FRAMING MACHU PICCHU: SCIENCE, PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE MAKING OF HERITAGE By AMY ELIZABETH COX A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2010 1 © 2010 Amy Elizabeth Cox 2 To Kirk 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Research for this study was made possible by a doctoral dissertation improvement grant from the National Science Foundation’s Science and Society section and from Fulbright’s Institute for International Education. Preliminary research was conducted thanks to the generous funding from the University of Florida’s Center for Latin American Studies. Their encouragement and support through grants like the William E. Carter summer fellowship, Tinker travel grant and foreign language area studies grant, kept me motivated and exploring. My deep gratitude goes to those institutions and their staff. Many, many people have been involved in this research. First, I would like to thank all those individuals who shared their thoughts and ideas through interviews and more informal conversations. In particular, I owe an immense debt of gratitude to the members of COLITUR in Cuzco, Peru. From a professional standpoint, not only did COLITUR allow me to interview study participants in their offices, but I also participated in their new venture which encouraged the Cuzco’s local population to visit their own touristic sites. I spent two days in the pueblo of Lares with a group of “tour guides to be” and attended the Cruz Velacuy, a pilgrimage to various crosses in the town of Cuzco. Encouraging Cuzco’s population to visit the region’s attractions was a noble effort by COLITUR’s director to make tourism more equitable. From a personal standpoint, COLITUR was an association comprised of an incredibly welcoming and hospitable group of people who generously shared their thoughts and opinions with me. Their insights have left a lasting impression and without their participation, this project would have suffered. 4 I am grateful to the National Institute of Culture, Cuzco for granting me permission to interview the employees who work at the sanctuary of Machu Picchu and access all of their documentation and visitor statistics. I would also like to thank the local Cuzco syndicate for welcoming me into their meetings and allowing me to record their discussions. I am deeply indebted to the attentive staff of the Centro Bartolomé de las Casas in Cuzco. Not only did their archival and library holdings prove immensely useful, but their technical office saved my computer from premature obsolescence. Additionally, I would like to thank the employees at the Pintura Campesina archive at the University of San Marcos’ La Casona. They helped make fieldwork a joy. I would also like to thank all of the librarians, archivists and staff of the many libraries and archives I visited in both Lima and Cuzco, Peru and Yale University. Their attention to detail, assistance and professionalism made this work not only worthwhile, but enjoyable. I owe an intellectual debt to both Jorge Flores Ochoa and David Ugarte for taking time out of their extraordinarily busy schedules to share their thoughts. I also owe a debt of gratitude to the charming Luis Figueroa Yábar for sharing his films and personal memories with me. I am also thankful for the energy and passion of Mariana Mould de Pease who not only shared her time and her perspective, but her library. Juan Carlos Callirgos helped me find my way and I am grateful for his friendship. Finally, I would like to thank Diana Castellanos and her family for welcoming me into their home as if I had always belonged. At the University of Florida I would like to thank the office staff of the anthropology department, especially Karen Jones. Her guidance through bureaucracy was a life- saver. I owe my NSF grant to her. I would also like to thank the graduate students of the 5 University of Florida, particularly those from my first graduate class with Marianne Schmink, “Anthropology and Development.” Their humor, curiosity, and warmth provided me with a sense of home. I also would like to thank the Sweet Peas for the fun, exercise and entertainment provided in graduate school. We had a good run. I would like to thank Jean Dennison and Lauren Fordyce who told me I could finish and that it would be worth it. Finally, I owe a profound personal and professional debt to Scott Catey for his listening skills, his critical eye and his friendship. It is rare to find someone so willing to lend a hand. For all my co-Fulbrighters, especially Susan Hogue, Aviva Sinervo, Juliet Wiersema and Mark Foehringer, I thank them for brightening my experience ten-fold. A special debt goes to Juan Muñoz whose conversations and wisdom should surely be made into a movie. I would like to thank Jose Luis Falconi, Renata Rendon, Brad Jones and the other Quechua-students, who, whether they know it or not, helped me through a challenging summer. I would also like to thank First Presbyterian Church in Lexington, KY for allowing me to occupy one of their offices. The quiet solitude was exactly what I needed to keep writing. Eight years, two master’s degrees, one marriage, one child, three continents, four apartments and one house later, I owe everything to my family. I would like to thank my parents for believing in me even when they did not understand what I was doing or why I was still in graduate school. I am grateful for my sister and brother whose way of being in the world continues to inspire me. I am also so thankful for my daughter, Fae, for being a doubt-free source of bliss and contentment. I am indebted to her cast of 6 babysitters: Julie, Anna Kristin, Will, Susanne and especially Norma. Without their care, I would not have been able to find the time to finish writing this dissertation. I am most grateful for my husband Kirk. More than anyone, his sacrifice, support and encouragement made this dissertation possible. He listened when I needed to air frustrations, he discussed when I needed to talk my way through an idea, and he proofread when I desperately needed a pair of eyes. Although this dissertation is the culmination of my graduate training and research abroad, in many ways it is also his. Even though he continues to refer to this as my “paper”, I love him more than I ever thought possible. I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to professors Brenda Chalfin, Mike Moseley, Glenn Willumson and Florence Babb. Whether they are aware of it or not, each of them has made an indelible mark on me as a scholar, as an academic and as a person. I wish to thank them for their time, encouragement, support, assistance and critical engagement of this project. I also wish to thank Stacey Langwick. Although she is no longer a member of my committee, her course on the anthropology of science and her mentorship has been invaluable to me and the way I view the world. Everyone should have someone like her in their lives. I especially want to thank my advisor, Mark Thurner. His insights first helped shape this project. His continued engagement and honest, caring, critical assessment of this research has been formative not only for the outcome of this dissertation, but for my understanding of what constitutes a scholar. I learned more about writing and argumentation from him than any course and his counsel is apparent in every chapter of this dissertation. I am truly grateful for his guidance. 7 Finally, I would like to thank Professor Dave Bowman. He was an inspiring model of an endangered species: a humble and nurturing academic. My heart will ache not being able to share my squeals of delight when I finally graduate. 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 11 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... 13 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 14 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 16 Science, Photography and the Nation .................................................................... 20 Historical and Ethnographic Methods ..................................................................... 25 Work towards a Genealogy ..................................................................................... 31 Incan Legacies ........................................................................................................ 37 2 DISCOVERING MACHU PICCHU FOR SCIENCE AND ITS SPONSORS ............ 47 Scientific Expeditions in South America .................................................................. 48 Sponsors ................................................................................................................. 57 Personnel: Volunteerism, Good Families and Science ........................................... 63 Global Selves: Seeing Beyond National Boundaries .............................................. 67 State-Sponsored Science ....................................................................................... 73 Scientific Discoveries and Lost Cities ..................................................................... 77 3 COLLECTING A “LOST CITY” FOR SCIENCE .....................................................