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UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA

GRADUATE COLLEGE

REPURPOSING THE COMPARATIVE METHOD FOR PAWNEE LANGUAGE

AND DIALECT REVITALIZATION

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS IN APPLIED LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY

ZACHARY RICE Norman, Oklahoma 2016

REPURPOSING THE COMPARATIVE METHOD FOR PAWNEE LANGUAGE AND DIALECT REVITALIZATION

A THESIS APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

______Dr. Racquel-María Sapién, Chair

______Dr. Marcia Haag

______Dr. Gus Palmer, Jr.

May we always be adamant in regard to who we are and where we come from. In addition, this work is dedicated to my uncle, the late Thomas E. KnifeChief. He is one of the men responsible for my interest in the revitalization of our Pawnee language. Acknowledgements

My graduate thesis would not have been possible without the previous work carried out by Pawnee and Arikara speakers and researchers. I am indebted to the numerous named and unnamed speakers who worked with John B. Dunbar, Gene

Weltfish, Dr. Douglas Parks, and Dr. Francesca Merlan. I am also extremely grateful to

Dr. Gene Weltfish and Dr. Douglas Parks for their contributions to the linguistic analysis of the Pawnee language. I am also very grateful to my committee chair, Dr.

Racquel-María Sapién, for your earnest support and guidance throughout this process.

There is no way I would have completed this or met any of my deadlines without you. I would also like to thank Dr. Gus Palmer, Jr. for serving on my committee and making me laugh and enjoy this process, for your kind words, and for keeping your door open to chat with me. Additionally, I would like to thank Dr. Marcia Haag for serving on my committee and helping me gain a better understanding of Pawnee verbal morphology.

Without you, I would have been beating my head against the wall alone. Moreover, I appreciate all the support and prayers from those in the Pawnee tribal community. Your support reminded me why I am doing this to begin with. I especially want to thank all my friends and family for keeping me sane throughout this process. To my nephews,

Gabe and Mason, spending time with you both and watching you reminded me to take the time to slow down and enjoy life. Finally, to Breanna, your persistence and dedication to your education for the betterment of the People is an inspiration to me.

There is no way I would have completed this without you. Without you or Racquel, I would still be twiddling my thumbs hoping this paper would magically write itself. Now

I can say this paper is finally finished.

iv Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ...... iv

List of Tables ...... xi

List of Figures ...... xiii

Abstract ...... xiv

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Pawnee and Arikara ...... 1

Introduction ...... 1

Background ...... 4

Language Statuses ...... 10

Existing Publications on the Pawnee Language ...... 12

Existing Publications on the Arikara Language ...... 13

Existing Comparative Caddoan Publications ...... 14

Utilizing the Existing Pawnee and Arikara Publications ...... 15

Goals of This Study ...... 16

Chapter 2: Orthographic Conventions and Overview of Pawnee and Arikara Sound

Systems ...... 18

Introduction ...... 18

Arikara Orthography ...... 19

Pawnee Orthography ...... 19

Arikara Sound System ...... 20

Arikara Consonants ...... 20

Arikara Vowels ...... 23

Pawnee Sound System ...... 24

v Pawnee Consonants ...... 25

Pawnee Vowels ...... 27

Arikara and Pawnee Phonology ...... 29

Chapter 3: Comparative Arikara and Pawnee ...... 30

Introduction ...... 30

Previously Established Consonant Correspondences ...... 32

Sound Correspondence 1: Arikara p: South Band Pawnee p: Skiri Pawnee p ...... 32

Analysis...... 33

Sound Correspondence 2: Arikara t: South Band Pawnee t: Skiri Pawnee t ...... 34

Analysis...... 35

Sound Correspondence 3a: Arikara k: South Band Pawnee k: Skiri Pawnee k ...... 36

Analysis...... 36

Sound Correspondence 3b: Arikara č: South Band Pawnee k: Skiri Pawnee k ...... 37

Analysis...... 38

Sound Correspondence 4: Arikara ʾ: South Band Pawnee ʾ: Skiri Pawnee ʾ ...... 39

Analysis...... 40

Sound Correspondence 5: Arikara s: South Band Pawnee c: Skiri Pawnee c ...... 41

Analysis...... 41

Sound Correspondence 6a: Arikara x: South Band Pawnee s: Skiri Pawnee s ...... 42

Analysis...... 43

Sound Correspondence 6b: Arikara š: South Band Pawnee s: Skiri Pawnee s ...... 44

Analysis...... 44

Sound Correspondence 7a: Arikara -h-: South Band Pawnee -h-: Skiri Pawnee -h- 46

vi Analysis...... 47

Sound Correspondence 7b: Arikara h-: South Band Pawnee ø-: Skiri Pawnee h- ... 47

Analysis...... 48

Sound Correspondence 8a: Arikara -w-: South Band Pawnee -w-: Skiri Pawnee -w-

...... 48

Analysis...... 49

Sound Correspondence 8b: Arikara w-: South Band Pawnee p-/w-: Skiri Pawnee p-

...... 50

Analysis...... 50

Sound Correspondence 9a: Arikara r: South Band Pawnee r: Skiri Pawnee r ...... 51

Analysis...... 52

Sound Correspondence 9b: Arikara n-: South Band Pawnee r-: Skiri Pawnee r- .... 52

Analysis...... 53

Sound Correspondence 10: Arikara n: South Band Pawnee r: Skiri Pawnee r ...... 53

Analysis...... 54

Previously Established Vowel Correspondences ...... 55

Sound Correspondence 11: Arikara i: South Band Pawnee i: Skiri Pawnee i ...... 55

Analysis...... 56

Sound Correspondence 12: Arikara e: South Band Pawnee e: Skiri Pawnee i ...... 56

Analysis...... 57

Sound Correspondence 13: Arikara a: South Band Pawnee a: Skiri Pawnee a ...... 58

Analysis...... 58

Sound Correspondence 14: Arikara o: South Band Pawnee u: Skiri Pawnee u ...... 59

vii Analysis...... 60

Sound Correspondence 15: Arikara u: South Band Pawnee u: Skiri Pawnee u ...... 60

Analysis...... 61

Newly Established Sound Correspondences: Consonant Clusters ...... 61

Sound Correspondence 16a: Arikara x: South Band Pawnee ks: Skiri Pawnee ks ... 62

Analysis...... 62

Sound Correspondence 16b: Arikara š: South Band Pawnee ks: Skiri Pawnee ks ... 64

Analysis...... 64

Sound Correspondence 17: Arikara ht: South Band Pawnee kt: Skiri Pawnee kt .... 66

Analysis...... 66

Sound Correspondence 18: Arikara ts: SB Pawnee kic: SK Pawnee kic ...... 68

Analysis...... 68

Sound Correspondence 19: Arikara tš: South Band Pawnee kis: Skiri Pawnee kis .. 69

Analysis...... 70

Chapter 4: Repurposing the Comparative Method for Pawnee Language and Dialect

Revitalization ...... 71

Introduction ...... 71

Repurposed Comparative Method ...... 71

Proposed Pawnee Words Utilizing the Repurposed Comparative Method ...... 72

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method 73

Morphemic and Phonological Analysis ...... 74

Proposed Pawnee Word for Moose ...... 76

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method 78

viii Morphemic and Phonological Analysis ...... 79

Proposed Pawnee Word for Camel ...... 80

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method 82

Morphemic and Phonological Analysis ...... 83

Proposed Pawnee Word for Cucumber ...... 83

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method 85

Morphemic and Phonological Analysis ...... 85

Proposed Pawnee Word for Raisin Bread ...... 86

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method 87

Morphemic and Phonological Analysis ...... 89

Proposed Pawnee Word for He Represents Me ...... 90

Chapter 5: Conclusions, Issues, and Future Research ...... 92

Some Issues ...... 92

Borrowings ...... 93

Analysis...... 93

Other Arikara Borrowings ...... 95

Analysis...... 95

Two-way Distinction for Arikara Consonantal Sound Symbolism ...... 96

Analysis...... 97

Three-way Distinction for Arikara Consonantal Sound Symbolism ...... 97

Analysis...... 98

Semantic Change/Drift (Narrowing and Widening) ...... 98

Suggestions ...... 99

ix Future Research ...... 100

References ...... 102

Appendix A: Abbreviations ...... 104

Appendix B: Arikara and Pawnee Sound Inventory, Orthographic Conventions, and

Examples to Illustrate Sounds ...... 105

Appendix C: Arikara and Pawnee Cognates ...... 106

x List of Tables

Table 1: Arikara Consonants ...... 21

Table 2: Arikara Vowels ...... 23

Table 3: Pawnee Consonants ...... 25

Table 4: Pawnee Vowels ...... 27

Table 5: Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee Consonant Sound

Correspondences ...... 32

Table 6: Cognates Illustrating Arikara p: South Band p: Skiri p ...... 33

Table 7: Cognates Illustrating Arikara t: South Band t: Skiri t ...... 34

Table 8: Cognates Illustrating Arikara k: South Band k: Skiri k ...... 36

Table 9: Cognates Illustrating Arikara č: South Band k: Skiri k ...... 37

Table 10: Cognates Illustrating Arikara ʾ: South Band ʾ: Skiri ʾ ...... 40

Table 11: Cognates Illustrating Arikara s: South Band c: Skiri c ...... 41

Table 12: Cognates Illustrating Arikara x: South Band s: Skiri s ...... 43

Table 13: Cognates Illustrating Arikara š: South Band s: Skiri s ...... 44

Table 14: Cognates Illustrating Arikara -h-: South Band -h-: Skiri -h- ...... 46

Table 15: Cognates Illustrating Arikara h-: South Band ø-: Skiri h- ...... 47

Table 16: Cognates Illustrating Arikara -w-: South Band -w-: Skiri -w- ...... 49

Table 17: Cognates Illustrating Arikara w-: South Band p-/w-: Skiri p- ...... 50

Table 18: Cognates Illustrating Arikara r: South Band r: Skiri r ...... 51

Table 19: Cognates Illustrating Arikara n-: South Band r-: Skiri r- ...... 53

Table 20: Cognates Illustrating Arikara n: South Band r: Skiri r ...... 54

Table 21: Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee Vowel Correspondences .... 55

xi Table 22: Cognates Illustrating Arikara i(:): South Band i(:): Skiri i(:) ...... 56

Table 23: Cognates Illustrating Arikara e(:): South Band e(:): Skiri i(:) ...... 57

Table 24: Cognates Illustrating Arikara a(:): South Band a(:): Skiri a(:) ...... 58

Table 25: Cognates Illustrating Arikara o(:): South Band u(:): Skiri u(:) ...... 59

Table 26: Cognates Illustrating Arikara u(:): South Band u(:): Skiri u(:) ...... 60

Table 27: Cognates Illustrating Arikara x: South Band ks: Skiri ks ...... 62

Table 28: Cognates Illustrating Arikara š: South Band ks: Skiri ks ...... 64

Table 29: Cognates Illustrating Arikara ht: South Band kt: Skiri kt ...... 66

Table 30: Cognates Illustrating Arikara ts-: South Band kic-: Skiri kic- ...... 68

Table 31: Cognates Illustrating Arikara tš: South Band kis: Skiri kis ...... 69

Table 32: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘moose’ ...... 74

Table 33: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘camel’ ...... 78

Table 34: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘cucumber’ ...... 82

Table 35: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘raisin bread’ ...... 85

Table 36: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘he represents me’ ...... 88

Table 37: Borrowed Words in Arikara, South Band, and Skiri ...... 93

Table 38: Other Arikara Borrowings ...... 95

Table 39: Two-way Distinction for Arikara Consonantal Sound Symbolism ...... 96

Table 40: Three-way Distinction for Arikara Consonantal Sound Symbolism ...... 98

xii List of Figures

Figure 1: Caddoan Language Family Tree. Adapted from Parks (2001)...... 5

Figure 2: Caddoan Family Language Map. Reprinted from Texas Beyond History,

Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory (TARL) at the University of Texas, Austin.

Figure 3: Pawnee Territory and Reservations Map. Reprinted from Parks (2001:515). .. 8

Figure 4: Arikara Territory and Reservation Map. Reprinted from Parks (2001:366). .. 10

xiii Abstract

A member of the Caddoan language family, Pawnee is a nearly extinct language with few living fluent speakers. However, there is an active, community-led revitalization movement. Community members involved in revitalization of Pawnee have a need for materials that support their efforts. This thesis demonstrates an innovative repurposing of the comparative method that is directly applicable to language revitalization.

Traditionally, the comparative method is used in linguistics to establish genetic relationships and reconstruct proto-forms. In this thesis, the author uses the comparative method to establish sound correspondences between two Pawnee dialects, Skiri and

South Band, and Arikara, a closely related language. These correspondences are used to propose new Pawnee words based on documented Arikara forms. Constructing new terms based on existing documentation of a related language ensures that the proposed forms are consistent with what is known about Pawnee phonology and morphophonemics. Furthermore, repurposing the comparative method makes Arikara and Pawnee linguistic material more accessible to both tribal communities for language revitalization purposes.

The thesis includes extensive appendices illustrating sound correspondences, cognate forms, and new Pawnee terms as proposed by the author.

xiv Chapter 1: Introduction to the Pawnee and Arikara

Introduction

As a Native academic in the field of Linguistic Anthropology and a Pawnee tribal member, my preoccupation is with the Pawnee tribal community and Pawnee language revitalization efforts. As a Pawnee person, I feel that I have a responsibility to help perpetuate Pawnee ways, of which Pawnee language is an integral part. Like previous generations of Pawnee people, I feel that I owe it to past, present, and future generations to do everything in my power to perpetuate Pawnee ways. Additionally, I strongly believe that our Pawnee elders worked with various anthropologists and linguists because they knew that one day this could be the only hope for our language to survive. Because of these efforts by community members and linguists, the Pawnee people have an extensive record of the Pawnee language. Therefore, my duty is to utilize this documentation and do everything in my power to contribute to current

Pawnee language revitalization efforts. This thesis represents one small part of a greater movement toward Pawnee language revival. In addition, this thesis is representative of a new era of language revitalization in the Pawnee tribal community. Until this point in time, Pawnee language revitalization efforts have been primarily led by older generations of Pawnee tribal members. Recently, younger generations of Pawnee tribal members are stepping up to help lead in Pawnee language revitalization efforts. As I write this thesis, another Pawnee scholar of this younger generation is writing about utilizing Pawnee songs and hymns as tools for language revitalization.

This thesis aims to repurpose the comparative method to aid in these efforts. In this study, I utilize the comparative method in an unconventional manner. That is to say

1 that the comparative method is not being utilized as a tool to recover linguistic history, reconstruct a proto-language, establish a language family, or research distant genetic relationships. Instead, the comparative method is being repurposed to construct and propose words, which currently do not exist in the documentation, for Pawnee language and dialect revitalization. This study utilizes the comparative method to establish sound correspondences between two Pawnee dialects, Skiri and South Band, and Arikara, which is closely related to Pawnee, with a goal of making Arikara linguistic material available to the Pawnee tribal community for language revitalization purposes.

Essentially, this thesis aims to repurpose the comparative method by making the comparative method a more useful language revitalization tool for the Pawnee and

Arikara tribal communities. In this thesis, I have only proposed Pawnee words; I did not attempt to propose Arikara words based on this repurposed comparative method because it is not my place to do this, as I am not an Arikara tribal community member.

However, the sound correspondences established and demonstrated in this thesis will allow for Arikara tribal community members to utilize this repurposed comparative method as well. It is my hope that the Arikara tribal community will also find this study helpful in their language revitalization endeavors.

The Pawnee language is a Caddoan language that has been spoken by an ever- decreasing number of elders. Since the late 1800s and early 1900s, the Pawnee tribal community has seen a drastic decline in the number of proficient speakers. Lula Nora

Pratt was the last truly fluent speaker of the Pawnee language and she passed away in

2001 at ninety-two years of age. Because the Pawnee language is in this type of situation, linguistic documentation is an invaluable resource to those in the Pawnee

2 tribal community undertaking language revitalization projects. The way I have utilized this linguistic documentation is by proposing new Pawnee words based upon the existing documentation of Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee. By analyzing complex Arikara words, finding cognate morphemes in either South Band

Pawnee or Skiri Pawnee and then using my comparative analysis of the these varieties, I can construct new complex words in Pawnee. While I utilize the comparative method, I do not reconstruct proto forms, but rather my constructions are novel forms that conform to Pawnee morphophonemic rules. This use of the comparative method is extremely important because it serves as a practical way to create Pawnee words.

Without first language speakers, innovative ways to create new words are essential for

Pawnee language revitalization purposes. Based upon my experiences as an academic scholar and Pawnee tribal community member, I chose to study both Arikara and

Pawnee for various reasons. First, Pawnee oral history tells us that the Pawnee and

Arikara are closely related in culture and language. The comparative work done on

Pawnee and Arikara confirms what the Pawnee tribal community has already known through our oral stories. Moreover, the belief or ideology that the Pawnee and Arikara speak or spoke the same language is one of my main inspirations for this work. The other inspiration for this work comes from the various tribes, such as the Wampanoag and Otoe-Missouria, who have alreadly utilized this practice effectively. Finally, there are efforts underway in the Pawnee tribal community, by others and myself, to begin reestablishing our relationship with the Arikara tribal community. This study is my personal good faith effort in the process of reestablishing this relationship with our

Arikara relatives to the north.

3 Furthermore, it is my hope that this work of repurposing the comparative method for language revitalization also serves to bridge the gap between the needs of the Pawnee tribal community and the needs of the academy. This thesis also aims to be inclusive to both a non-academic and an academic audience. In order to do this, I have attempted to describe concepts that may be familiar to academics in more detail and vice versa for Pawnee community concepts that may be unfamiliar to the academic community.

Background

The Pawnee language is a member of the Caddoan language family. More specifically, Pawnee is a member of the Northern Caddoan branch of the Caddoan language family. Other members of the Northern Caddoan branch of the Caddoan language family are Arikara, Kitsai (now extinct), and Wichita. The Caddo language is the only other member of the Caddoan language family and it constitutes the only member of the southern branch of the Caddoan language family (Parks 2001). Together,

Caddo, Wichita, Kitsai, Pawnee, and Arikara comprise the Caddoan language family.

Figure 1 illustrates the Caddoan language family tree.

4 Figure 1: Caddoan Language Family Tree. Adapted from Parks (2001). 1

Proto-Caddoan

Proto-Southern Caddoan Proto-Northern Caddoan

Proto-Wichita Proto-Pawnee-Kitsai

Pre-Kitsai Proto-Pawnee Pre-Wichita

Pre-Pawnee

Caddo Tawakoni- Wichita Kitsai South Skiri Arikara Waco Band

Historically, the Caddoan speaking tribes stretched from present-day Louisiana,

Texas, and Arkansas to present-day South and North Dakota. Representing the southernmost group of Caddoan speakers was Caddo. The Caddo resided in portions of

Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. Also residing in a similar area were the

Kitsai. The Kitsai lived in parts of Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma. The Wichita lived slightly north of these groups in portions of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. The Pawnee lived farther north of the Wichita in portions of Kansas and Nebraska. Finally, the

Arikara were the northernmost representatives of the Caddoan language family. The

Arikara resided north of the Pawnee in portions of Nebraska, South Dakota, and eventually settling in their present location in North Dakota.

1 Caddo Proper and Hainai are dialects of Caddo, but are not illustrated in this tree. 5 Figure 2: Caddoan Family Language Map. Reprinted from Texas Beyond History, Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory (TARL) at the University of Texas, Austin. Copyright 2001 by TARL. Reprinted with permission.

In the eighteenth century, the Pawnee people lived along the Loup, Platte, and

Republican Rivers, which flow eastward across the present states of Nebraska and

Kansas eventually emptying into the Missouri River (Weltfish 1965:4). At this time, the northernmost group was the Skiri Band, which lived along the Loup River in Nebraska.

The Chawi, Kitkahahki, and Pitahawirata, otherwise known as the South Band Pawnee, or tuhaawit, by the Skiri, lived downstream to the east and south of the Skiri along the

Platte and Republican Rivers in Nebraska and Kansas. This distinction between the

Skiri and the South Band Pawnee is important because a dialect distinction existed between the Skiri dialect and the South Band dialect of the Chawi, Kitkahahki, and

Pitahawirata (Parks 2001:515). Upon signing a treaty with the United States

6 government in 1857, reservation lands were set aside for the Pawnee people on the

Loup River in what would become present-day Nance County, Nebraska (Parks

2001:520). Approximately twenty years later, the Pawnee people were removed to

Indian Territory between the Arkansas and Cimarron Rivers in what is most of present- day Pawnee County, Oklahoma (Parks 2001:523). Today, many Pawnee people still reside in and around the town of Pawnee, Oklahoma, which houses their tribal headquarters on their former reservation lands in present-day Pawnee County,

Oklahoma.

7 Figure 3: Pawnee Territory and Reservations Map. Reprinted from Parks (2001:515).

According to Pawnee oral history, the Pawnee and Arikara are related tribes and the Pawnee and Arikara people could understand one another’s speech. Pawnee oral history confirms academic descriptions, which note that in the past the Arikara lived in present day South Dakota and had two major dialect groups. One dialect approximated the speech of Pawnee speakers and was considered to be “drawling,” while the other dialect “diverged more sharply and closely resembled twentieth-century Arikara speech” (Parks 2001:80; Parks 2001:365). Arikara is, in fact, the northernmost member

8 of the Northern Caddoan branch of the Caddoan language family and a dialect of

Arikara may have been mutually intelligible with Pawnee at a time in the not so distant past. Furthermore, the more contemporary Arikara language has and can be considered to be a highly divergent dialect of Pawnee in a very strict linguistic sense (Lesser and

Weltfish 1932; Taylor 1963a; Chafe 1976; Chafe 1979; Parks 1979); however, Arikara is more appropriately deemed as a separate language due to the present lack of mutually intelligibility between Pawnee and Arikara and the fact that the Arikara are politically and geographically independent of the Pawnee (Parks 2001:80).

While the Pawnee people remained in the Kansas and Nebraska area, the

Arikara lived primarily along the Missouri River in present-day South Dakota. The

Arikara would continue a gradual northward movement along the Missouri River after devastating smallpox epidemics (Parks 2001:366). This movement ended with their resettlement in 1862 on the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota with the Mandan and Hidatsa, which are both Siouan-speaking tribes (Parks 2001:365). Together, the

Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara tribes comprise the Three Affiliated Tribes, or the MHA

Nation. This political unity between the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara tribes began in

1866 after they signed the Treaty of Fort Berthold, which went un-ratified (Schneider

2001:391). In 1870 President Grant signed an executive order, which finally designated lands set aside for the Three Affiliated Tribes (Schneider 2001:391). Today, many

Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara people still reside on and around the Fort Berthold

Reservation in North Dakota.

9 Figure 4: Arikara Territory and Reservation Map. Reprinted from Parks (2001:366).

Language Statuses

For decades, the number of Pawnee speakers has been decreasing. During the summers of 1928 and 1929, the anthropologist Gene Weltfish wrote “while many of the older people speak the language in the classic style of former days…Pawnees fifty years old and younger speak a simplified, more elementary version, using English for most purposes” (Weltfish 1937:vi). By her description, we can see that Pawnee was already beginning to go out of use among the parental generation during the 1920s.

Furthermore, Weltfish also noted that it was rare to find a child who spoke the variety of the language of the parental generation in the 1920s. By the 1960s, the linguistic anthropologist Douglas Parks offered an estimation of one hundred to two hundred

10 speakers over the age of fifty (Parks 1976:2). By his description of the language situation, Pawnee was only occasionally used, while English was used in most situations. In 2001, the last truly fluent speaker of Pawnee passed away (Parks

2008:vii). According to Ethnologue, there are reported to be ten speakers of the Pawnee language as of 2007. With this estimation of speakers, Ethnologue categorizes the

Pawnee language as an 8b or nearly extinct on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational

Disruption Scale (EGIDS). Level 8b or nearly extinct is defined by Pawnee having only elderly speakers of the language that have little opportunity to use the language (Lewis,

Simons, & Fennig 2016). According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, the

Pawnee language is critically endangered (Moseley 2010).

For decades, like the Pawnee, the number of Arikara speakers has been decreasing, as well. During the summers of 1971 and 1972 and the summer and fall of

1973, the anthropologist Francesca C. Merlan estimated there to be no more than thirty

Arikara speakers (Merlan 1975:1). According to Ethnologue, there are reported to be ten speakers of the Arikara language as of 2007. With this estimation of speakers,

Ethnologue categorizes the Arikara language as an 8b or nearly extinct on the EGIDS.

Like the Pawnee language, Arikara has only elderly speakers of the language that have little opportunity to use the language, according to Ethnologue (Lewis et al. 2016).

According to UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, Arikara is also critically endangered, like Pawnee (Moseley 2010).

11 Existing Publications on the Pawnee Language

Despite the fact that Pawnee speaking people of the central plains have been known about by Europeans since the 1600s, documentation and description of the

Pawnee language did not begin until much later. With that being said, there is still a decent amount of literature on the Pawnee language. Most nineteenth century material on the Pawnee language is limited to mostly small vocabularies collected by travelers, missionaries, and anthropologists. The Thomas R. McCann Papers (1856) is one example of a vocabulary list collected from this period. Another example of a vocabulary list collected during this period is The Brief Notes of the Pawnee,

Winnebago, and Omaha Languages by F.V. Hayden (1868). A more extensive vocabulary that was collected during this time is Pawnee Vocabulary by John B.

Dunbar (1850s-1980s). This early work is an invaluable resource of early Pawnee vocabulary. The exception to these nineteenth century vocabularies is John Brown

Dunbar’s brief sketch of The Pawnee Language (1890) in George Bird Grinnell’s

Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-Tales. While John B. Dunbar’s linguistic work is not modern, it is good for its time. Additional vocabulary exists in Melvin R. Gilmore’s

Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Missouri River Region (1919), which includes

Pawnee names for and uses of plants. There is also a grammatical sketch of the Pawnee language by Gene Weltfish in The Vision Story of Fox Boy, a South Band Pawnee Text

(1936). Additionally, Weltfish published a collection of texts titled Caddoan Texts:

Pawnee, South Band Dialect (1937) and ethnography titled The Lost Universe (1965), which includes some vocabulary and kinship terms. Another work by Weltfish is an unpublished Morphology of the Pawnee language (n.d.), which was never entirely

12 completed. The anthropologist Douglas Parks has written the most recent and extensive publications on the Pawnee language. In 1972, Parks’ doctoral dissertation was a grammatical sketch of the phonology and morphology of the South Band dialect of the

Pawnee language. In 1976, Parks’ A Grammar of Pawnee was published as a slightly revised version of his doctoral dissertation. Parks also published Pawnee language texts in Caddoan Texts (1977). Parks is also the Co-Director of the American Indian Studies

Research Institute (AISRI) at Indiana University – Bloomington, which is responsible for the AISRI Skiri Pawnee Dictionary Portal and the AISRI South Band Dictionary

Portal. An Introduction to the Pawnee Language: Skiri Dialect (Parks 2001) is an introduction to basic grammatical concepts and vocabulary in Pawnee. Finally, A

Dictionary of Skiri Pawnee (2008) is Parks’ most recent publication that he coauthored with Lula Nora Pratt, who was the last truly fluent speaker of Pawnee.

Existing Publications on the Arikara Language

Similar to the Pawnee language, there also seems to be a fair amount of Arikara language literature; however, I have not personally obtained as much Arikara literature as I have for the Pawnee language. Moreover, I have found little nineteenth century

Arikara language material, though it surely exists. One of the first linguistic examinations of Arikara was Francesca C. Merlan’s dissertation about Noun-Verb

Relationships in Arikara Syntax (1975). Douglas Parks and Alan Taylor also presented some Arikara texts in Caddoan Texts (1977). Additionally, Douglas Parks, Janet

Beltran, and Ella P. Waters described the Arikara language in an Introduction to the

Arikara Language (1979). More extensive Arikara texts are presented by Parks in

13 Traditional Narratives of the Arikara Indians: Vol. 1, The Stories of Alfred Morsette:

Interlinear Linguistic Texts; Vol. 2, The Stories of Other Narrators: Interlinear

Linguistic Texts; Vol. 3, The Stories of Alfred Morsette: English Translations; Vol. 4,

The Stories of Other Narrators: English Translations (1991). As with Pawnee, the

American Indian Studies Research Institute (AISRI) maintains an online Arikara

Dictionary Portal. Finally, there is an English to Sanish (Arikara) Language Dictionary based on Parks’ English-Arikara Student Dictionary (1986), an Arikara Coloring Book: an English Arikara Word Builder (1984), and an Introduction to the Arikara Language

(1979) accessible online through the Fort Berthold Community College’s website.

Existing Comparative Caddoan Publications

In addition to the independent Pawnee and Arikara documentation, there are also quite a few comparative Caddoan publications, which include Pawnee and Arikara language data. Some of these comparative works that either portray a relationship between Pawnee and Arikara or compare Pawnee and Arikara language data, include

Contributions on the Ethnology and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri

Valley by F.V. Hayden (1863), Alexander Lesser and Gene Weltfish’s Composition of the Caddoan Linguistic Stock (1932), Allan R. Taylor’s Comparative Caddoan (1963a), and The Classification of the Caddoan Languages (1963b). Other comparative works portraying a relationship between Arikara and Pawnee or comparing Pawnee and

Arikara language data are Wallace L. Chafe’s The Caddoan, Iroquoian, and Siouan

Languages (1976), Wallace Chafe’s Caddoan in The Languages of Native America:

Historical and Comparative Assessment (1979), Douglas R. Parks’ The Northern

14 Caddoan Languages: Their Subgrouping and Time Depths (1979), Parks’ Caddoan

Languages in Handbook of North American Indians (2001), and Ives Goddard’s The

Languages of the Plains: Introduction in Handbook of North American Indians (2001).

Utilizing the Existing Pawnee and Arikara Publications

First and foremost, the AISRI Skiri, South Band, and Arikara Dictionary Portals serve as one of the primary sources for this comparative work. The other primary sources of this study are A Grammar of Pawnee, A Dictionary of Skiri Pawnee, and an

Introduction to the Arikara Language. Furthermore, Dr. Parks’ comparative works The

Northern Caddoan Languages: Their Subgrouping and Time Depths (1979) and

Caddoan Languages in Handbook of North American Indians (2001) were also used as a starting point for this particular study. In addition to these sources, other existing publications were used when a form was not found in these primary sources. For example, in Chapter 4, it was necessary to use these secondary sources to validate the proposed South Band Pawnee word for ‘moose’. Without utilizing these secondary sources, John Brown Dunbar’s Pawnee Vocabulary in particular, the proposed South

Band Pawnee word for ‘moose’ could not be postulated with much certainty because

South Band Pawnee did not have the necessary documented forms that would allow me to observe how the a, h, and i of pah and ihari would interact. While forms existed in the Arikara and Skiri primary documentation, they did not exist in the South Band

Pawnee primary documentation. Next, after determining which documentation to utilize, I compiled a cognate word and phrase list, so as to include verb forms in this work, based upon functional Pawnee language that is beneficial to the Pawnee tribal

15 community attempting to revitalize their heritage language. The existing Pawnee publications were diligently examined so as to find functional Pawnee language from the word and phrase list. If or when these words or phrases cannot be found in the

Pawnee documentation, the Arikara documentation was also diligently examined so as to find the corresponding functional language in Arikara.

Beginning with previous comparative Northern Caddoan work, I checked the known sound correspondences in Pawnee and Arikara. Next, I analyzed and established sound correspondences that have not been described to date. These are primarily sound correspondences in which consonants clusters in Pawnee do not correspond to consonant clusters in Arikara; however, there are also other sound correspondences that have not been described that I analyzed and established in this thesis.

After examining the known documentation for functional language and establishing sound correspondences for Arikara, Skiri Pawnee, and South Band Pawnee,

I proposed Pawnee words for either or both Pawnee dialects that currently are not found in the existing Pawnee documentation. This is useful in making documentation for

Pawnee language revitalization efforts more extensive and available to the Pawnee tribal community.

Goals of This Study

The goal of this thesis is to utilize the accessible Arikara and Pawnee written documentation and the comparative method to propose new words for either or both

Pawnee dialects. Therefore, this repurposed comparative method is demonstrated in the following chapters. Chapter 2 gives a brief explanation as to why the particular

16 orthographic representations of Arikara and Pawnee were utilized in this thesis.

Additionally, Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and

Skiri Pawnee sound systems. In Chapter 3, the conventional use of the comparative method is explained and the seven steps of the comparative method are outlined as described by Lyle Campbell in Historical Linguistics: an Introduction. Furthermore,

Chapter 3 begins the process of this comparative method by verifying previous sound correspondences and establishing new consonant cluster sound correspondences between Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee cognates, which can be found in the appendix of this thesis. In Chapter 4, the analysis of Arikara and Pawnee morphemes and the adherence to Pawnee phonology during the construction and proposal of new Pawnee words demonstrate the steps of the repurposed comparative method. The final chapter concludes with a discussion of the various issues that arose while utilizing this repurposed comparative method and suggestions for future research.

17 Chapter 2: Orthographic Conventions and Overview of Pawnee and Arikara Sound Systems

Introduction

Before giving an overview of the Pawnee and Arikara sound systems, it is necessary to understand why these particular orthographic conventions in this thesis were chosen. Various practical orthographies have been developed and each one has its own merits. However, for this thesis, consistency across languages, linguistic accuracy, and a one sound to one symbol correspondence, such as that represented by the

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), are the primary reasons for utilizing the orthographies in this thesis. Dr. Douglas Parks, who has worked on both the Pawnee and Arikara languages for more than forty years, developed these particular orthographies based on the North American Phonetic Alphabet (NAPA). Therefore, this style of orthographically representing and documenting these particular Northern

Caddoan languages has had a relatively long tradition. Suffice it to say, this thesis greatly benefits from the consistency of these orthographies’ ability to capture phonemes, the fact that these orthographies were made by the same person, and the fact that the Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee documentation written in these particular orthographies were recorded approximately at the same point in time. Finally, the Pawnee and Arikara orthographies utilized in this thesis either approximate the practical orthography being utilized, as in the Pawnee community’s case, or the orthography utilized in this thesis is the actual orthography being utilized, as in the

Arikara community’s case. I have based these assertions upon personal knowledge, in the Pawnee community’s case, and upon witnessing some of the ongoing efforts of the

18 MHA (Mandan Hidatsa Arikara) Language Project that is accessible online at http://www.arikara.org.

The primary differences between the IPA and the NAPA-based orthographies used by Parks (2001) lie in the representation of fricatives and affricates. For example, in the IPA, the voiceless, post-alveolar affricate is represented by the digraph, [ʧ], which, in the Americanist tradition is represented by a single graph with a diacritic, [č].

Since one of the goals for this thesis is to adhere to a one-to-one sound-to-symbol correspondence, the latter symbol is used here. The one exception to this one-to-one correspondence is in the representation of long vowels. These are represented by a doubled symbol, such as [ii].

Arikara Orthography

The Arikara orthography in this thesis utilizes twenty-two symbols, which may be a letter, a mark, or a combination of a letter and a mark (Parks 1979:1). In addition, whispered sounds in Arikara are orthographically represented by a capital letter (Parks

1979:13). A raised i is also utilized to represent an elided ‘i’ in prefixes between t and n

(Parks 2001:365). The symbols utilized in Arikara are as follows: p, t, k, ʾ, č, s, š, h, x, w, r, n, i, ii, e, ee, a, aa, o, oo, u, uu.

Pawnee Orthography

The Pawnee orthography in this thesis utilizes fifteen or seventeen symbols to represent the sounds of Pawnee depending on the dialect. The Skiri dialect of the

Pawnee language has two fewer sounds than the South Band dialect of Pawnee;

19 therefore, the Skiri dialect utilizes fifteen symbols, while the South Band dialect utilizes seventeen symbols to represent the sounds of Pawnee. The symbols that are utilized in both Pawnee dialects are as follows: p, t, k, ʾ, c, s, h, w, r, i, ii, a, aa, u, uu. In addition to these symbols, South Band Pawnee utilizes the symbols e and ee, while Skiri Pawnee does not. Moreover, it is important to mention that while proper names and the first word in a sentence are typically capitalized as they are in English, this practice will not be reflected in this thesis because Arikara utilizes capital letters to represent devoiced or whispered sounds. Hopefully, this will alleviate an unnecessary issue that could cause some confusion in the interpretation of the Pawnee and Arikara in this thesis.

Arikara Sound System

The Arikara sound system exhibits a little more complexity than the Pawnee sound system; however, Arikara maintains a relatively small sound system as well.

Arikara has twelve phonemic consonants and ten phonemic vowels, five of which are short and five of which are long (Parks 1979:1). Therefore, Arikara has a total of twenty-two sounds (Parks 1979:1). The consonants of Arikara are p, t, k, ʾ, č, s, š, h, x, w, r, n, while the vowels are i, ii, e, ee, a, aa, o, oo, u, uu.

Arikara Consonants

The consonants of Arikara are in Table 1. The consonants are arranged by manner and place of articulation. Following Table 1 is a brief description of the Arikara consonants. First, stop consonants are described and compared to similar sounds in another language. Then, affricates are described and compared to similar sounds in

20 another language. Next, fricatives are described and compared in the same manner.

Finally, there is a brief description and comparison of the sonorants to similar sounds in another language.

Table 1: Arikara Consonants Post- Labial Alveolar Velar Laryngeal alveolar

Stops: p t k ʾ (ʔ) voiceless

Obstruents Affricate: č (tʃ) voiceless

Fricatives: s š (ʃ) x h voiceless

Glide, Tap,

Sonorants and Nasal: w r (ɾ), n

voiced Note: IPA equivalent of sound is in parentheses

There are four stop consonants (p, t, k, ʾ) in Arikara. These stop consonants are voiceless and unaspirated. Each stop consonant in Arikara is similar to a sound found in

English. The ‘p’ in Arikara is a voiceless unaspirated stop. This sound is heard at the beginning of the Arikara word paxuʾ ‘head’ (Parks 1979:408). This ‘p’ sound is similar to the ‘p’ sound in the English word spot. The ‘t’ in Arikara is also a voiceless unaspirated stop. This sound is heard at the beginning of the Arikara word táWIt ‘three’

(Parks 1979:413). This ‘t’ sound is similar to the ‘t’ in the English word stop. Like the previous two sounds, the ‘k’ sound in Arikara is also a voiceless unaspirated stop. This sound is heard at the beginning of the Arikara word kaaxuʾ ‘leg’ (Parks 1979:403). This

‘k’ sound is similar to the ‘k’ sound in the English word scoff. Arikara has one voiceless laryngeal stop (ʾ). The laryngeal stop or glottal stop produces a catch or stoppage of airflow in the throat and is pronounced like the brief stoppage of air between ‘uh’ and

21 ‘oh’ in the English exclamation ‘uh-oh’. The laryngeal stop is heard between the vowels in the Arikara word kaʾít ‘sugar’ (Parks 1979:403).

There is one affricate (č) in Arikara. Similar to the stop consonants, the post- alveolar affricate is also voiceless and unaspirated. This sound is heard at the beginning of the Arikara word čítUxʾ ‘beaver’ (Parks 1979:400). The post-alveolar affricate approximates the ‘ch’ sound at the end of the English word which.

There are four voiceless fricatives (s, š, x, h) in Arikara. The voiceless alveolar fricative (s) is heard at the beginning of the Arikara word sápat ‘woman’ (Parks

1979:410). The voiceless alveolar fricative (s) is very similar to the ‘s’ sound in the

English word sip. The voiceless post-alveolar fricative (š) is heard at the beginning of the Arikara word šakuúnuʾ ‘sun’ (AISRI Arikara Dictionary Portal). The voiceless post- alveolar fricative (š) is very similar to the ‘sh’ sound in the English word shop. The voiceless velar fricative (x) is unlike any sound found in English. This sound is similar to the (x) in German ich. The voiceless velar fricative (x) occurs in a strong and soft variant. The strong variant’s place of articulation is made at the soft palate, while the soft variant of (x) is made on the hard palate (Parks 1979:2-3). The strong variant of the voiceless velar fricative is heard at the end of the Arikara word sáx ‘turtle’ (Parks

1979:2). The soft variant of the voiceless velar fricative is heard near the end of the

Arikara word skuúxuʾ ‘hide, peeling’ (Parks 1979:3). The laryngeal fricative (h) also very closely resembles its English counterpart. This sound is heard at the beginning of the Arikara word hiítuʾ ‘feather’ (AISRI Arikara Dictionary Portal). It is pronounced similar to the ‘h’ sound in the English word hop.

22 There are three voiced sonorants (w, r, n) in the Arikara language. The voiced bilabial glide (w) is similar to its English counterpart. It is heard at the beginning of the

Arikara word wiítA ‘man’ (Parks 1979:415). It is pronounced similar to the ‘w’ sound in the English word will. The voiced alveolar tap (r) closely approximates the allophone of the intervocalic /t/ as in the word butter in American English, or the tap in Spanish, as in pero ‘but’. It is heard beginning the second and fourth syllables of the Arikara word arikaraánuʾ ‘stag’ (Parks 1979:397). The voiced alveolar nasal (n) is similar to its

English counterpart. This sound is heard at the beginning of the Arikara word niíšuʾ

‘arrow’ (Parks 1979:407). It is pronounced similar to the ‘n’ sound in the English word now.

Arikara Vowels

The vowels of Arikara are in Table 2.4. The consonants are arranged by manner and place of articulation. Following Table 2.4 is a brief description of the Arikara vowels.

Table 2: Arikara Vowels Front Central Back High i, ii u, uu Mid e, ee o, oo Low a, aa

As stated previously, Arikara has a total of ten phonemic vowels. Arikara has two high front unrounded vowels (i, ii), two mid front unrounded vowels (e, ee), two mid-low central to back unrounded vowels (a, aa), two mid back rounded vowels (o, oo) and two high back rounded vowels (u, uu) (Merlan 1978:27;Parks 1979:7-8). Similar to

23 Pawnee, some of the short vowels in Arikara vary in pronunciation between tense and lax forms (Merlan 1978:27; Parks 1979:7-8). The high front unrounded short vowel (i) varies between tense [i] and lax [ɪ] (Merlan 1978:27; Parks 1979:7). The mid-low central unrounded short vowel (a) varies between tense [ɑ] and lax [ə] (Merlan 1978:27;

Parks 1979:7).

In addition to the short vowels, Arikara also has long vowels, which are always tense (Merlan 1978:27; Parks 1979:8). The long vowels found in both dialects of the

Arikara language are (ii, ee, aa, oo, uu). Therefore, double (ii) is always [i:], double (ee) is always [e:], double (aa) is always [ɑ:], double (oo) is always [o:], and double (uu) is always [u:] (Parks 1979:8).

Pawnee Sound System

According to Parks, the sound inventories of Skiri Pawnee (SK) and South Band

Pawnee (SB) are some of the smallest sound inventories in the languages of North

America (2008:13; 1979:12). Parks also asserts that Skiri Pawnee has one of the smallest sound inventories in the world (2008:13). Skiri Pawnee has nine phonemic consonants and six phonemic vowels, three of which are short and three of which are long, while South Band Pawnee has nine phonemic consonants and eight phonemic vowels, four of which are short and four of which are long. Therefore, in total Skiri

Pawnee has fifteen phonemes, while South Band Pawnee has seventeen phonemes. At the systematic phonetic level, there are ten consonants, which results in sixteen phonetic segments or sounds in Skiri Pawnee and eighteen phonetic segments or sounds in South

Band Pawnee (Parks 2001:16-17; 1979:12). The consonants of Pawnee are p, t, k, ʾ, c, s,

24 h, w, r, while the vowels are i, ii, a, aa, u, uu, plus the additional vowels e and ee in

South Band Pawnee.

Pawnee Consonants

The consonants of Pawnee are in Table 3. The consonants are arranged by manner and place of articulation. Following Table 3 is a brief description of the Pawnee consonants. First, stop consonants are described and compared to similar sounds in another language. Then affricates are described and compared to similar sounds in another language. Next, fricatives are described and compared in the same manner, followed by a brief description of the sonorants.

Table 3: Pawnee Consonants Labial Alveolar Velar Laryngeal

Stops: voiceless p t k ʾ (ʔ)

Obstruents Affricate: voiceless c (ts ~ tʃ)

Fricatives: voiceless s h

Glide and Tap: Sonorants w r (ɾ) voiced

Note: IPA equivalent of sound is in parentheses

There are four stop consonants (p, t, k, ʾ) in Pawnee. These stop consonants are always voiceless and unaspirated. Each stop consonant in Pawnee approximates a sound found in English. The ‘p’ in Pawnee is a voiceless unaspirated labial stop. It is heard in the Pawnee word paksuʾ ‘head’ (Parks 2008:458). This ‘p’ sound is similar to the ‘p’ sound in the English word spot. The ‘t’ in Pawnee is also a voiceless unaspirated stop. It

25 is a voiceless unaspirated alveolar stop. It is heard in the Pawnee word tawit ‘three’

(Parks 2008:512). This ‘t’ sound is similar to the ‘t’ in the English word stop. Like the previous two sounds, the ‘k’ sound in Pawnee is also a voiceless unaspirated stop. It is a voiceless unaspirated velar stop. It is heard in the Pawnee word kaasuʾ ‘leg’ (Parks

2008:422). This ‘k’ sound is similar to the ‘k’ sound in the English word skate. Pawnee has one voiceless laryngeal stop (ʾ). The laryngeal stop or glottal stop produces a catch or stoppage of airflow in the throat and is found in the English exclamation ‘uh-oh’. The laryngeal stop is heard in the Pawnee exclamation aakaʾa ‘oh my’ (Parks 2008:350-

351).

There is one affricate (c) in Pawnee. Like the stop consonants, the affricate is also always voiceless and unaspirated. The affricate has consistent phonetic variants.

The apico-alveolar [ts] occurs preceding consonants and in word-final position, while the lamino-palatal [tʃ] occurs preceding a vowel. The apico-alveolar [c ~ ts] is heard before the second ‘k’ in the Pawnee word kickuʾ ‘several’, while the lamino-palatal [c ~ tʃ] is heard at the beginning of the Pawnee word caski ‘a little’ (Parks 2008:435, 204).

Both allophones of the affricate (c) approximate sounds found in English as well. The apico-alveolar variant of c approximates the ‘ts’ sound at the end of the English word cats, while the lamino-palatal variant of c approximates the ‘ch’ sound at the end of the

English word which.

There are two voiceless fricatives (s, h) in Pawnee. The voiceless alveolar fricative (s) is heard at the beginning of the Pawnee word sakuuruʾ ‘sun’ (Parks

2008:500). This ‘s’ sound is very similar to the ‘s’ sound in the English word sip. The voiceless laryngeal fricative (h) is heard at the beginning of the Pawnee word hiituʾ

26 ‘feather’ (Parks 2008:390). This ‘h’ sound very closely resembles its English counterpart. The ‘h’ sound in the English word hip is an example of the voiceless laryngeal fricative (h). Still, there is also a breathier variant of the voiceless laryngeal fricative (h) that occurs before other consonants, as in the Pawnee word kuhku ‘pig’

(Parks 2008:13). These two sounds are allophones of the same phoneme, as evidenced in the late 1920s by Gene Weltfish, linguist and student of Franz Boas, when she described this variant of the laryngeal fricative (h) as closely approximating (x) in

German ich (Weltfish 1937:1).

There are two voiced sonorants (w, r) in the Pawnee language. The voiced labio- velar glide (w) is heard at the beginning of the Pawnee word wis ‘hurry’ (Parks

2008:529). The ‘w’ sound is similar to its English counterpart. The ‘w’ sound in the

English word will is an example of the voiced labio-velar glide (w). The voiced apico- alveolar tap (r) is heard beginning the second, fourth, and fifth syllables in the Pawnee word arikaraaruʾ ‘stag, buck deer’ (Parks 2008:361). The ‘r’ sound closely approximates the allophone of the intervocalic /t/ as in the word butter in American

English, or the tap in Spanish, as in pero ‘but’. In addition, the tap has some variation with Pawnee speakers. Many speakers frequently pronounce the tap as a nasal [n] word- initially, while some speakers may even pronounce it occasionally as a lateral [l] (Parks

2008:14).

Pawnee Vowels

The vowels of Pawnee are in Table 4. The consonants are arranged by manner and place of articulation. Following Table 4 is a brief description of the Pawnee vowels.

Table 4: Pawnee Vowels Front Central Back

27 High i, ii u, uu Mid e, ee (SB dialect) Low a, aa

As previously stated, Pawnee has six to eight vowels, depending upon the dialect. Skiri Pawnee has six vowels, while South Band Pawnee has eight vowels.

Pawnee has two high front unrounded vowels (i, ii), two mid-low central to back unrounded vowels (a, aa), and two back rounded vowels (u, uu) (Parks 1979:15;

2008:14). Additionally, South Band Pawnee has two mid front unrounded vowels (e, ee) (Parks 1979:15). The short vowels in Pawnee vary in pronunciation between tense and lax forms (Parks 1979:15; 2008:14). The high front unrounded short vowel (i) varies between tense [i] and lax [ɪ] (Parks 1979:15; 2008:14). The mid-low central to back unrounded short vowel (a) varies between tense [ɑ] and lax [ə] (Parks 1979:15;

2008:14). The back rounded short vowel (u) varies between tense [u] and lax [ʊ] (Parks

1979:15; 2008:14). The mid front unrounded short vowel (e) varies between tense [e] and lax [ɛ] (Parks 1979:15).

In addition to the short vowels, Pawnee also has long vowels, which are always tense (Parks 1979:15; 2008:14). The long vowels found in both dialects of the Pawnee language are (ii, aa, uu). Therefore, double (ii) is always [i:], double (aa) is always [ɑ:], and double (uu) is always [u:]. Furthermore, South Band Pawnee double (ee) is always

[e:].

28 Arikara and Pawnee Phonology

As has been illustrated in this chapter, Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri

Pawnee all exhibit small sound inventories and relative phonetic simplicity, especially with regard to the languages of the world. However, while the Arikara and Pawnee languages exhibit these small sound inventories and relative phonetic simplicity compared to the languages of the world, “Northern Caddoan languages are typologically fusional when combining morphemes into words and are therefore distinguished by complex sets of rules to account for the sound changes that occur in word formation. As a result, it is often difficult to identify all the morphemes comprising fully formed words” (Parks 2001:88). The designation of being fusional simply means that morphemes fuse or change their underlying forms to some extent in the word building process (Parks 2008:29). The fusional nature of Arikara and Pawnee poses some difficulty when attempting to establish sound correspondences and analyze

Arikara and Pawnee morphemes to construct new Pawnee words. However, this subject is described and demonstrated in the Chapter 4: Repurposing the Comparative Method for Pawnee Language and Dialect Revitalization.

29 Chapter 3: Comparative Arikara and Pawnee

Introduction

Before getting into the comparative method and establishing sound correspondences between Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee, it is necessary to understand what the comparative method is and what it is typically used to do. The comparative method is a technique utilized in historical linguistics to compare the linguistic features of two or more related languages (Campbell 2013:107). In historical linguistics, the comparative method is a useful tool for recovering linguistic history by giving linguists a tool to reconstruct proto-languages, detect loanwords, establish language families, and research distant genetic relationships (Campbell

2013:107). The basic assumption, which makes the comparative method such a useful tool to linguists, is that sound change is regular (Campbell 2013:143). In Chapter 2 of

Historical Linguistics: an Introduction, Campbell states, “regular changes recur generally and take place uniformly wherever the phonetic circumstances in which the change happens are encountered” (2013:15). This means that a sound or sounds undergo a regular change, when certain phonetic circumstances or the environment condition the change. Furthermore, this means that sounds do not change in arbitrary and unpredictable ways. In order to better understand the comparative method, I will outline the steps of the comparative method for linguistic reconstruction as suggested by

Lyle Campbell in Chapter 5 of Historical Linguistics: an Introduction. However,

Campbell states, “it is not always necessary to follow all these steps in precisely the sequence described here” (2013:110). According to Campbell, step one is to assemble cognates and arrange them in an orderly list by columns or rows (2013:111). In step

30 two, it is necessary to begin establishing sound correspondences for the cognate sets

(2013:111). In step three, proto-sounds are reconstructed from the evidence in the daughter languages (2013:112). In step four, Campbell suggests determining the status of partially overlapping correspondence sets (2013:118). In step five, Campbell suggests checking the plausibility of the reconstructed sound from the perspective of the overall phonological inventory of the proto-language (2013:124). In step six, Campbell suggests checking the plausibility of the reconstructed sound based upon linguistic universals and typological expectations (2013:126). In the final step, Campbell suggests reconstructing individual morphemes based upon these reconstructed proto-sounds

(2013:127).

In this instance, the comparative method is not being utilized as a tool to recover linguistic history, reconstruct a proto-language, establish a language family, or research distant genetic relationships. Instead, the comparative method is being repurposed to construct and propose words, which currently do not exist in the documentation, for

Pawnee language and dialect revitalization. Therefore, not all the steps suggested in

Campbell 2013 will be used. The steps that will be used are the compilation of cognates, the establishment of sound correspondences, and determining the status of partially overlapping correspondence sets. Other steps in the process of utilizing the comparative method as a language revitalization tool are analyzing morphemes and phonology and adhering to Pawnee phonology during the construction and proposal of new Pawnee words. The repurposed comparative method, or these other steps that are slightly different from the conventional comparative method, for Pawnee language and dialect revitalization is the subject of Chapter 4 of this thesis.

Previously Established Consonant Correspondences

This thesis greatly benefitted from previous diachronic studies of the Northern

Caddoan languages that established proto-sounds for Proto-Northern Caddoan. In addition, this thesis confirms many of the postulated sound correspondences for Pawnee and Arikara (Chafe 1979; Parks 2001). Ten of the postulated eleven Proto-Northern

Caddoan consonants in Chafe 1979 and Parks 2001 are confirmed in this thesis.

However, since my focus is on Arikara and Pawnee, Proto-Northern Caddoan *y, cannot be sufficiently confirmed in this thesis because of a lack of data. The following table is the consonant sound correspondences, which have been established between

Arikara and the two Pawnee dialects utilizing the repurposed comparative method:

Table 5: Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee Consonant Sound Correspondences Arikara South Band Pawnee Skiri Pawnee p p p t t t k, č k k ʾ ʾ ʾ s c (c, č) c (c, č) x, š s s h h, ø- h w w, p- w, p- r, n- r r n r r

Sound Correspondence 1: Arikara p: South Band Pawnee p: Skiri Pawnee p

The voiceless, unaspirated, bilabial stop [p] is found in the Arikara, South Band

Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the p sound in Arikara and the

Pawnee dialects will correspond to one another in most instances. Arikara p will directly correspond to p in the Pawnee dialects, but this does not necessarily hold true

32 for Pawnee p corresponding to Arikara p. Therefore, the one exception that does not allow for Pawnee p to always correspond to Arikara p will be discussed and illustrated in Sound Correspondence 7b. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara p corresponding to Pawnee p follows:

Table 6: Cognates Illustrating Arikara p: South Band p: Skiri p Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee p p p 5 pítkux pitku(s) pitku(s) ‘two’ 143 pitkuxunaánuʾ pitkusuraaruʾ pitkusuraaruʾ ‘forty’ 59 páh pah pah ‘moon’ 7 sápat capat capaat ‘woman’ 306 sapiinaáNUx cpiiraarus cpiirarus ‘fly’, ‘housefly’ ‘your 107 ápaʾ apat apat grandfather’ 101 apak apak apak ‘to fight’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the p in Arikara corresponds to the p in the

South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects in all instances. In Cognate Sets (CS) 5,

143, and 59 initial p in Arikara pítkux ‘two’, pitkuxunaánu’ ‘forty’, and páh ‘moon ’ corresponds to initial p in the Pawnee words pitku ‘two’, pitkusuraaru’ ‘forty’, and pah

‘moon’. The medial p, or p found in the middle of a word, corresponds to medial p in

South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee, for the most part as well. In Cognate Sets 7, 306,

107, and 101, medial p in the Arikara words sápat ‘woman’, sapiinaáNUx ‘fly, housefly’, ápaʾ ‘your grandfather’, and the verb root apak ‘to fight’ corresponds to medial p in South Band Pawnee capat ‘woman’, cpiiraarus ‘fly, house fly’, apat ‘your grandfather’, and apak ‘to fight’ and medial p in Skiri Pawnee capat ‘woman’, cpiirarus ‘fly, housefly’, apat ‘your grandfather’, and apak ‘to fight’. In Cognate Set

33 306 ‘fly, housefly’ Arikara p still corresponds to Pawnee p, even though p is a part of a consonant cluster cp in Pawnee, while Arikara p is immediately preceded by the vowel a. This is likely a case of elision. Elision is simply the deletion of a sound. Pawnee elided, or deleted, this sound, while Arikara did not. Moreover, the p sound is not found word-finally; therefore, when p is found in Arikara it will always correspond to p in

Pawnee. Finally, it is important to note that the verb form, ‘to fight’, illustrated here is not a fully inflected verb because Pawnee verbs are obligatorily inflected, overtly or covertly, for mode/mood, person, number, aspect, and subordination (Parks 1976:144).

This simply means that the verb form apak ‘to fight’ does not stand alone as a pronounceable word, unless it is marked for the grammatical categories previously mentioned.

Sound Correspondence 2: Arikara t: South Band Pawnee t: Skiri Pawnee t

The voiceless, unaspirated, alveolar stop [t] is found in the Arikara, South Band

Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the t sounds typically correspond to one another; however, the exceptions to this will be discussed and illustrated in Sound Correspondences 4, 18, and 19. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara t corresponding to Pawnee t follows:

Table 7: Cognates Illustrating Arikara t: South Band t: Skiri t Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee t t t 1 -t- -t- -t- 1.A 5 pítkux pitku(s) pitku(s) ‘two’ 85 táWIt tawit tawit ‘three’ 8 wiíta piita piita ‘man’ 64 čiwíhtuʾ kiwiiktuʾ kiwiktuʾ ‘sand’ 122 átat atat ataat ‘your sister

34 (male speaking)’ ‘be asleep’, 46 itka itka itka ‘sleep’

Analysis

In the examples provided above, the t in Arikara corresponds to the t in the

South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets (CS) 85 initial t in

Arikara táWIt ‘three’ corresponds to Pawnee tawit ‘three’. The medial t in Arikara corresponds to medial t in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee. In Cognate Sets 1, 5,

8, 64, 122, and 46 the medial t in the Arikara words or morphemes -t- ‘1st person pronominal agent’, pítkux ‘two’, wiíta ‘man’, čiwíhtu’ ‘sand’, átat ‘your sister (male speaking)’, and itka ‘be asleep, sleep’, medial t in South Band Pawnee -t- ‘1st person pronominal agent’, pitku(s) ‘two’, piita ‘man’, kiwiiktuʾ ‘sand’, atat ‘your sister (male speaking)’, and itka ‘be asleep, sleep’, and medial t in Skiri Pawnee -t- ‘1st person pronominal agent’, pitku(s) ‘two’, piita ‘man’, kiwiktuʾ ‘sand’, ataat ‘your sister (male speaking)’, and itka ‘be asleep, sleep’ correspond. The -t -‘1st person pronominal agent’ is treated as a medial sound because it is typically found after the mode/mood. The final t in Arikara also corresponds to final t in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee. In

Cognate Set 85 and 122, final t in Arikara táWIt ‘three’ and átat ‘your sister (male speaking)’, final t in South Band Pawnee tawit ‘three’ and atat ‘your sister (male speaking)’, and final t in Skiri Pawnee tawit ‘three’ and ataat ‘your sister (male speaking)’ correspond. Again, it is important to note that the verb form illustrated here is not a fully inflected verb because Pawnee verbs are obligatorily inflected, overtly or covertly, for mode/mood, person, number, aspect, and subordination (Parks 1976:144).

35 Sound Correspondence 3a: Arikara k: South Band Pawnee k: Skiri Pawnee k

The voiceless, unaspirated, velar stop [k] is found in the Arikara, South Band

Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the k sound in Arikara corresponds to the k sound in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee in most instances; however, the reverse statement of Pawnee k corresponding to Arikara k is not always true. These instances will be discussed and illustrated in Sound Correspondence 3b; while the other exceptions will be discussed and illustrated in some newly established consonant cluster sound correspondences. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara k corresponding to Pawnee k follows:

Table 8: Cognates Illustrating Arikara k: South Band k: Skiri k

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee k k k 4 áxkUx asku(s) asku(s) ‘one’ 22 nipiíkuʾ ripiikuʾ ripiikuʾ ‘egg’ 63 kanítš karitki karitki ‘rock’, ‘stone’ 191 kaáxuʾ kaasuʾ kaasuʾ ‘leg’ ‘your 104 ákaʾ akaʾ akaʾ grandmother’ 44 atkaʾu atkaʾu atkaʾu ‘to hear’

Analysis

In the examples provided above, the k in Arikara corresponds to the k in the

South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects in all instances. In Cognate Sets 63 and

191 initial k in Arikara kanítš ‘rock, stone’ and kaáxuʾ ‘leg’ corresponds to Pawnee karitki ‘rock, stone’ and kaasu’ ‘leg’. The medial k in Arikara also corresponds to medial k in Pawnee. In Cognate Sets 4, 22, 104, and 44, medial k in Arikara áxkUx

‘one’, nipiíkuʾ ‘egg’, ákaʾ ‘your grandmother’, and atkaʾu ‘to hear’ corresponds to

36 medial k in the Pawnee words asku(s) ‘one’, ripiikuʾ ‘egg’, akaʾ ‘your grandmother’, and atkaʾu ‘to hear’. k is not found word-finally at the phonetic level, because it undergoes a phonological change from k to t (Parks 1976:50). Therefore, when k is found in Arikara it will always correspond to k in Pawnee. Finally, it is important to note that the verb form, ‘to hear’, illustrated here is not a fully inflected verb because

Pawnee verbs are obligatorily inflected, overtly or covertly, for mode/mood, person, number, aspect, and subordination (Parks 1976:144). Therefore, atkaʾu ‘to hear’ is not an independent pronounceable word.

Sound Correspondence 3b: Arikara č: South Band Pawnee k: Skiri Pawnee k

The post-alveolar, voiceless affricate [č] found in Arikara does not correspond to the c sound found in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories.

Instead, the č sound in Arikara corresponds to the k sound in both Pawnee dialects in a particular phonetic context. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara č corresponding to Pawnee k follows:

Table 9: Cognates Illustrating Arikara č: South Band k: Skiri k

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee č k k čiitíʾIš kskiítiʾiks kskiítiʾiks, ‘four’ 147 kskiítiks 148 čiitiʾIštaánuʾ kskiitiʾikstaaruʾ kskiítikstaaruʾ ‘eighty’ 150 ščiísuʾ kskiícuʾ ikskiícuʾ ‘finger’ 37 čiísuʾ kiícuʾ kiícuʾ ‘neck’ 20 čiišuʾ kiisuʾ kiisuʾ ‘bone’ 146 ničiišuʾ rikiisuʾ rikiisuʾ ‘shelled corn’ ‘be a liquid’, 156 čiis kiic kic ‘be watery’ 40 čiikaa kiikaa kiikaa ‘to drink’

Analysis

The conditioned pattern observed is that Arikara č corresponds to Pawnee k when it is immediately followed by the front vowels /i/, /ii/, /e/ or /ee/. This environment is formally represented by the following: k à č / __V[+front] or k à č /

__{i(:), e(:)}. This means that proto k became č in Arikara when a front vowel, such as

/i/, /ii/, /e/, or /ee/, immediately follows k. When this environment is met, Arikara č corresponds to South Band Pawnee k and Skiri Pawnee k. The sound change from k to č is known as palatalization. This simply means that the velar consonant k, which is non- palatal, changes into the palato-alveolar, or post-alveolar, affricate č. This type of change from k to č is typically triggered by the mid front and high front vowels /i/, /ii/,

/e/, and /ee/. Based upon directionality it makes more sense for k to become č when followed by a front vowel, than it would for č to become k. In the examples provided above, the č in Arikara corresponds to the k in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri

Pawnee dialects in the particular context that was described earlier. In Cognate Sets 37 and 20, the Arikara consonant č and Pawnee consonant k correspond in initial position in Arikara čiísuʾ ‘neck’ and čiíšuʾ ‘bone’ and initial k Pawnee kiicuʾ ‘neck’ and kiisuʾ

‘bone’. The medial č in Arikara also corresponds to medial k in South Band Pawnee and

Skiri Pawnee when a front vowel immediately follows Pawnee k. In Cognate Set 146, medial č in Arikara ničiišuʾ ‘shelled corn’ and medial k Pawnee rikiisuʾ ‘shelled corn’ correspond. While there were some examples of final č in Arikara that were found in the documentation, most were not always entirely cognate with Pawnee forms. In the

Arikara examples that are not entirely cognate with Pawnee, final –č/-tš in Arikara,

38 which typically corresponds to the Pawnee diminutive suffix –ki/-kis, did not correspond to the Pawnee diminutive suffix –ki/-kis. In these instances, Pawnee utilizes an absolutive suffix, or a default case suffix, -uʾ that has been described in Parks 1972 and Parks 1976. An example of this is illustrated in Cognate Set 227 and a similar example is found in Cognate Set 21 in the appendix. Therefore, in Cognate Set 227 we can see that Arikara xúhč/xúhtš ‘shoe, moccasin’ and Pawnee asuuruʾ ‘shoe, moccasin’ are cognate, but the final morpheme is not the same in both languages. In Arikara, we see that the diminutive suffix –č/-tš is utilized to indicate that the noun is a small thing, while Pawnee utilizes the absolutive suffix –uʾ to indicate the noun is simply a noun.

On the other hand, a couple of examples of final č in Arikara corresponding to a

Pawnee form are in Cognate Sets 154 and 160. In these cognate sets, we see that

Arikara taRAhaaríč ‘buffalo horn spoon’ and neesíč ‘knife’ corresponding to Pawnee tarahaariki ‘buffalo horn spoon’ and reeciki or riiciki ‘knife’. Finally, the verb form,

‘to drink’, illustrated here is not a fully inflected verb because Pawnee verbs are obligatorily inflected, overtly or covertly, for mode/mood, person, number, aspect, and subordination (Parks 1976:144). Therefore, čiikaa or kiikaa ‘to drink’ is not an independent word.

Sound Correspondence 4: Arikara ʾ: South Band Pawnee ʾ: Skiri Pawnee ʾ

The glottal stop [ʾ] is found in the Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri

Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the ʾ sound in Arikara corresponds to the ʾ sound in the Pawnee dialects in most instances; however, the exception to this will be

39 discussed at the end of this sound correspondence. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara ʾ corresponding to Pawnee ʾ follows:

Table 10: Cognates Illustrating Arikara ʾ: South Band ʾ: Skiri ʾ Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee ʾ ʾ ʾ 19 paátuʾ paatuʾ paatuʾ ‘blood’ 20 čiíšuʾ kiisuʾ ------‘bone’ 22 nipiíkuʾ ripiikuʾ ripiikuʾ ‘egg’ 30 haakáʾuʾ aakaʾuʾ haakaʾuʾ ‘mouth’ 76 tareeʾuux tareeʾuus tariiʾuus ‘be blue’ 115 atíʾAx atiʾas atiʾas ‘my father’

Analysis

In the examples provided above, the glottal stop ʾ in Arikara typically corresponds to the glottal stop ʾ in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In

Cognate Sets 30, 76, and 115, the medial glottal stop ʾ in the Arikara words or morphemes haakáʾuʾ ‘mouth’, tareeʾuux ‘be blue’, and atíʾAx ‘my father’ corresponds to the medial glottal stop ʾ in the Pawnee words or morphemes aakaʾuʾ/haakaʾuʾ

‘mouth’, tareeʾuus/tariiʾuus ‘be blue’, and atiʾas ‘my father’. Additionally, the final glottal stop ʾ in Arikara typically corresponds to the final glottal stop ʾ in Pawnee.

Cognate Sets 19, 20, 22, and 30 represent the final glottal stop ʾ in Arikara corresponding to the final glottal stop ʾ in Pawnee. On the other hand, the glottal stop in

Arikara can correspond to Pawnee t on rare occasions. In Cognate Sets 106 and 107, the glottal stop ʾ in Arikara atípaʾ ‘my grandfather’ and ápaʾ ‘your grandfather’ corresponds to Pawnee atipat ‘my grandfather’ and apat ‘your grandfather’. However, this is not a big issue, because the change from an alveolar stop, such as t, to a glottal

40 stop, such as ʾ, is a very common sound change. The glottal stop may simply be an allophone of the alveolar stop in these examples.

Sound Correspondence 5: Arikara s: South Band Pawnee c: Skiri Pawnee c

Similar to the affricate [č] in Arikara not corresponding to the Pawnee affricate

[c], the voiceless alveolar fricative [s] found in Arikara does not correspond to the voiceless alveolar fricative [s] found in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Instead, the s sound in Arikara corresponds to the c sound in both Pawnee dialects. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate

Arikara s corresponding to Pawnee c follows:

Table 11: Cognates Illustrating Arikara s: South Band c: Skiri c

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee s c c 162 taWIšaápis tawíksaapic tawíksaapic ‘eight’ 150 ščiísuʾ kskiícuʾ ikskiícuʾ ‘finger’ ‘back’, ‘dorsal 140 nistaakuʾ rictaakuʾ rictaakuʾ region of the body’ ‘fly’, 306 sapiinaáNUx cpiiraarus cpiirarus ‘housefly’ ‘your brother 125 ánas arac araac (female speaking)’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the s in Arikara corresponds to the c in the

South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects in all instances. The sound change from c to s is known as deaffrication. This simply means that Pawnee c, which is an affricate, lost its stop component and retained its continuant component, which resulted in the

41 fricative s. Based upon directionality it makes more sense for the affricate c to become the fricative s in Arikara, because at an earlier time Arikara and Pawnee would most likely have both had the affricate c. This is also supported by previous historical analyses of the Northern Caddoan languages (Chafe 1979; Parks 2001). In Cognate Set

306, initial s in Arikara sapiinaáNUx ‘fly, housefly’, initial c in South Band Pawnee cpiiraarus ‘fly, housefly’, and initial c in Skiri Pawnee cpiirarus ‘fly, housefly’ corresponds. As stated earlier, ‘fly, housefly’ is a cognate in Arikara and Pawnee, even though there is a vowel discrepancy in the first syllable between Arikara and Pawnee.

This discrepancy is merely a case of elision. The medial s in Arikara also corresponds to medial c in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee. In Cognate Set 150 and 140, medial s in Arikara ščiísuʾ ‘finger’ and nistaakuʾ ‘back, dorsal region of the body’ and medial c in the Pawnee words kskiícuʾ ‘finger’ and rictaakuʾ ‘back, dorsal region of the body’ correspond. Final s in Arikara also corresponds to final c in both Pawnee dialects. In

Cognate Sets 162 and 125, we clearly see that the final s in Arikara taWIšaápis ‘eight’ and ánas ‘your brother (female speaking)’ corresponds to the final s in Pawnee tawiksaapic ‘eight’ and arac/araac ‘your brother (female speaking)’.

Sound Correspondence 6a: Arikara x: South Band Pawnee s: Skiri Pawnee s

The voiceless velar fricative [x] in Arikara corresponds to the voiceless alveolar fricative [s] in both Pawnee dialects. However, in addition to Arikara x corresponding to

Pawnee s, the š sound in Arikara also corresponds to the s sound in both Pawnee dialects in a conditioned environment. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara x corresponding to Pawnee s follows:

42 Table 12: Cognates Illustrating Arikara x: South Band s: Skiri s

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee x s s 152 Axčiísuʾ, xčiísuʾ askiicuʾ ------‘toe’ 4 áxkUx asku(s) asku(s) ‘one’ 26 uúxuʾ uusuʾ uusuʾ ‘hair’ 34 áxuʾ asuʾ asuʾ ‘foot’ 76 tareeʾuux tareeʾuus tariiʾuus ‘be blue’ ‘her/his 114 šáxtiʾ isastiʾ isaastiʾ mother’

Analysis

The general pattern observed is that Arikara x corresponds to Pawnee s in most instances, except for the conditioned environment when Arikara š corresponds to

Pawnee s. Arikara x corresponds to Pawnee s when it is immediately preceded by the vowels /a/, /aa/, /o/, /oo/, /u/ or /uu/, which are not front vowels. This environment is formally represented by the following: s à x / V[-front]__ or s à x / {a(:), o(:), u(:)}__.

This means that proto s became x in Arikara when the vowels, such as /a/, /aa/, /o/, /oo/,

/u/, or /uu/, besides a front vowel immediately preceded s. In this more generalized environment compared to the particular environment in which s becomes š, the voiceless velar fricative x in Arikara corresponds to the voiceless alveolar fricative s in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 152, 4, 26, 34, 76, and 114, x in Arikara Axčiísuʾ/xčiísuʾ ‘toe’, áxkUx ‘one’, uúxuʾ ‘hair’, áxuʾ ‘foot’, tareeʾuux ‘be blue’, and šáxtiʾ ‘her/his mother’ correspond to s in the Pawnee words askiicuʾ ‘toe’, asku ‘one’, uusuʾ ‘hair’, asuʾ ‘foot’, tareeʾuus/tariiʾuus ‘be blue’, and isastiʾ/isaastiʾ ‘her/his mother’. Finally, it is important to note that the descriptive verb

43 form, ‘be blue’, illustrated here is not an independent verb form as the adjective ‘blue’ is in English.

Sound Correspondence 6b: Arikara š: South Band Pawnee s: Skiri Pawnee s

Again, the voiceless alveolar fricative [s] found in Arikara does not correspond to the alveolar fricative [s] found in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Furthermore, the Arikara velar fricative or x sound is not the only sound that corresponds to the Pawnee alveolar fricative or s sound. The post-alveolar fricative or š sound in Arikara corresponds to the alveolar fricative or s sound in both Pawnee dialects in a particular phonetic/phonological environment. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara š corresponding to Pawnee s follows:

Table 13: Cognates Illustrating Arikara š: South Band s: Skiri s

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee š s s 20 čiišuʾ kiisuʾ kiisuʾ ‘bone’ 146 ničiíšuʾ rikiisuʾ rikiisuʾ ‘shelled corn’ 192 štó, štoh istu istuʾ ‘again’ 163 NAheešá ------ráhiisa ‘tomorrow’

Analysis

The conditioned pattern observed is that Arikara š corresponds to Pawnee s when it is immediately preceded by the front vowels /i/, /ii/, /e/ or /ee/. This environment is formally represented by the following: s à š / V[+front]__ or s à š / {i(:), e(:)}__. This means that s becomes š when a front vowel, such as /i/, /ii/, /e/, or /ee/, immediately precedes s. When this particular phonetic environment is met, the š in

44 Arikara corresponds to the s in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. The sound change from s to š is also known as palatalization, but is slightly different than the other process of palatalization that changed the velar k to the palato-alveolar, or post-alveolar, consonant č. The process of palatalization that changes s to š simply changes the voiceless alveolar fricative s to the voiceless palato-alveolar, or post- alveolar, fricative š. The changes from s to š and from k to č are similar because they are triggered by the mid front and high front vowels /i/, /ii/, /e/, and /ee/. The difference in the environment is that s to š occurs when a front vowel, such as /i/, /ii/, /e/, or /ee/, immediately precedes s, while k to č occurs when a front vowel, such as /i/, /ii/, /e/, or

/ee/, immediately follows k. This analysis is also supported by previous historical analyses of the Northern Caddoan languages (Chafe 1979; Parks 2001). In Cognate Sets

20, 146, 192, and 163, š in Arikara čiišuʾ ‘one’, ničiíšuʾ ‘shelled corn’, štó/štoh ‘again’, and NAheešá ‘tomorrow’ and s in Pawnee kiisuʾ ‘bone’, rikiisuʾ ‘shelled corn’, istu/istuʾ

‘again’, and rahiisa ‘tomorrow’ corresponds. In Cognate Set 192 ‘again’, Arikara š still corresponds to Pawnee s, even though the Arikara and Pawnee word do not begin with the same sound. Again, the vowel i is simply an elided or deleted sound in Arikara, while it remained in Pawnee. Final š in Arikara also corresponds to final s in both

Pawnee dialects sometimes. However, there are not very many examples of this because it is typically for final s to be deleted in Pawnee (Parks 1976:55-57,102). The few examples that illustrate this are in Cognate Sets 134 and 305. In these particular examples, we can clearly see that final š in Arikara anátš ‘your grandchild’ and aniítš

‘calf/newborn calf’ still corresponds to final s in the Pawnee words arakis ‘your grandchild’ and ariikis/hariikis ‘calf/newborn calf’. The few examples that illustrate

45 this correspondence word finally do not appear to be cognate, but they are indeed cognates. However, Arikara tš corresponding to Pawnee kis will be discussed later in

Chapter 3 in Sound Correspondence 19.

Sound Correspondence 7a: Arikara -h-: South Band Pawnee -h-: Skiri Pawnee -h-

The voiceless laryngeal fricative [h] is found in the Arikara, South Band

Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the h sound in Arikara corresponds to the h sound in the Pawnee dialects in many instances; however, there are some exceptions to this. One of the exceptions will be discussed and illustrated in

Sound Correspondence 6b. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara medial h corresponding to Pawnee medial h follows:

Table 14: Cognates Illustrating Arikara -h-: South Band -h-: Skiri -h-

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee h h h ‘friendly visit’, ‘intertribal 213 koxkAhaánuʾ kuskahaaruʾ kuskahaaruʾ visit of friendship’ kuNAhúx, 214 kuNAhús (little kurahus kurahus ‘old man’ old man) 222 wiitaníhUx piitarihuks piitarihuks ‘bachelor’ ‘year’, ‘full 223 nikatIhaánuʾ rikatihaaruʾ rikatihaaruʾ cycle of the seasons’ ‘prairie’, 260 koohaánuʾ kuuhaaruʾ kuuhaaruʾ ‘valley’

46 Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the medial h in Arikara corresponds to the medial h in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 213,

214, 222, 223, and 260, medial h in the Arikara words koxkAhaánuʾ ‘friendly visit’,

‘intertribal visit of friendship’, kuNAhúx ‘old man’, wiitaníhUx ‘bachelor’, nikatIhaánuʾ ‘year’, ‘full cycle of the seasons’, and koohaánuʾ ‘prairie’, ‘valley’ directly corresponds to medial h in the Pawnee words kuskahaaruʾ ‘friendly visit’,

‘intertribal visit of friendship’, kurahus ‘old man’, piitarihuks ‘bachelor’, rikatihaaruʾ

‘year’, ‘full cycle of the seasons’, and kuuhaaruʾ ‘prairie’, ‘valley’.

Sound Correspondence 7b: Arikara h-: South Band Pawnee ø-: Skiri Pawnee h-

In addition to Arikara h corresponding to Pawnee h, the word initial laryngeal fricative [h] in Arikara and Skiri Pawnee also correspond to a deletion of h word- initially in South Band Pawnee that results in ø-. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara word-initial h- and Skiri Pawnee word- initial h- corresponding to South Band Pawnee word-initial ø- follows:

Table 15: Cognates Illustrating Arikara h-: South Band ø-: Skiri h-

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee h- ø- h- 25 hiítuʾ ø-iituʾ hiituʾ ‘feather’ 30 haakáʾuʾ ø-aakaʾuʾ haakaʾuʾ ‘mouth’ 32 haátuʾ ø-aatuʾ haatuʾ ‘tongue’ 65 hunaánuʾ ø-uraaruʾ huraaruʾ ‘land’, ‘earth’ 88 hutuúnuʾ ø-uutuuruʾ huutuuruʾ ‘wind’ 219 hunaáʾuʾ ø-uraaʾuʾ huraaʾuʾ ‘snow’

47 Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the general pattern observed is that Arikara h corresponds to Pawnee h; however, word initial h is deleted in South Band Pawnee, while Arikara and Skiri Pawnee retain word initial h. This is formally represented by the following: h à ø / #__. This means that h becomes ø, null or nothing, when in word-initial position. When this environment is met, the initial h in Arikara and Skiri

Pawnee corresponds to the word-initial null form, or ø, in South Band Pawnee. In

Cognate Sets 25, 30, 32, 65, 88, and 219, word-initial h in the Arikara words hiítuʾ

‘feather’, haakáʾuʾ ‘mouth’, haátuʾ ‘tongue’, hunaánuʾ ‘land’, ‘earth’, hutuúnuʾ

‘wind’, and hunaáʾuʾ ‘snow’ correspond to the word-initial null form, or ø, in the South

Band Pawnee words ø-iituʾ ‘feather’, ø-aakaʾuʾ ‘mouth’, ø-aatuʾ ‘tongue’, ø-uraaruʾ

‘land’, ‘earth’, ø-uutuuruʾ ‘wind’, and ø-uraaʾuʾ ‘snow’. The Skiri Pawnee forms of these words are exactly like the South Band Pawnee forms, except the Skiri forms contain an h- where the South Band Pawnee form is ø-. Therefore, Skiri Pawnee initial h directly corresponds to Arikara h word initially, while South Band Pawnee does not.

Sound Correspondence 8a: Arikara -w-: South Band Pawnee -w-: Skiri Pawnee -w-

The bilabial labio-velar glide [w] is found in the Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the w sound in Arikara corresponds to the w sound in the Pawnee dialects in most instances; however, the one exception to this will be discussed and illustrated in Sound Correspondence 7b. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara medial w corresponding to Pawnee medial w follows:

48 Table 16: Cognates Illustrating Arikara -w-: South Band -w-: Skiri -w-

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee w w w 64 čiwíhtuʾ kiwiiktuʾ kiwiktuʾ ‘sand’ 69 naawiíšuʾ raawisuʾ raawiisuʾ ‘smoke’ 85 táWIt tawit tawit ‘three’ ‘her/his iwaririks, 111 iwaaníRIš iwaaririks maternal iwariiriks uncle’ 141 nikutawikúsuʾ kutawikucuʾ kutawikucuʾ ‘hawk’ ‘male horse’, 273 xaawiítA ------asawiita ‘male dog’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the medial w in Arikara corresponds to the medial w in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 64, 69,

85, 111, 141, and 273, medial w in the Arikara words čiwíhtuʾ ‘sand’, naawiíšuʾ

‘smoke’, táWIt ‘three’, iwaaníRIš ‘her/his maternal uncle’, nikutawikúsuʾ ‘hawk’, and xaawiítA ‘male horse’, ‘male dog’ corresponds to medial w in the Pawnee words kiwiiktuʾ/kiwiktuʾ ‘sand’, raawisuʾ/raawiisuʾ ‘smoke’, tawit ‘three’, iwaaririks/iwaririks/iwariiriks ‘her/his maternal uncle’, kutawikucuʾ ‘hawk’, and asawiita ‘male horse’, ‘male dog’. While Cognate Sets 141 and 273 are not entirely the same, they are in fact cognates. Again, there is simply a case of deletion affecting these cognate sets. In Cognate Set 141, the Arikara form appears to have preserved an initial syllable ni- or ri- that was deleted in the Pawnee dialects, while Arikara deleted the initial syllable a in Cognate Set 273. Furthermore, since w is not found word-finally, when w is found in Arikara it corresponds to w in Pawnee, except the instances discussed and illustrated in Sound Correspondence 8b. Finally, there are instances in

49 which word medial -w- in Arikara appears not to correspond to word medial -w- in

Pawnee; however, in these instances, the correspondence appears word medially and in morpheme initial position as discussed and illustrated in Sound Correspondence 8b.

Sound Correspondence 8b: Arikara w-: South Band Pawnee p-/w-: Skiri Pawnee p-

The word initial bilabial labio-velar glide [w] in Arikara corresponds to the word initial voiceless bilabial stop [p] in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee. Additionally, word initial w in Arikara will in fact correspond to word initial w in South Band

Pawnee; however, this is extremely rare. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara initial w corresponding to Pawnee initial w follows:

Table 17: Cognates Illustrating Arikara w-: South Band p-/w-: Skiri p-

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee w- p-/w- p- wiináxtš, 168 wiinásts (little piiraski piiraski ‘boy’ boy) 170 waawaapIsúxuʾ ------paawaapicisuʾ ‘lightning’ ‘bat 171 waáxIt paasit paasit (mammal)’ 172 wáh pah pah ‘elk’ ‘squash’, 174 WAhúx pahuks pahuks ‘pumpkin’ ‘hill’, 74 waáʾuʾ paaʾuʾ paaʾuʾ ‘mountain’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the initial w in Arikara corresponds to the initial w in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 168,

50 170, 171, 172, 174, and 74, initial w in the Arikara words wiináxtš ‘boy’, waawaapIsúxuʾ ‘lightning’, waáxIt ‘bat (mammal)’, wáh ‘elk’, WAhúx ‘squash’,

‘pumpkin’, and waáʾuʾ ‘hill’, ‘mountain’ corresponds to initial p in the Pawnee words piiraski ‘boy’, paawaapicisuʾ ‘lightning’, paasit ‘bat (mammal)’, pah ‘elk’, pahuks

‘squash’, ‘pumpkin’, and paaʾuʾ ‘hill’, ‘mountain’. Finally, a single instance that represents Arikara word initial w- corresponding to South Band Pawnee word initial w- is in the Arikara word wiiteešútš/wiiteešúč corresponding to the South Band Pawnee word wiiteesutki, but also pronounced piiteesutki in South Band Pawnee and piitiisutki in Skiri Pawnee (Parks 1976:52). While it appears as if this sound correspondence is only word initially, Cognate Sets 33, 153, 286, and 297 provide evidence that the sound correspondence is actually morpheme initial, because word medial w in the Arikara words šwiítuʾ ‘fingernail’, Axwiítuʾ/xwiítuʾ ‘toenail’, etwás ‘spleen’, and Axwiroóxuʾ

‘kidney’ correspond to word medial p in the Pawnee words ikspiituʾ ‘fingernail’, aspiituʾ ‘toenail’, etpac/itpaac ‘spleen’, and aspiruusuʾ/spiruusuʾ ‘kidney’.

Sound Correspondence 9a: Arikara r: South Band Pawnee r: Skiri Pawnee r

The alveolar tap [r] is found in the Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri

Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the r sound in Arikara corresponds to the r sound in the Pawnee dialects. The exception to this is when Skiri Pawnee hr reduces to h.

Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara r corresponding to Pawnee r follows:

Table 18: Cognates Illustrating Arikara r: South Band r: Skiri r

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee

51 r r r 28 čiriíkuʾ kiriikuʾ kiriikuʾ ‘eye’ 39 kariíkuʾ kariikuʾ kariikuʾ ‘liver’ 76 tareeʾuux tareeʾuus tariiʾuus ‘be blue’ 98 pitaruʾ pitaruʾ pitaruʾ ‘ant (generic)’ ‘rabbit 176 wáRUx parus parus (generic)’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the medial r in Arikara corresponds to the medial r in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 28, 39,

76, 98, and 176, medial r in the Arikara morphemes or words čiriíkuʾ ‘eye’, kariíkuʾ

‘liver’, tareeʾuux ‘be blue’, pitaruʾ ‘ant (generic)’, and wáRUx ‘rabbit (generic)’ corresponds to medial r in the Pawnee morphemes or words kiriikuʾ ‘eye’, kariikuʾ

‘liver’, tareeʾuus/tariiʾuus ‘be blue’, pitaruʾ ‘ant (generic)’, and parus ‘rabbit

(generic)’. Furthermore, since r is not found word-finally, when r is found in Arikara it will always correspond to r in Pawnee. Again, it is important to remember that the descriptive verb form, ‘be blue’ in Pawnee is not an independent adjective as the adjective ‘blue’ is in English.

Sound Correspondence 9b: Arikara n-: South Band Pawnee r-: Skiri Pawnee r-

The initial alveolar nasal [n] found in Arikara is not present in the sound inventory of South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee. However, the initial alveolar nasal or n sound in Arikara corresponds to the initial alveolar tap or r sound in both Pawnee dialects. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate initial n in Arikara corresponding to initial r in Pawnee follows:

52 Table 19: Cognates Illustrating Arikara n-: South Band r-: Skiri r-

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee n- r- r- 13 načiriíkuʾ rakiriikuʾ rakiriikuʾ ‘seed’ 22 nipiíkuʾ ripiikuʾ ripiikuʾ ‘egg’ 24 NItkuúʾ ritkuʾuʾ ritkuʾuʾ ‘tail’ 69 naawiíšuʾ raawisuʾ raawiisuʾ ‘smoke’ 80 NItkahaánuʾ ratkahaaruʾ ratkahaaruʾ ‘night’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the initial n in Arikara corresponds to the initial r in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 13, 22,

24, 69, and 80, the initial n in the Arikara words načiriíkuʾ ‘seed’, nipiíkuʾ ‘egg’,

NItkuúʾ ‘tail’, naawiíšuʾ ‘smoke’, and NItkahaánuʾ ‘night’ corresponds to the initial r in the Pawnee words rakiriikuʾ ‘seed’, ripiikuʾ ‘egg’, ritkuʾuʾ ‘tail’, raawisuʾ/raawiisuʾ

‘smoke’, and ratkahaaruʾ ‘night’. The reason why Arikara initial n corresponds to

Pawnee initial r and is not a part of Sound Correspondence 10 is because an initial r is not found in Arikara. On the other hand, medial r and medial n are found in Arikara.

This is evidence that initial n in Arikara is simply an allophone of Arikara r because they are in complementary distribution.

Sound Correspondence 10: Arikara n: South Band Pawnee r: Skiri Pawnee r

The alveolar nasal [n] found in Arikara is not present in the sound inventory of

South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee. However, the alveolar nasal or n sound in

Arikara corresponds to the alveolar tap or r sound in both Pawnee dialects. Some

53 examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara n corresponding to Pawnee r follows:

Table 20: Cognates Illustrating Arikara n: South Band r: Skiri r

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee n r r 65 hunaánuʾ uraaruʾ huraaruʾ ‘land’, ‘earth’ 88 hutuúnuʾ uutuuruʾ huutuuruʾ ‘wind’ 99 tanáhaʾ tarahaʾ tarahaʾ ‘buffalo’ suúnats (tiny girl), suúnatš (young 157 cuuraki cuuraki ‘girl’ girl), suúnaxtš (12-15 girl)

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the n in Arikara corresponds to the n in the

South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 65, 88, 99, and 157, medial n in the Arikara words hunaánuʾ ‘land’, ‘earth’, hutuúnuʾ ‘wind’, tanáhaʾ

‘buffalo’, and suúnatš ‘young girl’ corresponds to medial r in the Pawnee words uraaruʾ/huraaruʾ ‘land’, ‘earth’, uutuuruʾ/huutuuruʾ ‘wind’, tarahaʾ ‘buffalo’, and cuuraki ‘girl’. Again, Cognate Sets 65, 88, 99, and 157 provide the evidence that

Arikara n corresponding to Pawnee r, when it is not in initial position, represents a different sound correspondence and proto-sound because medial n and medial r both occur in Arikara, while only initial n occurs in Arikara. Furthermore, Cognate Set 157 is unusual because there are three separate words in the Arikara column that have slightly different meanings and slightly different pronunciations; nevertheless, the Arikara word is in fact cognate with the Pawnee word and the sound correspondence holds true.

However, the subject of the reason for the different pronunciations and slightly different

54 meanings is discussed in the issues section of Chapter 5 under consonantal sound symbolism. Finally, since n is not found word-finally, when n is found in Arikara it will correspond to r in Pawnee.

Previously Established Vowel Correspondences

Again, this thesis greatly benefitted from previous diachronic studies of the

Northern Caddoan languages. Vowel length is phonemic in the Arikara and Pawnee languages; however, there are some discrepancies between the languages in regards to long vowels. Therefore, the following table is the vowel sound correspondences, with optional length indicated, which have been established between Arikara and the two

Pawnee dialects utilizing the repurposed comparative method:

Table 21: Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee Vowel Correspondences Arikara South Band Pawnee Skiri Pawnee i(:) i(:) i(:) e(:) e(:) i(:) a(:) a(:) a(:) o(:) u(:) u(:) u(:) u(:) u(:)

Sound Correspondence 11: Arikara i: South Band Pawnee i: Skiri Pawnee i

Two high front unrounded vowels [i] and [ii] are found in the Arikara, South

Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the i and ii sound in

Arikara corresponds to the i and ii sound in the Pawnee dialects. On occasion, there are some exceptions to this; however, these exceptions are unpredictable. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara i(:) corresponding to Pawnee i(:) follow:

55 Table 22: Cognates Illustrating Arikara i(:): South Band i(:): Skiri i(:)

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee i(:) i(:) i(:) 3 čituúʾU kituuʾuʾ kituuʾuʾ ‘all’ 5 pítkUx pitku pitku ‘two’ 8 wiíta piita piita ‘man’ 9 sáhniš cahriks cahiks ‘person’ 22 nipiíkuʾ ripiikuʾ ripiikuʾ ‘egg’ ‘her/his 105 ikaániʾ ikaariʾ ikaariʾ grandmother’ 280 isataáʾuʾ icataaʾuʾ icataaʾuʾ ‘bread’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the i(:) in Arikara corresponds to the i(:) in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 3, 5, 8, 9, 22, 105 and 280, the i(:) in the Arikara words čituúʾU ‘all’, pítkUx ‘two’, wiíta ‘man’, sáhniš

‘person’, nipiíkuʾ ‘egg’, ikaániʾ ‘her/his grandmother’ and isataáʾuʾ ‘bread’ directly corresponds to the i in the Pawnee words kituuʾuʾ ‘all’, pitku ‘two’, piita ‘man’, cahriks/cahiks ‘person’, ripiikuʾ ‘egg’, ikaariʾ ‘her/his grandmother’ and icataaʾuʾ

‘bread’. In most instances, these vowels will correspond between Arikara, South Band

Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee, but there are some exceptions; however, these exceptions are unpredictable.

Sound Correspondence 12: Arikara e: South Band Pawnee e: Skiri Pawnee i

The two mid front unrounded vowels [e] and [ee] are only found in the sound inventories of the Arikara language and the South Band Pawnee dialect. Therefore,

Arikara and South Band Pawnee e and ee will correspond to Skiri Pawnee i and ii.

56 Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara e(:) and South Band Pawnee e(:) corresponding to Skiri Pawnee i(:) follow:

Table 23: Cognates Illustrating Arikara e(:): South Band e(:): Skiri i(:)

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee e(:) e(:) i(:) 14 sčeekaraákuʾ kskeekaraakuʾ kskiikaraakuʾ ‘leaf’ ‘breast’, 38 eétuʾ eetuʾ iituʾ ‘mammary gland’ 70 čeekáʾuʾ keekaʾuʾ (flame) kiikaʾuʾ (flame) ‘fire’ 76 tareeʾuux tareeʾuus tariiʾuus ‘be blue’ 87 neésuʾ reecuʾ riicuʾ ‘intestine’ neétAkas, 142 neétahkas, reetahkac riitahkaac ‘eagle’ neétAhka

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the e or ee in Arikara corresponds to the e or ee in South Band Pawnee and the i or ii in Skiri Pawnee. In Cognate Sets 14, 38, 70,

76, 87, and 142, the e(:) in the Arikara words or morphemes sčeekaraákuʾ ‘leaf’, eétuʾ

‘breast’, ‘mammary gland’, čeekáʾuʾ ‘fire’, tareeʾuux ‘be blue’, neésuʾ ‘intestine’, neétAkas/neétahkas/neétAhka ‘eagle’ directly corresponds to the e(:) in the South Band

Pawnee words or morphemes kskeekaraakuʾ ‘leaf’, eetuʾ ‘breast’, ‘mammary gland’, keekaʾuʾ ‘flame’, tareeʾuus ‘be blue’, reecuʾ ‘intestine’, and reetahkac ‘eagle’. In addition, the e(:) in these Arikara and South Band Pawnee words or morphemes correspond to the i(:) in the Skiri Pawnee words kskiikaraakuʾ ‘leaf’, iituʾ ‘breast’,

‘mammary gland’, kiikaʾuʾ ‘flame’, tariiʾuus ‘be blue’, riicuʾ ‘intestine’, and riitahkaac

‘eagle’. Moreover, it is important to note that previous historical work has established that e is typically the result of a vowel contraction between a and i (Chafe 1979:217-

57 218; Parks 2001:87). Finally, in most instances, these vowels will correspond between

Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee, but there are some exceptions; however, these exceptions are usually simply the result of phonological changes that mask the underlying form. One such exception is explained when proposing a Pawnee word for ‘moose’.

Sound Correspondence 13: Arikara a: South Band Pawnee a: Skiri Pawnee a

Two mid-low central to back unrounded vowels [a] and [aa] are found in the

Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the a and aa sounds in Arikara correspond to the a and aa sounds in the Pawnee dialects. On occasion, there are some exceptions to this; however, it is unpredictable to determine these exceptions. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara a(:) corresponding to Pawnee a(:) follow:

Table 24: Cognates Illustrating Arikara a(:): South Band a(:): Skiri a(:)

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee a(:) a(:) a(:) 4 áxkUx asku asku ‘one’ 7 sápat capat capaat ‘woman’ 8 wiíta piita piita ‘man’ 12 xaátš asaaki asaaki ‘dog’ 19 paátuʾ paatuʾ paatuʾ ‘blood’ 31 aánuʾ aaruʾ aaruʾ ‘tooth’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the a(:) in Arikara corresponds to the a(:) in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 4, 7, 8, 12, 19, and 31, the a(:) in the Arikara words áxkUx ‘one’, sápat ‘woman’, wiíta ‘man’, xaátš

58 ‘dog’, paátuʾ ‘blood’, and aánuʾ ‘tooth’ directly corresponds to the a(:) in the Pawnee words asku ‘one’, capat/capaat ‘woman’, piita ‘man’, asaaki ‘dog’, paatuʾ ‘blood’, and aaruʾ ‘tooth’. In Cognate Sets 4 and 31, Arikara initial a(:) corresponds to Pawnee initial a(:). In Cognate Sets 7, 12, and 19, Arikara medial a(:) corresponds to Pawnee medial a(:). However, as can be seen in Cognate Set 7, vowel length does not stay consistent across the languages and dialects. Finally, Cognate Set 8 illustrates Arikara final a(:) corresponding to Pawnee final a(:). In most instances, these vowels will correspond between Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee, but there are some exceptions: however, these exceptions are unpredictable.

Sound Correspondence 14: Arikara o: South Band Pawnee u: Skiri Pawnee u

Two mid back rounded vowels or []o and [oo] are only found in the sound inventory of the Arikara language; therefore, Arikara o or oo corresponds to the two high back rounded vowels or the u or uu sounds in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri

Pawnee dialects. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara o(:) corresponding to Pawnee u(:) follow:

Table 25: Cognates Illustrating Arikara o(:): South Band u(:): Skiri u(:)

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee o(:) u(:) u(:) 48 koot kuut kuut ‘to die’ 94 naanoókux ------raruukusuʾ ‘singer’ 192 štó, štoh istu istuʾ, sistuʾ (obs.) ‘again’ ‘friendly visit’, ‘intertribal 213 koxkAhaánuʾ kuskahaaruʾ kuskahaaruʾ visit of friendship’ ‘prairie’, 260 koohaánuʾ kuuhaaruʾ kuuhaaruʾ ‘valley’

59 297 Axwiroóxuʾ aspiruusuʾ spiruusuʾ ‘kidney’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the o(:) in Arikara corresponds to the u(:) in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 48, 94, 192, 213,

260, and 297, the o(:) in the Arikara words or morphemes koot ‘to die’, naanoókux

‘singer’, štó/štoh ‘again’, koxkAhaánuʾ ‘friendly visit’, ‘intertribal visit of friendship’, koohaánuʾ ‘prairie’, ‘valley’, and Axwiroóxuʾ ‘kidney’ directly corresponds to the u(:) in the Pawnee words or morphemes kuut ‘to die’, raruukusuʾ ‘singer’, istu/istuʾ

‘again’, kuskahaaruʾ ‘friendly visit’, ‘intertribal visit of friendship’, kuuhaaruʾ

‘prairie’, ‘valley’, and aspiruusuʾ/spiruusuʾ ‘kidney’. In addition, it is important to note that previous historical work has established that o is often the result of a vowel contraction between a and u (Parks 2001:87-88).

Sound Correspondence 15: Arikara u: South Band Pawnee u: Skiri Pawnee u

Two high back rounded vowels [u] and [uu] are found in the Arikara, South

Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee sound inventories. Therefore, the u or uu sound in

Arikara corresponds to the u or uu sound in the Pawnee dialects. On occasion, there are some exceptions to this; however, it is unpredictable to determine these exceptions.

Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara u(:) corresponding to Pawnee u(:) follow:

Table 26: Cognates Illustrating Arikara u(:): South Band u(:): Skiri u(:)

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee u(:) u(:) u(:)

60 3 čituúʾU kituuʾuʾ kituuʾuʾ ‘all’ 26 uúxuʾ uusuʾ uusuʾ ‘hair’ kuúNUx, 187 kuúnus (little kuuruks kuruks ‘bear (animal)’ bear) 219 hunaáʾuʾ uraaʾuʾ huraaʾuʾ ‘snow’ 88 hutuúnuʾ uutuuruʾ huutuuruʾ ‘wind’

Analysis

In the few examples provided above, the u(:) in Arikara corresponds to the u(:) in the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects. In Cognate Sets 3, 26, 187, 219, and 88, the u(:) in the Arikara words čituúʾU ‘all’, uúxuʾ ‘hair’, kuúNUx ‘bear’, hunaáʾuʾ ‘snow’, and hutuúnuʾ ‘wind’ directly corresponds to the u(:) in the Pawnee words kituuʾuʾ ‘all’, uusuʾ ‘hair’, kuuruks/kuruks ‘bear’, uraaʾuʾ/huraaʾuʾ ‘snow’, and uutuuruʾ/huutuuruʾ ‘wind’. In Cognate Set 26, Arikara initial u(:) corresponds to

Pawnee initial u(:), while Arikara medial u(:) corresponds to Pawnee medial u(:) in

Cognate Sets 3, 26, 187, 219, and 88. However, as can be seen in Cognate Set 187, vowel length does not stay consistent across the languages and dialects. Finally, in most instances, these vowels will correspond between Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri

Pawnee, but there are some exceptions; however, these exceptions are unpredictable.

Newly Established Sound Correspondences: Consonant Clusters

Although this thesis greatly benefitted from previous diachronic studies of the

Northern Caddoan languages, these established sound correspondences did not account for consonant cluster correspondences between Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri

Pawnee. Therefore, in order to make the comparative method a more useful tool for

61 Pawnee language revitalization efforts, I have postulated a few of these consonant cluster correspondences, based upon what I have observed in the Cognate Sets.

Sound Correspondence 16a: Arikara x: South Band Pawnee ks: Skiri Pawnee ks

In addition to the velar fricative [x] in Arikara corresponding to the alveolar fricative or s sound in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee, the velar fricative x also corresponds to the consonant cluster ks in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara x corresponding to the Pawnee consonant cluster ks follows:

Table 27: Cognates Illustrating Arikara x: South Band ks: Skiri ks

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee x ks ks 27 páxuʾ paksuʾ paksuʾ ‘head’ 174 WAhúx pahuks pahuks ‘squash’ 175 wahUxanaáxuʾ pahuksaraasuʾ pahuksaraasuʾ ‘watermelon’ 182 šihUx sihuks suhuks ‘five’ 183 šihuxtaánuʾ sihukstaaruʾ suhukstaaruʾ ‘one hundred’ kuúNUx, kuúnus 187 kuuruks kuruks ‘bear (animal)’ (little bear) 218 čítUx kituks kituks ‘beaver’ 268 waaruxtii waarukstii waarukstii ‘be holy’

Analysis

The general pattern observed between Pawnee ks and Arikara x is that it closely resembles Arikara x corresponding to Pawnee s. However, it is difficult to know the motivation for ks becoming x, because this does not appear to be a very common sound change in the languages of the world. It makes more sense based on directionality that the consonant cluster ks would have been present historically, because it is even more

62 difficult to account for the insertion of a k before s from a historical and phonological perspective. Therefore, it can be assumed that ks eventually became x in Arikara, but the question that remains is did this take place in one or more steps? It is probably the case that this change took place in more than a single step because the sound correspondence between Arikara x and Pawnee s and Arikara x and Pawnee ks appear in the exact same environment. Thus, it seems probable that ks first became s, then s became x. Some possible evidence for this particular change from ks to s, then from s to x is found in only a couple examples in Cognate Sets 14 and 289. In Cognate Set 14 and

289, initial s in the Arikara words sčeekaraákuʾ ‘leaf’ and sčeekáhtš ‘gnat’ corresponds to the initial consonant cluster ks in the Pawnee words kskeekaraakuʾ/kskiikaraakuʾ

‘leaf’ and kskeekahki/kskiikahki ‘gnat’. However, as previously established in the sound correspondences, Arikara s corresponds to Pawnee c and the Pawnee alveolar affricate c could possibly be misinterpreted as the Pawnee consonant cluster ks, because they both have a stop component followed by a continuant component. Nevertheless, the general pattern observed is that Arikara x corresponds to Pawnee ks. However, it is necessary to state the environment because Arikara š corresponds to Pawnee ks in a particular environment. Therefore, Arikara x corresponds to Pawnee ks when it is immediately preceded by any other vowels, such as /a/, /aa/, /o/, /oo/, /u/ or /uu/, besides the front vowels. In Cognate Sets 27, 175, 183, and 268, the medial x in the Arikara words or morphemes páxuʾ ‘head’, wahUxanaáxuʾ ‘watermelon’, and šihUxtaánuʾ ‘one hundred’, and waaruxtii ‘be holy’ correspond to the medial consonant cluster ks in the

Pawnee words or morphemes paksuʾ ‘head’, pahuksaraasuʾ ‘watermelon’, sihukstaaruʾ/suhukstaaruʾ ‘one hundred’, and waarukstii ‘be holy’. In Cognate Sets

63 174, 182, 187, and 218, the final x in the Arikara words WAhúx ‘squash’, ‘pumpkin’,

šíhUx ‘five’, kuúNUx ‘bear (animal)’, and čítUx ‘beaver’ correspond to the final ks in the Pawnee words pahuks ‘squash’, ‘pumpkin’, sihuks/suhuks ‘five’, kuuruks/kuruks

‘bear (animal)’, and kituks ‘beaver’.

Sound Correspondence 16b: Arikara š: South Band Pawnee ks: Skiri Pawnee ks

In addition to the post-alveolar fricative [š] in Arikara corresponding to the alveolar fricative [s] in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee, š also corresponds to the consonant cluster ks in South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee. Some examples taken from the full list of cognates that are meant to illustrate Arikara š corresponding to the

Pawnee consonant cluster ks follows:

Table 28: Cognates Illustrating Arikara š: South Band ks: Skiri ks

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee š ks ks 9 sáhniš cahriks cahiks ‘person’ 33 šwiítuʾ ikspiituʾ ------‘fingernail’ 36 íšuʾ iksuʾ ------‘hand’ 97 niíšuʾ riiksuʾ riiksuʾ ‘arrow’ 150 ščiísuʾ kskiicuʾ ikskiicuʾ ‘finger’ ‘nearby’, 186 teškúNIt tekskurit tikskurit ‘close by’

Analysis

The general pattern observed between Pawnee ks and Arikara š is that it closely resembles the conditioned environment in which Arikara š corresponds to Pawnee s when it is immediately preceded by the front vowels /i/, /ii/, /e/ or /ee/. Earlier it was suggested that ks first became s, then s became x based on a couple of examples in

64 Cognate Sets 14 and 289 in which Pawnee ks corresponded to Arikara s. Next, Arikara x must have become Arikara š when it is immediately preceded by the front vowels /i/,

/ii/, /e/, or /ee/. Therefore, when this environment is met, Arikara š corresponds to the

Pawnee consonant cluster ks. In Cognate Sets 9, 33, 36, 97, 150, and 186, š in the

Arikara words sáhniš ‘person’, šwiítuʾ ‘fingernail’, íšuʾ ‘hand’, niíšuʾ ‘arrow’, ščiísuʾ

‘finger’, and teškúNIt ‘nearby’, ‘close by’ correspond to the consonant cluster ks in the

Pawnee words cahriks/cahiks ‘person’, ikspiituʾ ‘fingernail’, iksuʾ ‘hand’, riiksuʾ

‘arrow’, kskiicuʾ/ikskiicuʾ ‘finger’, and tekskurit/tikskurit ‘nearby’, ‘close by’. The medial sound correspondence between Arikara š and the Pawnee consonant cluster ks is represented in Cognate Sets 33, 36, 97, 150, and 186, while the final correspondence between these sounds is represented in Cognate Set 9. Finally, Cognate Sets 33 and 150 represent the initial sound correspondence between Arikara š and the Pawnee consonant cluster ks, even though this statement is not entirely true because Arikara š must be or must have been preceded by a front vowel in order for this sound to exist in Arikara.

Therefore, when this vowel does not precede Arikara š as in Cognate Sets 33 and 150, we know that this vowel must have been deleted only after this particular environment conditioned the sound change. The explicit evidence for this exists in the word initial i found in the South Band Pawnee example ikspiituʾ ‘fingernail’ in Cognate Set 33 and the word initial i found in the Skiri Pawnee example ikskiicuʾ ‘finger’ in Cognate Set

150.

65 Sound Correspondence 17: Arikara ht: South Band Pawnee kt: Skiri Pawnee kt

In addition to the voiceless velar stop [k] and the post-alveolar affricate [č] in

Arikara corresponding to the velar stop or k sound in South Band Pawnee and Skiri

Pawnee, the Arikara consonant cluster ht corresponds to the South Band and Skiri

Pawnee consonant cluster kt. Some examples that illustrate this consonant cluster correspondence follow:

Table 29: Cognates Illustrating Arikara ht: South Band kt: Skiri kt

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee ht kt kt 64 čiwíhtuʾ kiwiiktuʾ kiwiktuʾ ‘sand’ ‘talker (someone who 144 waawahtíhkux paawaktiku paawaktikus likes to talk, talks a lot)’ Itkanaahtuúsuʾ, karaáktuuhcuʾ, 71 karáktuhcuʾ ‘ashes’ Itkanahtuúsuʾ káraktuhcuʾ 188 taNIhtáʾuʾ tariktaʾuʾ tariktaʾuʾ ‘body’

Analysis

The general pattern observed is that Arikara h corresponds to Pawnee k, when it is immediately followed by t. Therefore, the Arikara consonant cluster ht corresponds to the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee consonant cluster kt. This environment is formally represented by the following: k à h / __t. This simply means that k becomes h when it is immediately followed by t. Therefore, when this particular environment is met, Arikara h corresponds to South Band Pawnee k and Skiri Pawnee k. Based upon directionality it makes more sense for k to become h , than it would for h to become k.

In the examples provided above, the h in Arikara corresponds to the k in the South Band

Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee dialects in the particular context that was described earlier. In

66 Cognate Sets 64, 144, 71, and 188, h in the Arikara words čiwíhtuʾ ‘sand’, waawahtíhkux ‘talker (someone who likes to talk)’, Itkanahtuúsuʾ ‘ash’, and taNIhtáʾuʾ

‘body’ corresponds to the k in the Pawnee words kiwiiktuʾ/kiwiktuʾ ‘sand’, paawaktiku/paawaktikus ‘talker (someone who likes to talk)’, karaktuhcuʾ/karaaktuuhcuʾ ‘ash’, and tariktaʾuʾ ‘body’. There were a couple of instances in which the Pawnee consonant cluster kt did not correspond to the Arikara consonant cluster ht. These examples occurred in Cognate Sets 108 and 135. In Cognate

Sets 108 and 135, the consonant cluster kt in the Pawnee words ipaktiʾ/ipaaktiʾ ‘her/his grandfather’ and raktiki/raktiiki ‘her/his grandchild’ does not correspond to the consonant cluster ht in the Arikara words ipáhniʾ ‘her/his grandfather’ and iNAhnítš

‘her/his grandchild’. However, since these are kinship terms, when we analyze Cognate

Sets 103-135, there are noticeable patterns in the third person kinship terms suggesting that they are marked for possession. Therefore, upon observation of the other kinship terms in the first and second persons, it becomes clear that kinship terms are composed of more than one morpheme. It becomes easy to surmise that the phonology is different in Arikara and Pawnee; hence, the difference in the surface forms. It appears that the

Arikara kinship terms show that the underlying consonant cluster kn is phonetically realized as Arikara hn, while the Pawnee kinship terms show how the consonant cluster kr is treated underlyingly to produce the phonetic realization of Pawnee kt. This is supported by previous linguistic analyses of Pawnee kinship terms in which the third person possessor for kinship terms is a discontinuous form i-…-riʾ (Parks 1976; Parks

2008).

67 Sound Correspondence 18: Arikara ts: SB Pawnee kic: SK Pawnee kic

One of the consonant cluster correspondences, which has been observed but not entirely understood, is word initial ts in Arikara corresponding to word initial kic in the

Pawnee language. Therefore, in addition to Arikara t corresponding to Pawnee t, the

Arikara consonant cluster ts in word initial position corresponds to Pawnee kic word initially. Some examples that illustrate this correspondence follow:

Table 30: Cognates Illustrating Arikara ts-: South Band kic-: Skiri kic-

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee ts- kic- kic- tskaʾáhnIš, ‘shoulder 196 tskaʾaáhniš, kickaʾaahris kickaʾaahis blade’ tskaʾaáhNIš kickaasisuʾ, ‘sweat’, 308 tskaaxíšuʾ kickaasisuʾ kickaasuʾ ‘perspiration’ ‘scalped person’, 309 tshunúxuʾ kicahuruksuʾ kicahuruksuʾ ‘scalped man (cultural character)’

Analysis

The general pattern observed is that Arikara ts- corresponds to Pawnee kic- word initially. A basic observation is that Arikara s still corresponds to Pawnee c in these cases. Additionally, it is possible that Sound Correspondence 3b accounts for Arikara k changing to č when the front vowel i still followed k at some time in the past.

Subsequently, devoicing or elision would account for the lack of a vowel between what would have been k and s at some time in the past in Arikara. Notice that the syllable that undergoes this change in Arikara is not stressed. Finally, deaffrication of č to t when immediately followed by an s in Arikara would account for the present attested form.

68 However, this is just speculation and the Arikara sound change from k to t in kic- to ts- is not entirely understood at this moment. This sound change is very similar to the sound correspondence observed in Sound Correspondence 19. While the reason is not understood for this sound change, the sound correspondence is useful for language revitalization purposes.

Sound Correspondence 19: Arikara tš: South Band Pawnee kis: Skiri Pawnee kis

Another consonant cluster correspondence, which has been observed but not entirely understood, is tš in Arikara corresponding to kis in the Pawnee language.

Therefore, in addition to Arikara t corresponding to Pawnee t, the Arikara consonant cluster tš corresponds to Pawnee kis. Some examples that illustrate this correspondence follow:

Table 31: Cognates Illustrating Arikara tš: South Band kis: Skiri kis

Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee tš kis kis tsástš, tšásč 18 (archaic kisacki(s) kisaacki(s) ‘meat’ pronunciation) ‘your 134 anátš arakis arakis (obs.) grandchild’ 193 tšús kisuc kisuc ‘grape’ 194 tšusčiísuʾ kisuckiicuʾ kisuckiicuʾ ‘grape juice’ 195 tšaátuʾ, tIšaátuʾ kisaatuʾ katuuractaaka ‘swan’ kisuusit ‘any tšuúxIt ‘also edible root, such ‘Jerusalem 235 kisuusit carrot’ as carrot, radish, artichoke’ beet’ ‘calf’, 305 aniítš ariikis hariikis ‘newborn calf’

69 Analysis

The general pattern observed is that Arikara tš corresponds to Pawnee kis. A basic observation is that Arikara š still corresponds to Pawnee s in these cases.

Additionally, it is possible that Sound Correspondence 6b accounts for Arikara k changing to č when the front vowel i still followed k at some time in the past.

Subsequently, devoicing or elision would account for the lack of a vowel between what would have been k and š at some time in the past in Arikara. Notice that the syllable that undergoes this change in Arikara is not stressed. Finally, deaffrication of č to t in

Arikara would account for the present attested form. Again, this is just speculation and the Arikara sound change from k to t in kis to tš is not entirely understood at this moment. This sound change is very similar to the sound correspondence observed in

Sound Correspondence 18. As stated earlier for Sound Correspondence 18, while the reason is not understood for this sound change, the sound correspondence is still useful for language revitalization purposes.

70 Chapter 4: Repurposing the Comparative Method for Pawnee Language and Dialect Revitalization

Introduction

The comparative method is not being utilized for conventional purposes in this thesis. Instead, the comparative method is repurposed to propose words for Pawnee language and dialect revitalization. With that being stated, the method remains essentially the same. The exceptions are some steps are not utilized since the need or purpose has changed. Therefore, the reconstruction of proto-sounds, checking the plausibility of reconstructed sounds from the perspective of the overall phonological inventory of the proto-language, and checking the plausibility of the reconstructed sounds from the perspective of linguistic universals and typological expectations, as outlined by Campbell 2013, are not utilized in this thesis because there is not an immediate need for historical or diachronic linguistics, or the study of language change over time, and the reconstruction of proto-sounds in Pawnee language revitalization.

Nevertheless, this thesis greatly benefitted from previous diachronic studies of the

Northern Caddoan languages that established proto-sounds for Proto-Northern

Caddoan.

Repurposed Comparative Method

The steps of the repurposed comparative method are very similar to the steps described in Campbell 2013. Steps one and two of the repurposed comparative method are essentially the same as the steps outlined in Campbell 2013. In order to utilize the comparative method as a language revitalization tool, it is necessary to begin by compiling cognates and establishing sound correspondences and in this particular order.

71 Furthermore, step three of the repurposed comparative method is the same as step four as outlined in Campbell 2013. In this step it is important to understand which correspondence sets are partially overlapping or in complementary distribution with one another. Steps four and five in the process of utilizing the comparative method as a language revitalization tool are also important, but there is not a particular order in these steps because they are accomplished almost simultaneously. These steps are analyzing the morphemes and phonology found in the cognate sets and adhering to Pawnee phonology during the construction and proposal of new Pawnee words.

Proposed Pawnee Words Utilizing the Repurposed Comparative Method

In order to construct and propose words for Pawnee language revitalization, it is first necessary to utilize the comparative method in the steps that have been outlined.

The first three steps of this repurposed comparative method have been demonstrated in

Chapter 3. First, an Arikara and Pawnee cognate list was compiled. Then, Arikara and

Pawnee sound correspondences were established. Next, it was determined which sound correspondence sets were partially overlapping or in complementary distribution with one another. However, it is not always this simple because of the fusional nature of

Arikara and Pawnee, which can make morphemes undergo complex sound changes in word formation. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze words to determine the morphemes, or meaningful parts, which make up a word and the sound changes that take place in each particular language or dialect during word formation. A morphemic and phonological analysis is essential to ensure the linguistic accuracy of a proposed word in these languages or dialects. To illustrate the method, I propose Pawnee words

72 for the following lexical items: ‘moose’, ‘camel’, ‘cucumber’, ‘raisin’ ‘bread’, and the verbal word ‘he represents me’. My proposals are based on the existing documentation of Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee. I analyze complex Arikara words, find cognate morphemes in either South Band Pawnee or Skiri Pawnee and then use my comparative analysis of the three varieties to construct new complex words in Pawnee.

This novel use of the comparative method is not a reconstruction of proto forms, but rather a construction of novel forms that conform to Pawnee morphophonemic rules.

Therefore, in order to construct and propose Pawnee words for ‘moose’,

‘camel’, ‘cucumber’, ‘raisin bread’, and a verbal word for ‘he represents me’ or ‘he stands up for me’, it was necessary to morphologically and phonologically analyze

Cognate Sets 230, 172, 173, 29, 279, 268, 231, 239, 282, 277, 236, 232, 174, 76, 234,

280, 193, 194, 353, 317, 334, 337, 340, 351, and 352.

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method

In order to construct a word for ‘moose’ in Pawnee, it is necessary to utilize the comparative method in the steps that have been outlined. The first three steps of this repurposed comparative method have been demonstrated in Chapter 3. First, an Arikara and Pawnee cognate list was compiled. Then, Arikara and Pawnee sound correspondences were established. Next, it was determined which sound correspondence sets were partially overlapping or in complementary distribution with one another. In many cases, as will be illustrated later, this will allow for the accurate construction of a Pawnee word; however, this word in particular was not as simple to construct because of the fusional nature of Arikara and Pawnee, which can make

73 morphemes undergo complex sound changes in word formation. At first, the fusional nature of Arikara and Pawnee made it difficult to isolate the Arikara morphemes, which are cognate with Pawnee; however, the sound changes where the morphemes come together in word formation gave away the underlying morphemes in Arikara. The previous historical work that established that e is typically the result of a vowel contraction between a and i was particularly useful to the construction of a Pawnee word for ‘moose’ (Chafe 1979:217-218; Parks 2001:87). The following table represents the Arikara and Pawnee cognates that were necessary for the construction of a Pawnee word for ‘moose’:

Table 32: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘moose’ Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee 230 weesUxárut ------‘moose’ 172 wáh pah pah ‘elk’ ‘young elk’, 173 weehániʾ ------paahariʾ ‘elk calf’ siniítuʾ, (suxčítA 29 long-nosed), cuusuʾ cusuʾ ‘nose’ súxuʾ ‘lip’ 279 arut arut arut ‘be soft’ ‘to puff’, ‘to 298 isuxa icusa icusa snort’

Morphemic and Phonological Analysis

The Arikara word for moose is unattested in both Pawnee dialects; therefore, I have utilized the comparative method to base the Pawnee word on the attested Arikara word. By simply utilizing the established sound correspondences, one would incorrectly assume that the South Band Pawnee form would simply be *peecusarut and the Skiri

Pawnee form would simply be *piicusarut; however, this is not the case. Based upon a clue from previous historical work which established that e is typically the result of a

74 vowel contraction between a and i, I operated on the assumption that wáh ‘elk’, perhaps waa ‘elk’, was the first underlying morpheme of the Arikara word for ‘moose’ (Chafe

1979; Parks 2001). I operated on this assumption because of what I observed in Cognate

Set 173 between Arikara weehániʾ ‘elk calf’, Skiri Pawnee paahariʾ ‘elk calf’, and no attested form for South Band Pawnee from the AISRI Online Dictionary Portal.

Cognate Set 173 was evidence for e being a vowel contraction between a and i in

Arikara. However, Cognate Set 172 shows that the Arikara word wáh ‘elk’ has a final h.

Nevertheless, it is possible that the voiceless laryngeal fricative h can be ignored in

Arikara phonology or it may be deleted in a particular context. Subsequently, this deletion of Arikara final h in wáh ‘elk’ would leave the vowel a and i open to vowel contraction. Next, Cognate Set 29 posed an issue when I was first compiling this cognate list because the Arikara word for nose is siniítuʾ, while it is cuusuʾ/cusuʾ in

Pawnee. These forms are not cognate; however, after doing some more searching in the

AISRI Online Dictionary Portal I came across these other forms suxčítA ‘long-nosed’ and súxuʾ ‘lip’, which are very similar to the Pawnee forms. Semantic drift or narrowing would account for the slight discrepancy in meaning between the latter Arikara forms corresponding to the Pawnee forms. Additionally, Cognate Set 298 has a similar meaning having to do with the nose and it provides evidence that there is an i before cusuʾ/cuusuʾ that helps to account for the vowel contraction in Arikara. So far, this analysis accounts for the form or shape *weesux. Finally, Cognate Set 279 arut ‘be soft’ is the most straightforward of these morphemes comprising the Arikara word ‘moose’.

Arikara weesUxárut

75 wah-isux-arut elk-nose-soft

‘moose’

Proposed Pawnee Word for Moose

Based upon the clues left from Arikara phonological changes taking place, I feel confident in saying that Arikara weesUxárut ‘moose’ is comprised of three morphemes, which are cognate to the Pawnee morphemes. Therefore, a Pawnee word for ‘moose’ can be accurately constructed based upon the attested form and the phonological and morphological analysis of the Arikara word. The first Arikara morpheme is wah ‘elk’.

The next Arikara morpheme is isux ‘nose’ and the final Arikara morpheme is arut

‘soft’. Together these morphemes combine to make the Arikara word weesUxárut

‘moose’. The literal meaning is a ‘soft nosed elk’. Therefore, based on this analysis a

South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee word for ‘moose’ can be constructed because these are cognates or morphemes that are shared between Arikara and Pawnee. The

Arikara morpheme wah ‘elk’ corresponds to the Pawnee morpheme pah ‘elk’, while the

Arikara morpheme isux ‘nose’ corresponds to the Pawnee morpheme icus ‘nose’. The final Arikara morpheme arut ‘soft’ corresponds to the Pawnee morpheme arut ‘soft’.

Arikara SB Pawnee SK Pawnee weesUxárut paacusarut paacusarut wah-isux-arut pah-icus-arut pah-icus-arut elk-nose-soft elk-nose-soft elk-nose-soft

‘moose’ ‘moose’ ‘moose’

76 While these morphemes are shared between Arikara and Pawnee, the proposed Pawnee word for ‘moose’ must adhere to each Pawnee dialect’s particular phonology. Based upon observations from Cognate Sets 172 and 173, the Skiri Pawnee form for ‘moose’ will not approximate the Arikara form based upon the phonological evidence attained from Cognate Set 173. Unlike the Arikara form for ‘elk calf’, Skiri Pawnee phonology does not ignore or delete the voiceless laryngeal fricative in this particular context. If

Skiri Pawnee phonology approximated the Arikara phonology, we might expect the

Skiri Pawnee form for ‘elk calf’ to be *piihariʾ; however, the actual form is paahariʾ

‘elk calf’. Therefore, we can assume based upon this phonological evidence that when pah ‘elk’ and icus ‘nose’ combine, it will produce the form *paacus. When the final morpheme arut ‘soft’ combines, it results in the newly constructed Skiri Pawnee word paacusarut ‘moose’, literally ‘soft nosed elk’.

At first it was difficult to be certain what a linguistically accurate South Band

Pawnee form for ‘moose’ should be because there was not an attested South Band

Pawnee form for Cognate Set 173 ‘elk calf’ in the AISRI Online Dictionary Portal.

Cognate Set 173 was particularly important for a South Band Pawnee form because it would show if h was deleted in this particular context, which allows a and i to contract to e as is the case in Arikara, or if the form corresponded to the Skiri Pawnee form.

Without a South Band Pawnee form for Cognate Set 173, the two possibilities for

‘moose’ are *peecusarut or paacusarut. South Band Pawnee shares the innovation of a and i contracting to make e; therefore, there was a strong probability that the South

Band form could approximate the Arikara form more closely than the Skiri form does.

However, an entry was found in a secondary source, John Brown Dunbar’s Pawnee

77 Vocabulary, which validated that the South Band Pawnee form for Cognate Set 173 ‘elk calf’ should be paahariʾ. The entry in Dunbar’s Pawnee Vocabulary that allowed for this was pǎ-hǔr-ǐ ‘a fawn of the elk’. Based upon this we can assume that South Band

Pawnee phonology more closely approximates Skiri Pawnee phonology in this instance.

Because the South Band Pawnee form is paahariʾ ‘elk calf’, evidenced by pǎ-hǔr-ǐ ‘a fawn of the elk’, it can be assumed based upon this evidence that when pah ‘elk’ and icus ‘nose’ combine, it will produce the form *paacus. When the final morpheme arut

‘soft’ combines, it results in the newly constructed South Band Pawnee word paacusarut ‘moose’, literally ‘soft nosed elk’.

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method

In order to construct a word for ‘camel’ in Pawnee, it is necessary to utilize the comparative method in the steps that have been outlined. The first three steps of this repurposed comparative method have been demonstrated in Chapter 3. First, an Arikara and Pawnee cognate list was compiled. Then, Arikara and Pawnee sound correspondences were established. Next, it was determined which sound correspondence sets were partially overlapping or in complementary distribution with one another. In this instance, this word was much simpler to construct because the fusional nature of Arikara and Pawnee did not obscure morpheme boundaries.

Therefore, it was much easier to isolate the Arikara morphemes, which are cognate with

Pawnee. The following table represents the Arikara and Pawnee cognates that were necessary for the construction of a Pawnee word for ‘camel’:

Table 33: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘camel’ Cognate Arikara South Band Skiri Gloss

78 Set # Pawnee Pawnee 231 xaatatwáruʾ ------‘camel’ aruusaʾ, asaa- N aruusaʾ, asaa- N 239 xaawaarúxtiʾ ‘horse’ DEP DEP ‘be holy’, ‘be 268 waaruxtii waarukstii waarukstii sacred’ haahtatwaruʾ ‘be ‘humpbacked paahuuhc, humpbacked’, 277 pahruuc trunk (old- taatparuuc ‘be fashioned type)’ hunchbacked’ ‘stalk of a plant 236 taátuʾ taatuʾ, tatkiicuʾ taatuʾ, tatkiicuʾ (generic)’, ‘animal’s back’

Morphemic and Phonological Analysis

The Arikara word for camel is unattested in both Pawnee dialects; therefore, I have utilized the comparative method to base the Pawnee word on the attested Arikara word. The word for camel was much easier to construct than moose because many of the sound correspondences were more of a direct one to one sound correspondence.

Therefore, based upon the established sound correspondences, one would assume that the Pawnee forms for both dialects for camel is *saatatwaru; however, this assumption is incorrect. Again, it is necessary to be aware of each language or dialects’ phonology.

Based upon observations in Cognate Set 12, 239, 268, 273, and 282, Arikara deleted the initial a of xaawaarúxtiʾ ‘horse’. This is evidenced by the fact that asaa- is the dependent noun for ‘horse’ or ‘dog’ in both Pawnee dialects; therefore, xaa- is most likely the dependent noun for ‘horse’ or ‘dog’ in Arikara. Other evidence illustrating this can be found in Cognate Sets 12, 273, and 282. In this case, Arikara xaawaarúxtiʾ

‘horse’ appears to literally mean ‘sacred/mysterious dog’. Cognate Set 277 posed an issue when I was first compiling this cognate list because the Arikara morpheme ‘be humpbacked’ was not found in the AISRI Online Dictionary Portal. However, after

79 doing some more searching in the AISRI Online Dictionary Portal I came across the form haahtatwaruʾ ‘humpbacked trunk (old-fashioned type)’, which is not entirely cognate with the Pawnee forms but is important nevertheless. Arikara haahtatwaruʾ is important because it contains tatwaruʾ, which accounts for the final morpheme in the

Arikara word in Cognate Set 231. This morpheme also very nearly approximates the

Skiri Pawnee morpheme taatparuuc ‘be humpbacked’ in Cognate Set 277. Additionally,

Cognate Set 236 is evidence that Arikara tatwaruʾ and Pawnee taatparuuc is comprised of taat/tat ‘animal’s back’ and Arikara waruʾ ‘hump’ or Pawnee paruuc ‘hump’.

Finally, Cognate Set 236 also shows that the final glottal stop of the Arikara morpheme waruʾ does not correspond to a final glottal stop of Pawnee paruuc.

Arikara xaatatwáruʾ xaa-tat-waruʾ horse-back-hump

‘camel’

Proposed Pawnee Word for Camel

Based upon a phonological and morphological analysis, I feel confident that

Arikara xaatatwáruʾ ‘camel’ is comprised of three morphemes, which are cognate to the

Pawnee morphemes. Therefore, a Pawnee word for ‘camel’ can be accurately constructed based upon the attested form and the phonological and morphological analysis of the Arikara word. The first Arikara morpheme is xaa ‘horse’ or ‘dog’. The next Arikara morpheme is tat ‘animal’s back’ and the final Arikara morpheme is waruʾ

80 ‘hump’. Together these morphemes combine to make the Arikara word xaatatwáruʾ

‘camel’. The literal meaning is a ‘hump backed horse’. Therefore, based on this analysis a South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee word for ‘camel’ can be constructed because these are cognates or morphemes that are shared between Arikara and Pawnee. The

Arikara morpheme xaa ‘horse’ or ‘dog’ corresponds to the Pawnee morpheme asaa

‘horse’ or ‘dog’, while the Arikara morpheme tat ‘animal’s back’ corresponds to the

Pawnee morpheme tat ‘animal’s back’. Finally, the Arikara morpheme waruʾ ‘hump’ corresponds to the Pawnee morpheme paruc ‘soft’.

Arikara SB Pawnee SK Pawnee xaatatwáruʾ asaatatparuc asaatatparuc xaa-tat-waruʾ asaa-tat-paruc asaa-tat-paruc horse-back-hump horse-back-hump horse-back-hump hump backed horse hump backed horse hump backed horse

‘camel’ ‘camel’ ‘camel’

While these morphemes are shared between Arikara and Pawnee, the proposed Pawnee word for ‘camel’ must adhere to each Pawnee dialect’s particular phonology. Based upon observations from Cognate Sets 239, 277, and 236, both Pawnee dialects will share the same form for ‘camel’, but will not approximate the Arikara form based upon the phonological evidence attained from Cognate Set 239, 277, and 236. Unlike the

Arikara form for ‘horse’, Pawnee does not delete word initial a in the dependent noun asaa- ‘horse’ or ‘dog’. Additionally, Cognate Set 277 is evidence that Arikara w in tatwaruʾ corresponds to Pawnee p in taatparuuc. Moreover, Cognate Set 277 also shows that the Arikara final glottal stop in tatwaruʾ does not correspond to a Pawnee

81 final glottal stop in taatparuuc. Finally, Cognate Set 236 is evidence that the long vowel aa in taat shortens to tat in compound words. Finally, many syllable final long vowels in descriptive verbs seem to become short vowels when they are found in compound nouns. This results in the construction of the South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee word for ‘camel’ as asaatatparuc.

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method

In order to construct a word for ‘cucumber’ in Pawnee, it is necessary to utilize the comparative method in the steps that have been outlined. The first three steps of this repurposed comparative method have been demonstrated in Chapter 3. First, an Arikara and Pawnee cognate list was compiled. Then, Arikara and Pawnee sound correspondences were established. Next, it was determined which sound correspondence sets were partially overlapping or in complementary distribution with one another. In this instance, this word was very simple to construct because the fusional nature of Arikara and Pawnee did not obscure morpheme boundaries.

Therefore, it was very easy to isolate the Arikara morphemes, which are cognate with

Pawnee. The following table represents the Arikara and Pawnee cognates that were necessary for the construction of a Pawnee word for ‘cucumber’:

Table 34: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘cucumber’ Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee 232 wahUxtareeʾúx ------‘cucumber’ ‘squash’, 174 WAhúx pahuks pahuks ‘pumpkin’ 76 tareeʾuux tareeʾuus tariiʾuus ‘be blue’

82 Morphemic and Phonological Analysis

The Arikara word for cucumber is unattested in both Pawnee dialects; therefore,

I have utilized the comparative method to base the Pawnee word on the attested Arikara word. The word for cucumber was very easy to construct, unlike the previous constructed words, because many of the sound correspondences were a direct one to one sound correspondence. Therefore, based upon the established sound correspondences, one would correctly assume that the Pawnee forms for both dialects for cucumber is pahukstareeʾus and pahukstariiʾus. Still, as has been illustrated previously, it is necessary to be aware of each language or dialects’ phonology.

Arikara wahUxtareeʾúx pahux-tareeʾux squash/pumpkin-blue

‘cucumber’

Proposed Pawnee Word for Cucumber

Based upon the established sound correspondences and a morphological analysis, I am certain that Arikara wahUxtareeʾúx ‘cucumber’ is comprised of two morphemes, which are cognate to the Pawnee morphemes. Therefore, a Pawnee word for ‘cucumber’ can be accurately constructed based upon the attested form, the sound correspondences, and a morphological analysis of the Arikara word. The first Arikara morpheme is WAhúx ‘squash’ as in Cognate Set 174, while the other Arikara morpheme is tareeʾux ‘blue’ as in Cognate Set 76. Together these morphemes combine to make the

83 Arikara word wahUxtareeʾúx ‘cucumber’. The literal meaning is a ‘blue/green squash’.

Therefore, based on this analysis a South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee word for

‘cucumber’ can be constructed because these are cognates or morphemes that are shared between Arikara and Pawnee. The Arikara morpheme WAhúx ‘squash’ corresponds to the Pawnee morpheme pahuks ‘squash’, while the Arikara morpheme tareeʾux ‘blue’ corresponds to the South Band Pawnee morpheme tareeʾus ‘blue’ and the Skiri Pawnee morpheme tariiʾus ‘blue’.

Arikara SB Pawnee SK Pawnee wahUxtareeʾúx pahukstareeʾus pahukstariiʾus wahux-tareeʾux pahuks-tareeʾus pahuks-tariiʾus squash-blue squash-blue squash-blue

‘cucumber’ ‘cucumber’ ‘cucumber’

These morphemes are shared between Arikara and Pawnee and the sound correspondences in Chapter 3 are sufficient to propose a South Band Pawnee and Skiri

Pawnee word for cucumber. Besides the obvious direct sound correspondences between

Arikara and Pawnee, Sound Correspondence 8b accounts for Arikara word initial w corresponding to Pawnee word initial p in Cognate Set 174. Additionally, Sound

Correspondence 16a, not Sound Correspondence 6a, accounts for Arikara x corresponding to the Pawnee consonant cluster ks in Cognate Set 174. Moreover, Sound

Correspondence 12 accounts for Arikara e and South Band Pawnee e corresponding to

Skiri Pawnee i in Cognate Set 174. Finally, Sound Correspondence 6a accounts for

Arikara final x corresponding to Pawnee final s in Cognate Set 174. Therefore, the obvious direct sound correspondences between Arikara and Pawnee and the sound

84 correspondences highlighted here result in the construction of South Band Pawnee pahukstareeʾus ‘cucumber’ and Skiri Pawnee pahukstariiʾus ‘cucumber’.

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method

In order to construct a word for ‘raisin bread’ in Pawnee, it is necessary to utilize the comparative method in the steps that have been outlined. The first three steps of this repurposed comparative method have been demonstrated in Chapter 3. First, an

Arikara and Pawnee cognate list was compiled. Then, Arikara and Pawnee sound correspondences were established. Next, it was determined which sound correspondence sets were partially overlapping or in complementary distribution with one another. In this instance, this word was very simple to construct because the fusional nature of Arikara and Pawnee did not obscure morpheme boundaries.

Therefore, it was very easy to isolate the Arikara morphemes, which are cognate with

Pawnee. The following table represents the Arikara and Pawnee cognates that were necessary for the construction of a Pawnee word for ‘raisin bread’:

Table 35: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘raisin bread’ Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee 235 isataatšús ------‘raisin bread’ 280 isataáʾuʾ icataaʾuʾ icataaʾuʾ ‘bread’ 193 tšús kisuc kisuc ‘grape’ 194 tšusčiisuʾ kisuckiicuʾ kisuckiicuʾ ‘grape juice’

Morphemic and Phonological Analysis

The Arikara word for raisin bread is unattested in both Pawnee dialects; therefore, I have utilized the comparative method to base the Pawnee word on the attested Arikara word. Before establishing Sound Correspondence 19, the word for

85 raisin bread would have been difficult to construct because ‘grape’ in Arikara and

Pawnee did not appear to be cognate. However, after establishing this sound correspondence, it became readily apparent that ‘grape’ was cognate in Arikara and

Pawnee. Based upon the established sound correspondences in Chapter 3, one would correctly assume that the Pawnee form for raisin bread is icataakisuc. Still, as has been illustrated previously, it is necessary to be aware of each language or dialects’ phonology.

Arikara isataatšús isataa-tšus bread-grape

‘raisin bread’

Proposed Pawnee Word for Raisin Bread

Based upon the established sound correspondences and a morphological analysis, I am certain that Arikara isataatšús ‘raisin bread’ is comprised of two morphemes, which are cognate to the Pawnee morphemes. Therefore, a Pawnee word for ‘raisin bread’ can be accurately constructed based upon the attested form, the sound correspondences, and a morphological analysis of the Arikara word. The first Arikara morpheme is isataa ‘bread’ as in Cognate Set 280, while the other Arikara morpheme is tšus ‘grape’ as in Cognate Set 193. Together these morphemes combine to make the

Arikara word isataatšús ‘raisin bread’. The literal meaning is ‘grape bread’. Therefore, based on this analysis a South Band Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee word for ‘raisin bread’

86 can be constructed because these are cognates or morphemes that are shared between

Arikara and Pawnee. The Arikara morpheme isataa ‘bread’ corresponds to the Pawnee morpheme icataa ‘bread’, while the Arikara morpheme tšus ‘grape’ corresponds to the

Pawnee morpheme kisuc ‘grape’.

Arikara SB Pawnee SK Pawnee isataatšús icataakisuc icataakisuc isataa-tšus icataa-kisuc icataa-kisuc bread-grape bread-grape bread-grape

‘raisin bread’ ‘raisin bread’ ‘raisin bread’

These morphemes are shared between Arikara and Pawnee and the sound correspondences in Chapter 3 are sufficient to propose a South Band Pawnee and Skiri

Pawnee word for raisin bread. Besides the obvious direct sound correspondences between Arikara and Pawnee, Sound Correspondence 5 accounts for Arikara s corresponding to Pawnee c in Cognate Sets 280 and 193, while Sound Correspondence

19 accounts for Arikara tš corresponding to Pawnee kis in Cognate Set 193. Therefore, the obvious direct sound correspondences between Arikara and Pawnee and the sound correspondences highlighted here result in the construction of Pawnee icataakisuc

‘raisin bread’.

Demonstrating Steps Four, Five, and Six of the Repurposed Comparative Method

In order to construct a verbal word for ‘he represents me’ or ‘he stands up for me’ in Pawnee, it is necessary to utilize the comparative method in the steps that have been outlined. The first three steps of this repurposed comparative method have been

87 demonstrated in Chapter 3. First, an Arikara and Pawnee cognate list was compiled.

Then, Arikara and Pawnee sound correspondences were established. Next, it was determined which sound correspondence sets were partially overlapping or in complementary distribution with one another. In this instance, this word was very simple to construct because the fusional nature of Arikara and Pawnee did not obscure morpheme boundaries. Yet, in many words, particularly verbal words, the fusional nature of Arikara and Pawnee can make it difficult to isolate the Arikara morphemes, which are cognate with Pawnee; however, the sound changes where the morphemes come together in word formation typically give away the underlying morphemes in these languages. Therefore, these phonological clues are very helpful to a morphological analysis of Arikara and Pawnee words. The following table represents the Arikara and Pawnee cognates that were necessary for the construction of a Pawnee word for ‘he represents me’ or ‘he stands up for me’:

Table 36: Cognates Utilized to Propose a Pawnee Word for ‘he represents me’ Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee ‘he stand up for me’, ‘he 353 tikuutáRIt ------represents me (as an attorney does a client) ‘I see her/him/it’, ‘I 317 ------tatuutiirit looked at her/him/it’ 334 tikisčípi tikuckipi tikuckipi ‘I’m sleepy’ tikuhactahiis, 337 tikuhAstaahíš tikuhactaahis ‘I’m thirsty’ tikuhactahis 340 tikuNAsáʾUx tikuhracaʾus tikuuhacaʾus ‘I’m hungry’ 351 taatáRIt taatarit taatarit ‘I’m standing’ ‘(s)he’s 352 teéRIt teerit tiirit standing’

88 Morphemic and Phonological Analysis

The Arikara verbal word for ‘he stands up for me’ or ‘he represents me’ is unattested in both Pawnee dialects; therefore, I have utilized the comparative method to base the Pawnee word on the attested Arikara word. By utilizing the established sound correspondences from Chapter 3, one could correctly construct the Pawnee form tikuutarit ‘he stands up for me’, ‘he represents me’; however, in many instances, it is necessary to be aware of each language’s or dialects’ phonology, particularly for verbal words. In addition, verbal words have much more morphology than nouns; therefore, a phonological analysis of verbal words can help to reveal the underlying grammatical morphemes of Arikara and Pawnee verbal words because of the fusional nature of

Arikara and Pawnee. In Cognate Set 353, Arikara tikuutáRIt ‘he stands up for me’ can also be compared to Cognate Sets 317, 334, 337, 340, 351, and 352 and broken down into the following morphemes: ti- ‘indicative mode with the third person agent’, ø-,

‘third person agent’, ku- ‘first person patient’, ut- ‘benefactive/dative’, and arik ‘stand’.

Together these morphemes combine to make the Arikara word tikuutáRIt ‘he stands up for me’ or ‘he represents me’. The literal meaning is ‘he stands for me’. Cognate Set

317 and other cognate sets show that ta- is the ‘indicative mode used with 1st and 2nd person agents’, while ut- is the ‘benefactive/dative’ morpheme. Cognate Sets 334, 337, and 340 shows that ti- is the ‘indicative mode used with 3rd person agents’, while ku- is the ‘1st person patient’ morpheme, although Arikara phonology slightly changes this morpheme and these examples are intransitive verbs with a patientive subject. Cognate

Sets 334, 337, and 340 denote that sleep, thirst, and hunger are happening to the subject and therefore account for ku- in the 1st person patientive role. On the other hand,

89 Cognate Set 351 shows that t- is the ‘1st person agent’ morpheme, while Cognate Set

352 shows that there is no overt marking for the ‘3rd person agent’. Based upon this analysis, it is not a far stretch to suggest that ku- is also the ‘1st person patient’ for objects. Finally, phonology accounts for the change of word final -k to -t in the verb root arik.

Arikara tikuutáRIt ti-Ø-ku-ut-arik

IND.3.A-3.A-1.P-BEN-arik

‘he stands up for me’ or ‘he represents me’

Proposed Pawnee Word for He Represents Me

Based upon the established sound correspondences and a morphological analysis, I am certain that Arikara tikuutáRIt ‘he stands up for me’ or ‘he represents me’ is comprised of five morphemes, which are cognate to the Pawnee morphemes.

Therefore, a Pawnee word for ‘he stands up for me’ can be accurately constructed based upon the attested form, the sound correspondences, and a morphological analysis of the

Arikara word. The first Arikara morpheme is ti- ‘indicative mode with the third person agent’. The next morpheme is a null morpheme, ø-, ‘third person agent’. The third morpheme is ku- ‘first person patient’. The fourth morpheme is ut- ‘benefactive’, while the final Arikara morpheme is arik ‘stand’. Together these morphemes combine to make the Arikara word tikuutáRIt ‘he stands up for me’ or ‘he represents me’. The literal meaning is ‘he stands for me’. Therefore, based on this analysis a South Band

90 Pawnee and Skiri Pawnee word for ‘he stands up for me’ can be constructed because these are cognates or morphemes that are shared between Arikara and Pawnee.

Arikara SB Pawnee SK Pawnee tikuutáRIt tikuutarit tikuutarit ti-Ø-ku-ut-arik ti-Ø-ku-ut-arik ti-ku-ut-arik

IND.3.A-3.A-1.P-BEN-arik IND.3.A-3.A-1.P-BEN-arik IND.3.A-3.A-1.P-BEN-arik

‘he stands up for me’, ‘he stands up for me’, ‘he stands up for me’,

‘he represents me’ ‘he represents me’ ‘he represents me’

These morphemes are shared between Arikara and Pawnee and the sound correspondences in Chapter 3 are sufficient to propose a South Band Pawnee and Skiri

Pawnee word for ‘he stands up for me’. Based upon the established sound correspondences, the Pawnee word will be an exact replica of the Arikara word. The only difference being that the Pawnee word will not have devoicing like the Arikara word. Based upon this information, Pawnee tikuutarit ‘he represents me’ or ‘he stands up for me’ is constructed.

91 Chapter 5: Conclusions, Issues, and Future Research

In this thesis, I have argued for the repurposing of the comparative method for

Pawnee language and dialect revitalization and demonstrated this repurposed comparative method by utilizing the Arikara documentation, the South Band Pawnee documentation, and the Skiri Pawnee documentation to propose words that were previously not found in the Pawnee documentation. I did not attempt to propose Arikara words based on this repurposed comparative method because it is not my place to do this, as I am not an Arikara tribal community member. However, the sound correspondences established and demonstrated in this thesis will allow for Arikara tribal community members to utilize this repurposed comparative method as well.

While this repurposed comparative method is a useful tool for language revitalization, it is not the saving grace of Pawnee or Arikara language revitalization efforts by any means. It is merely another useful tool that practitioners of Pawnee and

Arikara language revitalization efforts can utilize. As has been demonstrated in this thesis, the repurposed comparative method works; however, there are also many issues that were encountered in this study. Many of the issues that were encountered in this study are described in the following issues section.

Some Issues

The comparative method is a useful tool for establishing sound correspondences based upon cognates and it was essential to this thesis; however, words that were not cognate between Arikara and Pawnee were simply ignored. Sometimes this can be an issue. For example, if one looks at the Cognate Sets, sometimes there are not

92 documented forms in either Pawnee dialect, but Arikara has a documented form that is clearly an English borrowing. Do we, the Pawnee people, borrow a word that is clearly borrowed? Some of the other issues encountered are areal features that are present in

Arikara, but are not present in either Pawnee dialect. Again, do we, the Pawnee people, borrow features that are not found in the Pawnee language, but are found in Arikara?

Borrowings

The Northern Caddoan languages are noted for relatively few borrowings from neighboring Indian languages and European languages; however, borrowing words is a common way that people fill gaps in their lexicon. Therefore, Arikara and Pawnee are not exceptions to this. Most borrowings in the Northern Caddoan languages are limited to personal names, tribal ethnonyms, and miscellaneous nouns (Parks 2001:90). In this thesis, borrowed words in Arikara have not been borrowed into Pawnee by constructing these forms. This is because borrowings are not cognate and do not typically adhere to the sound correspondences that have been demonstrated in this thesis. Table 37 illustrates a few of the words that have been determined to be borrowed words.

Table 37: Borrowed Words in Arikara, South Band, and Skiri Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee 197 kúhkUx kúhku kúhku ‘pig’ 199 isataaniwíruʾ piískita piískita ‘biscuit’ 200 ápos ápuʾ ápuʾ ‘apple’ 201 ------ákse aáksi ‘ox’

Analysis

Some of these words correspond in Arikara and Pawnee, while most do not. The word for ‘pig’ in Arikara, South Band Pawnee, and Skiri Pawnee appears to be a

93 cognate; however, the Arikara and Pawnee word for ‘pig’ is apparently a French borrowing (Parks). The Arikara and Pawnee word for ‘apple’ also appears as if they could be cognates; however, this word is an English borrowing (Parks 2001:90). The

Arikara appear to have borrowed ‘apples’, in the plural, from English into Arikara, while both dialects of Pawnee appear to have borrowed ‘apple’, in the singular, from

English into Pawnee.

The Arikara word for ‘biscuit’ is composed of the morphemes isataa ‘bread’ and niwiru ‘round’; therefore, this word is not a borrowed word in Arikara. On the other hand, the Pawnee word piískita corresponds almost directly to English ‘biscuit’. The unaspirated, voiceless bilabial stop /p/ in Pawnee piiskita corresponds to the voiced bilabial stop /b/ in English ‘biscuit’. The first vowel /ii/ in Pawnee piiskita corresponds to the first vowel /i/ of English ‘biscuit’. Additionally, the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ in Pawnee piiskita corresponds to the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ in English ‘biscuit’

Furthermore, the voiceless velar stop /k/ in Pawnee piiskita corresponds to the /k/ sound in English ‘biscuit’. Moreover, the second vowel /i/ in Pawnee piiskita corresponds to the second vowel /i/ in English ‘biscuit’. The voiceless alveolar stop /t/ in Pawnee piiskita also corresponds to the /t/ sound in English ‘biscuit’. Finally, Pawnee piiskita has another syllable that is not present in the English pronunciation of ‘biscuit’.

The South Band Pawnee word ákse and the Skiri Pawnee word aáksi corresponds very nearly to the English word ‘oxen’. The first vowel /a/ or /aa/ in the

Pawnee words akse/aaksi correspond to the first vowel sound /a/ of English ‘oxen’.

Next, the Pawnee consonant cluster ks in akse/aaksi corresponds to the ks sound orthographically represented in English spelling by the letter x. Furthermore, the South

94 Band Pawnee vowel /e/ and the Skiri Pawnee vowel /i/ correspond to the English /ɛ/ sound in ‘oxen’. Finally, Pawnee does not have an /n/ sound to correspond to the word final /n/ in English ‘oxen’.

Other Arikara Borrowings

Again, while there are not many borrowings in the Northern Caddoan languages, borrowing words is still a common way that people fill gaps in their lexicon. These borrowings are slightly different than the ones previously described and illustrated.

Again, borrowed words in Arikara have not been borrowed into Pawnee by constructing these forms, since borrowings are not cognate and do not adhere to the sound correspondences that have been demonstrated in this thesis. Table 38 illustrates another type of borrowing that is not exhibited in Pawnee.

Table 38: Other Arikara Borrowings Cognate South Band Skiri Arikara Gloss Set # Pawnee Pawnee čooč- N DEP, 207 čoociišat ‘go to ------N DEP church church’ iskun- N DEP, iskuhnuupo, 208 ------N DEP school iskunuukat, iskuunat, skuunat peetš- N DEP, ut…peetšuu ‘be (a number of) 209 ------N DEP page pages, peetšwiinahak ‘turn a page’ Analysis

In each of these examples, it is clear that these are English borrowings.

However, unlike the borrowings discussed previously, these particular borrowings are

95 not utilized as independent words in Arikara. Clearly, čooč-, iskun-, and peetš- correspond to the English words ‘church’, school, and page. However, čooč-, iskun-, and peetš- only occur as dependent forms that are incorporated into Arikara verbs.

While Pawnee also utilizes noun incorporation, Pawnee does not exhibit incorporating borrowed nouns into the Pawnee verb complex.

Two-way Distinction for Arikara Consonantal Sound Symbolism

According to Marianne Mithun’s the Native Languages of North America,

“Lakhota, a Siouan language of the Plains, shows patterns of consonant alternations in vocabulary that correspond to degrees of intensity. Here, the point of articulation of fricatives moves back from alveolar (s, z) to alveo-palatal (š, ž) and to velar (x, ɣ) to indicate increasing intensity” (Mithun 1999:32). In Arikara, a similar pattern of consonant alterations in vocabulary that corresponds to degrees of intensity is also exhibited. Like Lakhota, the point of articulation of fricatives also moves back. In the

Arikara data, it is typical that there are usually only two-way distinctions between the fricatives; however, the feature of consonantal sound symbolism is only found in

Arikara, not Pawnee. The examples that illustrate this two-way distinction follow:

Table 39: Two-way Distinction for Arikara Consonantal Sound Symbolism Cognate Set #214 kunAhús kunAhúx

‘little old man’ ‘old man’

Cognate Set #158 sústIt súxtIt

‘little old woman’ ‘old woman’

Cognate Set #168 wiinásts wiináxtš

‘little boy’ ‘boy’

96 Cognate Set #282 seehaníhts xeehaníhtš

‘newborn colt’ ‘colt’

Cognate Set #187 kuúnus kuúNUx

‘little bear’ ‘bear’

Analysis

In these Cognate Sets, it is clear that a pattern exists between diminutive size and the alveolar fricative s. As the point of articulation moves from alveolar to the velar fricative x, the size being indicated is no longer diminutive. This feature in Arikara was an issue at first because it made it difficult to establish a regular sound correspondence between Arikara x and Pawnee s. However, after determining that consonantal sound symbolism is most likely an areal feature in Arikara, Sound Correspondence 6a was determined to be a regular sound correspondence between Arikara and Pawnee. Finally, it is interesting to note that consonantal sound symbolism is utilized in Arikara to indicate diminutiveness, while Pawnee utilizes the diminutive suffix -ki(s), which is not productive and seems to only be a formal suffix in many instances (Parks 1976:102).

Three-way Distinction for Arikara Consonantal Sound Symbolism

While it is more typical that there is usually only a two-way distinction between the alveolar fricative (s) and the alveo-palatal fricative (š), in a few instances there are sometimes three-way distinctions between the alveolar fricatives. Again, this feature is only exhibited in Arikara, not Pawnee. The examples that illustrate this three-way distinction follow:

97 Table 40: Three-way Distinction for Arikara Consonantal Sound Symbolism Cognate Set #157 suúnats suúnatš suúnaxtš

‘tiny girl’ ‘young girl’ ’12-15 girl’

Cognate Set #12 saáts xaáts xaátš

‘newborn puppy’ ‘little dog’ ‘dog’

Analysis

In Cognate Sets 157 and 12, it is clear that a three-way pattern exists between size and the alveolar fricatives. It is clear that diminutiveness is associated with the alveolar s. Additionally, a slightly larger size than the most diminutive is associated with post-alveolar š. Finally, normal size or a larger size than post-alveolar š is associated with the velar fricative x. Similar to the two-way distinction for Arikara consonantal sound symbolism, this feature compounded the issue at first because it made it difficult to establish a regular sound correspondence between Arikara x and

Pawnee s and Arikara š and Pawnee s. However, after determining that consonantal sound symbolism is an areal feature in Arikara, Sound Correspondence 6a and 6b were determined to be a regular sound correspondence between Arikara and Pawnee. Again, it is interesting that consonantal sound symbolism is utilized in Arikara to indicate diminutiveness, while Pawnee utilizes the archaic diminutive suffix -ki(s), which is not productive and seems to simply be a formal suffix in many instances (Parks 1976:102).

Semantic Change/Drift (Narrowing and Widening)

Semantic change or semantic drift is always an issue that is encountered when doing comparative work. Some examples of semantic change or semantic drift were

98 encountered when searching for cognates in Arikara and Pawnee. Some of these examples of semantic change include: star/Pleiades, edible plant root/Jerusalem artichoke/carrot, lip/nose, goose/crane/duck. This is an issue because when the meanings of words shift, it can be difficult to ascertain whether a meaning narrowed or widened. Additionally, there are issues that are encountered in the social realm when picking and choosing which language is more conservative or more innovative.

Suggestions

There are many issues that are encountered when utilizing the comparative method for language revitalization. Borrowed words are always to be encountered when utilizing the comparative method. In this thesis, borrowed words are ignored because they typically do not adhere to established sound correspondences. On the other hand, borrowing words is a common way to fill gaps in the lexicon; therefore, there is not a reason that Pawnee cannot borrow words that are clearly borrowings in Arikara.

Moreover, areal features present in Arikara but absent in Pawnee, such as consonantal sound symbolism, are dealt with, but these features are not constructed in Pawnee.

However, borrowing features is also a common way that languages change; therefore, it is not unreasonable that Pawnee can borrow this feature from Arikara. Ultimately, the

Pawnee and Arikara people decide upon the legitimacy of their words. It is possible that a constructed word utilizing this repurposed comparative method can technically be an

“incorrect” form based upon linguistic analysis, but language in use by the Pawnee and

Arikara language revitalization speech communities will take precedence.

99 Future Research

Future research that I am interested in pursuing is a more comprehensive comparison of Pawnee and Arikara grammar. Specifically, Pawnee and Arikara syntax and areas of the verb morphology remain under-studied. Previous findings in Parks

(1976) and this study, particularly in regard to Pawnee and Arikara verb morphology, suggest that Pawnee and Arikara are more or less identical.

Furthermore, I am also interested in pursuing a fuller historical analysis of preverbs in Pawnee to determine what they developed from. According to Parks (2008), the preverbs ir-/a-, ut, and uur- have no tangible meaning when functioning as a component of a discontinuous stem. However, they are identical in form to

“grammatical prefixes that have other functions” (2008:31-32) such as the obviative/de- focusing/switch-reference prefix (ir-), the benefactive/dative, or indirect, object prefix

(ut-), and the patient possession prefix (uur-). In the course of my own research for this thesis, I have noticed that there appears to be a deictic component to some of these forms when functioning as preverbs, particularly the preverb ir-. Future research will include a comparative historical reconstruction of these forms with a goal of understanding their diachronic origin and synchronic function.

Another related research opportunity is a historically motivated grammar of

Proto-Pawnee, or the language that theoretically existed before the split of Pawnee and

Arikara. Finally, I am interested in discovering if this repurposed comparative method can be utilized for other endangered Caddoan languages, such as Kitsai, Wichita, and

Caddo.

100 Other future research that is more anthropologically oriented is a follow up study with the Pawnee and Arikara communities to get a better understanding of the language ideologies that exist in the Pawnee and Arikara communities. This will also allow me to follow up and see how this thesis is being utilized, or not. The study of language ideologies in the Pawnee and Arikara communities will allow me study various issues that occur in language revitalization. Some research questions include:

What are the language ideologies affecting the Arikara and Pawnee communities in their language revitalization efforts? How do the Arikara and Pawnee communities feel about using a related language to help in their language revitalization efforts? Why do they feel the way that they do? What constitutes a speech community in the Pawnee and

Arikara communities? Do Pawnee and Arikara constitute a speech community? Why?

What does language use look like in these communities now? How do the Pawnee and

Arikara languages relate to contemporary identity?

These research topics range from an opportunity to gain a better understanding of the historical development of the Pawnee and Arikara languages’ grammatical structure to the opportunity to gain a better understanding and appreciation for the dynamic nature of current Pawnee and Arikara language revitalization efforts and the ideologies that affect these tribal communities’ efforts. This socio-cultural research can lead to a better understanding of Pawnee and Arikara ideologies and contemporary identity for Pawnee and Arikara people.

101 References

"American Indian Studies Research Institute." AISRI Arikara Dictionary Portal. University of Indiana, n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2016. .

“American Indian Studies Research Institute.” AISRI Skiri Pawnee Dictionary Portal. University of Indiana, n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2016. .

“American Indian Studies Research Institute.” AISRI South Band Pawnee Dictionary Portal. University of Indiana, n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2016. .

Campbell, Lyle. Historical Linguistics: An Introduction. 3rd ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2013. Print.

Chafe, Wallace L. The Caddoan, Iroquoian, and Siouan Languages. The Hague: Mouton. 1976.

Chafe, Wallace L. 1979. Caddoan. In Campbell, L. and Mithun, M. (eds.), The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment, 213- 235. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Dunbar, John. Pawnee-English Vocabulary. Manuscript Nos. 1992a-b, National Anthropological Archives. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Goddard, Ives. “The Languages of the Plains: Introduction.” Handbook of North American Indians. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2001. 61-70. Print.

Hyde, George E.. The Pawnee Indians. [New ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974. Print.

Lesser, Alexander, and Gene Weltfish. Composition of the Caddoan Linguistic Stock. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 87(6):1-15. Washington, D.C.

Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2016. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Nineteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com.

Merlan, Francesca C. Noun-Verb Relationships in Arikara Syntax. Ph.D. dissertation, University of New Mexico. 1975.

Mithun, Marianne. The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

102

Moseley, Christopher (ed.). 2010. Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, 3rd ed. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. Online version: http://www.unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas

Parks, Douglas R. A Grammar of Pawnee. (Ph.D. Dissertation in Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley, 1972).

Parks, Douglas R.. A Grammar of Pawnee. New York: Garland Publishing, 1976. Print.

Parks, Douglas R., “Arikara.” Handbook of North American Indians. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2001. 365-390. Print.

Parks, Douglas R.. "Caddoan Languages." Handbook of North American Indians. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2001. 80-93. Print.

Parks, Douglas R., "The Northern Caddoan Languages: Their Subgrouping and Time Depths," Nebraska History 60 (1979): 197-213.

Parks, Douglas R.. "Pawnee." Handbook of North American Indians. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2001. 515-547. Print.

Parks, Douglas R., Janet Beltran, and Ella P. Waters. Introduction to the Arikara Language. Anchorage: National Bilingual Materials Development Center, 1979. Print.

Parks, Douglas R., and Lula Nora Pratt. A Dictionary of Skiri Pawnee. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press in cooperation with the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, 2008. Print.

Schneider, Mary Jane., “Three Affiliated Tribes.” Handbook of North American Indians. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2001. 391-398. Print.

Taylor, Allan R. “The Classification of the Caddoan Languages.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1963a): 107:51-59.

Texas Beyond History, Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin

Weltfish, Gene. "Caddoan Texts: Pawnee, South Band Dialect." American Ethnological Society XVII (1937): 1-251. Print.

Weltfish, Gene. The Lost Universe: The Way of Life of the Pawnee. New York: Basic Books, 1965. Print.

103 Appendix A: Abbreviations

Abbreviation Meaning

1.A first person agent

1.P first person patient

2.A second person agent

2.P second person patient

3.A third person agent

Ar. Arikara

BEN benefactive

Engl. English

IND.3.A indicative mode with third person agent inven. inventory

IPA international phonetic alphabet

N noun

N DEP dependent noun obs. obsolete orth. orthography pl. plural

SB South Band Pawnee sg. singular

SK Skiri Pawnee

104 Appendix B: Arikara and Pawnee Sound Inventory, Orthographic

Conventions, and Examples to Illustrate Sounds

t t u u

bor i

, er,

ce &ce t, p t, p

o oh ------i tch

- tt ot ts r d de de off t op all op i eigh e go a oo oo p t c op u u Similar Similar to sound in s s s uh co wa s ------h w bu pe ---- mach pol p n b a p b r b r

ʾ ʾ

ʾ ʾ ʾ

, ʾ ʾ ʾ a ʾ ʾ

ka ʾ ------

SB Example paksu tawit kaasu aaka kecku cuski sakuuru ------ahu wis arikaraaru ---- piita pitku kee tekskurit pah iraari istu kuuhaaru iitu uutuuru

------

SB Orth. p t k ʾ c~ č s ------h w r ---- ii i ee e a aa u uu u uu

------

SB Inven. (IPA) p t k ʔ ts~t ʃ s ------h w ɾ ---- i: i~ ɪ e: e~ ə ~ ɑ ɑ : u~ ʊ u: u~ ʊ u:

t t u u

, er,

ce &ce t, p t, p

o oh ------i tch

- tt ee ot ts r de de off t d op all op i i go a oo oo p t c op u u Similar Similar to sound in s s s uh co wa s ------h w bu pe ---- mach pol p kn b a p b r b r

ʾ ʾ

ʾ ʾ ʾ

a ʾ

ʾ u ʾ ʾ ʾ ʾ

------

ka SK Example paksu tawit kaasu aaka kicku caski sakuuru ------hiitu wis arikaraaru ---- piita pitku kii tikskurit pah iraari istu kuuhaaru hiitu huutuuru

------

SK Orth. p t k ʾ c~ č s ------h w r ---- ii i ii i a aa u uu u uu

------

SK Inven. (IPA) p t k ʔ ts~t ʃ s ------h w ɾ ---- i: i~ ɪ i: i~ ə ~ ɑ ɑ : u~ ʊ u: u~ ʊ u:

bor

er, er,

ce te t

o oh i tch ch

o - tt ot op r d de off ther t op all op od i eigh e go, a o oo p t c op a u Similar Similar to sound in s s s uh wa s sh Ba h w bu pe n mach pol p n b a f p wr g b r

ʾ ʾ

ʾ ʾ aanu

ʾ u ʾ ʾ

r ʾ ʾ ʾ ʾ

it h ʾ ika o r Ar. Example paxu taWIt kaaxu ka č itUx sapat š akuunu sax, skuuxu hiitu wiitA a u š nii wiíta pítkUx č eeká te š kúNIt wáh inaá š t koohaánu hiítu huutuúnu

Ar. Orth. p t k ʾ č s š x h w r n ii i ee e a aa o oo u uu

: Ar. Inve (IPA) p t k ʔ t ʃ s ʃ x h w ɾ n i i~ ɪ e: ɛ ə ~ ɑ ɑ : o o: u u:

105 Appendix C: Arikara and Pawnee Cognates

CS# Arikara SB Pawnee SK Pawnee Gloss 1 -t- -t- -t- ‘1.A’ 2 -a- -a- -a- ‘2.P’ 3 čituúʾU kítuuʾuʾ kítuuʾuʾ ‘all’ 4 áxkU ásku ásku ‘one’ 5 pítkUx pitku pítku ‘two’ ‘be big’, ‘be 6 rihuun rihuur rihur large’ 7 sápat capat cápaat ‘woman’ 8 wiíta piita piita ‘man’ 9 sáhniš cahriks cáhiks ‘person’ 10 čiwáhtš kaciiki kaciiki ‘fish’ 11 níkUs rikucki rikucki ‘bird’ saáts ‘newborn puppy’, 12 xaáts ‘little dog’, asaaki asaáki ‘dog’ xaátš ‘dog’ 13 načiriíkuʾ rakiriikuʾ rakiriikuʾ ‘seed’ 14 sčeekaraákuʾ kskeekaraakuʾ kskiikaraakuʾ ‘leaf’ kAsukaawíuʾ, kapahcuʾ, ‘root 15 kapahcuʾ kAsuukaawíuʾ rakapahcuʾ (generic)’ ‘bark (of a 16 haakIskuúxuʾ raakickuusuʾ raakickuusuʾ tree)’ ckariitki, ckariituʾ, 17 sahnišskuúxuʾ ckáriitki, ckuusuʾ ‘skin’ ckuusuʾ 18 tsástš kisacki kisaacki ‘meat’ 19 paátuʾ paatuʾ paatuʾ ‘blood’ 20 čiíšuʾ kiisuʾ kiisuʾ ‘bone’ 21 čiisAhítš kicahihtuʾ kiicahihtuʾ ‘grease’ 22 nipiíkuʾ ripiikuʾ ripiikuʾ ‘egg’ 23 ariíkuʾ, paariíkuʾ paariikuʾ, paariki paariikuʾ ‘horn’ 24 NItkuúʾ ritkuʾuʾ ritkuʾuʾ ‘tail’ 25 hiítuʾ iituʾ hiituʾ ‘feather’ 26 uúxuʾ uusuʾ uusuʾ ‘hair’ 27 páxuʾ paksuʾ paksuʾ ‘head’ 28 čiriíkuʾ kiriikuʾ kiriikuʾ ‘eye’ siniítuʾ, (suxčítA long- 29 cuusuʾ cusuʾ ‘nose’ nosed), súxuʾ ‘lip’ 30 haakáʾuʾ aakaʾuʾ haakaʾuʾ ‘mouth’ 31 aánuʾ aaruʾ aaruʾ ‘tooth’ 32 haátuʾ aatuʾ haatuʾ ‘tongue’ 33 šwiítuʾ ikspiituʾ ikspiituʾ ‘fingernail’ 34 áxuʾ asuʾ asuʾ ‘foot’ 35 paáʾuʾ , paačiísuʾ paakiisuʾ paakiisuʾ ‘knee’ 36 íšuʾ iksuʾ iksuʾ ‘hand’ 37 čiísuʾ kiicuʾ kiicuʾ ‘neck’ ‘breast’, 38 eétuʾ eetuʾ iituʾ ‘mammary gland’

106 39 kariíkuʾ kariikuʾ kariikuʾ ‘liver’ 40 čiikaa kiikaa kiikaa ‘drink’ 41 waawa-a waawa-a waawa-a ‘eat’ 42 kaʾus kaʾuc kaʾuc ‘bite’ ‘see’, ‘look 43 ut…eerik ut…eerik ut…iirik at’ ‘hear’, 44 atkaʾu atkaʾu atkaʾu ‘listen’ ‘hear from’, 45 un…atkaʾu ur…atkaʾu ur…atkaʾu ‘listen to’ ‘sleep’, ‘be 46 itka itka itka asleep’ 47 koot kuut kuut ‘die’ 48 kootik kuutik kuutik ‘kill’, ‘slay’ 49 huuseeriitik huuceeriitik huuciriitik ‘swim’ 50 awanuu awarii awarii ‘fly around’ 51 awaxk awask awask ‘laugh’ 52 in…a ir…a ir…a ‘come’ 53 ša sa sa ‘lie’ 54 kux ku(s) ku(s) ‘sit’ 55 arič arik arik ‘stand’ 56 kakatk kakatk kakatk ‘cut’ 57 waako waaku waku ‘say’ 58 šakuúnuʾ sakuuruʾ sakuuruʾ ‘sun’ 59 páh pah pah ‘moon’ 60 sákaaʾa uupirit huupirit ‘star’ 61 tstoóxuʾ kiicuʾ kiicuʾ ‘water’ 62 tsUhiínuʾ cuhuuruʾ cuhuuruʾ ‘rain’ ‘rock’, 63 kanítš karitki karitki ‘stone’ 64 čiwíhtuʾ kiwiiktuʾ kiwiktuʾ ‘sand’ 65 hunaánuʾ uraaruʾ huraaruʾ ‘land’, ‘earth’ ‘be cloudy’, 66 istaxa ickakatasa ickakatasa ‘be overcast’ 67 skaRAhkatAhaánuʾ ckaʾuʾ ckaʾuʾ ‘cloud’ 68 skáʾuʾ ckaʾuʾ ckaʾuʾ ‘face’ 69 naawiíšuʾ raawisuʾ raawiisuʾ ‘smoke’ 70 čeekáʾuʾ keekaʾuʾ ‘flame’ kiikaʾuʾ ‘flame’ ‘fire’ 71 itkanahtuúsuʾ karaktuhcuʾ karaaktuuhcuʾ ‘ash’ ‘be ablaze’, 72 in…kunistaʾa ir…kurictaʾa ir…kurictaʾa ‘burn’ haturaaruʾ, 73 hatuúnuʾ, -sat- aturaaruʾ ‘path’, ‘road’ hatuur- N DEP ‘hill’, 74 waáʾuʾ paaʾuʾ paaʾuʾ ‘mountain’ 75 pahaat pahaat pahaat ‘be red’ 76 tareeʾuux tareeʾuus tariiʾuus ‘be blue’ 77 rahkataán rahkataar rahkataar ‘be yellow’ 78 čiisawataán taakaar taakaar ‘be white’ 79 katiít katiit katiit ‘be black’ 80 NItkahaánuʾ ratkahaaruʾ ratkahaaruʾ ‘night’

107 in…awiristaʾu, ‘be hot 81 ir…awirictaʾu ir…awirictaʾu in…awiristo (weather)’ ‘be sated’, 82 kaawačiit kaawakiit kaawakiit ‘be full’ 83 un…heer ur…heer ur…hiir ‘be good’ 84 riwiruu riwiruu riwiruu ‘be round’ 85 táWIt tawit tawit ‘three’ 86 huúnuʾ iiruʾ hiiruʾ ‘grass’ 87 neésuʾ reecuʾ riicuʾ ‘intestine’ 88 huutuúnuʾ uutuuruʾ huutuuruʾ ‘wind’ 89 pihuu pihuu pihuu ‘be foggy’ 90 kaasuu kaacuu kaacuu ‘urinate’ ‘tie’, ‘tie 91 ut…tareepi ut…tareepi ut…tariipu around’, ‘tie on’ ‘make’, 92 raʾu raʾuk raʾuk ‘construct’, ‘build’ 93 raanaʾu, raano raaraʾuk raaraʾuk ‘sing’ 94 naanoókux raaruukusuʾ raaruukusuʾ ‘singer’ 95 čikak kikak kikak ‘cry’, ‘weep’ 96 áskAt ackat áckat ‘up’, ‘above’ 97 niíšuʾ riiksuʾ riiksuʾ ‘arrow’ ‘ant 98 pitáruʾ pitaruʾ pitaruʾ (generic)’ 99 tanáhaʾ tarahaʾ tarahaʾ ‘buffalo’ 100 haákuʾ ‘box’ raakuʾ ‘box’ raakuʾ ‘box’ ‘wood’ apakus ‘fighter, 101 apak apak one who likes to ‘fight’ fight’ 102 huta huta huta ‘be windy’ ‘my 103 atíkaʾ atikaʾ atíkaʾ grandmother’ ‘your 104 ákaʾ akaʾ ákaʾ grandmother’ ‘her/his 105 ikaániʾ ikaariʾ ikaariʾ grandmother’ ‘my 106 atípaʾ atipat atípat grandfather’ ‘your 107 ápaʾ apat ápat grandfather’ ‘her/his 108 ipáhniʾ ipaktiʾ ipaaktiʾ grandfather’ ‘my maternal 109 tiWIsíRIš tiwaciriks tiwaciriks uncle’ ‘your 110 aWIsíRIš paciriks paciriks maternal uncle’ ‘her/his iwaririks, 111 iwaaníRIš iwaaririks maternal iwariiriks uncle’

108 112 atináʾ atiraʾ atíraʾ ‘my mother’ 113 xáx asas ásas ‘your mother’ ‘her/his 114 šáxtiʾ isastiʾ isaastiʾ mother’ 115 atíʾAx atiʾas atíʾas ‘my father’ 116 haáʾAx aʾas áʾas ‘your father’ ‘her/his 117 hiʾáxtiʾ iʾasti iʾaastiʾ father’ ‘my sister 118 áNA iraariʾ iraariʾ (female speaking)’ ‘your sister 119 áNA ara ára (female speaking)’ ‘her sister 120 inaániʾ iraariʾ iraariʾ (female speaking)’ ‘my sister 121 atítat itahriʾ itaahiʾ (male speaking)’ ‘your sister 122 átat atat átaat (male speaking)’ ‘his sister 123 itáhniʾ itahriʾ itaahiʾ (male speaking)’ ‘my brother 124 atinás iractiʾ iraactiʾ (female speaking)’ ‘your brother 125 ánas arac áraac (female speaking)’ ‘her brother 126 inástiʾ iractiʾ iraactiʾ (female speaking)’ ‘my brother 127 áNA iraariʾ iraariʾ (male speaking)’ ‘your brother 128 áNA ara ára (male speaking)’ ‘his brother 129 inaániʾ iraariʾ iraariʾ (male speaking)’ ‘my 130 ------tiwat tiwaat niece/nephew ’ ‘your 131 ------awat áwaat niece/nephew ’ 132 ------iwahriʾ iwaahiʾ ‘her/his niece

109 nephew’ ‘my 133 atinátš raktiki raktiiki grandchild’ ‘your 134 anátš arakis árakis (obs.) grandchild’ ‘her/his 135 iNAhnítš raktiki raktiiki grandchild’ 136 -ku- -ku- -ku- ‘1.P’ ‘fall’, 137 neskúhtš reeckuhki rickuhki ‘autumn’ 138 psíkAt picikat picikat ‘winter’ xčiskaawítA, ‘little toe’, 139 askiickaawita askiickaawita AxčiskaawítA ‘pinky toe’ ‘back’, 140 nistaakuʾ rictaakuʾ rictaakuʾ ‘dorsal region of the body’ 141 nikutawikúsuʾ kutawikucuʾ kutawikucuʾ ‘hawk’ neétAkas, neétahkas, 142 reetahkac riitahkaac ‘eagle’ neétAhka 143 pitkuxunaánuʾ pitkusuraaruʾ pitkusuraaruʾ ‘forty’ ‘talker (someone 144 waawahtíkux paawaktiku paawaktikus who likes to talk)’ 145 WAsuúkaʾ pacuukaʾ pacuukaʾ ‘turnip’ 146 ničiišuʾ rikiisuʾ rikiisuʾ ‘shelled corn’ kskiitiʾiks, 147 čiitíʾIš kskiitiʾiks ‘four’ kskiitiks 148 čiitiʾištaánuʾ kskiitiʾikstaaruʾ kskiitikstaaruʾ ‘eighty’ čiitiʾištaanu na kskiitiʾikstaaruʾ a kskiitikstaaruʾ a 149 ‘ninety’ nooxíniʾ rihuksiriʾ ruksiriʾ 150 ščiísuʾ kskiicuʾ ikskiicuʾ ‘finger’ ‘little finger’, 151 ščiskaawítA kskiicpita kskiicpita ‘pinky finger’ 152 Axčiísuʾ, xčiísuʾ askiicuʾ askiicuʾ ‘toe’ 153 Axwiítuʾ, xwiítuʾ aspiituʾ aspiítuʾ ‘toenail’ ‘buffalo horn 154 taRAhaaríč tarahaariki tarahaariki spoon’ 155 tače takee takii ‘Who?’ ‘be a liquid’, 156 čiis kiic kic ‘be watery’ suúnats ‘tiny girl’, 157 suúnatš ‘young girl’, cuuraki cuuraki ‘girl’ suúnaxtš ‘12-15 girl’ súxtIt, 158 sústIt ‘little old custit custit ‘old woman’ woman’ 159 sax icas, icaski caas, icaas ‘turtle’ 160 neesítš, neesíč reeciki riiciki ‘knife’ 161 tšaápis kskiiksaapic kskiksaapic ‘six’ 162 taWIšaápis tawiksaapic tawiksaapic ‘eight’

110 163 NAheešá raheesa rahiisa ‘tomorrow’ ‘once’, ‘one 164 ------askusiriʾ askúsiriʾ time’ ‘twice’, ‘two 165 pitkUxíniʾ pitkusihiriʾ pítkusihiriʾ times’ ‘thrice’, 166 ------tawihkihiriʾ tawihkíhiriʾ ‘three times’ 167 ------kskiitiksiriʾ kskiitiksiriʾ ‘four times’ wiináxtš, 168 piiraski piiraski ‘boy’ wiinásts ‘little boy’ 169 waawaapis waawaapic waawaapic ‘be lightning’ 170 waawaapIsúxuʾ paawaapicisuʾ paawaapicisuʾ ‘lightning’ ‘bat 171 waáxIt paasit paasit (mammal)’ 172 wáh pah pah ‘elk’ ‘young elk’, 173 weehániʾ paahariʾ paahariʾ ‘elk calf’ ‘squash’, 174 WAhúx pahuks pahuks ‘pumpkin’ 175 wahUxanaáxuʾ pahuksaraasuʾ pahuksaraasuʾ ‘watermelon’ ‘rabbit 176 wáRUx parus parus (generic)’ 177 wás paac paac ‘wasp’ 178 wiínuʾ piiruʾ piiruʾ ‘arm’ 179 wiísuʾ piicuʾ piicuʾ ‘heart’ 180 wiitáʾuʾ piitaʾuʾ piitaʾuʾ ‘twenty’ ‘on the 181 wireesakUxíniʾ piireecakusiriʾ piiriicakusiriʾ shoulder’ 182 šíhUx sihuks suhuks ‘five’ 183 šihuxtaánuʾ sihukstaaruʾ suhukstaaruʾ ‘one hundred’ 184 NIšaátuʾ risaatuʾ risaatuʾ ‘rib’ ‘wrist’, 185 šaanaákuʾ ksaáraakuʾ ksaraakuʾ ‘forearm’ ‘nearby’, 186 teškúNIt tekskurit tikskurit ‘close by’ kuúNUx, ‘bear 187 kuuruks kuruks kuúnus ‘little bear’ (animal)’ 188 taNIhtáʾuʾ tariktaʾuʾ tariktaʾuʾ ‘body’ ‘blood paatAhuunuʾ, vessel’, 189 paatahuuruʾ paatahuuruʾ paatUhuúnuʾ ‘artery’, ‘vein’ 190 hAstaahiš hactaahiis hactaahiis ‘be thirsty’ 191 kaáxuʾ kaasuʾ kaasuʾ ‘leg’ 192 štó, štoh istu istuʾ, sistuʾ (obs.) ‘again’ 193 tšús kisuuc kisuuc ‘grape’ 194 tšusčiísuʾ kisuckiicuʾ kisuckiicuʾ ‘grape juice’ 195 tIšaátuʾ, tšaátuʾ kisaatuʾ katuuractaaka ‘swan’ tsakaʾáhnIš, kickaʾahris, ‘shoulder 196 kickaahisuʾ tskaʾaáhniš, tskaʾaáNIš kickaʾaahris blade’ 197 kúhkUx kuhku(s) kuhku(s) ‘pig’

111 198 skarutkúhkUx kuhkusickariitki kuhkusickariitki ‘pig hide’ 199 isataaniwíruʾ piiskita piiskita ‘biscuit’ riwaharikucuʾ (obs.), 200 ápos ápuʾ ‘apple’ apuʾ ‘ox’, ‘oxen’, 201 ------akse aaksi ‘domestic cow’ 202 panaáni paariikuʾ paariikuʾ ‘banana’ 203 patát ic ic ‘potato’ 204 kawíč, káwitš kaaripiikuʾ kaaripiikuʾ ‘cabbage’ oótwiʾIs, otwíʾiš, 205 ------‘oatmeal’ oótwiʾIš aNAxkataánuʾ, ‘orange 206 wahUxtAkatá, aracis áracis (fruit)’ wahUxtAhkatá čooč- N DEP, čoočiišat ‘N DEP 207 ------‘go to church’ church’ iskun- N DEP, iskuhnuupo, ‘N DEP 208 ------iskunuukat, iskuunat, school’ skuunat peetš- N DEP, ut…peetšuu ‘be (a 209 number of ) pages, ------‘N DEP page’ peetšwiinahak ‘turn a page’ tšuu- N DEP, ‘N DEP tšuuhookuraahn ‘have 210 ------tobacco chewing tobacco or (chew)’ snuff in one’s mouth’ ‘dried meat’, 211 taakáxtš taakaski taakaski ‘jerky’ 212 Itkaánuʾ itkaaruʾ itkaaruʾ ‘dirt’, ‘dust’ ‘friendly visit’, 213 koxkAhaánuʾ kuskahaaruʾ kuskahaaruʾ ‘intertribal visit of friendship’ kuNAhúx, 214 kuNAhús ‘little old kurahus kurahus ‘old man’ man’ ‘soup’, 215 čiinaniítuʾ kiirariituʾ kiirariituʾ ‘broth’ 216 čitawi kitawu kitawu ‘count’ 217 čitaapát kitaapat kitaapat ‘otter’ 218 čítUx kituks kituks ‘beaver’ 219 hunaáʾuʾ uraaʾuʾ huraaʾuʾ ‘snow’ 220 huNAhčípIs urahkipic huraahkipic ‘rainbow’ 221 hunax huras huras ‘find’ 222 wiitaníhUx piitarihuks piitarihuks ‘bachelor’ 223 nikatIhaánuʾ rikatihaaruʾ rikatihaaruʾ ‘year’, ‘full

112 cycle of the seasons’ 224 naaxiítuʾ raasiituʾ raasiituʾ ‘ice’ ‘wear moccasins’, 225 axuuk asuuk asuuk ‘wear shoes’, ‘have on the feet’ ‘cowboy’, ‘Texan’, 226 kaápois teksis ‘texas’ teksis, tiksis ‘Texas cattleman or cowboy’ ‘shoe’, 227 xúhč, xúhtš asuuruʾ ásuuruʾ ‘moccasin’ ‘cowboy 228 Axkataʾiwíčes ------tiksis asuuruʾ boots’ 229 NAhnunáhtš rahrurahki rahurahki ‘deer’ 230 weesUxárut paacusarut paacusarut ‘moose’ 231 xaatatwáruʾ asaatatparuc asaatatparuc ‘camel’ 232 wahUxtareeʾúx pahukstareeʾus pahukstariiʾus ‘cucumber’ icataarakiicuʾ ‘pastry; cake; sweet roll; 233 isataanipiíkuʾ icataarakiicuʾ ‘cake’ cookie; sweet types of bread in general’ 234 isataatšús icataakisuc icataakisuc ‘raisin bread’ kisuusit ‘also any ‘Jerusalem tšuuxIstaátuʾ, tšuúxIt kisuusit, edible root, such as artichoke’, 235 ‘also carrot’, kisuusitpahat carrot, radish, beet’, ‘Helianthus tšuuxItwáhAt ‘carrot’ ‘beet’ kisuusitpahat ‘beet’ tuberosus’ ‘stalk of a plant’, ‘plant 236 taátuʾ taatuʾ, tatkiicuʾ taatuʾ, tatkiicuʾ (generic)’, ‘animal’s back’ ‘corn in the 237 neéšuʾ reéksuʾ riiksuʾ ear’, ‘on the cob’ 238 neštaátuʾ rikiistaatuʾ rikstaatuʾ ‘cornstalk’ aruúsaʾ, asaa- N 239 xaawaarúxtiʾ aruusaʾ, asaa- N DEP ‘horse’ DEP piiréškI (sg.) ‘child (small 240 piiraʾuʾ piiraʾuʾ piirátš (pl.) child)’ ‘How 241 ------kickee kickii much?’, ‘How many?’ ‘What?’, 242 tiče kirikee kirikii, kikii ‘Which?’ 243 čuku kiru kiruu ‘Where?’

113 244 taWIšaapiswaáNA pitkusiksaapic pitkusiksaapic ‘seven’ 245 nooxiniiwaáNA rihuksiriiwaara ruksiriiwaara ‘nine’ 246 nooxiíniʾ rihuksiriʾ ruksiriʾ ‘ten’ 247 nooxíniʾ na áxkUx askuhuukita askuhuúkita ‘eleven’ 248 nooxíniʾ na pítkUx pitkususiriʾ pitkusuusiriʾ ‘twelve’ 249 nooxíniʾ na táWIt tawirihuksiriʾ tawiruksiriʾ ‘thirteen’ 250 nooxíniʾ na čiitíʾIš rakuukita rakuukita ‘fourteen’ 251 nooxíniʾ na šíhUx sihukstaruukita suhukstaruukita ‘fifteen’ 252 nooxíniʾ na tšaápis ksurawiʾuʾ ksurawiʾuʾ ‘sixteen’ nooxíniʾ na 253 tawit kaakiʾ tawit kaakiʾ ‘seventeen’ taWIšaapiswaáNA 254 nooxíniʾ na taWIšaápis pitkuskaakiʾ pitkus-kaakiʾ ‘eighteen’ nooxíniʾ na 255 asku-kaakiʾ ásku-kaakiʾ ‘nineteen’ nooxiniiwaáNA 256 nasaawíʾuʾ rihuksiriiwiitaʾ uʾ ruksiriwiitaʾuʾ ‘thirty’ pitkUxunaánuʾ na pitkusuraaruʾ a 257 pitkusuraaruʾ rihuksiriʾ ‘fifty’ nooxíniʾ ruksiriʾ 258 tawihkunaánuʾ tawiraaruʾ tawiraaruʾ ‘sixty’ tawihkunaanu na tawiraaruʾ a 259 tawiraaruurihuksiriʾ ‘seventy’ nooxíniʾ ruksiriʾ ‘prairie’, 260 koohaánuʾ kuuhaaruʾ kuuhaaruʾ ‘valley’ 261 sakUciwátAt sakuhkiwatat sakuhkiwatat ‘Monday’ pítkUx NAsakuúNU, 262 pitku rasakuuru pitku rasakuuru ‘Tuesday’ pítkUx sakuúnuʾ táWIt NAsakuúNU, 263 tawit rasakuuru tawit rasakuuru ‘Wednesday’ táWIt sakuúnuʾ kskiitiʾiks 264 tariinuuwanúx kskiitiʾiks rasakuuru ‘Thursday’ rasakuuru paraaʾi, suhuriʾ 265 kawootíkUx paraaʾi ‘Friday’ rasakuuru 266 čeehaanaaniikaroókUx peeriku piirikuʾ ‘Saturday’ 267 šakUhwaarúxtiʾ sakuhwaarukstiʾ sakuhwaarukstiʾ ‘Sunday’ ‘be holy’, ‘be 268 waaruxtii waarukstii waarukstii sacred’, ‘be mysterious’ 269 átit atit átit ‘bean’ 270 akanaanataáʾuʾ akaraarataaʾuʾ ákaraarataaʾuʾ ‘earthlodge’ ‘lodge’, 271 akaánuʾ akaaruʾ ákaaruʾ ‘dwelling’, ‘house’ rutki, ruutuʾ ‘snake, rutpaacat, rut- N 272 nut ‘snake’ serpent’ (obs.) DEP ‘male horse’, 273 xaawiítA asa(a)wiita asáwiita ‘male dog’ 274 xaahéʾ asaaheʾ asáhi , sahi ‘water dog’ ‘prairie dog 275 áxkUsihániʾ askuhcihariʾ askuhcihariʾ pup’, ‘young prairie dog’ 276 áxkUs askuc áskuc ‘prairie dog’ 277 haahtatwaruʾ pahruuc paahuuhc, ‘be

114 ‘humpbacked trunk taatparuuc humpbacked’ (old-fashioned type)’ ‘Pleiades’, 278 naRAsačiruúxU cakaaʾa cakaaʾa ‘Seven Sisters’ ‘be soft’, ‘be 279 arut arut arut tender’ 280 isataáʾuʾ icataaʾuʾ icataaʾuʾ ‘bread’ ‘alligator’, tawakiks, 281 nuutawáčeš aawakeks ‘water awakiks monster’ xeehaníhtš, seehaníhts ‘colt’, ‘young 282 aseehariʾ ásiihariʾ ‘newborn colt’ horse’ 283 Isíš, síš caciks caciks ‘spider’ 284 sčéš ckurahkeks ckuraahkiiks ‘frog’ 285 etčiísuʾ etkiicuʾ iitkiicuʾ ‘milk’ 286 etwás etpac itpaac ‘spleen’ hItkahaánuʾ, 287 atkahaaruʾ itkahaaruʾ ‘ear’ ItkAhaánuʾ ‘be a dance čeehaan ‘be a dance (as a certain 288 keehaar kiihaar society’ kind of dance)’ 289 sčeekáhtš kskeekahki kskiikahki ‘gnat’ ‘be a night’, ritkahaan, ratkahaan 290 ratkahaar ratkahaar ‘be ‘be a certain night’ nighttime’ 291 neešaánuʾ reesaaruʾ riisaaruʾ ‘chief’ ‘dawn’, ‘period just 292 neešuunuʾ reesuuruʾ riisuuruʾ after daybreak (N)’ 293 at at at ‘go’ 294 áxWIt aspit áspit ‘tree frog’ 295 aanaaniikaroókUx ------‘toothbrush’ ‘toilet’, 296 akAhwiʾoóxUx akahwiʾuusis ákahwiʾuusis ‘outhouse’, ‘privy’ 297 Axwiroóxuʾ aspiruusuʾ spiruusuʾ ‘kidney’ 298 isuxa ‘to hum’ icusa icusa ‘puff’, ‘snort’ katuurat, 299 AxwahAtkúsuʾ, kohnít katuurit ‘duck’ kiiwaaks 300 axwahatkusiihániʾ kiiwakskiʾ kiiwakskiʾ ‘duckling’ 301 koóhAt kuuhat, kiiwaks katuurat ‘goose’ 302 katoóRIt sakuhkiriku sakuhkiriku ‘crane’ 303 suúnuʾ cuururaarus cuururarus ‘porcupine’ ‘chick’, ‘baby 304 nikUsčireehániʾ rikuhcihariʾ rikuhcihariʾ bird’ ‘calf’, 305 aniítš ariikis hariikis ‘newborn calf’

115 ‘fly’, 306 sapiinaáNUx cpiiraarus cpiirarus ‘housefly’ 307 wiiteešútš, wiiteešúč wiiteesutki, piiteesutki piitiisutki ‘young man’ kickaasisuʾ, ‘sweat’, 308 tskaaxíšuʾ kickaasisuʾ kickaasuʾ ‘perspiration’ ‘scalped person’, 309 tshunúxuʾ kicahuruksuʾ kicahuruksuʾ ‘scalped man (cultural character)’ 310 tiRIhuúʾU tirihuʾu tirihuʾ ‘it’s big’ ‘I’m 311 tAtčiikaáhuʾ tatkiikaahuʾ tatkikaahuʾ drinking’ ‘you’re 312 tAxčiikaáhuʾ taskiikaahuʾ taskikaahuʾ drinking’ ‘(s)he’s 313 tičiikaáhuʾ tikiikaahuʾ tikikaahuʾ drinking’ ‘I’m eating’, 314 taatá taata tata ‘I ate it’ ‘I heard’, ‘I 315 taatátkoʾ, taatAtkóʾ taatatkuʾ taatatkuʾ heard it’ ‘I heard it 316 tatuunátkoʾ tatuuratkuʾ tatuuratkuʾ from her/him’ ‘I see her/him/it’, ‘I 317 ------tatuuteerit tatuutiirit looked at her/him/it’ ‘(s)he saw 318 tUsuuxeéRIt ------him/her/it’ ‘I’m 319 taatawáxkuʾ taatawaskuʾ taatawaskuʾ laughing’ ‘(s)he is 320 ------tiiwaskuʾ tiiwaskuʾ laughing’ 321 tatiínaʾ tatiiraʾ tatiiraʾ ‘I came’ 322 tAxiínaʾ tasiiraʾ tasiiraʾ ‘you came’ 323 táʾ, wetáʾ taʾ taʾ ‘he came’ 324 taátAt taatat taatat ‘I went’ 325 taáxAt taasat taasat ‘you went’ 326 tíʾAt tiʾat tiʾat ‘(s)he went’ 327 nootipahaáʾAt tipahaaʾat tipahaaʾat ‘it’s red’ titaakaaʾa, titaakaaʾa, 328 tičiišawataáʾA tikiisawataaʾa ‘it’s tikiisawataaʾa ‘it’s white’ bright white’ ‘it’s bright white’ 329 tAhnaanoókuʾ tahraaruukuʾ tahaaruukuʾ ‘I’m singing’ ‘you’re 330 tAxtaanoókuʾ tastaaruukuʾ tastaaruukuʾ singing’ ‘I’m 331 taatItká taatitka taatitka sleeping’ ‘you’re 332 taaxItká taasitka taasitka sleeping’ 333 títka titka titka ‘(s)he’s

116 sleeping’ 334 tikisčípi tikuckipi tikuckipi ‘I’m sleepy’ ‘you are 335 tesčípi ------sleepy’ ‘(s)he’s 336 tisčípi tickipi tickipi sleepy’ tikuhactahiis, 337 tikuhAstaahíš tikuhactaahis ‘I’m thirsty’ tikuhactahis ‘you’re 338 tahAstaahíš tahactaahis tahactahis thirsty’ ‘(s)he’s 339 tihAstaahíš tihactaahis tihactahis thirsty’ 340 tikuNAsáʾUx tikuhracaʾus tikuuhacaʾus ‘I’m hungry’ ‘you’re 341 tooNAsáʾUx tuuracaʾus tuuhacaʾus hungry’ ‘(s)he’s 342 tuNAsáʾUx tuhracaʾus tuuhacaʾus hungry’ ‘(s)he/it is 343 teérut teerut tiirut, witirut soft’ ‘it’s a liquid’, 344 tičiíʾIs tikiʾic tikiʾic ‘it’s watery’ 345 ------tihuta tihuta ‘it’s windy’ taacuuʾaʾ, 346 taasuúʾaʾ, wetaasuúʾaʾ wetaacuuʾaʾ ‘it’s raining’ witaacuuʾaʾ 347 tikoótIt tikuutit tikuutit ‘(s)he kills it’ 348 tAtčíkAt tatkikat tatkikat ‘I’m crying’ ‘you’re 349 tAxčíkAt taskikat taskikat crying’ ‘(s)he’s 350 tičíkAt tikikat tikikat crying’ ‘I’m 351 taatáRIt taatarit taatarit standing’ ‘(s)he’s 352 teéRIt teerit tiirit standing’ ‘he stands up for me’, ‘he represents me 353 tikuutáRIt tikuutarit tikuutarit (as an attorney does a client)’ 354 -x- -s- -s- 2.A (All Arikara kinship terms and verbal words found in Parks 1979; all South Band

Pawnee kinship terms found in Parks 1976; all Skiri Pawnee kinship terms found in

Parks 2008; all other words found in AISRI Arikara, South Band Pawnee, Skiri Pawnee

Dictionary Portal)

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