Counterinsurgency as Ideology The evolution of expert knowledge production in U.S. asymmetric warfare (1898-2011): The cases of the Philippines, Vietnam and Iraq Submitted by Tobias Ruettershoff, to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Strategy and Security, May 2015 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………… 1 While I am on debunking operations, I would like to come to one particular point; it is our use of terminology: The terms ‘insurgency,’ ‘paramilitary operations,’ ‘guerrilla operations,’ ‘limited warfare,’ ‘sublimited warfare,’ etc. We have gotten to the position of the doctor faced with a strange disease. Whenever doctors are faced with a strange disease they give it a long name. It does not cure you, but at least it makes you feel good because you think they know what they are talking about. And this is what we have done with this particular subject. (Bernard Fall 1963) 2 Abstract This PhD thesis examines the status of ‘expert knowledge’ in the history of U.S. asymmetric, or ‘counterinsurgency’ (COIN), warfare during the last century. The historical rise of expert influence has so far been neglected in the study of wars within the field of International Relations and the thesis will give us an indication of the importance and utility of expert knowledge. With a specific focus on the campaigns in the Philippines (1899-1902), Vietnam (1954-75) and Iraq (2003- 11), the central research question guiding the project is as follows: “What were the conditions for the evolution, the constitution and the use of ‘outside’ expert knowledge in U.S. counterinsurgency campaigns?” The thesis claims that military and academic ‘experts’ had a key role in framing and implementing the problem- sets and solutions to these conflicts. They have, in Iraq in particular, played an important part in developing the campaigns’ ex-post-facto justification of success. Within the framework of organisational knowledge production, this knowledge does not necessarily play an instrumental role for the military. Instead, it can also serve a merely symbolic function, demonstrating to the audience and stakeholders within the political environment that the organisation is willing to solve the problems the insurgents pose, but without any interest in long-term utilisation of the knowledge. This thesis argues that across time, from the beginning of the Philippine-American War in 1898 to the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Iraq in 2011, ‘counterinsurgency’ has developed from a tactical and operational tool, used instrumentally to fight insurgencies, to a strategy or even ‘ideology’ in its own right. Whilst the methods or techniques of counterinsurgency remain basically the same, expert knowledge is increasingly used in modern – that is post-World War II – campaigns to support a politico-strategic narrative. 3 Acknowledgements The key characteristic of a PhD is that it is an original and individual contribution to knowledge. Indeed, writing a PhD is a very ‘individual’ activity. In contrast to undergraduate or postgraduate taught programmes, the researcher works mostly on his own and attends few courses. Nevertheless, whilst I laid the foundations for this ‘construction project’ of a PhD thesis and remain responsible for every word and all errors in interpretation are mine alone, there have been many people along the doctoral path who have provided support and advice without which this project would have most certainly collapsed. I would like to thank two people in particular to whom I owe a great amount of gratitude. Sergio Catignani has guided the thesis from its inception, providing great support and advice that enabled me to develop it from an over-ambitious and largely unspecified idea to a feasible and realistic project. He helped me to strike the right balance between the description of the campaigns and the analysis of expert knowledge therein. Moreover, his extensive network in the ‘COIN community’ gave me access to many of the ‘experts’ who have been directly involved in developing knowledge for the Iraq campaign, adding a unique character to this thesis. Grazie mille per tutto, Sergio! Victoria Basham only became my supervisor in September 2013 with my move to Exeter, but in the last year and a half, she has had a huge impact on my thesis. Her insightful and penetrating review of my draft chapters has required me to acquire a more critical view of counterinsurgency. This not only opened my mind to new ways of thinking, but has helped me to sharpen my arguments and increase the intellectual quality of my thesis. Her support and criticism has 4 certainly improved my PhD a lot and made it what it is today. Victoria – thank you very much. The journey of my PhD thesis has ended in Exeter, but only after it had travelled through nearly all of England. The first delicate roots of the thesis were nurtured by Andrew Mumford during my Master’s studies at the University of Sheffield. When I began my doctoral studies at the University of Sussex, Patricia Owens became my first co-supervisor and she did an impeccable job by helping me to focus the thesis on expert knowledge production and getting it through the upgrade process. Patricia and Anna Stavrianakis, who took over the position of second supervisor after Sergio had moved to Exeter, kept the thesis moving in the months before my transfer. I greatly appreciate working with them and acknowledge that without their help, my PhD thesis would be incomplete. My thanks also to the academic and administrative staff both at Sussex and Exeter, in particular Jayne Paulin and Roo Haywood Smith, who were very supportive. A vital part of my research endeavours was my two-and-a-half month’s research trip to the US, which consisted of archival research and interviews with several leading counterinsurgency experts of the Iraq War. I would like to thank Stephen Biddle, Conrad Crane, Janine Davidson, Thomas X. Hammes, Frank Hoffman, Jan Horvath, David Kilcullen, Richard Kiper, Andrew Krepinevich, Peter Mansoor, Thomas Marks, Montgomery McFate, Steven Metz, John Nagl, Brian Page, Dan Roper, Sarah Sewall, and David Ucko that they kindly let me occupy their precious time to interview them on their experiences in counterinsurgency, especially with regards to the knowledge production processes. They enabled me to add a unique feature to my thesis, for which I am enormously grateful. 5 Moreover, I would like to thank the staff at the U.S. Library of Congress, National Archives, U.S. Army Military History Institute (USAMHI), as well as the Kennedy, Eisenhower, and Johnson Presidential Libraries, who have tracked down many dusty and often fragile documents from the Philippines and Vietnam War eras. In particular, I would like to thank Dr Richard Sommers and his team at the USAMHI who not only helped me out with library services and support but, due to my lack of a means of transportation, put up a chauffeur service to get me to and from the library each day. Equally, Dean and Bernie Nogle of the Eisenhower Foundation Host Committee, helped me around Abilene, KS whilst at the Eisenhower Library. This research would have not been possible without the help of generous grants and scholarships. For my trip to the United States, I received support from the University of Sussex Alumni Travel Grant as well as winning the General and Mrs. Matthew B. Ridgway Military History Research Grant of the U.S. Army Military History Institute. Moreover, the American Political Science Association Centennial Center Scholarship provided me with an office base whilst in Washington, DC. Most recently, the British International Studies Association Founders Fund Grant eased the writing-up stage of this project. Most importantly, however, I am enormously grateful for the support of the Konrad-Adenauer- Foundation (KAS), whose PhD scholarship gave me financial support throughout the three main years of this project. My connection to KAS goes back to the beginning of my undergraduate days in 2007, when I received one of their Merit scholarships for my undergraduate and postgraduate taught studies. Being a KAS scholar throughout my time at university was much more than just about the financial benefits the scholarship brought with it. Through participation in numerous KAS seminars and conferences, I was able to broaden my horizon and 6 network with high-profile leaders and speakers as well as meeting many young leaders of tomorrow and building lasting friendships. The monthly meetings of the community of KAS scholars in London also enabled me to make new friendships whilst I lived in the south of England. Academic and financial support are only one component of the fuel that keeps the doctoral journey going. This realisation of this thesis was made possible through the fantastic support of a network of family and friends who have guided and encouraged me. A big thank you goes to my “American family”, the Schwier’s, who have welcomed me ever since I was an exchange student in 2003/2004 and through whom I got to know the American Way of Life. To my four grandparents, who are no longer with us, I say I hope I have made you proud. You have endowed me with the qualities and the strength that guided me towards finishing this PhD thesis. To my biggest supporters, Mama and Papa, I cannot thank you enough.