DOCSLIB.ORG

Guide on Improving Public Understanding of and Response to Warnings

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Guide on Improving Public Understanding of and Response to Warnings World Meteorological Organization GUIDE ON IMPROVING PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF AND RESPONSE TO WARNINGS WMO/TD No. 1139 PWS-8 FLOOD WARNING BULLETIN — EAS ACTIVATION REQUESTED FLASH FLOOD WARNING NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE ALBUQUERQUE NM 650 PM MDT SAT AUG 9 1997 The National Weather Service in Albuquerque has issued a: * Flash Flood Warning for...Bernalillo county in central New Mexico. This includes the city of Albuquerque. * until 830 pm MDT * at 645 pm MDT...National Weather Service Doppler radar indi- cated a thunderstorm with very heavy rain over Petroglyph National Monument...moving slowly to the east. * Thunderstorms with excessive rainfall will be near western metropolitan Albuquerque at 700 pm MDT. An inch or more of rainfall is expected in downtown sections of Albuquerque from this thunderstorm. During the next two hours...Flash flooding is expected in normally dry arroyos that drain into the Rio Grande from Albuquerque. Persons in low-lying or normally flood-prone areas should go to higher ground immediately. World Meteorological Organization GUIDE ON IMPROVING PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF AND RESPONSE TO WARNINGS WMO/TD No. 1139 PWS-8 FLOOD WARNING BULLETIN — EAS ACTIVATION REQUESTED FLASH FLOOD WARNING NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE ALBUQUERQUE NM 650 PM MDT SAT AUG 9 1997 The National Weather Service in Albuquerque has issued a: * Flash Flood Warning for...Bernalillo county in central New Mexico. This includes the city of Albuquerque. * until 830 pm MDT * at 645 pm MDT...National Weather Service Doppler radar indi- cated a thunderstorm with very heavy rain over Petroglyph National Monument...moving slowly to the east. * Thunderstorms with excessive rainfall will be near western metropolitan Albuquerque at 700 pm MDT. An inch or more of rainfall is expected in downtown sections of Albuquerque from this thunderstorm. During the next two hours...Flash flooding is expected in normally dry arroyos that drain into the Rio Grande from Albuquerque. Persons in low-lying or normally flood-prone areas should go to higher ground immediately. Geneva, Switzerland 2002 Authors: J. Davidson and C.Alex with contributions from L.J.Anderson-Berry (Australia) and H.K. Lam (Hong Kong. China) Edited by: Haleh Kootval Cover: Marjanne Alliod Cover photograph of flood: Direzione Servizi Tecnici de Prevenzione, Regione Piemonte © 2002, World Meteorological Organization WMO/TD No. 1139 NOTE The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of any of the participating agencies concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concern- ing the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION . 1 CHAPTER 2 – UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES . 2 2.1 Forecasts, Detection and Warning . 2 2.2 Dissemination and Communication . 2 2.3 Response . 2 CHAPTER 3 – WARNING PRESENTATION . 4 3.1 Construction of Warning Message . 4 3.2 Order and Content of Warning Information . 4 3.3 Details of Warning Content . 4 3.4 The “KISS”Principal . 4 3.5 The Warning Cycle . 4 3.6 Constructing the Message . 5 3.7 Terminology . 5 3.8 Language . 5 3.9 Graphical Warning Products . 5 3.10 Probability Information . 5 3.11 Real-time Meteorological Information . 7 3.12 Presentation Feedback . 7 CHAPTER 4 – WARNING DISSEMINATION . 9 4.1 Choice of Communication Channels . 9 4.2 Frequency of Warnings . 10 4.3 Following Up . 10 4.4 Early Warning Dissemination of Warnings for Special Users . 10 CHAPTER 5 – WARNING RESPONSE . 11 CHAPTER 6 – PUBLIC EDUCATION . 15 6.1 Real Time Education . 15 6.2 Public Awareness Initiatives . 15 6.3 Pamphlets/Brochures/Leaflets . 17 6.4 Media Packages . 17 6.5 Internet . 17 6.6 Public Meetings . 18 6.7 Service Representative . 18 6.8 Shows and Exhibitions . 18 6.9 Open Days . 18 6.10 School-based Educational Packages . 19 CHAPTER 7 – IMPORTANCE OF PARTNERSHIPS . 20 CHAPTER 8 – FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES . 22 8.1 Internet and Other Technologies . 22 8.2 Public Education . 22 8.3 Stakeholder Partnerships . 22 8.4 Probability Information . 22 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING . 23 WMO Publications . ..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • National Weather Service Instruction 10-1601 November 3, 2005
    Department of Commerce $ National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration $ National Weather Service NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE INSTRUCTION 10-1601 NOVEMBER 3, 2005 Operations and Services Performance, NWSPD 10-16 VERIFICATION PROCEDURES NOTICE: This publication is available at: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/directives/. OPR: OS52 (Charles Kluepfel) Certified by: OS5 (Kimberly Campbell) Type of Issuance: Routine SUMMARY OF REVISIONS: This directive supersedes National Weather Service Instruction 10-1601, dated April 10, 2004. The following changes have been made to this directive: 1) Introductory information on the legacy verification systems for public (section 1.1.1) and terminal aerodrome (section 6.1.1) forecasts has replaced outdated information in these sections. 2) The verification of fire weather forecasts (section 1.4) and red flag warnings (section 1.5) has been added. 3) Monthly preliminary reporting requirements for tornado and flash flood warning verification statistics have been discontinued and respectively removed from sections 2.1 and 4.1. 4) Rule 2, implemented January 1, 2002, for short-fused warnings, has been discontinued for all tornado/severe thunderstorm (section 2.1.2) and special marine (section 3.3.2) warnings issued after February 28, 2005. Once VTEC is implemented for flash flood warnings (section 4.1.2), Rule 2 will also be discontinued for all flash flood warnings issued after the change. 5) The time of warning issuance for tornado, severe thunderstorm and special marine warnings is taken from the Valid Time and Event Code (VTEC) line (sections 2.1.3 and 3.3.3). 6) The National Digital Forecast Database (NDFD) quantitative precipitation forecasts (QPF) are now verified.
    [Show full text]
  • 4B.5 Connecting the Dots: a Communications Model of the North Texas Integrated Warning Team During the 15 May 2013 Tornado Outbr
    4B.5 Connecting the Dots: A Communications Model of the North Texas Integrated Warning Team During the 15 May 2013 Tornado Outbreak 1* 2 1 1 Dennis Cavanaugh , Melissa Huffman , Jennifer Dunn , and Mark Fox 1National Weather Service Forecast Office Fort Worth/Dallas, TX 2National Weather Service Forecast Office Houston, TX On 15 May 2013, 19 tornadoes occurred across North and Central Texas, killing 6, injuring over 50, and causing more than $100 million in property damage. The majority of the impacts to life and property were the direct result of EF-3 and EF-4 tornadoes that affected the communities of Cleburne and Granbury. This study focuses on an examination of the North Texas Integrated Warning Team (IWT) communications through a thorough analysis of interactions between IWT members during this event. Communications from all members of the IWT were collected and organized so that a quantitative analysis of the IWT communications network could be performed. The results of this analysis were used to identify strengths and weaknesses of current IWT communications to improve the consistency of hazardous weather messaging for future high impact weather events. The results also show how effectively communicating within an IWT leads not only to more consistent messaging, but also to broader dissemination of hazardous weather information to the public. The analysis techniques outlined in this study could serve as a model for comprehensive studies of IWTs across the country. 1. INTRODUCTION media representatives, amateur radio operators, * and the National Weather Service (Doswell et al. On 15 May 2013, 19 tornadoes occurred 1999). IWTs work to provide a consistent message across North and Central Texas, killing 6, injuring regarding a hazard because at-risk populations over 50, and causing more than $100 million in will not immediately take action in response to the property damage (NCDC 2013).
    [Show full text]
  • Service Assessment
    Service Assessment Record Tornado Outbreaks of May 4-10, 2003 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service Silver Spring, Maryland Cover Photographs: Left: F4 tornado near Girard, Kansas, May 4, 2003. (Chuck Robertson) Right: The tornado that moved through Girard later destroyed this home in Liberal, Missouri. The gun safe in the center of the basement was used as shelter by the residents of the home. None of the residents were injured. (Ken Harding, NOAA, NWS Aberdeen, South Dakota) Service Assessment Record Tornado Outbreaks of May 4-10, 2003 December 2003 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Donald L. Evans, Secretary National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., Administrator National Weather Service John J. Kelly, Jr., Assistant Administrator Preface During the period May 4-10, 2003, an unprecedented number of tornadoes affected the central and southern United States. During this period, 393 tornadoes occurred across the central and southern U.S. resulting in 39 deaths across 4 states. Six of these tornadoes were classified as violent (F4) on the Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale. Due to the magnitude of this event, a service assessment team was formed to examine the warning and forecast services provided to emergency managers (EMs), government agencies and the public. Service assessments are used to improve techniques of National Weather Service products and services to the American public through the recommendations in the report. John J. Kelly,
    [Show full text]
  • WMO Guidelines on Multi-Hazard Impact-Based Forecast and Warning Services
    WMO Guidelines on Multi-hazard Impact-based Forecast and Warning Services WMO-No. 1150 WMO Guidelines on Multi-hazard Impact-based Forecast and Warning Services 2015 WMO-No. 1150 EDITORIAL NOTE METEOTERM, the WMO terminology database, may be consulted at http://www.wmo.int/pages/ prog/lsp/meteoterm_wmo_en.html. Acronyms may also be found at http://www.wmo.int/pages/ themes/acronyms/index_en.html. The WMO Public Weather Services Programme would like to take this opportunity to thank the authors who contributed to this publication: Gerald Fleming (Met Éireann, The Irish Meteorological Service); David Rogers (World Bank/Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery); Paul Davies (Met Office, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland); Elliott Jacks (National Weather Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States of America); Jennifer Ann Milton (Environment Canada); Cyrille Honoré (Météo-France); Lap Shun Lee (Hong Kong Observatory, Hong Kong, China); John Bally (Bureau of Meteorology, Australia); WANG Zhihua (China Meteorological Administration); Vlasta Tutis (Meteorological and Hydrological Service of Croatia); and Premchand Goolaup (Mauritius Meteorological Services). WMO-No. 1150 © World Meteorological Organization, 2015 The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Short extracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, provided that the complete source is clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, reproduce or translate this publication in part or in whole should be addressed to: Chairperson, Publications Board World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 7 bis, avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03 P.O.
    [Show full text]
  • Emmy-2020-Program-Final.Pdf
    TONIGHT’S PROGRAM SATURDAY, DECEMBER 5, 2020 LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT 3 LETTER FROM THE AWARDS CHAIR 4 LONE STAR CHAPTER JUDGING POLICY 5 LONE STAR EMMY® CHAPTER BOARD OF GOVERNORS 6 LONE STAR EMMY® CHAPTER BOARD MEMBERS AND COMMITTEES 7 LONE STAR EMMY® NOMINATIONS NEWS GATHERING 9 SPOT ANNOUNCEMENTS 16 PROGRAMMING (NON-NEWS) 20 NEWS SPECIALTY 24 PROGRAMMING (NON-NEWS) 33 NEWS GATHERING 36 OVERALL EXCELLENCE 41 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 43 LETTER FROM THE 2020 LONE STAR EMMY® A W A R D S 3 PRESIDENT Good evening and welcome to the 2020 Lone Star EMMY® Awards. I also thank the Lone Star Board of Governors, those who have donated their time to keep the Chapter operating during this As President of the Lone Star Chapter, it is my pleasure to welcome challenging time. I’d like to thank Linnea Lewis and our production you to our annual evening of celebration and recognition. Obviously, team for pivoting from a live production to what you see 2020 has been a year like no other, and like so many others, we are tonight. Remember, all of this was done while keeping to the presenting a virtual show tonight. standards and guidelines established by the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, and in spite of a pandemic. I am When COVID first broke out, we were hopeful to still meet in proud to say, this group has worked tirelessly to make tonight the San Antonio, but it wasn’t meant to be. Tonight, as we take a best experience possible for you. different approach in this very different year, we continue to honor the very best in regional production.
    [Show full text]
  • Exploring Impacts of Rapid-Scan Radar Data on NWS Warning Decisions
    AUGUST 2012 H E I N S E L M A N E T A L . 1031 Exploring Impacts of Rapid-Scan Radar Data on NWS Warning Decisions PAMELA L. HEINSELMAN NOAA/OAR/National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, Oklahoma DAPHNE S. LADUE Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma HEATHER LAZRUS* Social Science Woven into Meteorology, Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma (Manuscript received 30 November 2011, in final form 2 April 2012) ABSTRACT Rapid-scan weather radars, such as the S-band phased array radar at the National Weather Radar Testbed in Norman, Oklahoma, improve precision in the depiction of severe storm processes. To explore potential impacts of such data on forecaster warning decision making, 12 National Weather Service forecasters par- ticipated in a preliminary study with two control conditions: 1) when radar scan time was similar to volume coverage pattern 12 (4.5 min) and 2) when radar scan time was faster (43 s). Under these control conditions, forecasters were paired and worked a tropical tornadic supercell case. Their decision processes were observed and audio was recorded, interactions with data displays were video recorded, and the products were archived. A debriefing was conducted with each of the six teams independently and jointly, to ascertain the forecaster decision-making process. Analysis of these data revealed that teams examining the same data sometimes came to different conclusions about whether and when to warn. Six factors contributing toward these dif- ferences were identified: 1) experience, 2) conceptual models, 3) confidence, 4) tolerance of possibly missing a tornado occurrence, 5) perceived threats, and 6) software issues.
    [Show full text]
  • Geo-Targeting Performance of Wireless Emergency Alerts in Imminent Threat Scenarios Volume 1: Tornado Warnings
    Geo-Targeting Performance of Wireless Emergency Alerts in Imminent Threat Scenarios Volume 1: Tornado Warnings May 2016 RAND LEAD Daniel Gonzales RAND STAFF Geo-Targeting Performance of Lisa Miyashiro Jan Osburg Wireless Emergency Alerts in Shoshana Shelton Imminent Threat Scenarios Dulani Woods Volume 1: Tornado Warnings Henry Willis Director, Homeland Security and Defense Center Jack Riley Vice President, National Security Research Division Director, National Defense Research Institute Anita Chandra Vice President and Director, RAND Justice, Infrastructure and Environment Acknowledgements This material is based upon work funded and supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Science and Technology (S&T) Directorate with the RAND Homeland Security and Defense Center, which is jointly operated by RAND Justice, Infrastructure and Environment and the RAND National Security Research Division under Contract No. HSHQDC-14-C-B0006. The Government of the United States has a royalty-free government-purpose license to use, duplicate, or disclose the work, in whole or in part and in any manner, and to have or permit others to do so, for government purposes pursuant to the copyright license under the clause at 252.227-7013 and 252.227-7013 Alternate I. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of DHS. The RAND team extends its deep appreciation to members of the weather forecasting and wireless communications communities for their assistance, expertise and feedback; their contributions are the foundation of this report. Further, the RAND National Defense Research Institute team offers its gratitude to National Weather Service forecasters and emergency responders whose dedication and commitment ensure the safety of our families and communities.
    [Show full text]
  • Oklahoma/Southern Kansas Tornadoes
    Service Assessment Oklahoma/Southern Kansas Tornado Outbreak of May 3, 1999 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service Silver Spring, Maryland Cover: Supercell thunderstorms generated killer tornadoes in a swath from west-central Oklahoma through southern Kansas. Visible satellite imagery from Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-8, 6:45 p.m. Central Daylight Time (CDT), May 3, 1999. (Courtesy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service) Service Assessment Oklahoma/Southern Kansas Tornado Outbreak of May 3, 1999 August 1999 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE William M. Daley, Secretary National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration D. James Baker, Administrator National Weather Service John J. Kelly, Jr., Assistant Administrator Preface On May 3, 1999, one of the largest tornado outbreaks in history struck west-central Oklahoma and southern Kansas, killing 48 people, leaving thousands homeless and resulting in over $1 billion in property damage. Due to the magnitude of this event, the National Weather Service (NWS) conducted a Service Assessment to examine the effectiveness of NWS warnings and other services in minimizing loss of life and injuries. Service Assessments are critical to the ongoing efforts of the NWS to improve the quality and timeliness of our warning services. Successful procedures are highlighted and shared with other offices; shortcomings are identified and resolved. This review process ensures that NWS forecast techniques, products and services will continue to evolve and improve. l Assistant Administrator for Weather Services August 1999 ii Table of Contents Page Preface ................................................................... ii Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................. iv Service Assessment Team ...................................................
    [Show full text]
  • 3291248.PDF (7.836Mb)
    T h e Un i v e r s i t y o f O k l a h o m a G r a d u a t e C o l l e g e WARNING RECEPTION, RESPONSE, AND RISK BEHAVIOR IN THE 3 MAY 1999 OKLAHOMA CITY LONG-TRACK VIOLENT TORNADO A D issertation S u b m it t e d t o t h e G r a d u a t e F a c u l t y in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y By M a t t h e w D a v i d B id d l e Norman, Oklahoma 2007 UMI Number: 3291248 UMJ UMI Microform 3291248 Copyright 2008 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 WARNING RECEPTION, RESPONSE, AND RISK BEHAVIOR IN THE 3 MAY 1999 OKLAHOMA CITY LONG-TRACK VIOLENT TORNADO A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY BY J. Scott Greene - Chair M ark Meo Karl H. Offen T. H. Lee Williams Charles A. Doswell III © Copyright by Matthew David Biddle 2007 All Rights Reserved. D e d i c a t i o n This work is dedicated to the victims of the tornadoes of 3 May 1999, their families, the first responders, the weather service personnel, and all that were touched by the forces of Mother Nature that fateful Monday evening.
    [Show full text]
  • View Country Assessment Report for Philippines
    COUNTRY ASSESSMENT REPORT FOR THE PHILIPPINES Strengthening of Hydrometeorological Services in Southeast Asia ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This Country Assessment Report for the Philippines is part of a study that aimed to strengthen the hydro- meteorological services in Southeast Asia. The production was a collaborative effort of the World Bank, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), the National Hydrological and Meteorological Services (NHMS) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) with financial support from the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). The study investigated the capacity of the NHMS of five ASEAN Member States, namely Lao PDR, Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Viet Nam - to respond to the increasing demands for improved meteorological and hydrological information by various socio-economic sectors. Taking a regional approach, it recommended investment plans to improve the NHMS with the ultimate goal for reducing losses due to natural hazard-induced disasters, sustainable economic growth and abilities of the countries to respond to climate change. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) supported the country assessment and coordinated the participation of various departments, including the National Irrigation Administration, National Grid Corporation of the Philippines (NGCP), the Department of Agriculture, the Forest and Environment Management Bureaus, the National Water Resources Board and private sector, among others. The Disaster Risk Reduction Division of the WMO provided technical inputs and facilitated peer review of the draft reports, which have resulted in significant quality improvements. A national consultation was organized by PAGASA to review the final draft report. The PAGASA, National Grid Corporation of the Philippines and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) provided comments for improving the report.
    [Show full text]
  • Invited Speaker Bios
    12th Annual AMS Student Conference Austin, TX January 5-6, 2013 Invited Speakers Wendy Abshire Wendy Schreiber-Abshire is a Senior Project Manager for UCAR’s COMET Program in Boulder, CO where she leads internationally recognized training efforts currently in the areas of satellite meteorology, hydrology, climate, tropical meteorology, and space weather. Her primary duties include managing sponsor relationships and supervision of both scientists and instructional designers who conduct courses and create and publish materials to the MetEd website. She began her career at NCAR in 1983 where she participated in several landmark field programs and research studies, including JAWS and microburst research, convection initiation investigations, and she served as a radar meteorologist during GALE. Wendy joined the COMET Program in 1990 as a staff meteorologist and contributed to numerous training endeavors supporting the National Weather Service modernization. In 2003, after years spent developing training modules on a variety of topics, Wendy became the COMET Residence Course Coordinator which provided her the opportunity to interact with many atmospheric science professionals. Through the years Wendy has authored and co-authored over 50 scientific papers including journal articles and conference preprints. She earned a degree in Meteorology from Metropolitan State College of Denver (B.S. 1985) and a degree in Atmospheric Science from the University of Wyoming (M.S. 1989). Wendy is a long-time member, past Councilor, and 2012 Vice-President of the National Weather Association. She is also a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society and is a member of the American Geophysical Union and the Denver-Boulder Local AMS Chapter.
    [Show full text]
  • Tornado and Severe Thunderstorm Warning Forecast Skill and Its Relationship to Storm Type
    Tornado and Severe Thunderstorm Warning Forecast Skill and its Relationship to Storm Type Eric M. Guillot National Weather Center Research Experience for Undergraduates, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma and Lyndon State College, Lyndonville, Vermont Travis M. Smith, Valliappa Lakshmanan, Kimberly L. Elmore, and Donald W. Burgess Cooperative Institute of Mesoscale Meteorological Studies, University of Oklahoma, and NOAA/National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, Oklahoma Gregory J. Stumpf Cooperative Institute of Mesoscale Meteorological Studies, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, and Meteorological Development Laboratory, National Weather Service, Silver Spring, Maryland 1 ABSTRACT The relationship between severe storm type and severe storm forecast skill is an issue never before resolved in the research community. Storms from eight tornado outbreaks were classified and correlated with tornado warnings and severe thunderstorm warnings. These warnings were verified, missed, or shown to be false alarms by relating them with storm reports that match temporally and spatially with those in the Storm Prediction Center’s database. Certain forecast parameters, including the critical success index (CSI), probability of detection (POD), false alarm ratio (FAR), and warning lead time are calculated for each storm type and for each type of warning. Because it was not practical to manually classify these storms (~50,000 entities), a decision tree was trained on a subset of manually classified storms using Quinlan’s C4.5 algorithm. The decision tree was then used to automatically classify storms as being of one of four types: supercellular, linear, pulse or unorganized. The amount of forecast skill required to issue tornado and severe thunderstorm warnings is closely related to the type of storm that causes the severe weather.
    [Show full text]