of recharge to the ground-water sys­ area between Bishop and Big Pme, there Is vrrtually no ground­ tem probably occurs as a result of runoff from bedrock water pumpage, and the Owens River undoubtedly gams water outcrops withm the valley fill, m particular from Tungsten South of Tmemaha Reservorr and north of the mtake to the Hills, Poverty Hills, and Alabama Hills A likely range of aqueduct, spnngs mdicate that the Owens River probably IS recharge values was determmed usmg estimates of average gammg water from the ground-water system annual precipitatiOn (fig 3) and a range of possible runoff In the Owens Lake Basm, the Los Angeles Aqueduct coefficients (C H Lee, 1912) The total quantity of recharge IS situated such that It can exchange water readily with the from runoff under average conditions of precipitatiOn and ground-water system As with the Owens River, the local evaporatiOn probably IS less than 1,000 acre-ft/yr (table 6) hydrauhc gradient between the aqueduct and the ground­ water system determmes the duect10n and rate of flow Hydrogeologic sections shown on plate 2 and sectiOns de­ Owens R1ver and Los Angeles Aqueduct System veloped by Gnepentrog and Groeneveld ( 1981) and the Los In the Bishop Basm, the Owens River Is the natural Angeles Department of Water and Power (1978) mdicate discharge of the surface- and ground-water systems Under the general areas where the aqueduct gams or loses water unstressed ground-water conditions, the nver gams water for different ground-water conditions Under average con-

862 Hydrology and So1l-Water-Piant Relat1ons m Owens Valley, Cahforma dttiOns, most sect1ons of the aqueduct seem to gam water used m the calculatiOns The total recharge to the ground­ from the ground-water system Dunng penods of stgmfi­ water system from spillgates was estimated to average ap­ cant ground-water Withdrawals, such as m 1971-74, ground­ proximately 6,000 acre-ft/yr (table 6) water levels m hydrogeologic umt 1 near the aqueduct may dechne enough so that the rate of gam will decrease and Lower Owens R1ver perhaps even the duectwn of flow will change, resultmg m a loss from the aqueduct The concrete-hned section of the Pnor to substantial surface-water d1verswns and aqueduct next to Alabama H1lls 1s elevated above the nearby ground-water Withdrawals, both surface and ground water ground-water system and would tend to lose water, how­ would m1grate to the lower Owens R1ver and would be ever, the rate of loss probably 1s m1mmal d1scharged mto Owens Lake Presently (1988), gams of sur­ Estimates of the quant1ty of loss (or gam) for a stream face water are v1rtually ehmmated by d1vers1ons of runoff or nver are typ1cally calculated as the res1dual of a mass to the nver-aqueduct system, and gams of ground water balance for a gaged sectiOn of the stream Th1s 1s the method probably are less because of reduced hydrauhc grad1ents used to calculate recharge for the tnbutary streams How­ from the ground-water system to the nver The hamer ef­ ever, when the loss 1s a small fractiOn of the measured fect of the Owens Valley fault hm1ts the quantity of ground flows, large res1dual errors can result, maskmg the actual water flowmg eastward to most sections of the lower Owens loss or gam For th1s reason, estimates of the hkely range of R1ver In addttion, the fault scarp acts as a seepage face, loss or gam for the nver and aqueduct were developed usmg further reducmg the quantity of ground-water flow to the loss stud1es on canals that flow over s1milru matenals but nver R1panan vegetatiOn on the fault scarp and m the nver have a much smaller d1scharge Analysts of several canals channel transpues much of the water that otherw1se would m the B1shop area md1cates that a 15-foot-wtde canal w1th flow m the nver to Owens Lake a mean d1scharge of 2 to 10 ft 3/s typ1cally lo~es from 0 3 to Hutchison (1986b) evaluated the nver-ruscharge record 1 1 (ft3/s)/mt (R H Rawson, Los Angeles Department of at Keeler Bndge east of Lone Pme for runoff years 194~6 Water and Power, oral commun, 1988) Th1s range of values usmg regress1on techn1ques and concluded that most stream­ would equate to approximately 1 to 3 (ft3/s)/mt for the w1der flow at the bndge resulted e1ther from ground-water d1scharge Owens R1ver or Los Angeles Aqueduct, or approximately or from operational releases to the nver from the over-aqueduct the same rate suggested by Danskm (1988) from results of system He noted that ground-water discharge m the lower a prehmmary ground-water-flow model of Owens Valley Owens R1ver was significantly affected by bank storage By Calculated loss rates for the tr1butary streams as shown m separatmg the vanous components of discharge, Hutchison table 8 also are stmtlar, a rate of 1 (ft3/s)/ml 1s eqmvalent to estimated that the ground-water contnbutions to the lower 0 13 (acre-ft/yr)/ft Because the rate of exchange (e1ther Owens River for runoff years 194~6 ranged from 3,000 to loss or gam) between the nver or aqueduct and the ground­ 11,000 acre-ft/yr and averaged about 3,600 acre-ft/yr water system 1s dependent on the phys1cal charactenstics of In order to determme the grurung and losmg reaches the stream channel, wh1ch are frurly constant, and on the along the lower Owens River, mstantaneous discharge was local hydrauhc grad1ent between the stream and the ground­ measured by Los Angeles Department of Water and Power at water system, wh1ch generally vanes over a small range of selected sites (fig 22) during 198~7 (W R Hutchison, Inyo values, the exchange rates probably are s1m11ar for both the County Water Department, wntten commun , 1987) D1scharge gammg and losmg reaches of the nver and aqueduct The was measured between 7 and 17 times at each s1te during the net value of ground-water dtscharge (nver-aqueduct gam) penod, and an attempt was made to measure all stations at the m table 6 was determmed by applymg estimated rates of same time The range of values shown m figure 22 1s the gam or loss to the respective gammg or losmg sectiOns of maximum loss and gam observed along each reach Reaches the nver-aqueduct system were defined as e1ther grunmg or losmg when more than 90 Some ground-water recharge occurs as a result of dis­ percent of the dtscharge measurements mdicated solely gruns charges from the 10 spill gates along the aqueduct The dis­ or losses, respectively Only three of the reaches were found charge, used pnmanly to clean the aqueduct, 1s measured, to act m a consistent manner durmg the penod of observatiOns but the quantity of d1scharge that mfiltrates to the ground­ Most reaches gamed or lost water dependmg on local condi­ water system 1s not known Some of the d1scharge, espe­ tiOns that vaned from one measurement time to another As Cially m h1gh-runoff years, may flow across the valley floor noted by Hutchison (1986b ), many of the reported gruns and to JOm the lower Owens R1ver The quantity of mfiltratiOn losses probably are a result of changes m bank storage Because was estimated by subtractmg the hkely evapotranspiration of these uncertainties, the charactenzatwn of the nver shown losses and an estimate of the return flow to the lower Owens m figure 22 should be cons1dered tentative until additional R1ver from the measured d1scharge Because the d1scharge data confum the specific mteractlon of mdtvidual reaches channels were observed to have a greater abundance of The net gam of water by the lower Owens River hsted m vegetat1on than nearby areas on the valley floor, a relatively table 6 was based on results from the longer term regress1on h1gh evapotranspiratiOn rate of 40 m/yr (Duell, 1990) was analysis

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 863 Lakes and Reservoirs ments between Tmemaha ReservOir and Crater Mountam would help to confirm this possibility Most of the lakes m Owens Valley (Klondike, Warren, The estimated average net ground-water discharge to and D1az Lakes) are topographically low pomts and, there­ the lakes and reservOirs as determmed from mass-balance fore, are most likely natural ground-water discharge areas calculatiOns for each water body and from results of model However, If nearby pumpage rates are high, ground-water simulatiOns of the aqmfer system (W R Danskm, U S recharge may occur from these water bodies, as It probably Geological Survey, wntten commun, 1988) IS given m table does from the Owens River to the ground-water system near 6 The broad range of average values Is md1cat1ve of the the Laws well field Recharge also may occur dunng penods high degree of uncertamty m these estimates of unusually high water levels m the lakes In general, this type of recharge will be temporary until water levels m the lake fall, the hydraulic gradient from the ground-water system Canals, D1tches, and Ponds to the lake IS reestablished, and the ground-water system resumes drammg Tlus cyclical process IS the same as that A complex network of canals and ditches, particu­ observed for the lower Owens River larly near Bishop, IS used to convey water for Irrigation, Under natural conditiOr.s, water levels m most lakes watenng of livestock, and ground-water recharge Over 500 would fluctuate markedly from one year to another, depend­ gagmg stations on canals and ditches are measured contmu­ mg on the quantity of runoff and the altitude of nearby ground­ ously by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power water levels In contrast, under managed conditions, such as m order to document the quantity of water delivered to at Klondike and D1az Lakes, water levels m the lakes are mdividuals who lease lands The specific mteractiOn of each mamtamed w1thm a narrow range for recreational purposes canal and ditch with the ground-water system IS not docu­ Dunng some parts of the year, or dunng extended dry penods, mented, but estimates can be made by companng measure­ such as the 1976-77 drought, the lakes may act as temporary ments of discharge at the different gages and subtractmg sources of recharge to the ground-water system estimates of water use between the gages Usmg this ap­ Pleasant Valley and Tmemaha ReservOirs, which have proach, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power been created by earth-filled dams, seem to have elevated (R H Rawson, wntten commun , 1988) concluded that most water levels compared to the surroundmg ground-water of the canals lose water to the ground-water system This system This difference suggests that the reservOirs may mteract10n IS JUSt the opposite from that observed when the contnbute an unknown quantity of water to the aqmfer sys­ valley was first developed for farmmg m the late 1800's At tem from leakage Estimates of the quantity of leakage typi­ that time, many of the canals were built to dram the smls cally have a broad range of values because of the large Some localized sectiOns of canals may still operate as dram­ residual errors that are associated with each calculatiOn age ditches As an aid m determmmg local recharge and discharge The quantity of ground-water recharge from canals relations, water-level data were plotted at a scale of 1 62,500 and ditches vanes from one year to the next dependmg on usmg a 10-foot contour mterval W1thm the defined aqmfer operatmg conditions Data for the larger canals and ditches, system, no md1cat10ns of recharge from (or discharge to) such as North McNally and B1g Pme Canals (f1g 17), the lakes or reservmrs were evident This absence suggests md1cate that loss rates of as much as 1 1 (ft3/s)/mi can be that the rates of exchange with the ground-water system are sustamed over a penod of several months These larger probably small and localized compared to the more domi­ conveyances typically have water flowmg m them contmu­ nant controls on ground-water flow, such as recharge from ously except for bnef penods of mamtenance Most of the tnbutary streams and discharge to the Owens River water flowmg m them and the related recharge Is from The flat character of the potent10metnc surface near diversions of tnbutary streams and the Owens River How­ Tmemaha ReservOir suggests that a pondmg of surface and ever, dunng some penods, ground-water pumpage IS the ground water occurs at the south end of the Bishop Basm only source of water routed mto some sectiOns of the canals (fig 17) Dunng extended penods of mcreased ground-water Recharge under these conditions IS a localized recycling of withdrawals from the B1g Pme well field, a hydraulic gradi­ ground water ent may be established from Tmemaha ReservOir to the R1panan vegetation growmg m and along the canals well field Under these conditions, the reservOir would pro­ withdraws water from the sml-mmsture zone and effectively vide additional recharge to hydrogeologic umt 1 of the aqm­ reduces the quantity of seepage that actually enters the fer system The substantial confmement caused by the thick ground-water system This reduction m actual recharge was blue-green clay (hydrogeologic umt 2) near Tmemaha Res­ found to be m1mmal (less than 0 02 (ft3/s)/mi) from calcula­ ervOir would limit mteraction of the reservOir with hydro­ tiOns based on estimates of the width of vegetation (5 to 20 geologic umt 3 of the aqmfer system (fig 12 and pl 2, ft), percentage of vegetative cover (30 to 100 percent), and sectiOns C-C' and H-H') Additional water-level measure- evapotranspiratiOn (40 to 60 m/yr)

864 Hydrology and Soli-Water-Plant Relat1ons m Owens Valley, Cahforma 11 9 oo· 118 00 45' 1"17"30' 38°00 I

~ ':>0 -i C).Q> MOfiO

' ,-V~ ' ' 15 ,.) ' \~ \ ( ·. .:..:;.-;,:..-:_~ (') a

/ "'- · ·~ "\_ 30' L-·· ~ MONO COUNTY - lNYO COUNTY s.. c.J> 0 ~ l. c. ::I ~ tii )7 / s

F

37"00' EXPlANATION Range D VALLEYRLL Gain Loss 0.03 - (5 .52) D BEDROCK 2.55 - (5 .59) 0.03 - (5 .52) RANGE OF MAXIMUM GAINS 1.55 - (3.59) AND LOSSES- Value (5.52) is 45 instantaneous discharge, in cubic . 11 .21 - (2.55) feet per second; parentheses indicate ) 8.59 - (4 .25) loss. A reach of the river is classified as ·~ gaining or losing when more than 90 percent of .. l.~-_.;~~-'---- 4.03 - (8.18) the instantaneous discharge measurements \ were either gains or losses, respectively (see c.J> ;; ~::...J-----;:::--12.08 - (0.03) text) ~ ~ ~ ··-\ 30 \ GAINING REACH ) -c ·· LOSING REACH .. - ·. -z.~'2. ~ ) )7 ·. GAINING OR LOSING 0 )7

10 ~ RIVER-DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT SITE - Number is site number that delineates each end of a reach

0 10 20 30 40 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

Figure 22. Water gains and losses to lower Owens River.

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California 865 An estimate of recharge for each of the larger canals from 1rngat10n and stock watenng was used Dtglttzed map and dttches was made by usmg an estimated loss rate, the mformat10n descnbmg the location of Irrigated lands (R H measured length of the channel, and the average penod of Rawson, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, operatton Typtcally, canals lost about 0 7 (ft3/s)/mt and were wntten commun , 1988) was used with assumptions about operated all year Total recharge from the named canals and the hkely recharge rates on dtfferent types of smls Changes dttches was esttmated to average about 20,000 acre-ft/yr m water-management practtces m Owens Valley about 1970 Smaller canals and dttches, whtch usually are mcluded less water bemg applied to Imgated lands, whtch unnamed, have a lower loss rate because of a smaller wetted are often the same as or adJacent to lands used for ratsmg penmeter and shallower depth of water The recharge from livestock As a result, the total recharge from tmgatiOn and these conveyances was lumped mto the values of recharge stock watenng probably decreased Usmg this method, the from tmgation and watenng of livestock dtscussed later average recharge from tmgatiOn and stock watenng was Several ponds are operated m the valley for wildlife estimated to be 18,000 acre-ft/yr m water years 1963-69 habttat and as areas to contam operatiOnal releases of surface and 10,000 acre-ft/yr m water years 1970-84 water or to purposefully recharge the aqmfer system The quanttty of recharge from these areas vanes wtth the quanttty of runoff m the valley In years wtth below-normal runoff, Pumped and Flowmg Wells little or no water ts recharged In years wtth unusually htgh quantittes of runoff, purposeful ground-water recharge from Nearly all ground water withdrawn from wells m the ponds may be as much as 25,000 acre-ft (R H Rawson, Owens Valley IS measured by the Los Angeles Department Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, wntten of Water and Power (Le Val Lund, wntten commun, 1988) commun , 1988) After operation of the second aqueduct was Discharge from pumped wells IS metered contmuously, and begun m 1970, purposeful recharge operations were begun m dtscharge from flowmg wells Is estimated from mtermittent order to help balance the mcreased quantity of ground-water readmgs at V -notch or Ctpoletti weirs A few small agncul­ pumpage Average recharge from all ponds was estrmated to tural or domesttc wells are not measured, but the total be 12,000 acre-ft/yr dunng water years 1963-69 and 11,000 quantity of water wtthdrawn from these wells probably Is acre-ft/yr dunng water years 1970-84 mmtmal Discharge from pumped and flowmg wells Is con­ veyed to the nver-aqueduct system m ptpelmes and unlined

lmgat1on and Watenng of Livestock dttches Some of the dtscharge from wells undoubtedly re­ plemshes the sml-mmsture zone and etther leaves the valley In addttion to ground-water recharge that occurs when as evapotranspiratiOn or recharges hydrogeologic umt 1 water ts conveyed m the larger canals and dttches, recharge Thts quantity of evaporative loss or return flow was not probably occurs also from water conveyed m small, un­ constdered to be a stgmftcant percentage of the total with­ named canals and dttches and from water that ts applied to drawals because of the short distance between most maJor the land The water conveyed m the smaller canals and canals or wells and the nver-aqueduct system dttches ts used pnmanly for sprmkler and flood tmgat10n As shown by the average values m table 6, average of crops and pastureland and for watenng of livestock Many ground-water withdrawals have mcreased sharply smce 1970 of the htstoncal agncultural practtces, mcludmg flood liTI­ (20,000 acre-ft/yr for water years 1963-69 compared to gatiOn and ftxed water allotments, may have resulted m an 98,000 acre-ft/yr for water years 1970-84) Ground-water excesstve application of water for agncultural purposes pumpage was not nearly as sigmftcant a component m the Changes m agncultural practices smce 1970, mcludmg ground-water budget before 1970 as It was after completiOn spnnkler Imgatlon and leveling of fields, may have de­ of the second aqueduct m August 1970 creased the quantity of recharge from agncultural and ranchmg uses m some parts of the valley Although the quantity of recharge from these uses Sprmgs and Seeps cannot be measured directly, It can be estimated by makmg assumptiOns about the consumpttve use of the measured Spnngs are present m several parts of Owens Valley quantity of water that IS delivered to mdtvtdual parcels of mcludmg along the outcrops of volcanic tuff (the Volcamc land The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power Tableland) north of Btshop, m the mtddle of the valley near (R H Rawson, wntten commun , 1988), usmg dtscharge Tmemaha ReservOir, and along fractures north of the Ala­ records from more than 500 gagmg stations and records of bama Htlls (figs 7 and 15) Discharge from stx of the larger, proposed water use on each parcel of land, esttmated that named spnngs ts measured either by V -notch we us or average recharge from tmgatiOn and stock watenng smce Parshall flumes Dtscharge from four smaller, named spnngs 1970 was approximately 14,000 acre-ft/yr was estimated from nearby measured spnng discharge Most Because stmtlar calculatiOns for a penod pnor to 1970 of the dtscharge from named spnngs flows mto streams and were not posstble, another method of calculatmg recharge canals and IS conveyed out of the valley, some of the dts-

866 Hydrology and So1I-Water-Piant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma charge replemshes the sml-mmsture zone and IS ultimately Power, 1972, Danskm, 1988) or from calibrauon of steady­ used by plants, and some of the discharge contnbutes to state conditions (Danskm, 1988) Because estimates usmg local recharge of the ground-water system Total discharge Darcy's law or a steady-state simulauon typically have a greater from the named spnngs averaged about 33,000 acre-ft/yr uncertamty than est1mates obtamed by usmg a transient ground­ dunng water years 1963-69 and decreased to about 8,000 water-flow model, the lower values of underflow are more acre-ft/yr dunng water years 1970--84 By usmg measure­ likely to be correct ments of seepage from the larger canals m Owens Valley, Underflow noted m figure 17 m the areas of Bishop the quantity of spnng flow returmng to the ground-water and Big Pme Creeks and Waucobi Embayment was consid­ system was estimated to be approximately 7,000 and 2,000 ered to be part of tnbutary stream recharge Most of the acre-ft/yr dunng the two penods, respectively Therefore, underflow probably ongmated as recharge along sect10ns the average net discharge from the ground water system of the respective streams outside the defmed area of the was approximately 26,000 and 6,000 acre-ft/yr dunng the aqmfer system respective penods (table 6) The quantity of underflow leavmg the defined aqmfer Numerous unnamed spnngs are present along the pe­ system Is not known, It must be estimated usmg Darcy's nmeter of the basm In general, these spnngs flow from law, model simulatiOns, or a mass balance for areas north bedrock fractures or from thm deposits of uncon~ohdated mate­ or south of the boundary CalculatiOns usmg Darcy's law nal Observed discharge rates range from less than 0 01 to yield a broad range of possible values of underflow, rang­ greater than 2 ft3/s Because the unnamed spnngs are located mg from 5,000 to more than 50,000 acre-ft/yr A water close to the surroundmg mountam dramage areas and are budget developed by Lopes (1988) for the area surroundmg above the actual water table, therr discharge rates are highly Owens Lake suggests that 15,000 acre-ft/yr IS a reasonable correlated with runoff cond1t10ns As a result. recharge that value for underflow across the boundary Transient-model likely occurs from the unnamed spnngs was mcluded m the simulatiOns mdicate that the range of average values IS ap­ ground-water budget under the component "Mountain-front proximately 5,000 to 20,000 acre-ft/yr In order to further recharge between tnbutary streams" (table 6) refme this range of estimates, more detailed data near the Seeps may occur along faults, at the JUnctiOn of two boundary are needed, mcludmg mformat10n on hthology, aqmfer matenals with markedly different hydrauhc charac­ aqmfer charactenstics, and hydrauhc-head distnbut10ns tenstics, or where the land surface changes slope faster than the water-table gradient Generally, seepage rates are too low to produce a discharge m excess of the quantity that SUMMARY can be evaporated or transpued by plants For this reason, seepage discharge from the ground-water system IS mcluded Owens Valley, a long, narrow valley located along m table 6 as part of evapotranspiratiOn the east flank of the Sierra Nevada m east-central California, IS the mam source of water for the city of Los Angeles The city diverts most of the surface water m the valley mto the Underflow Owens River-Los Angeles Aqueduct system that transports the water more than 200 mi south to areas of distnbutiOn The bedrock that surrounds and underlies the valley fill and use AdditiOnally, ground water IS pumped or flows Isolates the ground-water system from subsurface Inflows. from wells to supplement the surface-water diversiOns to Although mmor quantities of water flow through fractures m the nver-aqueduct system Pumpage from wells used to the bedrock, the total recharge to the defined aqmfer system supplement water export has mcreased smce 1970, when a from fracture flow IS m1mmal A much larger component of second aqueduct from Owens Valley was put mto service recharge Is underflow through permeable matenals adJacent Local residents have expressed concern that the mcreased to the north side of the defined aquifer system (fig 17) pumpage may have a detnmental effect on mdigenous alka­ Recharge to the valley fill along the margms of Round Valley, lme scrub and meadow plant commumties These scrub and through fractures and eroded parts or areas m the Bishop Tuff meadow commumties depend heavily on soil mmsture sup­ of the Volcanic Tableland, and along the margms of Chalfant phed by a relatively shallow water table Valley constitutes the mam source of recharge for the As part of a comprehensive study designed to evalu­ underflow at the north end of Bishop Basm The total quantity ate the effects that ground-water pumpage has on the of this tnflow was estimated to be 4,000 acre-ft/yr (table 6), survivability of scrub and meadow plant commumties m usmg transient simulations of ground-water flow m the aqmfer the valley and to appraise alternative strategies for mitlgatmg system (W R Danskm, U S Geological Survey, wntten com­ these effects, the geology and water resources of the valley mun , 1988) In general, the quantity of underflow that was were defmed, with an emphasis on the ground-water-flow required for calibratiOn of the transient ground-water-flow system This conceptualizatiOn of the aquifer system serves model was sigmficantly less than that calculated previOusly as the physical and hydrauhc basis for a subsequent nu­ from Darcy's law (Los Angeles Department of Water and mencal evaluatiOn of the hydrologic system

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 867 Owens Valley Is part of the 3,300 mi 2 Owens Valley faults, a block of bedrock matenal (Poverty Hills), and re­ dramage basm area that m addition to Owens Valley m­ cent olivme basalt flows and cones (Big Pme volcanic field) cludes Long, Chalfant, Hammil, Benton, and Round Val­ The combmed effect of the normal faults, which create a leys The Sierra Nevada and White and Inyo Mountams, bedrock high, the upthrown block of the Poverty Hills, and which form the west and east boundaries of the valley, the Pleistocene olivme basaltic rocks forms a "narrows," respectively, nse more than 9,000 ft above the valley floor which separates the sedimentary depositional systems of The valley floor, charactenzed as high-desert rangeland, the two basms The Bishop Basm mcludes Round, Chal­ ranges from about 4,500 ft m the north to 3,500 ft above fant, Hammil, and Benton Valleys, which are partly buned sea level at Owens Lake (dry) at the south end of the valley by the Volcamc Tableland, and extends south to the "nar­ Because of the orographic effect that the Sierra Nevada has rows," opposite Poverty Hills The deepest part of the bed­ on the prevailmg eastward-movmg storms, most of the pre­ rock surface m Bishop Basm IS located between Bishop and CipitatiOn falls m the Sierra Nevada More than 40 m/yr Big Pme and IS about 4,000 ft below the land surface To falls near the crest of the Sierra Nevada, whereas ramfall on the south, the bedrock surface nses to approximately 1,000 the and valley floor Is about 5 to 6 m/yr to 1,500 ft m the "narrows " The bedrock surface m Owens Most of the surface water m the valley ongmates as Lake Basm deepens southward from 1,000 to 1,500 ft at the runoff from either ramfall or snowmelt m the Sierra Nevada "narrows" to approximately 8,000 ft below Owens Lake More than 30 maJor tnbutary streams dram the Sierra (dry) The bedrock of the Coso Mountams forms the south Nevada, and most flow perenmally to the valley floor The end of Owens Lake Basm White and Inyo Mountams, m the ram shadow of the Sierra Dunng depositiOn of the valley-fill deposits, the Nevada, receive sigmficantly less precipitatiOn Fewer than Bishop and Owens Lake Basms acted as loci of deposition, five maJor streams dram the White and Inyo Mountams, separated by the bedrock high at the "narrows," and later, and they contnbute little surface water to the valley Pnor by basaltic flows and cones Both basms supported ancient, to constructiOn of the Los Angeles Aqueduct m 1913, tnbu­ shallow lake systems at different times dunng theu histon­ tary flow from the mountams was to the valley trunk stream, cal evolution Lake sedimentatiOn, as evidenced by lacus­ the Owens River, which transported the water south to tnne, deltaic, and beach deposits, IS mterrupted penodically Owens Lake, the natural termmus of the Owens Valley m the geologic section of both basms by fluvial deposits drrunage system After 1913, most of the runoff m the valley Comcident with deposition of lake sediments and fluvial was diverted to the Owens River-Los Angeles Aqueduct deposits m the center of the basms was alluvial fan deposition system for export out of the valley or to local canals for and beach, bar, and stream depositiOn of the transition zones ImgatiOn, fish hatchery, or recreational uses Consequently, along the margms of each basm As the mountam blocks flow to Owens Lake no longer balances evaporation, and were eroded and the fronts receded, the alluvial fan depos­ the lake usually IS dry Its thickened The fans are thicker and more extensive on Two pnncipal topographic features represent the sur­ the wetter, west side of the valley than on the east side and face expressiOn of the geologic framework-the high, have displaced the Owens River east of the center of the promment mountams on the east and west sides of the val­ valley ley and the long, narrow valley floor The mountams con­ The depositiOnal subumts of the valley fill m both sist of sedimentary, granitic, and metamorphic rocks, which basms can be conceptualized by usmg three depositiOnal are mantled m part by volcanic rocks and by glacial, talus, models These models depict specific depositional patterns and fluvial deposits The valley floor IS underlam by valley that mterrelate and provide a means of subdividmg the het­ fill that consists of unconsolidated to moderately consoli­ erogeneous valley-fill sediments mto depositional subumts dated alluvial fan, transition-zone, glacial and talus, and with similar lithologic and hydrologic charactenstics The fluvial and lacustnne deposits The valley fill also mcludes geologic and geophysical signature of each depositional mterlayered, recent volcanic flows and pyroclastic rocks pattern IS useful as an aid m recogmzmg specific deposi­ The sedtments of the valley fill are mostly detntus eroded tiOnal subumts from field data or m conceptualizmg the from the surroundmg bedrock mountams Nearly all the hydrogeologic system m areas where no data are available ground water that occurs m Owens Valley IS transmitted Ground water IS an Important source of mvalley water and stored m the valley fill The bedrock, which surrounds for fishenes, domestic, ImgatiOn, stockwater, recreatiOn, and and underlies the valley fill, IS virtually Impermeable wildlife use, ground water also supplements surface-water The structure and configuration of the bedrock sur­ runoff for export to Los Angeles Nearly all the recoverable face beneath Owens Valley define the areal extent and depth ground water m the valley IS pumped from the saturated of the valley fill and therefore affect the movement and valley fill The defmed aqmfer system, composed entirely storage of ground water The bedrock surface beneath the of saturated valley fill, IS a subset of the ground-water sys­ valley IS a narrow, steep-sided graben, divided mto two tem The upper surface of the aqmfer system IS the water structural basms-Bishop Basm and Owens Lake Basm table, and the bottom, for purposes of this study, IS defined The two basms are separated by east-west-trendmg normal as (1) the bedrock, (2) the top of moderately consolidated

868 Hydrology and Soli-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma valley-fill matenal, or (3) an arbitrary depth of lA times the basalt flows Hydraulic conductivities of the depositiOnal depth of the deepest productiOn well m a specific area The and rock subumts m hydrogeologic umts 1 and 3 are highly mternal framework of the aqmfer system IS subdivided ver­ variable, dependmg on lithology and texture tically mto hydrogeologic umts on the basis of either umform Numerous faults cut the valley fill, and many of them hydraulic charactensttcs or on a substantial difference m are onented transverse to regiOnal ground-water-flow paths vertical head Three hydrogeologic umts compose the aqm­ These faults tend to retard ground water that moves from fer system and a fourth represents the valley fill below the pomts of recharge along the margms of the valley toward aqmfer system and above the bedrock Hydrogeologic umt the valley center The Owens Valley fault, for example, 1 IS the unconfined part of the aqmfer system, hydrogeologic acts as a hamer to ground-water movement and effectively umt 2 IS a confmmg bed, volcamc rock layers, or a senes of divides the aqmfer system m the northern part of Owens clay lenses at the same depth that emulate a confmmg bed, Lake Basm mto east and west halves Other faults m the and hydrogeologic umt 3 IS the confmed part of the aqmfer valley also retard ground-water movement but not to the system, the bottom of which Is the base of the aqmfer system same extent as the Owens Valley fault Hydrogeologic umt 4 IS not considered a part of the aqmfer The degree of confinement depends on the vertical system because It transmits or stores much less water than hydraulic conductiVIty and thickness of the confimng beds hydrogeologic umt 3 Volcamc rocks, where present m the Where the bed IS absent or Is present as thm discontmuous system, represent a part of a smgle hydrogeologic umt or lenses or beds of clay, little confmement occurs, and hydro­ are mcluded m one of the three hydrogeologic umts that geologic umts 1 and 3 act as a smgle unconfined aqmfer compose the aqmfer system This condition IS most common m the alluvial fan deposits Nearly all the ground water m the aqmfer system IS The lacustnne sediments of the fluvial and lacustnne sub­ denved from mfiltratiOn of runoff that ongmates as precipi­ umt, composed of fme silts and clays, are the pnmary tatiOn on the mountams surroundmg the valley fill Most of confmmg beds m the aqmfer system Volcamc flows mter­ the mfiltratiOn to the aqmfer system comes from the Sierra layered with valley-fill sediments also act as confimng beds Nevada through the heads and middle of the alluvial fans, The zones of confinement m the valley generally mcrease through the tnbutary stream channels, or to a lesser extent to the south and east m both basms and are controlled by from the nver-aqueduct system The ground-water-flow asymmetnc recharge to the valley and the extent and thick­ pattern 1s from the margms of the valley toward the valley ness of the lacustnne clay layers of hydrogeologic umt 2 axis and then south along the axis to the south end of the The thickness and extent of lacustnne clays mcrease valley to mtermediate pomts of discharge Recharge on the southward m each basm, comcident with the ancient cen­ alluvial fans moves downgradient toward the center of the ters of lake deposition An example of a lacustnne clay that valley, splits at the toes of the alluvial fans, and honzon­ was associated with ancient lake deposition IS the massive tally recharges fluvial and lacustnne deposits of hydrogeo­ blue-green clays at the south end of Bishop Basm These logic umts 1 and 3 clays make up part of hydrogeologic umt 2 m Bishop Basm Discharge from the aqmfer system Is pnmanly by and are about 100 ft thick, extendmg and thmmng from the pumpage and evapotransptratlon, and to a lesser extent by "narrows" opposite the Poverty Hills north to Big Pme flowmg wells, spnngs, underflow, or leakage to the nver­ Overlappmg lenses of lacustnne clay m the Independence aqueduct system Withdrawal from pumped or flowmg wells area that were associated with deposition m the Owens Lake IS the largest component of discharge, and It accounts for Basm emulate a confmmg bed that extends from the toes of about 50 percent of the outflow from the system Transpi­ the alluvial fans east to the Owens Valley fault and south to ratiOn by scrub and meadow plant commumtles, and to a merge with the thick lacustnne clay m the Owens Lake lesser extent, Imgated alfalfa pasture, stockwater, recreatiOn, area Because of the lentmd shape of this and other clay and wildhfe habitats, accounts for about 40 percent of the beds m the Owens Lake Basm, the degree of confmement system discharge varies from one part of the basm to another As a result of The hydraulic charactensttcs for each hydrogeologic the dommant recharge from the Sierra Nevada, vertical hy­ umt and depositiOnal subumt are based on the specific mode draulic gradients across hydrogeologic umt 2 m both basms of depositiOn or rock type that composes the hydrogeologic range from 1 to 2ft at the toes of the Sierra Nevada fans to umt The olivme basalt flows mterlayered with the deposi­ more than 30 ft m the center of the valley The gradient IS tiOnal subumts m the Big Pme area are the highest yieldmg generally upward from hydrogeologic umt 3 to umt 1 matenals m the aqmfer system Natural hydraulic conduc­ throughout most of the confined areas of the valley, except tivity averages about 1,200 ft/d and probably ranges from where altered by pumpmg 400 to 12,000 ft/d Actual transmiSSIVIties m the basalt flows The water m the aqmfer system IS generally of excel­ are generally greater than 1,000,000 ft2/d as a result of frac­ lent quality and IS smtable for public supply and ImgatiOn, tunng created by dnlling techmques and use of explosives With exceptiOn of water stored m thick sequences of m the well bore The sandy gravels and cobbles of the lacustnne silt and clay near Owens Lake The water IS pnn­ transitiOn-zone subumt have transmiSSIVItles second to the cipally a calcmm bicarbonate type with dissolved concen-

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 869 trat10ns that range from about 104 to 325 mg/L Water m Bacon, C R , GIOvannetti, D M , Duffield, W A , Dalrymple, G B , the sediments of Owens Lake (dry) IS a sodmm bicarbonate and Drake, R E , 1982, Age of the Coso FormatiOn, Inyo type, and dtssolved-sohds concentration Is about 5,400 mg/L County, California US Geological Survey Bulletm 1527, 18 p Ground-water pumpage, the largest dtscharge from Batley, G E, 1902, The sahne deposits of Cahfornta Cahfornta the aqutfer system, has changed appreciably smce the ftrst State Mmmg Bureau Bulletm 24, 194 p Batley, R A , 1984, IntroductiOn to the late CenozOic volcamsm wells were dolled at the tum of the 20th century Between and tectomcs of the Long Valley-Mono Basm area, eastern the actiVatiOn of the ftrst Los Angeles Aqueduct m 1913 California, m Lmtz, J, Jr, ed, Western Geologtcal Excur­ and the second m 1970, most of the water pumped from the sions, v 2 Geological Soctety of Amenca, Field Gmdebook, ground-water system was for tmgatton dunng a penod of p 56-()7 heavy agncultural development m the 1920's and to supple­ Batley, R A, Dalrymple, G B, and Lanphere, M A, 1976, Vol­ ment export dunng the dry penods of 1930--31 and 1960-- camsm, structure, and geochronology of Long Valley caldera, 62 Water was pumped pnmanly from hydrogeologic umt 3 Mono County, California Journal of Geophysical Research, m the valley After activation of the second aqueduct m v 81,no 5,p 725-744 1970, more water was exported, particularly dunng the dry Ball, S H , 1907, A geologic reconnaissance m southwestern penod of 1976--77 Although most of the mcreased pumpage Nevada and eastern California US Geological Survey Bul­ was withdrawn from hydrogeologic umt 3, some long-term letm 308, 218 p Batchelder, G L, 1970, Post-glactal fluctuatiOns of lake level m water-level declmes also were recorded m the wells that tap Adobe Valley, Mono County, California Amen can Quater­ (1) umt 1 Draw down m hydrogeologic umt 1 IS due to nary AssociatiOn, 1st, Yellowstone Park and Montana State changes m the flow rate of ground water between hydro­ Umverslty, Bozeman, August 28-September 1, 1970, geologic umts 1 and 3 through the confmmg beds, (2) Abstracts, p 7 downward leakage of water from hydrogeologic umt 1 to Bateman, PC, 1961, Wtllard D Johnson and the stnke-shp com­ umt 3 through extstmg wells, (3) mcreased evapotranspi­ ponent of fault movement m the Owens Valley, California ratiOn, (4) decreased honzontal flow mto hydrogeologic umt earthquake of 1872 Bulletm of Seismological Soctety of 1 from recharge areas, and (5) dtrect withdrawal by wells Amenca, v 51, no 4, p 483-493 that pump from open mtervals m hydrogeologic umt 1 A ---1965, Geology and tungsten mmerahzat10n of the Bishop quantificatiOn of the aqmfer system changes caused by distnct, California, wtth a sectwn on Gravity study of Owens pumpmg, usmg the boundary conditions and the ground­ Valley by L C Paktser and M F Kane, and a seuwn on Setsmtc profile by L C Paktser U S Geologtcal Survey Pro­ water-flow regtme established by this report, Is presented m fessiOnal Paper 4 70, 207 p a companion report that summanzes results from a numen­ ---1978, Map and cross sectiOn of the Sterra Nevada from cal evaluatiOn of the hydrologic system Madera to the White Mountams, central California Geologi­ cal Society of Amenca, map sheet, MC-28E; scale 1 250,000 Bateman, P C , Clark, L D , Huber, N K , Moore, J G , and Rmehart, SELECTED REFERENCES C D , 1963, The Sierra Nevada bathohth A synthesis of recent work across the central part U S GeologiCal Survey Profes­ Allmendmger, R W, Hauge, T A, Hauser, E C, Potter, C J, siOnal Paper 414-D, 46 p Klemperer, S L, Nelson, K D, Knuepfer, P, and Oliver, J, Bateman, P C , Enckson, M P , and Proctor, P D , 1950, Geology 1987, Overvtew of the COCORP 40 degrees north transect, and tungsten deposits of the Tungsten Hills, In yo County, western Umted States The fabnc of an orogemc belt Geo­ California California Journal of Mmes and Geology, v 46, logical Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 98, no 3, p 308-319 no l,p 23-42 An, Kyung-Han, 1985, Barometnc effects on dmrnal ground-water­ Bateman, P C , and Memam, C W , 1954, Geologic map of the level changes m Owens Valley, California lrvme, Umverstty Owens Valley regiOn, California California DIVISIOn of Mmes of Cahfornta, School of Engmeenng, M S thesis, 105 p and Geology Bulletm 170, map sheet 11, scale 1 250,000 Anderson, R E , Zoback, M L , and Thompson, G A , 1983, Impli­ Bateman, PC , and Moore, J G , 1965, Geologic map of the Mount catiOns of selected subsurface data on the structural form and Goodard quadrangle, Fresno and Inyo Counties, California evolutiOn of some basms m the northern Basm and Range US Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-429, provmce, Nevada and Utah Geologtcal Society of Amenca scale 1 62,500 Bulletm, v 94, no 9, p 1055-1072 Bateman, P C , and W ahrhaftig, C , 1966, Geology of the Sierra Bachman, S B, 1974, Depositional and structural history of the Nevada, m Batley, E H, ed, Geology of northern Cahfornta Waucob1 lake bed deposits, Owens Valley, California Los California Division ofMmes and Geology Bulletm 190, p 107- Angeles, Umverslty of California, M S thesis, 129 p 172 ---1978, Phocene-Pletstocene break-up of the Sterra Nevada­ Beanland, S L , and Clark, M M , 1987, The Owens Valley fault Whtte-Inyo Mountams block and the formatiOn of Owens zone, eastern Cahfornta and surface rupture associated with Valley Geology, v 6, no 8, p 461-463 the 1872 earthquake [abs] Setsmologtcal Research Letters, Bacon, C R , GIOvannetti, D M , Duffteld, W A , and Dalrymple, Seismological Society of Amenca, v 58, no 1, p 32 G B, 1979, New constramts on the age of the Coso Forma­ Beaty, C B, 1963, Ongm of alluvial fans, White Mountams, Cali­ tion, In yo County, Cahfornta Geologtcal Soctety of Amenca, fornia and Nevada Annals of the AssociatiOn of Amencan Abstracts wtth Programs, v 11, no 3, p 67 Geographers, v 53, no 4, p 516--535

870 Hydrology and So1I-Water-Piant Relat1ons m Owens Valley, Cahforma Benham, S , 1987, V anous changes m some of the natural and US Geological Survey Water-Resources InvestigatiOns Re­ cultural features that may mfluence the water resources of port 85-4007, 56 p Owens Valley, California, as observed from maps of the area Cleveland, G B , 1958, Poverty Htlls diatomaceous earth deposit, Northridge, California State Umversity, B S honors thesis, 30 p Inyo County, Califorma Califorma Journal of Mmes and Geol­ Birman, J H , 1964, Glacial geology across the crest of the Sierra ogy,v 54,no 3,p 305-316 Nevada, California Geological Society of Amenca Special Conkling, H , 1921, Report on Owens Valley proJect, California Paper 75, 80 p U S Reclamation Service, 86 p Blackwelder, E , 1928, Mudflow as a geologic agent m semiand Conrad, J E, Kilburn, J E, Blakely, R J, Sabme, Charles, Cather, mountams Geological Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 39, no 6, E E , Kmzon, Lucia, and Hom, M C , 1987, Mmeral resources p 465-480 of the southern Inyo wilderness area, Inyo County, California ---1931, Pleistocene glaciation m the Sierra Nevada and basm­ U S Geological Survey Bulletm 1705, 28 p range Geological Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 42, no 4, Conrad, J E, and McKee, E H, 1985, Geologic map of the Inyo p 865-922 Moun tams wilderness study area, In yo County, Califorma U S ---1954, Pleistocene lakes and dramage m the MoJave regiOn, Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF-1733- southern California, chap 5, m Jahns, R H, ed, Geology of A, scale 1 62,500 southern California California Division of Mmes and Geol­ Crowder, D F , McKee, E H , Ross, D C , and Krauskopf, K B , ogy Bulletm 170, p 35-40 1973, Granitic rocks of the Whtte Mountams area, Caltfomta­ Blakely, R J, and McKee, E H, 1985, Subsurface structural fea­ Nevada Age and regiOnal sigmficance Geological Soctety of tures of the Saline Range and adJacent regiOns of eastern Cali­ Amenca Bulletm, v 84, no 1, p 285-296 fornia as mterpreted from Isostatic residual gravity anomalies Crowder, D F , Robmson, P F , and Hams, D L , 1972, Geologic Geology, v 13, no 11, p 781-785 map of the Benton quadrangle, Mono County, California, and Bredehoeft, J D , Papadopulos, S S , and Cooper, H H , 1982, Esmeralda and Mmeral Counties, Nevada U S Geological Groundwater The water budget myth, m Scientific basts of Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-1013, scale 1 62,500 water resource management Washmgton, DC, National Re­ Crowder, D F, and Ross, DC, 1972, Permian(?) to Jurassic(?) search Council, p 51-57 metavolcanic and related rocks that mark a maJor structural Brook, C A , 1977, Stratigraphy and structure of the Saddlebag break m the northern White Mountams, Caltfomta-Nevada Lake roof pendant, Sierra Nevada, California Geological So­ U S Geological Survey ProfessiOnal Paper 80(}-B, p B 195- ciety of Amenca Bulletm, v 88, no 3, p 321-334 B203 Bryant, W A , 1984, Evidence of recent faultmg along the Owens Crowder, D F, and Shendan, M F, 1972, Geologic map of the Valley, Round Valley, and White Moun tams fault zones, In yo Whtte Mountam Peak quadrangle, California U S Geological and Mono Counties, California California Dtvtston of Mmes Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-1012, scale 1 62,500 and Geology, Open-File Report 84-54 SAC, scale 1 24,000 Dalrymple, G B, 1963, Potassmm-argon dates of some CenozOic California Department of Health Services, 1983, Pnmary dnnkmg volcanic rocks of the Sterra Nevada, California Geological water standards California Department of Health Services, Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 74, no 4, p 379-390 Santtary Engmeenng Department, 1 table ---1964a, CenozOic chronology of the Sterra Nevada, Califor- California Department of Water Resources, 1960, Reconnaissance ma Berkeley, Umverstty of California, Publications m Geo­ mvest1gat10n of water resources of Mono and Owens Basms, logical Sciences, v 47, p 1-41 Mono and Inyo Counties 92 p ---1964b, Potassmm-argon dates of three Pleistocene mtergla­ California Dtvtston of Mmes and Geology, 1982, Bouguer gravity Cial basalt flows from the Sierra Nevada, California Geologi­ map of Caltfomta, Manposa sheet scale 1 250,000 cal Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 75, no 8, p 753-757 Campbell, M R , 1902, Reconnaissance of the borax deposits of Dalrymple, G B, Cox, A, and Doell, R R, 1965, PotassiUm-argon Death Valley and Mohave Desert U S Geological Survey age and paleomagnetism of the Btshop Tuff, California Geo­ Bulletm 200, 23 p logtcal Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 76, no 6, p 665-674 Carver, G A, 1970, Quaternary tectomsm and smface faultmg m Danskm, W R , 1988, Prelimmary evaluation of the hydrogeologic the Owens Lake Basm, California Umver~tty of Nevada, system m Owens Valley, Cahfomta U S Geological Survey Mackay School of Mmes, Techmcal Report AT-Z, 103 p Water-Resources Investigations Report 88-4003, 76 p Casteel, M V , 1986, Geology of a portiOn of the west-central Last Davis, S N, 1969, Porosity and permeability of natural matenals, m Chance Range, In yo County, California Geological Society of DeWiest, R J M, ed, Flow through porous medta New York, Amenca, Abstracts wtth Programs, v 18, no 2, p 94 Academic Press, p 54-90 Cehrs, D, 1979, DepositiOnal control of aqmfer charactenstics m Davis, W M, 1933, The lakes of California California Journal of alluvial fans, Fresno County, California-Summary Geologi­ Mmes and Geology, v 29, nos 1 and 2, p 175-236 cal Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 90, no 8, p 709-711 dePolo, C M , 1988, Styles of faultmg along the Whtte Mountams Chapman, R H, Healey, D L, and Troxel, B W, 1973, Bouguer fault system east central California and west central Nevada gravity map of California, Death Valley sheet California Dt­ [abs ] Geological Society of Amenca, Abstracts with Pro­ vtston of Mmes and Geology, scale 1 250,000, 8 p grams,v 20,no 3,p 155 Chnstensen, M N , 1966, Late Cenozoic crustal movement m the dePolo, C M , and dePolo, D M , 1987, Mtcrosetsmtctty m the north­ Sterra Nevada Geological Society of Amenc,t Bulletm, v 77, em Owens Valley and Chalfant Valley areas Reno, Umversity no 2,p 163-182 of Nevada, Setsmologtcal Laboratory Report 1-2, 36 p Clark, D W , 1984, The ground-water system and simulated effects Dileanis, P D , and Groeneveld, D P , 1989, Osmotic potential and of ground-water withdrawals m northern Utah Valley, Utah projected drought tolerances of four phreatophytic shrub spe-

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 871 ctes m Owens Valley, Cahfornta US Geologtcal Survey Feth, J H , 1964, Rev1ew and annotated btbhography of anc1ent Water-Supply Paper 2370-D, 21 p lake depos1ts (Precambnan to Pleistocene) m the Western du Bray, E A , and Moore, J G , 1985, Geologtc map of the Olancha Umted States US Geologtcal Survey Bulletm 1080, 119 p quadrangle, southern Sterra Nevada, Cahfornta U S Geologt­ Franke, 0 L , Reilly, T E , and Bennett, G D , 1987, Defimtmn of cal Survey Mtscellaneous Fteld Studtes Map MF-1734, scale boundary and 1mt1al condttlons m the analysts of saturated 1 62,500 ground-water flow systems-An mtroductmn U S Geologi­ Duell, L F W, Jr, 1985, Evapotransprratmn rates from rangeland cal Survey Techmques of Water-Resources Investtgatmns, Book phreatophytes by the eddy-correlatmn method m Owens Val­ 3, chapter B5, 15 p ley, Cahfornta [extended abs] 17th Conference on Agncul­ FreezeR A, and Cherry, J A, 1979, Groundwater Englewood Chffs, tural and Forest Meteorology and 7th Conference on N J , Prenttce-Hall, 604 p Bmmeterology and Aerobmlogy, 1985, Scottsdale, Anz, Pro­ Gale, H S, 1915, Salmes m the Owens, Searles, and Panammt basms, ceedmgs, p 44-47 southeastern Caltfornta U S Geologtcal Survey Bulletm 580, ---1990, Esttmates of evapotransprratmn m alkahne scrub and p 251-323 meadow commumtles of Owens Valley, Cahfornta, usmg the Gtlbert, C M, 1938, Welded tuff m eastern Cal1forn1a Geologtcal Bowen-ratlo, eddy-correlation, and Penman-combmatmn Soctety of Amenca Bulletm, v 49, no 12, p 1829-1861 methods US Geologtcal Survey Water-Supply Paper 2370- Gilbert, C M, and Reynolds, M W, 1973, Character and chronol­ E,39p ogy of basm development, western margm of the Basm and Duell, L F W , Jr, and Nork, D M , 1985, Companson of three Range provmce Geologtcal Soc1ety of Amenca Bulletm, v 84, mtcrometeorologtcal methods to calculate evapotransprratmn no 8,p 2489-2509 m the Owens Valley, Caltforma Rtpanan ecosystems and therr Gtlbert, G K, 1885, The topographic features of lake shores US management Reconcthng confhctmg uses, North Amencan Geologtcal Survey Ftfth Annual Report, p 75-123 Rtpanan Conference, 1st, Apnl 1985, Tucson, Anz, Proceed­ ---1928, Studtes of Basm-Range structure U S Geologtcal mgs, p 161-165 Survey Professmnal Paper 153, 92 p Duffield, W A , and Bacon, C R , 1981, Geologtc map of the Coso Gtllespte, A R , 1982, Quaternary glactatmn and tectomsm m the volcantc field and adJacent areas, In yo County, Caltforma U S southeastern Sterra Nevada, Inyo County, Caltfornta Pasa­ Geologteal Survey Miscellaneous Investtgatmns Map MF-1200, dena, Cahfornta Instttute of Technology, Ph D dtssertatlon, scale 1 50,000 695 p Duffield, W A , Bacon, C R , and Dalrymple, B G , 1980, Late Gmvannett1, D M, 1979a, Mm-Phocene volcantc rocks and associ­ Cenozmc volcantsm, geochronology, and structure of the Coso ated sedtments of southeastern Owens Lake, In yo County, Range, Inyo County, Caltfornta Journal of Geophystcal Re­ Caltforma Berkeley, Umverstty ofCahfornta, M S thests, 76 p search, v 85, no B5, p 2381-2404 ---1979b, Volcantsm and sedtmentatlon assoctated wtth the Duffield, W A , and Smtth, G I , 1978, Pletstocene lustory of volcan­ formatmn of southern Owens Valley, Cahforma Geologtcal tsm and the Owens River near Ltttle Lake, Caltforma U S Geo­ Soctety of Amenca, Abstracts wtth Programs, v 11, no 3, logtcal Survey Journal of Research, v 6, no 3, p 395-408 p 79 Dunne, G C, and Gulhver, R M, 1978, Nature and stgmficance of Greene, G W, and Hunt, C B, 1960, Observations of current tlltmg the Inyo thrust fault, eastern Caltfornta dtscusston and reply of the Earth's surface m the Death Valley, Cahforn1a, area Geologtcal Soctety of Amenca Bulletm, v 89, p 1787-1792 U S Geologtcal Survey Professtonal Paper 400-B, p B275- Dutcher, L C, and Moyle, W R, 1973, Geologtc and hydrologtc B276 features of lndtan Wells Valley, Cahfornta U S Geologtcal Gnepentrog, T E , and Groeneveld, D P , 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872 Hydrology and Smi-Water-Piant Relat1ons m Owens Valley, Cahforma water flow 2 ApplicatiOn to Owens Valley, California Water U S Geological Survey Professional Paper 400-B, p B273- Resources Research, v 26, no 7, p 1569-1581 B274 Hall, W E , and MacKevett, E M , Jr , 1962, Geology and ore depostts Hutchtson, W R , 1986a, Updated water budgets m Owens Valley of the Darwm quadrangle, Inyo County, Californta US Geo­ Inyo County Water Department Report 86-2, 18 p logtcal Survey Professtonal Paper 368, 87 p ---1986b, EstimatiOn of baseflow Owens River at Keeler Hammon, W D, 1912, Potash solutiOns m the Searles Lake reg10n Bndge Inyo County Water Department Report 86-4,24 p Mmmg Sctence, v 65, no 4, p 372-373 Jachens, R C, and Gnscom, A, 1986, An Isostatic residual grav­ Hantush, M S , 1960, Modtficatton of the theory of leaky aqmfers tty map of California-A restdual map for mterpretat10n of Journal of Geophystcal Research, v 65, no Bll, p 3713- anomahes from mtracrustal sources, m Hmze, 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874 Hydrology and Soli-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforma and petrology Geological Society of Amenca Bulletm, pt 2, v 61,no 1,p 115-122 v 91,no 9,p 1995-2038 Rachockt, A H, 1981, Alluvial fans New York, John Wiley, 157 p Mormg, B C , 1986, Reconnaissance surficial geologiC map of Rtchardson, L K, 1975, Geology and the Alabama Hills Reno, northern Death Valley, California and Nevada US Geologi­ Umverstty of Nevada, M S thests, 146 p cal Survey Miscellaneous Fteld InvestigatiOns Map MF-1770, Rmehart, C D , and Ross, D C , 1957, Geologtc map of the Cas a scale 1 62,500 Dtablo quadrangle U S Geological Survey Geologtc Quad­ Nelson, C A , 1962, Lower Cambnan-Precambnan successiOn, rangle Map GQ-99, scale 1 62,500 Whtte-Inyo Mountams, California Geological Society of ---1964, Geology and mmeral depostts of the Mount Momson Amenca Bulletm, v 73, no 1, p 139-144 quadrangle, Sierra Nevada, Cahfornta U S Geologtcal Sur­ ---1966a, Geologtc map of the Blanco Mountam quadrangle, vey 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Nork, D M, 1987, The analysts of water-level fluctuations 111 a Russell, I C, 1889, Geological htstory of Mono Valley, Cahfor­ shallow, unconfined aqmfer, Owens Valley, Cahfornta Reno, ma U S Geological Survey Etghth Annual Report, p 261- Umverstty of Nevada, M S thests, 61 p 394 Oakes, E H, 1987, Age and rates of dtsplacement along the Fur­ Savage, J C, 1985, DeformatiOn of Long Valley caldera, Caltfornta, nace Creek fault zone, northern Death Valley, California [abs ] 1982-1985 Eos, TransactiOns of the Amencan GeophysiCal Geological Society of Amenca, Abstracts with Programs, Umon, Abstracts, v 66, no 46, p 852 v 19,no 6,p 437 Schultz, J R, 1937, A late CenozOic vertebrate fauna from the Ohver, H W , 1977, Gravity and magnetic mvest1gat10ns of the Coso Mountams, In yo County, Cahfornta Camegte Institu­ Sterra Nevada batholith, Cahfornta Geological Society of tiOn of Washmgton, Publication 487, p 75-109 Amenca Bulletm, v 88, no 3, p 445--461 Schwetg, E S , Ill, 1986, The mcept10n of Basm and Range tee­ Ohver, H W , and Robbms, S L , 1982, Bouguer gravtty map of tomes m the regiOn between Death Valley and the Sterra California, Fresno sheet Cahfornta DtvlSlon of Mmes and Nevada, Cahfornta Geological Society of Amenca, Abstracts Geology, scale 1 250,000, 23 p with Programs, v 18, no 2, p 181 Paktser, L C , 1960, Transcurrent faultmg and volramsm m Owens Segall, P , and Pollard, D D , 1980, Mechanics of dtscontmuous Valley, Cahfornta Geological Society of Amenca Bulletm, faults Journal of Geophysical Research, v 85, no B8, v 71,no 2,p 153-160 p 4337--4350 Paktser, L C , and Kane, M F , 1962, Geophysical study of Ceno­ Sharp, R P , 1972, Pleistocene glaciatiOn, Bndgeport Basm, Cah­ ZOIC geologtc structures of northern Owens Valley, Cahfor­ fornta Geological Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 83, no 8, ma Geophysics, v 27, no 3, p 334-342 p 2233-2260 Paktser, L C, Kane, M F, and Jackson, W H, 1964, Structural Sharp, R P , and Btrman, J H , 1963, Addltlons to classtcal se­ geology and volcamsm of Owens Valley regiOn, California­ quence of Pleistocene glaciatiOns, Sterra Nevada, Cahfornta A geophysical study U S Geological Survey ProfessiOnal Geological Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 74, no 8, p 1079- Paper 438, 65 p 1086 Ptstrang, M A , and Kunkel, Fred, 1964, A bnef geologic and Sharp, R V , and Clark, M M , 1972, Geologic evtdence of previ­ hydrologic reconnaissance of the Furnace Creek Wash area, ous faultmg near the 1968 rupture on the Coyote Creek fault Death Valley NatiOnal Monument, Cahfornta US Geologi­ m The Borrego Mountam earthquake of Apnl 9, 1968 US cal Survey Water-Supply Paper 1779-Y, 35 p Geological Survey ProfessiOnal Paper 787, p 131-140 Prodehl, Claus, 1979, Crustal structure of the Western Umted Shendan, M F , 1965, The mmeralogy and petrology of the Btshop States U S Geological Survey ProfessiOnal Paper 1034, 74 p Tuff Stanford, Cahf, Stanford Umverstty, PhD disserta­ Putnam, W C , 1950, Morame and shorelme relatiOnships at Mono tiOn, 165 p Lake, California Geological Soctety of Amenca Bulletm, Sherlock, D G , and Hamilton, W , 1958, Geology of north half of

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 875 the Mt Abbot quadrangle, Sierra Nevada, California Geo­ Last Chance thrust-a maJor fault m the eastern part of Inyo logiCal Society of Amenca Bulletm, v 69, no 10, p 1245- County, California U S Geological Survey Professional Paper 1268 550--D, p D23-D34 Simpson, M R, and Duell, L F W, Jr, 1984, Design and Imple­ Stmson, M C, 1977a, Geology of the Hmwee Reservmr 15-mmute mentation of evapotranspuatwn measunng eqmpment for quadrangle, In yo County, California California Division of Owens Valley, California Groundwater Momtonng Review, Mmes and Geology, map sheet 37, scale 1 62,500 v 4,no 4,p 155-163 ---1977b, Geology of the Keeler 15-mmute quadrangle, Inyo Simpson, RW, Jachens, RC, and Blakely, RJ, 1983, County, California California Division of Mmes and Geol­ AIRYROOT A Fortran program for calculatmg Isostatic re­ ogy, map sheet 38, scale 1 62,500 giOnal anomalies from digital topography U S Geological Stone, Paul, Conley, DE, 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climates of North Amenca Sorenson, S K, Miller, R F, Welch, M R, Groeneveld, D P, and accordmg to a new classificatiOn Geographical Review, v 21, Branson, FA, 1989, Est1matmg sml matnc potential m Owens p 633-655 Valley, California US Geological Survey Water-Supply Tolman, C F , 1937, Groundwater New York, McGraw-Hill, 593 p Paper 2370-C, 18 p Trowbndge, A C , 1911, The terrestnal deposits of Owens Valley, Sorey, M L, 1985, EvolutiOn and present state of hydrothermal California Journal of Geology, v 19, no 8, p 706-747 system m Long Valley caldera Journal of Geophysical Re­ Twenhofel, W H, and McKelvey, V E, 1941, Sediments of fresh­ search, v 90, no B13, p 11,219-11,228 water lakes Amencan AssociatiOn of Petroleum Geologists Sorey, M L , Lewis, R E , and Olmsted, F H , 1978, The hydro­ Bulletm, v 25, no 5, p 826-849 thermal system of Long Valley caldera, California U S Geo­ Tyson, N H, and Weber, EM, 1964, Groundwater management logical Survey Professional Paper 1044-A, 60 p for the 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---1978a, Three Rivers quadrangle U S Bureau of Land Man­ ---1971, Basm and Range structure A system of horsts and agement Surface Management Map, scale 1 100,000 grabens produced by deep seated extension Geological Soci­ ---1978b, Mount Whitney quadrangle US Bureau of Land ety of Amenca Bulletm, v 82, no 4, p 1019-1044 Management Surface Management Map, scale 1 100,000 ---1978, Basm and Range structure m western North Amenca ---1978c, Bishop quadrangle U S Bureau of Land Manage­ A review, m Smith, R B , and Eaton, G P , eds , Cenozoic ment Surface Management Map, scale 1 100,000 tectomcs and regwnal geophysics m the western Cordillera U S Envuonmental ProtectiOn Agency, 1977 a, N atwnal mtenm Geological Society of Amenca Memou 152, p 1-31 pnmary dnnkmg water regulations Washmgton, US Envi­ ---1985, East-trendmg dextral faults m the western Great ronmental ProtectiOn Agency Report EPA-570/9-76-003, Basm An explanatiOn for anomalous trends of pre-CenozOic 159 p strata and Cenozmc faults 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876 Hydrology and Sod-Water-Plant Relations m Owens Valley, Cahforn1a ---1986, Quality cntena for water Washmgton, US Envi­ of Amenca, Abstracts with Programs, v 11, no 3 , p 134- ronmental ProtectiOn Agency, 256 p 135 US Geological Survey, 1983a, Aeromagnetic map of the central Williams, DE, 1966, Water resources development study for pro­ part of the lnyo NatiOnal Forest, California US Geological posed Los Angeles Aqueduct second barrel Los Angeles De­ Survey Open-File Report 83-655, scale 1 250,000 partment of Water and Power unpublished report, 62 p ---1983b, Aeromagnetic map of the White and Inyo Moun­ ---1969, Prehmmary geohydrologic study of a portiOn of the tams, California and Nevada U S Geological Survey Open­ Owens Valley ground-water reservOir Socorro, New Mexico File Report 83-656, scale 1 250,000 Institute of Mmmg and Technology, Ph D dissertatiOn, 194 p ---1983c, Aeromagnetic map of the northern part of the Inyo ---1970, Use of alluvial faults m the storage and retentiOn of National Forest, Califom1a and Nevada U S Geological Sur­ ground water Groundwater, v 8, no 5, p 25-29 vey Open-File Report 83-654, scale 1 250,000 WIlliams, P B , 1978, Changes m the Owens Valley shallow U S Salimty Laboratory, 1954, Sahne and alkali '>Oils U S De­ groundwater levels from 1970 to 1978 Prepared for the lnyo partment of Agnculture Handbook no 60, 160 p County Board of Supervisors, 50 p Van Wormer, J D, and Ryall, AS, 1980, Seismicity related to Williams, T R, and Bedmger, M S, 1984, Selected geologic and structure and active tectomc processes m the western Great hydrologic charactenstics of the Basm and Range provmce, Basm, Nevada and eastern California, m Proceedmgs of Western Umted States, Pleistocene lakes and marshes US conference X earthquake hazards along the Wasatch Sierra­ Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geologic InvestigatiOns Map Nevada frontal fault zones U S Geological Survey Open­ 1-1522-D, scale 1 2,500,000 File Report 80-801, p 37-61 Wood, S H, 1983, Chronology of late Pleistocene and Holocene Waitt, R B, Jr, 1981, Concepts of classificatiOn and nomencla­ volcamcs, Long Valley and Mono Basm geothermal areas, ture for surficial deposits U S Geological Survey Open-File eastern California U S Geological Survey Open-File Report Report 81-28, 26 p 83-747,77 p Walcott, CD, 1897, The post-Pleistocene elevatiOn of the Inyo Wood, W W , and Fernandez, L A , 1988, Volcanic rocks, m Back, Range, and the lake beds of Waucobi embayment, In yo County, W, Rosenshem, J S, and Seaber, P R, eds, Hydrogeology, California Journal of Geology, v 5, no 4, p 340-348 v 0-2 of The Geology of North Amenca Boulder, Colo, Wallace, R E, 1984, Patterns and timmg of late Quaternary fault­ Geological Society of Amenca, p 353-365 mg m the Great Basm provmce and relatiOn to some regiOnal Wnght, LA, and Troxel, B W, 1967, LimitatiOns on nght-lat­ tectomc features Journal of Geophysical Research, v 89, eral, stnke-sbp displacement, Death Valley and Furnace Creek no B7,p 5763-5769 fault zones, California Geological Society of Amenca Bulle­ Weiss, J S, and Williamson, A K, 1985, SubdiVISion of thick tm, v 78, no 8, p 933-950 sedimentary umts mto layers for simulatiOn of ground-water Yen, Chung-Cheng, 1985, A determmistic-probabllistic modelmg flow Groundwater, v 23, no 6, p 767-774 approach apphed to the Owens Valley groundwater basm Welch, T C, 1979, Superposed Mesozmc deformations m the south­ lrvme, Umversity of California, School of Engmeenng, Ph D em White Mountams, eastern California Geological Society dissertatiOn, 199 p

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, Cahforma 877