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Green Normative Power? Green Normative Power? Relations between New Zealand and the European Union on Environment A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in European Studies at the University of Canterbury by Anna Maria Macdonald University of Canterbury June 2009 ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………................iii Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………….iv List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………….v Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Conceptual Context ....................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Research Question and Guiding Sub-questions ................................................................................ 6 1.4 Delimitations and Definition of Terms ............................................................................................. 7 1.6 Methodology and Research Design .................................................................................................. 9 1.7 Thesis Outline ................................................................................................................................. 14 Chapter Two: The Power of Ideas: Constructivism, Policy Transfer and Small States 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 15 2.2 Constructivism ................................................................................................................................ 17 2.3 A Policy Approach .......................................................................................................................... 33 2.4 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................... 43 Chapter Three: Environmental Identities and Policies 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 46 3.2 The European Union ....................................................................................................................... 47 3.3 New Zealand ................................................................................................................................... 59 3.4 Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 70 Chapter Four: Overview of European Union and New Zealand Relations on Environment 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 73 4.2 Development and Structure of the Relationship on Environment .................................................. 74 4.3 European Union-New Zealand Relations on Environment: Case Studies ...................................... 80 4.4 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................... 98 Chapter Five: European Union and New Zealand Relations on Climate Change 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 101 5.2 European Union-New Zealand Relations on Climate Change in an International Context .......... 103 5.3 Case study: Emissions Trading Cooperation ................................................................................ 117 5.4 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................................... 133 Chapter Six: Conclusion 6.1 Conceptual Outcomes ................................................................................................................... 139 6.2 Practical Outcomes ....................................................................................................................... 145 References..............................................................................................................................148 Interview List......................................................................................................................................166 iii Acknowledgements Firstly, I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to the National Centre for Research on Europe for the financial and administrative support necessary to complete this thesis. It has been a pleasure to work with such wonderful people and in such a supportive environment. In particular, a huge thank you to Professor Martin Holland for his encouragement, guidance and support. Thank you also to Jeremy Richardson for generously donating his time and considerable experience to work with me on the thesis. I am also grateful to Dr Natalia Chaban for helping me clarify the aims of the thesis early in the process in her excellent class on the practicalities of research design and methods. In Lyon, to Professor Michel Boyer for making himself available when I needed to seek advice. Thank you also to Rebecca Morgan and Sarah Coleman who at various times have helped enormously with administrative and technical issues. I must of course also thank the policy officials both in New Zealand and in Brussels who kindly donated their time, participating in interviews and sharing information with me. This thesis would not have been possible without their generosity. And lastly but most importantly, thank you to my friends and family for their support throughout the course of my studies. Thank you especially to Hamish for his endless patience, encouragement and proofreading, even as I extended my university studies well beyond what was originally planned. Christchurch, 29 May 2009 iv Abstract The relationship between the EU and New Zealand has expanded considerably since the protracted trade negotiations of the 1970s and now includes dialogue and cooperation on a range of policy issues. In recent years, environment has become an increasingly high priority matter and is increasingly referenced as playing an important part in EU-New Zealand relations. At the same time, the EU has been praised for its leadership role in climate change negotiations, and some scholars have described it as a “green” normative power with the ability to influence other actors internationally on environmental policy. Taking the EU-New Zealand relationship on environment as its case study, this thesis attempts to address a gap in the academic literature concerning relations between New Zealand and the European Union (EU) on environmental issues. It compares and contrasts the concept of EU normative power with that of policy transfer, arguing that both address the spread of ideas, but finding that what might appear to be normative power and the diffusion of norms, can in fact be best explained as policy transfer and the diffusion of policy or knowledge. v List of Abbreviations AAU Assigned Amount Unit CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CDM Clean Development Mechanism CER Certified Reduction Unit CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species COP Conference of the Parties DG Directorate General ERMA Environmental Risk Management Authority (New Zealand) GNP Gross National Product EC European Community ; also European Commission ECJ European Court of Justice EEC European Economic Community EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone ERU Emissions Reduction Unit ETS Emissions Trading Scheme GMO Genetically Modified Organism vi JI Joint Implementation HSNO Act Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act EU European Union MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreement MFAT Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (New Zealand) MfE Ministry for Environment (New Zealand) MoT Ministry of Transport (New Zealand) OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development REACH EC Regulation on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemical Substances RMA Resource Management Act UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WTO World Trade Organisation 1 1: Introduction Inspired by statements issued by New Zealand and European Union (EU) representatives declaring the desire to work more closely together on environmental issues,1 this thesis seeks to reconcile accounts of the EU as a normative power, in particular recent depictions of it acting as a “green” normative power in international environmental politics, with the reality of relations with a third state as a case study, namely New Zealand. To achieve this aim the thesis compares and contrasts a normative power account of the relationship with a policy studies approach, in order to analyse the development of dialogue between New Zealand and the EU on environmental issues at the bilateral, regional and multilateral levels. 1.1 Background New Zealand and the European Union (EU) respectively have both come to be perceived internationally as environmental leaders: the EU with particular reference to its efforts internationally towards tackling climate change, and New Zealand in relation to its well promoted international reputation for being „clean and green.‟ Environmental concerns, particularly climate change, have become increasingly high profile at the international level in recent years, and the proposed responses and issues involved have
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