Exhibitions 2011

Textile Research Centre

Exhibitions 2011

Textile Research Centre Hogewoerd 164 2311 HW Leiden

The present booklet is one in a series that contain the texts and some of the photographs and other illustrations, which accompanied the exhibitions that were set up at the Textile Research Centre, Leiden, since October 2009. The booklet can be freely downloaded by anyone interested in the fascinating world of textiles and dress, but please whenever possible acknowledge the source and the information it contains. The texts were all written by a team of TRC specialists. Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood, director TRC, January 2016.

Table of Contents

1. Cheongsam (March – August 2011) 3 2. Dutch lace caps (May – June 2011) 12

Frontispiece: Dutch lace cap from the Rijnland region from the mid-nineteenth century, for a wealthy Protestant women (TRC collection)

Cheongsam!

(TRC Gallery, March – August 2011)

There are a number of garments throughout the world that have become icons, notably the Japanese kimono, the Afghan chadari, the Indian sari, the Indonesian sarong and the Scottish kilt. To this select group belongs the Chinese cheongsam.

The cheongsam is regarded as the ‘standard’ dress for Chinese women from the 1930s until the 1960s. During this time it was popular in China’s main cities such as Shanghai, as well as Hong Kong, Taiwan and among the Chinese diaspora throughout the world. There have also been attempts to make the cheongsam into the national dress of China.

A 1920s advertisement for Victoria soap from Shanghai, showing two women dressed in a cheongsam dress.

Nowadays, the cheongsam is often described as a tight, body hugging dress with a mandarin collar with fancy, braid buttons (‘frogs’). But this garment is much more than this definition implies. On one level it can be regarded as a garment that ‘simply’ reflects changes in Chinese fashion. On another level, however, the recent history of the cheongsam can be seen as a mirror to the many and varied economic, political and social changes that took place in China throughout the twentieth century. It is also a garment that has been influenced by and is currently influencing various fashionable trends in the West. As such the cheongsam cannot simply be regarded as a ‘pretty’ dress!

Cheongsam or qipao? The term cheongsam comes from cheuhngsaam, the Cantonese pronunciation of the Shanghainese term zamsea meaning ‘long shirt’ or ‘long dress.’ The cheongsam is

3 known in Mandarin Chinese as the qipao (lit. banner gown; named after members of the Manchu banner group who wore a similar style garment). The word qipao can be used for a female form of the cheuhngsaam. The male equivalent of the ‘long shirt’ is called a changshan. Both the male and female versions are sometimes known in English as the Mandarin gown. By the 1930s the term cheongsam or qipao had become generally associated with a single, tight fitting garment worn by women. Nowadays, most Western countries use the Shanghainese term cheongsam for this type of garment worn by women. This term has also been used throughout this exhibition.

The Cheongsam: A brief history

At the end of the nineteenth century many women belonging to the social elite wore heavy, multi-layered garments, large headpieces and, in the case of Han women, very tiny bound feet. For Manchu women the main robe (qinupao) had a simple A- line form, a high front and back with a rounded collar, a curved, side-closing flap fastened with braid loops and knots (frogs; huaniu or panhuaniu ), wide bell shaped sleeves or tapered sleeves with crescent-shaped cuffs (mati hsui; horse-hoof cuffs), and side vents or slits in the skirt section. Changes came in 1912 with the fall of the imperial Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) and the introduction of the Republic (1912-49). This period also saw various economic, political and social changes including increased educational possibilities for women and a rapid change in their work opportunities. Fashionable young women started to wear non-imperial or ‘civilized new attire’ (wen ming zin zhuang). This included Western style clothing, as well as adapted Han and Manchu forms.

Detail of a 1960s cheongsam with brocade buttons (private collection). In the background is a man's garment with metal buttons (TRC collection).

The ‘new’ Manchu gown, for example, had a high mandarin collar and a wide, A-line cut. At first they were mainly associated with fashionable by upper class women and courtesans. Later the cheongsam’s use spread to other groups within Chinese society. Some women combined Chinese and foreign influences, notably the cheongsam with stockings, high heels, cardigans, belts, fur stoles and so forth. Many women also adopted Western style hair styles, such as the marcel wave (a deep curl created using curling irons). At this time Shanghai was the centre of fashion and known by many as the “Paris of the East.” Shanghai life style trends, including clothing and the cheongsam in particular, were followed throughout the region. Following the advent of Communist rule on the Chinese mainland by 1949, many Shanghai residents, including tailors, fled to the then British colony of Hong Kong. Here they developed new lines and forms of cheongsam.

Late 19th century photograph showing a woman sitting on the floor and a woman to her left, both wearing a long qinupao (Library of Congress).

During the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) the cheongsam was discouraged by the Chinese Government as being too ‘bourgeois’. During this period both men and women commonly wore a uni-sex outfit, which became known as the Mao suit after the Chinese leader, Chairman Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-Tung; 1893-1976). At the

5 same time the cheongsam virtually vanished from the clothing repertoire of mainland China. Since the death of Mao Zedong state control over what people wear has gradually waned. However, this does not mean that the cheongsam immediately re- appeared. It was still regarded as too impractical by many Chinese women. The cheongsam was officially deemed acceptable following the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing when some female officials and bearers wore various styles of this garment, thus confirming its status as a Chinese and global icon.

The Cut and Appearance of a Cheongsam

There are various elements that characterise a cheongsam, notably its cut, the front neck opening, the use of a mandarin collar, and the use of braid loops and knots to fasten the garment. Although various changes have taken place in the general appearance of the cheongsam during the twentieth century, these elements have remained consistent features. A basic, late nineteenth century cheongsam is made up of a series of straight pattern pieces sewn together – an ancient method of tailoring that is based on the width of a piece of cloth to minimise waste. With the introduction of Western concepts of tailoring and the increasingly fitted nature of the garment the basic cut became more complicate. It would appear from surviving examples and contemporary photographs that the neck openings on late nineteenth century cheongsam were usually a curved line down the right hand side of the garment (left over right). However, as the twentieth century progressed a variety of neck openings developed including left hand slits, middle slits, double slits as well as deep décolleté forms. Late nineteenth century Manchu gowns normally had a low rounded collar, while Han garments had a mandarin collar. The later had been adapted by the 1930s as a feature of the cheongsam. The depth of the collar is said to have varied according to the length of the wearer’s neck and what was fashionable. As a result some collars covered the lower half of the neck, while others are much deeper and would have reached the ears. A distinctive feature of the cheongsam is the use of decorative frogs (huaniu or panhuaniu) or braid buttons to fasten the neck and lapel opening of the garment. These buttons consist of two elements a loop (female) and a knot (male). These inconspicuous details are important as they are said to represent the soul of the cheongsam. Traditional buttons come in many different forms such as birds, insects, fish, plants, and auspicious patterns. They are usually in auspicious colours that match the ground material and the design used to decorate the garments, as well as any ornamental braids or piping.

Materials, colours and designs

A wide range of materials is used to make cheongsam, depending on factors such as the time of year, economic resources of the wearer and the occasion. Light weight materials, for example, such as cottons, poplins and silks tend to be used for summer 6 months. While heavier silks, woollens, satins and velvets are more common for winter wear. In addition, winter versions are often padded with either raw cotton or silk.

A Chinese red brocade cheongsam (1960’s) and a black embroidered cheongsam (private collection).

Although silk brocades are commonly associated with cheongsams, there are versions in other weaves such as damasks, tapestry and twills weaves. In addition, embroidered (hand and machine), beaded and sequined versions, lace and printed examples can also be found. From the 1960s jersey (machine knitted) forms appeared especially for garments made for the Western markets. Leather and plastic versions also exit, but these are generally worn in very specific, exotic situations and occasions. One of the main influences, however, on the choice of material and the final appearance of a cheongsam is when it is going to be worn, on informal occasions or formal ones, such as an evening out, wedding or funeral. Wedding cheongsam, for instance, are often made from a red brocade, red being the traditional colour

7 of fortune and prosperity in China. Some wedding cheongsam are very short and tempting, while others are more modest and marketed as reflecting a past age of decorum. Modern funeral cheongsam tend to be black, following Western traditions, however older versions may be white. Over the centuries colours have changed slightly in meaning, but the basic forms are:

• Black: the colour of immortality, stability, knowledge, trust, power, and calmness. • Blue: conserving, healing relaxation, trust • Gold: completeness, wealth • Green: growth, sprouting, calming, healing, benevolence, health, harmony and patience • Orange: indicating change, adaptability, spontaneity, concentration. • Pink: love • Purple: spiritual awareness, physical and metal healing, hence strength, abundance • Red: good luck, celebration, happiness, joy, vitality, long life; red purple brings luck and fame, money, recognition, propriety, creativity, joy vs. over excitation • Silver: metal (income, wealth), trustworthiness, romance • White: mourning, righteousness, pureness, confidence, ancestral spirits, courage in sadness • Yellow: nourishing, supporting, stabilizing, ripening, warmth, royalty, good faith, empathy

For hundreds of years the clothing used by various Chinese groups was decorated with symbolic emblems indicating who the person was and his or her social rank. The Emperor, for example, always had a dragon facing outwards, while some of his courtiers wore dragons facing inwards. Female members of the imperial household would have the phoenix as the emblem on their garments. Other social groups might wear a flower symbol, such as the peony (affluence and prosperity), the lotus (purity and loveliness) and the chrysanthemum (longevity). Fish are also believed to bring prosperity. These, and other symbols such as dragons and butterflies, can also be found on cheongsam, especially those associated with festive events such as a wedding. Cheongsam, especially those designed for the Western market, also reflect a wide range of designs and styles from Art Deco to abstract smears. Other cheongsam deliberately use motifs and settings such as pagodas, scenes with Chinese figures and so forth, to emphasize the ‘traditional’ Chinese nature of the garment.

The Early Styles of Cheongsam

In the early 1900s the cheongsam was part of a more elaborate outfit; to wear the garment on its own was regarded as being very daring as it revealed the shape of the woman’s body. Over the following decades the cut, length, and form of the

8 cheongsam was to change considerably. In some cases it became more conservative, in others much more daring and revealing. In general, up to the 1920s most women still followed the imperial fashions, but there was a growing influence of Western designs. In 1927 Nanjing became the capital of the Chinese Republic and two styles were officially designated as suitable for women’s formal wear. The first was a black jacket and blouse/skirt combination, and the second was the cheongsam. The latter became the fashionable choice for many women. At this time the cheongsam fell straight from the shoulders to the hem in an A-line. However, it was now much shorter with a hem line that came just below the knees. This length was comparable to Western fashionable levels. At the beginning of the 1930s cheongsam hemlines dropped to the ankle and by the mid-1930s some women wore versions that covered their feet. As the gowns became longer many women started to wear examples with split sides. In some cases these splits reached as high as thigh length. It was said that in some bars the cost of a drink depended upon the length of the slit – basically the longer the slit, the higher the price. Female sexuality was emphasized by wearing silk stockings and high heels that had been recently adopted from Western fashions. During the 1930s the Shanghai film industry was very important for popular culture and many of the starlets wore cheongsam. As a result cheongsam became a popular fashion on the Chinese mainland and via the Chinese Diaspora the cheongsam became known throughout the world. During the 1940s the cheongsam tended to be mid-calf or the ankle, while more conservative women had ankle length versions with long sleeves. Fashionable younger women tended to wear mid-calf, slim fitting, short sleeves, caps or sleeveless. See through (hostess) versions became more popular at this time.

The Golden Age of the Cheongsam

The 1950s and 1960s are regarded by some as the golden age of the cheongsam. During this period the cheongsam became shorter and very tight fitting at the waist to highlight the feminine forms. The side slit of some cheongsam became even higher, to the extent that some groups protested in public against the cheongsam. As a response some cheongsam had zips so that the length of the slit could be altered depending upon the circumstances. The world wide appeal of the cheongsam was further advanced when they were shown in films based in China and Hong Kong. One of the most famous was The World of Suzie Wong, which appeared in 1960. The role of the golden hearted prostitute, Suzie Wong, was played by Nancy Kwan, who frequently was shown wearing the cheongsam. This film helped to make the cheongsam fashionable, albeit

briefly, in the West. It also made an appearance, for example, in the famous comedy film, The Road to Hong Kong (1962) starring Bing Crosby, Bob Hope and Joan Collins. At the same time, however, older and working women in Hong Kong started to wear more functional cheongsam made of wool, twill, and other materials. Most were tailor fitted and came with a matching jacket. These outfits continued to be popular in the 1960s and would be worn with gloves. Such outfits were a fusion of Chinese and Western styles. During the 1970s and 1980s the cheongsam virtually vanished from the public life of mainland China. It was regarded by some as having run out of steam. In addition, it was severely disapproved of by the Communist government who made it clear that the wearing of this garment was not acceptable. Instead both men and women were encouraged to wear the so-called Mao suit, a combination of jacket and trousers. The use of the cheongsam, however, continued in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Chinese communities throughout the world. Nevertheless, the appeal of jumpers, sweaters, jeans, business suits and skirts made the cheongsam, with its restrictive cut, less popular. An ironic situation when considering its role as a liberating garment for Chinese women in the 1920s and 30s. During this period the cheongsam was regarded by many as being only really suitable for hostesses and waitresses in Chinese restaurants.

The Revival of the Cheongsam

During the late 1990s the cheongsam gradually became more acceptable and two basic styles developed in China, namely, the Shanghai and Beijing styles. The former includes names such as Shanghai Tang and is characterized by classical forms with a twist. Other designers have taken the cheongsam and deconstructed it so that only ‘essential’ elements such as the close fit and mandarin collar remain, frills along the lower hem, or even just the cord used to make the fastenings. In addition, Chinese fashion designers in the cities such as Hong Kong (Shiatzy Chen), Singapore (Geh Lai Chan, Clarissa Choh, Vivienne Lin and Michelle Want) and Kuala Lumpur (Keith Kee) are producing cheongsam which reflect a different approach to the cut of the cheongsam. Keith Kee for example, includes hidden corsets in his garments in order to give a more fitted and clean appearance. Key-hole necklines have become a feature of more ‘sexy’ versions of this garment. In addition to creating garments for a Chinese market, some designers work for an international clientele. Singapore based Vivienne Tam, for examples, has designed cheongsam style garments for Beyonce, Madonna and Julia Roberts. In contrast, the Beijing style is regarded as more conservative and ‘Chinese.’ Not surprisingly, it was this style of cheongsam in white/gold and blue/gold, as well as the long red and gold versions that were worn by various official hostesses at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. 10

A number of famous Western fashion designers have used the cheongsam as part of their fashion repertoire. These designers include Chanel, Betsey Johnson, Leo Narducci, Yves St. Laurent and Louis Vuitton. In 2010 the fashion houses of Karl Lagerfeld and Chanel included cheongsam’s in their collections. The Lagerfeld example was included in his spectacular fashion show held on part of the Great Wall of China itself. The Chanel examples were in their pre- autumn fashion show held in Shanghai, and versions were later included in the La Chanelphile by M.I.S.S. collection.

Nichole Kidman in red cheongsam with deep cleavage in the film Australia (2008)

At the Oscar ceremonies of spring 2010 the famous Australian actress Nichole Kidman walked down the red carpet wearing a cheongsam style dress designed by Dior. She also wore a cheongsam in the film, Australia (2008), which was based in the period around the start of the Second World War (1939-1945) and its effects on Australia and surrounding countries. Other celebrities that have recently worn cheongsam include Celine Dion, Kylie Minogue and Paris Hilton.

Further reading

Hong Kong Museum, The Evergreen Classic: Transformation of the Qipao, exhibition catalogue, Hong Kong Museum of History, Hong Kong, 2010.

Tsui, Christine, China Fashion: Conversations with Designers, Berg Publications, Oxford, 2009.

Wilson, Verity, Chinese Dress, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 1986.

Wu, Juanjuan, Chinese Fashion from Mao to Now, Berg Publications, Oxford, 2009.

Dutch Lace Caps

(National Art Gallery, Amman, Jordan, May - June 2011)

One of the global icons in the world of regional dress is that of the Volendam girl in her lace cap, striped skirt and clogs, with a bunch of tulips in one hand and a windmill in the background. But the story of lace caps in the Netherlands is much more complicated than the Volendam cap might indicate. Given the relatively small size of the country there is a surprising variety of lace caps. Sometimes these variations are obvious, on other occasions it is minimal and can be a question of whether the pointed edges of the cap face upwards or downwards.

Worldwide urban clothing is often adopted and adapted by people living in villages and in the countryside, and this has taken place in the Netherlands as well, but, as will be seen, with some unexpected twists.

Mourning cap from the Veluwe (TRC collection)

Various factors have to be taken into account when looking at regional dress, such as location (urban, village), the social status of the wearer (rich, poor), and their occupation (merchant, farmer, fisherman). Another factor in Dutch regional dress is the use of clothing to express a person’s religious identity, namely Protestant or Catholic. This is due to the historical strife in Northern Europe between followers of the Catholic and those of the Protestant faith. Since the 16th century the division between these two groups has been particularly apparent in the Netherlands. As a generalisation, people in the north were predominantly Protestant, while those south of the so-called Grote Rivieren (‘Large Rivers’) were Catholic. But there are also important differences in the appearance of Dutch caps depending on when they are worn. The caps worn during the week tend to be small and plain forms, of a practical nature that could easily be washed. In contrast, those worn on Sundays, festival days and important religious events (Easter, baptisms, special masses, and so forth), are the most elaborate. But these were only worn when the weather was fine. Another feature of Dutch regional dress is the use of specific

12 mourning outfits for the period following the death of a relative or friend. On the island of Marken, for instance, there are as many as seven different grades of mourning, with appropriate clothing. Not surprisingly, mourning is also reflected in the appearance of the Sunday caps. In general, these are very plain versions with no lace, but cut and made-up in the same style as the Sunday (non-mourning) types. Social control and interest in what the caps were made of was very strong. Wearing the wrong type of material with the wrong type of cap on the wrong day or event could and did cause social comments.

A modern Staphorst cap decorated with dotwork (TRC collection)

Yet it should never be thought that the history of Dutch dress is static. It was constantly responding to fashion, as well as to personal, social, economic, and political changes. The changes in Dutch society over the last century, including the opening up of the country (land reclamation, roads, rail links, and so forth), urbanisation and industrialisation caused many people (men and women) to stop wearing regional dress. It is estimated that within twenty years there will be no more ‘natural’ dress, although there are many people who wear regional dress to celebrate special social occasions, such as a birthday, wedding, royal event and so forth, but do not wear it on a daily basis. In addition, the traditions will be continued by local parties such as folklore groups, dance troupes and choirs, in local museums, and the like.

Materials

A range of materials has been used for making Dutch caps. These have changed over time due to the availability of different types of cloth. The older caps, for example, were made out of linen, but in the 19th century cotton became more widely available and cheaper and many caps were being made in this material. In addition, the type of cloth used was a reflection of the occupation and social status of the wearer. Wealthier urban women generally wore a different range of materials than women from poor fishing communities. The caps were normally made out of various materials, including cotton batiste, lawn, and plissé. Normally, finer materials were worn on a Sunday. During periods of mourning the type of cloth would change into slightly thicker forms, with no or little decoration, and usually without any shine to it. An important feature of Dutch caps is the use of various types of lace, including bobbin lace. Much of this lace came from northern France and Belgium, notably from the regions around Brussels and Antwerp.

In addition to lace being used on the caps, a variety of embroidery forms were also used. When a person could not afford this expensive form of lace, machine lace was used instead. In some cases, embroidery, especially on net, was used to copy intricate lace designs so that people from a distance would think that the wearer was wearing a more expensive cap than was actually the case. Another technique used is crochet. By the end of the 19th century crochet was used in many areas of the Netherlands to create lace caps that were worn on a daily basis. These could be easily made at home and required little skill to wash and re-make. Crochet is still used in the village of Spakenburg for making lace caps. A feature of many Dutch lace caps is the complicated nature of the decorative elements, including tiny pleats, folds, flutes, as well as bands woven into intricate patterns. The making of a cap (and re-making after it was washed) was one of the more complicated aspects of Dutch regional dress.

Rijnland cap for a Protestant woman (TRC collection)

It was usual for a village to have several women who specialised in this job as a means of earning a living. Sometimes the pleats were put in by hand (if they were large), but if the pleats were smaller they could be made by using a pair of special pincers (plooitang and plooiknijpers) of various sizes, or with a special ribbed plank (plooiplankje) with a similarly ribbed roller (like a miniature mangle), between which the slightly damp cloth was passed to press in the pleats. Various types of starch were used to create the stiffness required to make a cap stand proud. Most of the starches were made from natural substances such as potatoes, flour and rice. Although nowadays chemical versions are available, cap makers still prefer to use the older forms (if available). Some caps also needed a special metal wire framework in order to support the size and shape of the caps. The wire used for these is called a laitondraad.

Different forms of caps

Dutch headdresses can be very complicated affairs. They are often made up of different caps, bands and strings, as well as very special jewellery. In a simplified form there are three basic caps: the skull or under cap (ondermuts), a between cap (tussenmuts) and the over or upper cap (overmuts). Generally speaking, two of these caps are normally used, namely, the under cap that is worn by itself on a daily basis, while the headdress worn on Sundays and special occasions usually consists of two or even all three. 14

Dutch caps can furthermore be divided into various groups depending on their basic form and method of construction. The main groups are the hul and the kornet. The hul is the simplest form of cap and probably the oldest. It is made out of a shaped piece of cloth that is sewn at the back. Sometimes extra panels at the front and sides are added, as in the case of the sluiermuts. The kornetmuts (cornet) is made from a large piece of cloth that is folded in half. The front section is usually pleated or drawn up in order to give it a more rounded shape and then it is sewn along the front. But it should be noted that caps can vary quite considerably with regards to size, decoration and final appearance. So it is not always easy to identify the basic group to which a cap belongs.

Dutch lace caps and jewellery

An important feature of Dutch regional dress is the use of jewellery to indicate a person’s regional origins, religion and more importantly, social status. A wide range of materials were used, from gold, silver, to pearls and garnets (real and glass). But perhaps one of the most famous are the necklaces made of blood coral.

Casque from Drenthe, with replica jewellery (TRC-collection).

In contrast, during times of mourning few items of jewellery were worn and most of it was of a plain appearance. The form, size, and decoration of headdress jewellery are again a reflection of the origins and social status of the wearer.

Oorijzer One of the most impressive items is the oorijzer. The term oorijzer (lit. “ear iron”) has been in use since the 16th century. The oorijzer is basically a metal clamp placed around the head, to which a cap is attached. It is said that these ‘clamps’ were devised to stop the caps from being blown off in the strong winds that sweep the country. Originally the oorijzer was a piece of bent iron that ran around the back of the head and under the cap. It was clamped against the front sides of the head near the cheeks. It was not long before they became a means of showing off the wearer’s wealth rather than simply being a functional item. The oorijzer of a rich woman, for example, was usually made of gold, and some women owned various oorijzers including gold and silver versions, which were used on different occasions. In general, however, going down the social scale meant cheaper materials and so versions in silver, iron and brass were also used. 15

It did not take long before different shapes and forms appeared as fashionable items to wear. Sometimes the whole head was covered (as in the casque from Groningen and Drenthe in the northeast of the country). On other occasions they became a thin wire with a decorative tip such as the oorijzers from Zuid-Beveland, in the southwest of the country. Knobs were placed at the tips of the oorijzer in order to protect the wearer. These tips soon became decorated with plates (boeken or stikken) and curls (krullen). Some women wore oorijzers with decorative pendants (strikken) hanging from the lower edge of the boeken or curls. Again, there are various types depending on where the woman was living.

Pins and other elements Other elements that make up the headdress jewellery include forehead pins and side pins. These were particularly worn in Noord-Holland and in the Rijnland region, in particularly by women from the Leiden region. These pins were developed in the late 18th century and worn right up to the end of the 19th century. The form changed over time. The better quality examples were made out of thin gold and decorated with filigree. Others were decorated with pearls and diamonds. Not surprisingly, these pins were only used on special occasions, such as when going to church.

Lace cap for a Catholic woman from Zuid-Beveland (early 20th century; TRC collection).

Another item of jewellery was the forehead (voorhoofdsplaat) decoration. These were popular with urban women in the 18th and early 19th centuries. They were usually made of gold and decorated with filigree and other decorative elements. The smaller versions were usually called a blesje (especially in the Rijnland and West-Friesland regions), while larger examples were known as voorhoofdsplaten. They were worn at the centre of the forehead and kept in place with fine gold chains. They continued to be worn as part of the regional dress in Drenthe, Groningen, West- Friesland and the Rijnland region. More specifically, they were associated with Catholic women.