UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Otherworldly Impressions: Female Mediumship in Britain and America in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English by Giulia Katherine Hoffmann June 2014 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Susan Zieger, Chairperson Dr. George Haggerty Dr. Joseph Childers Dr. Adriana Craciun Copyright by Giulia Katherine Hoffmann 2014 The Dissertation of Giulia Katherine Hoffmann is approved: Committee Chairperson University of California, Riverside ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project began more than two years before I wrote its first word, during my oral exam for my MA, when Susan Zieger suggested that given my fascination with women’s studies, Gothic literature and the Victorian era, I might be interested in researching the Spiritualist movement. After a summer of reading about the Fox sisters deftly cracking their joints under tables to produce the first “spirit communications,” spectral manifestations at séances and entranced mediums speaking to large crowds, I was hooked. Because of her suggestion, I’ve had the great fortune of writing my dissertation on a topic that continues to fascinate me. And because of her support and encouragement, always-excellent advice on topics that extended far beyond this project, and keen insights that helped motivate me even during the most difficult points of graduate school, I was able to complete something I’m immensely proud of. It’s impossible to express how grateful I am for her mentorship. I am also very thankful for the advice and support of the other members of my committee. I have benefited from George Haggerty’s guidance not only on this project but throughout graduate school, and continue to be inspired by his work; choosing to take his seminar on the Gothic as my first graduate class was one of the best decisions I have ever made. Joe Childers’ extensive comments on drafts of chapters as well as his advice on my career plans have been extraordinarily helpful. Without Adriana Craciun’s suggestion to look into the history of clairvoyants’ involvement in nineteenth-century Arctic travel, my second chapter – on something that’s still one of my favorite topics and iv has served as the basis for exciting archival and conference opportunities – would not have been written, and I greatly appreciate the guidance she has provided. I owe a debt of gratitude to many others in my department and throughout the College of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences. Heidi Brayman Hackel has been a staunch supporter from the beginning of my graduate career; Geoff Cohen took a chance on me for a teaching opportunity that changed my life in innumerably wonderful ways; John Namjun Kim introduced me to the history of mesmerism and has continually encouraged me in my research; James Tobias was receptive to hearing about my professional and career goals and provided guidance during a crucial time. Tina Feldmann has worn so many hats – grad student advisor extraordinaire, mentor, cheerleader, and friend – and I can’t thank her enough. So many others at UCR and beyond have contributed to this project. The UCR Interlibrary Loan staff and other librarians at the Rivera and Orbach libraries have helped me track down the sources I needed to write this dissertation. I am also grateful to the conference respondents whose comments I benefited from, particularly Jen Cadwallader, Jill Galvan and Marlene Tromp. The staff at the British Library, the Cambridge University Library, the Harry Price Library for Magical Literature, and the Scott Polar Research Institute were immensely helpful in providing key sources for my research. I am grateful to the committees for the Barricelli Research Grant, the British Society for the History of Science Outreach and Education Postgraduate Research Grant, the Center for Ideas and Society Humanities Graduate Student Research Grant, and the Graduate v Division Dissertation Year Project Fellowship and Dissertation Research Grant, for supporting my archival research and the writing of this dissertation. My family and friends have sustained me throughout graduate school, and I am eternally grateful for their support. In particular, Lindsay Palmer, Jeff Shaffer, Sarah Schwartzman Ramsey, John Ramsey, Regis Mann, Amanda Sharick, Rochelle Gold, Kimberly Hall, and Anne Sullivan have filled my years as a grad student with joy, laughter and much-needed commiseration. Students like Alissa Medina and Sneha Sharma have been an inspiration. My parents, Jeanette LaPorte and Horst Hoffmann, have supported me with their love and advice both near and from afar; their own academic and professional success originally instilled in me the desire to pursue a PhD before I even really knew what one was. I’m thankful for my wonderful grandparents, Jean and Ernie LaPorte, who have always encouraged me in my endeavors; and I’m so lucky to have Ron and Christina Ho as my in-laws. Gabriela Hoffmann, my best friend for life, has encouraged me in everything, whether it was mischief-making as children or getting through the most difficult parts of grad school. It is to my husband, Ben Ho, that I owe my deepest debt of gratitude – he proofread every chapter, sometimes twice – but more importantly, he has tirelessly supported me throughout this whole process with his patience and encouragement. Grateful acknowledgement for permission to reproduce the photographs listed below is made to: The British Library: Ada Emma Deane, “Armistice Day 1921” (Cup.407.a.1). vi The College of Psychic Studies: William Mumler, “Moses A. Dow and the Spirit of Mabel Warren” and “Mary Todd Lincoln with the Spirit of Her Husband, President Abraham Lincoln.” Eugene Orlando: Ouija board images on pages 201 and 206. All other images are in the public domain, and are being used under the “fair use” code of the U.S. copyright law, section 107. vii To Ben and Gabi viii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Otherworldly Impressions: Female Mediumship in Britain and America in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries by Giulia Katherine Hoffmann Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in English University of California, Riverside, June 2014 Dr. Susan Zieger, Chairperson This dissertation examines representations of female spirit mediumship during the rise of the Spiritualist movement in the mid-nineteenth through the early twentieth centuries. In private séances as well as public trance demonstrations, spirit mediums claimed to channel the dead and convey their messages to their audiences, in addition to disseminating this information to millions of Spiritualists through their memoirs, collections of automatic writing recorded during their trances, and spirit photography. “Otherworldly Impressions” assesses the ways female spirit mediums engaged and shaped British and American cultural identities as they relayed information that became formative to the construction and reimagining of gender, racial and class ideologies. Chapter 1, “Visions of Travel: Paranormal Arctic Exploration, the Franklin Search Expeditions, and The Frozen Deep” provides an analysis of mediums’ contributions to nineteenth-century scientific and imperialist discourses on Arctic exploration through their psychic visions, and assesses Charles Dickens’ and Wilkie Collins’ collaborative fictional work inspired by these events. Mediums’ reports of their ix communication with spirits frequently intervened in constructions of their nations’ colonial histories; “Suffering as Spectacle: Sensationalized Depictions of Racial Violence in Spirit Narratives” attends to American mediums’ publications of spirit messages that capitalized on this violent history. “Spectral Labor: Women’s Spirit Photography and Constructions of Material Culture” uncovers women’s frequently hidden roles in the development of spirit photography; in a similar vein, “Staged Mediumship: Women’s Public Performances of Spirit Communication” examines mediums’ negotiation of Spiritualist constructions of their profession as well as gender ideologies to produce their public conjuring spectacles. The final chapter, “Assembly Required: Women’s Automatic Writing and the Production of Print Media,” looks at the way women used their automatic writing to obtain authority in the Spiritualist publishing industry as well as challenge conceptions of modern literary production. x TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1 Chapter One: Visions of Travel: Paranormal Arctic Exploration, the Franklin Search Expeditions, and The Frozen Deep 20 Chapter Two: Suffering as Spectacle: Sensationalized Depictions of Racial Violence in Spirit Narratives 60 Chapter Three: Spectral Labor: Women’s Spirit Photography and Constructions of Material Culture 95 Chapter Four: Staged Mediumship: Women’s Public Performances of Spirit Communication 145 Chapter Five: Assembly Required: Women’s Automatic Writing and the Production of Print Media 190 Afterward: The Afterlives of Victorian Mediumship 243 Bibliography 246 xi LIST OF FIGURES 3.1 William Mumler, “Moses A. Dow and the Spirit of Mabel Warren” 104 3.2 William Mumler, “Mary Todd Lincoln with the Spirit of Her Husband, President Abraham Lincoln” 110 3.3 Houghton Communicating with the Veiled Form of Her Sister 121 3.4 Houghton and Her Friends with a Band of Light 123 3.5 Houghton and the Spirit Form of Her Aunt 123 3.6 Ada Emma Deane, “Armistice Day 1921” 129 3.7 Ada Emma Deane, “Extras” 132 3.8 Ada Emma Deane, “Camera Work” 138 3.9 Ada Emma Deane, “Skotographs” 143 4.1 Mrs. Guppy Transported