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Water Resources Management and Agriculture in the Highlands of South Peru from Incas Times to the Present

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Water Resources Management and Agriculture in the Highlands of South Peru from Incas Times to the Present 國立中山大學海洋環境及工程學系 博士論文 Department of Marine Environment and Engineering National Sun Yat-sen University Doctorate Dissertation 南秘魯地區從印加時期至今之水資源管理與農業灌溉使用 Water resources management and agriculture in the highlands of South Peru from Incas times to the present 研究生 : 王星 Enrique Meseth Macchiavello 指導教授 : 于嘉順 博士 Dr. Jason C.S. Yu 中華民國 一百零三年十月 October 2014 国立中山大学研究生学位論文審定書 本校海洋環境度工程筆糸博士班 研究生王 呈（学菰：DOO5040009）所提論文 南秘魯地直後印加時期至今之水資源管理興農業潅漑使用 WaterresourcesmanagementandagrlCultureinthehighlandsof SouthPeru宜omIncastimestothepresent 於中華民国宵籍藍若輩。舗査並奉行ロ 学位考試委員条章： 召集人疎放葦 委員干嘉順＿鼓＿ 委 員 尤結正 四国報国 委員高志明馬‘ま車 委 員 陸暁埼 委 員 委 員 委 員 委 員 指尊教授（干喜順） 囲 Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the following in this research project: National Sun Yat-Sen University NSYSU, Department of Marine Environment and Engineering, Kaohsiung, for supplying research equipment for this project Professor Jason Yu, for providing advice and suggestions - National Sun Yat-Sen University NSYSU, Department of Marine Environment and Engineering, Kaohsiung Dr. Hao-Cheng Yu, Yu-Chih Hsiao, classmates and staff from the Department of Marine Environment and Engineering at NSYSU for all their support Professor Shiau-Yun Lu, Chia-Wen Hsu MSc, and Huan-Min Chen MSc, for their support and training on GIS - National Sun Yat-Sen University NSYSU, Department of Marine Environment and Engineering, Kaohsiung Professor Su-Hwa Chen and Dr Liang-Chi Wang, for their advice and support on palynology analysis - National Taiwan University NTU, Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Taipei Professor Michael Buzinny, for his advice and radiocarbon dating analysis - Marzeev Institute of Hygiene and Medical Ecology of the Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine Professor Jimmy Kao, for his advice on thesis and publications issues - National Sun Yat-Sen University NSYSU, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Kaohsiung Professor Wei-Hsiang Chen, for his lectures on climate change and advice on thesis and publications issues - National Sun Yat-Sen University NSYSU, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Kaohsiung Dir. Zenón Huamán Gutiérrez, for his kind support on supplying modern climate data from Machu Picchu meteorological station - Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú SENAMHI Cusco, Peru Dir. Percy Letona Pérez and Mr Wilfredo Chavez, for their support on supplying hydrology information about Cusco Region - Instituto de Manejo de Agua y Medio Ambiente IMA, Gobierno Regional Cusco, Peru Mr Benjamin Cobos Tejada and family, for their kind support and providing information about Vitcos site in the modern times and in the past - Huancacalle Town, Cusco, Peru Mr Grimaldo Santa Cruz Alvarez, for his kind support and knowledge of modern agriculture in Vilcabamba - Pucyura Town, Cusco, Peru i Professor Derek Clarke, for his advice on irrigation issues - University of Southampton, School of Engineering and the Environment, UK Luis Manuel Iriarte O’Brien, for his support on fieldwork at Vitcos, Cusco, Peru Patricia Muñoz Tapia, for all her support on paperwork and the research project in Peru Romina Meseth Macchiavello, for supplying semi-professional photography equipment to document the research site in Peru Dr Renato Sala and Jean-Marc Deom MA, for their knowledge and inspiration to do research in challenging places - Laboratory of Geoarchaeology, Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan Mr Americo Saca Cobos and Mr Juan Luis Huaman, for providing information and guidance to archeological sites and Inca hydraulic works - Ministerio de Cultura, Espiritu Pampa, Cusco, Peru My family, for their kind support and interest on my research, Lima, Peru. ii 摘要 本研究目標是改善南秘魯高地的比爾卡班山谷之農業水資源管理，靠著 有效的農作物時程規劃可以用旱作灌溉來滿足大部分用水需求。因此，印加時 期的農作物需求被重新建構起來，以便估算當時居住在Vitcos地方的人口量。 做出一個比爾卡班土地適宜評估，以便來決定過去Vitcos地點選擇是否恰當。 第一章介紹了本研究的研究方法、地點位置及比爾班高在後印加時期的 歷史觀點，而比爾班高人以Vitcos為主要居住地及印加社會組織。從農業科技 區塊來看，梯田或安德內司是詳細的，它是被建立在陡峭的山坡上及被設計出 有較深土壤來減少侵蝕與風險。在印加時期重建原生作物，從16世紀和公元17 世紀的編年史糧食和作物引用進行了描述。 第二章討論現代農業，利用該地區的氣候資料、被栽培農作物的種類、 土壤特性、土地利用的數量、地方水資源管理及水文。農作物量的估計及種植 的時程規劃是由Cropwat程式來計算，結果顯示出旱作農作物可以如同一般所 做的，在9月到12月之間進行播種主要農作物。這表示這些高地區域的農夫們 擁有一個良好的農作物時程規劃管理，即充分利用大部分雨季時間。儘管如 此，若農作物是旱季作物，且沒有預先灌溉來潤濕土壤，農作物的生產量將會 受到影響。結論是，為了把此影響壓縮到最小，被選擇的農作物應晚一個月播 種，才會更接近雨季的開始。 第三章詳細描述了Vitcos，並將該地分成了10個主要區域，分別為皇宮、 Inti Raymi、Yurac Rumi、東梯田、東北梯田、東北小梯田、東北田、東南田、 西北田及上梯田。GIS的評估指出Victos總共約有180公頃，農業田及梯田評估 約有20公頃，占了Vitcos約11%之土地。水文及水利工程方面在兩個田野操作 中被評估，就在乾季(2012年9月)及溼季(2013年2月)中利用流速除以面積的方 法來決定河流及運河的流動能力。農業地下水方面經過討論後，發現毛細現象 提供了農作物之額外吸水量。在東梯田，發現了地下流水通道，這表示這些梯 田是與地下水網路一起建造的，並在雨季時是用來排水，而在旱季時則用來灌 溉。利用GIS工具來對泉水、水道及灌溉梯田製圖，是有用於定位水資源、流 量及土壤樣品資料，而資料是利用ArcGIS第10版來進行，並以1比100000之電 子地圖標示。 第四章評估在Vitcos地方的農業及水資源管理。在印加殖民期間（公元 1537年至1572年）的氣候重建是以來自Quelccaya冰帽之冰芯數據來估計，把它 iii 與第二章的現代氣候資料做連結，以便計算蒸散。在過去所栽培的農作物被重 建起來，乃是用孢粉學及所收集的農田土壤樣品放射性碳分析來測得年份；這 些結果還有原生農作物的歷史文件來補充，以便重新創造農作物的時程規劃。 估計印加時期的Vitcos人口數，是考慮到農作物區域、農作物產量、農作物營 養價值、印加飲食習慣及每個人的熱量需求。結果指出糧食產量可維持約365 萬人，這與基於可容納居民的住宅數目的估計，連結很好。 第五章進行比爾卡班巴河谷的土地適宜性評估，來確定印加人的選址在 公元16世紀期間是否適當。這項研究是基於本地區的農業活動及防禦潛能，考 慮到土壤、侵蝕、排水、氣候、水體的距離、坡度及地形的合適性。這些因素 的特徵是被權衡，而地圖與GIS工具疊加來獲得一個土地適宜性之地圖。結論 是，在整體研究區之高度及中度合適的土地不到8％內，印加人很熟悉他們的 環境，選擇了Vitcos地方作為一個恰當的位置。 關鍵字 水資源管理，農業，水文，印加人，秘魯，孢粉學，放射性碳定年， GIS。 iv Abstract This work aimed to improve the water management for agriculture in Vilcabamba valley in the highlands of South Peru, by applying efficient crop schedules that can satisfy most of the water requirements with rainfed irrigation. Consequently, the crop water requirements during Incas times were reconstructed to estimate the population that lived in Vitcos Inca site, based on the food production. A land suitability assessment of Vilcabamba was carried out, determining the adequacy of Vitcos site selection in the past. Chapter 1 described the methodology of the research, site location, historical aspects of the last Incas of Vilcabamba who settled in Vitcos as their main residence and the Inca social organisation. On the agricultural technology section, the terraces or andenes are detailed, which were built on steep slopes and designed to have deeper soils to reduce erosion and risk. Food and crop schedules references by chroniclers from the 16th and 17th century AD were described, reconstructing native crops during the Incas period. Chapter 2 addressed the modern agriculture, using climate data from the region, type of crops cultivated, soil properties, the amount of land used, the water management and hydrology of the place. Crop estimations and planting schedules were calculated by Cropwat programme. The results determined that rainfed agriculture can be applied by sowing the main crops between September and December, as commonly practiced. This indicates that farmers from these highland regions have a good crop scheduling management, making the most of the rainy season. Nonetheless, if crops were only rainfed and without a pre-irrigation to moist the soil, the crop yield would be affected, concluding that in order to minimise the effects, selected crops should be sown one month later, closer to the beginning of the rain season. On Chapter 3 Vitcos description is detailed, distributing the site into 10 main sectors: Palace, Inti Raymi, Yurac Rumi, East terraces, Northeast terraces, Northeast small terraces, Northeast fields, Southeast fields, Northwest fields and Upper terraces. GIS assessments indicate that Vitcos has an overall area of near 180 ha, where the agricultural fields and terraces are estimated to be 20 ha, about 11% of Vitcos complex. The hydrology and hydraulic engineering aspects were assessed on two field practices during the dry (September 2012) and wet season (February 2013) determining the flow capacities of v rivers and canals with the velocity/area method. Groundwater aspects on the agricultural fields are discussed, finding that capillary rise provided water surplus to crops. A subterranean channel at the East terraces was identified, indicating that these terraces were built with a groundwater network for drainage purposes during the rainy season and for irrigation during the dry season. Mapping of springs, canals and irrigation terraces with GIS tools was useful to locate water sources, flow and soil samples data, the data was processed on ArcGis version 10 and overlapped on 1/100,000 digital maps. On Chapter 4 the agriculture and water management in Vitcos site is assessed. Climatic reconstruction during the Inca settlement (1537-1572 AD) was estimated with ice core data from Quelccaya ice cap, relating it to the modern climatic data from Chapter 2, to calculate evapotranspiration. Crops cultivated in the past were reconstructed with palynology and radiocarbon dating analysis of soil samples collected in crop fields; these results were complemented with historical documents of native crops to recreate the cropping schedules. The population of Vitcos during the Incas was estimated, taking into account the crop field area, the crop yields, the crops nutritional value, Incas dietary habits and the calories requirements per person. The result indicate that the food production could have sustained a population of about 365 people, relating well with estimations based on the number of dwellings that could accommodate the residents. A land suitability assessment of Vilcabamba valley was carried out on Chapter 5, to determine whether the Incas site selection was adequate during the 16th century AD. The study was based on agricultural activities and defensive potential of this region, taking into account the suitability of soil, erosion, drainage, climate, water body distance, slope and terrain. Features on these factors were weighted and
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