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Home , Calamites, Lycopodium, Selaginella, Strobilus

The Green Machine Understanding the Seedless Vascular 21

To the Instructor The seedless vascular plants include several plants with which students are familiar, such as . These plants can serve in “hands-on” experiments to introduce students to the seedless vascular plants. An understanding of this chapter is necessary to understand evolution. This chapter can easily be modified to teach along with other chapters on plant diversity. The instructor can pick and choose activities from these chapters to meet the needs of the students.

Topics for Discussion

77 At the beginning of this lab, review the objectives to the chapter. If this chapter is taught with other plant diversity chapters, cover the objectives and material for the other chapters. 77 Discuss the classification and basic evolution of the seedless vascular plants. 77 Discuss the phyla of the plants included in this chapter, providing specific examples, natural history, uses, life history, and anatomical information. 77 Discuss and bring in local specimens or photographs of the plants discussed in this chapter. 77 Discuss the environmental, industrial, and medical importance of the seedless vascular plants.

Total Estimated Completion Time: 2 hours, 30 minutes

1 Exercise 21.1 Lycophyta Estimated Exercise 21.1 Completion Time: 40 minutes

Procedure 1 Macroanatomy of

Estimated Procedure 1 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Dissecting microscope ❏❏ Living or preserved specimen of Lycopodium (Carolina Biological 156990) ❏❏ Colored pencils

Procedure 2 Microanatomy of Lycopodium

Estimated Procedure 2 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Compound microscope ❏❏ Prepared slides of Lycopodium (Carolina Biological #’s 299818 and 299836) ❏❏ Colored pencils

Procedure 3 Macroanatomy of

Estimated Procedure 3 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Dissecting microscope ❏❏ Living or preserved specimen of Selaginella (Carolina Biological #157016) Embryo (2n) ❏❏ Colored pencils growing from megagametophyte (n) (which develops partially within the megaspore wall)

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 2

Microsporophyll Zygote (2n) Microsporangium

Fertilization Sperm (n) Meiosis

Megasporangium Meiosis (n)

Endosporic microgametophyte with sperm (n) with egg (n) Rhizoids Megaspores (n)

Archegonia Megaspore wall “Germinating” to form rhizoids and gametangia wall Megagametophyte Procedure 4 Microanatomy of Selaginella

Estimated Procedure 4 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Compound microscope ❏❏ Prepared slides of Selaginella (Carolina Biological #’s 299854 and 299878) ❏❏ Colored pencils

Check Your Understanding

1.1 Describe several uses of Lycopodium. Medically, it has been used in homeopathic remedies including as an emetic, as a baby powder, and as a worming agent. At Christmas, ground pines are used for decorations. Lycopodium spp. have been used in controlled explosions, such as early photographic flashes.Lycopodium spp. have been used as a stabilizer in ice cream. The spores have also been used as a fingerprint powder and in fireworks.

1.2 Where can one findSelaginella ? Selaginella spp. appear to creep along the ground with simple, scalelike on branching stems from which roots also arise. It is called resurrection plant because of its habit of curling into a tight ball and turning brown when dry and opening out flat and turning green when water is again available.

1.3 Compare and contrast megaspores and microspores. The megaspores are large spores that develop into a female , which eventually produces egg cells. The megaspores are fertilized by a sperm cell produced by the male gametophyte developing from the .

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 3 Exercise 21.2 Phylum Psilotophyta Estimated Exercise 21.2 Completion Time: 20 minutes

Procedure 1 Macroanatomy of Psilotum

Estimated Procedure 1 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Dissecting microscope or magnifying glass ❏❏ Living or preserved specimen of Psilotum if available (try university greenhouse) ❏❏ Colored pencils

Procedure 2 Microanatomy of Psilotum

Estimated Procedure 2 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Compound microscope ❏❏ Prepared slides of Psilotum (Carolina Biological #’s 299176 and 299181) ❏❏ Colored pencils

Check Your Understanding

2.1 What is the common name for members of phylum Psilotophyta? Phylum Psilotophyta is a rather obscure phylum of plants known as the whisk ferns.

2.2 Where is Psilotum usually found? Psilotum spp. are commonly found in warm moist regions in the southern United States.

2.3 Describe several distinguishing features of phylum Psilotophyta. The small plant has no leaves or roots and a dichotomously branching green stem with small scales that bears bright yellow synangia on lateral branches. A synangium is formed from three fused sporangia on short lateral branches. Psilotum spp. are homosporous. A horizontal gives rise to an aerial stem.

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 4 Exercise 21.3 Phylum Sphenophyta Estimated Exercise 21.3 Completion Time: 30 minutes

Procedure 1 Macroanatomy of

Estimated Procedure 1 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Dissecting microscope ❏❏ Living or preserved specimens of Equisetum, one branched and one unbranched (try local nursery) ❏❏ Colored pencils

Answers to Procedural Questions 2a Compare and contrast the external anatomy of the branched and unbranched forms of Equisetum. Branched species of Equisetum spp. have whorl of branches imitating from each node, and other unbranched ­species have nodes without whorls.

2b Describe the texture of the stem. The stem is rough with parallel ridges.

Procedure 2 Microanatomy of Equisetum

Estimated Procedure 2 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Compound microscope ❏❏ Prepared slides of Equisetum (Ward’s Science #’s 914814, 914818, and 914821) ❏❏ Colored pencils

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 5 Procedure 3 Calamites

Estimated Procedure 3 Completion Time: 10 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Dissecting microscope or magnifying glass ❏❏ specimen of Calamites (Ward’s Science #535750) ❏❏ Colored pencils

Check Your Understanding

3.1 What is a whisk ? Whisk ferns are members of phylum Psilotophyta. The small plant has no leaves or roots and a dichotomously branching green stem with small scales that bears bright yellow synangia on lateral branches.

3.2 What was Calamites? Calamites spp. were giant members of the horsetail family that grew to heights of more than 20m during the .

3.3 Describe several uses of horsetails. Through the centuries, horsetails have been used as food and medicine. Today, however, the consumption of horsetail is discouraged. Medically, ancient cultures used horsetail as diuretics; astringents; agents to discourage lice, fleas, and mites; and a cure for diarrhea. Many Oriental gardens feature horsetails. Pioneers used horsetails to scrub pots and sharpen knives.

3.4 Given the description of elaters provided on p. 327, describe their function. Elaters are winglike structures found on the spores of horsetails. They serve to increase the distribution of the spores.

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 6 Exercise 21.4 Phylum Pterophyta Estimated Exercise 21.4 Completion Time: 1 hour

Procedure 1 Macroanatomy of Ferns

Estimated Procedure 1 Completion Time: 20 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Dissecting microscope ❏❏ Living or preserved specimens of several species of ferns (local nursery, field, or other source) ❏❏ Scalpel ❏❏ Petri dishes ❏❏ Water ❏❏ Dropper ❏❏ Microscope slides and coverslips ❏❏ Acetone (Carolina Biological #841500) ❏❏ Rubbing alcohol ❏❏ Salt water ❏❏ Distilled water ❏❏ Gloves ❏❏ Colored pencils

Answers to Procedural Questions 5 Remove another sorus from the pinnae with a scalpel, and place it in a petri dish. Place one drop of acetone on the sorus, and observe it with a dissecting microscope. What happened? The sorus immediately popped open and released the spores.

6 Repeat Steps 3–5, using rubbing alcohol, salt water, and distilled water. What happened? Running alcohol, salt water, and distilled water had no immediate effect on the sori.

Procedure 2 Microanatomy of Ferns

Estimated Procedure 2 Completion Time: 20 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Compound microscope ❏❏ Prepared microscope slides: pinnae (Ward’s Science #914901) and sori (Carolina Biological #299500) of a maidenhair fern, a fern gametophyte, archegonia (Carolina Biological #299278) and antheridia (Carolina Biological #299248) of a gametophyte, a transverse section through a stem of a fern, and a transverse section through a sporocarp of Marsilea

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 7 Procedure 3 Bringing Polypodium Ferns Back to Life

Estimated Procedure 3 Completion Time: 20 minutes

Materials ❏❏ Dry Polypodium sp. (Carolina Biological #156396) ❏❏ Water ❏❏ Paper towels ❏❏ Plastic container

Answers to Procedural Questions 2 Make your observations. Answers will vary.

Check Your Understanding

4.1 What is the function of sori? The spores are produced in sporangia that appear as distinct brown spots on the underside of the frond, called sori.

4.2 How does dried Polypodium sp. react to water? The Polypodium sp. begins to regain its green color and becomes pliable.

4.3 Sketch and label a fern frond. Sketches will vary, but make sure students label pinna, stipe, rhizome, root, and fiddlehead.

Pinna

Stipe Fiddlehead

Rhizome

Root

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 8 Chapter 21 Review 1 What are the general characteristics of seedless vascular plants? The seedless vascular plants, as the name indicates, do not produce seeds but, instead, reproduce through the ­production of spores. These plants feature a dominant sporophyte generation and a reduced gametophyte generation.

2 Describe the characteristics of and provide examples of the following phyla: Lycophyta, Sphenophyta, Psilotophyta, and Pterophyta. Lycophyta—approximately 1,150 species of small plants known as ground pines, club , quillworts, and spike mosses make up phylum Lycophyta. In ground pines, an underground stem, the rhizoid, branches horizontally, ­producing aerial stems and underground roots. The surface of the aerial stem is covered by small, closely and ­spirally packed, scalelike leaves. Ground pines are homosporous. The reproductive sporangia, called , are located on the surface of leaves. A cone-shaped structure, a strobilus, sits at the tip and contains spores. Sphenophyta—members of phylum Sphenophyta are known as horsetails or scouring rushes. Only one , Equisetum­ spp., represented by 25 species, remains today. Members of phylum Sphenophyta commonly live in wet environments throughout the world. Modern species of Equisetum spp. are herbaceous and grow to about 1.5 m in height. In horsetails, scalelike leaves are arranged in a whorl at the nodes. The tiny leaves are fused, forming a collar that turns brown as the plant ages. The aerial stems of horsetails are deeply ribbed, and stomata occur in the grooves between the ribs. Nodes and internodes are obvious in horsetails. The center of the stem, the pith, is hollow. run horizontally across the ground and give rise to an aerial stem and roots. Horsetails can reproduce asexually through fragmentation. Sexually, sporophyte horsetails produce strobili at the tip of the stem, composed of scalelike sporangiophores. Beneath the sporangiophores, sporangia produce spores. Psilotophyta—phylum Psilotophyta is a rather obscure phylum of plants known as the whisk ferns. Only two genera survive today—Psilotum sp. and Tmesipteris sp. Psilotum sp. is commonly found in the southern United States. The small plant has no leaves or roots and a dichotomously branching green stem with small scales that bears bright yellow synangia on lateral branches. In Psilotum sp., a horizontal rhizome gives rise to an aerial stem. Pterophyta—ferns placed in phylum Pterophyta (Polypodiophyta) are the most abundant group of seedless vascular plants. The sporophyte stage is dominant in ferns. The leaves of ferns, known as fronds, arise from rhizomes. ­Immature fronds develop from the tip of a rhizome and appear as a tightly coiled and rolled-up structure called a fiddlehead. Compound frond ferns possess ornate leaflets, or pinnae. Simple frond ferns have leathery, broad, unbranched, strap-like fronds. The pinnae are attached to a midrib, sometimes called a rachis. A petiole, or stalk, attaches the pinnae to the rhizome. Other ferns have leathery, broad, unbranched, strap-like fronds. Branching roots also arise from Strobilus the rhizomes. Most fern species are homosporous. The spores are produced in ­sporangia, appearing as distinct brown spots on the underside of the frond, called sori. Example ferns include the resurrection fern, the royal fern, and the water fern (Polypodium polypoidioides).

3 Sketch and label Equisetum sp. Sketches will vary, but make sure students include mature sporophyte (2n), Mature Node ­strobilus, node, ribbed stem, sheath, and rhizome. sporophyte (2n) Ribbed 4 Distinguish between the sporophyte and the gametophyte generation stem Leaf in seedless vascular plants. sheath These seedless vascular plants feature a dominant sporophyte generation and a reduced gametophyte generation.

Rhizome

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 9 5 What are some commercial and medical uses of seedless vascular plants? Seedless vascular plants, such as ferns, are used in medicine and as ornamentals. Horsetail can be used as ­medicine and to sharpen knives. Lycopodium spp. are used as decoration and, at one time, in camera flashes.

6 Compare and contrast Lycopodium sp. and Selaginella sp. Selaginella spp. appear to creep along the ground with simple, scalelike leaves on branching stems from which roots arise. The leaves of Selaginella spp. have a distinct ligule, or tongue, on their upper surface and generally appear larger than Lycopodium spp. In Lycopodium spp., an underground stem branches horizontally across the surface, producing aerial stems and underground roots. The surface of the aerial stem is covered by small, closely and spirally packed, scalelike leaves.

7 How did the pioneers use horsetail? Pioneers used horsetail to scrub pots and sharpen knives.

Portion of leaf 8 Trace the life cycle of a typical fern. showing sori Sketches will vary.

Leaf vein

Pinna (frond) Fiddlehead Meiosis Root Mature sporophyte (2n) Meiospores (n)

Young sporophyte

Gametophyte Young gametophyte (n) Young sporophyte (2n) Rhizoids growing from gametophyte

Archegonium

Egg (n) Mature gametophyte Embryo (2n)

Zygote Fertilization Antheridium Sperm (n)

9 What is the significance of the vast fern of the Carboniferous? Many of the coal deposits of today were formed from Carboniferous forests.

10 What is the function of a sporangium? The function of sporangia is to produce haploid spores through meiosis.

Chapter 21 | The Green Machine: Understanding the Seedless Vascular Plants 10