DOCSLIB.ORG

Ludwig Prandtl

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Ludwig Prandtl Ludwig Prandtl A Biographical Sketch, Remembrances and Documents German original by Johanna Vogel-Prandtl English translation by V. Vasanta Ram Published by The International Centre for Theoretical Physics Trieste, Italy on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the publication in 1904 of Prantdl’s paper on the boundary layer theory August 14, 2004 1 Ludwig Prandtl 4.2.1875 − 15.8.1953 2 A few words about the translation Ever since I received from Professor Ernst Mueller, now more than ten years ago, a copy of Ludwig Prandtl’s biography, authored in German by his daughter Mrs. Johanna Vogel- Prandtl, I wanted to have the text translated to English. Prandtl was clearly one of the greatest fluid dynamicists ever, but his later life seemed to me to be somewhat tragic for reasons that the readers will soon see. I was especially keen that the contents of Prandtl’s letter of 1941 to Hermann Goering, decrying the outbursts against “Jewish Science”, which had evolved into a political movement in Nazi Germany, should be made public. It must have taken some courage and concern on Prandtl’s part to note that “they [the antagonists of “Jewish Physics”] have poisoned the air with ... disdain for the past...” See also Chapter 21 of this book. This aspect of Prandtl's personality was counter to the notion that was in circulation after the second world-war---that he was a naïve man who had buried his head in the sand. I immediately made some inquiries for translation and publication of the book but the project stalled for a number of reasons, including finances. Both Ernst Mueller and the biographer, with whom he was in contact about the possibility of the translation, passed away sometime thereafter, which slowed the project even further. The occasion of the 100th anniversary of Prandtl’s 1904 paper on boundary layers revived the idea in my mind and I was fortunate that Dr. V. Vasanta Ram readily agreed to translate the biography. For him, as for me, it has been a labor of love. As one of Professor Hermann Schlichting’s Ph.D. students, Vasanta Ram belongs to Prandtl's academic family, is knowledgeable about both German and English, and thus an ideal person to have undertaken the task. He has worked hard on the translation despite his physical handicap and other hurdles that he and I faced during the exercise. He commands my unstinted praise and gratitude. I also wish to thank Professor Roddam Narasimha for being a steady source of encouragement. It is my hope to be able to soon place the translation as a book published by an international publisher. This version is complete but various improvements are possible. It seemed important to use the occasion of the IUTAM meeting to distribute the material in the present form on the CD that you currently have in your possession. I hope that you will find its reading as much of an occasion as I did for reflecting on the vicissitudes of life. One obvious aspect requires specific mention: the author of the German original was not a professionally trained scientific biographer. This book is thus an intimate account of the person she loved and admired. The translator has kept alive the same informal spirit and style everywhere. I have reviewed the translation numerous times but none of my modifications has attempted to alter this feature. Katepalli R. Sreenivasan Trieste, 21 July 2004 3 Author's foreword by Johanna Vogel-Prandtl Translator’s preface by V. Vasanta Ram Chapter 1. Introduction Chapter 2. Childhood Chapter 3. As a student, and an employee at MAN Chapter 4. Engagement and marriage Chapter 5. 1911-1918, daily routine Chapter 6. A day at home Chapter 7. Gliding Chapter 8. 'Call' to Munich Chapter 9. Building up of the Institute and new projects Chapter 10. The new Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut Chapter 11. Journey to London Chapter 12. Journey to Japan Chapter 13. A day at home again Chapter 14. Journeys on vacation Chapter 15. The year 1933 Chapter 16. Honorary doctorates at Cambridge and Trondheim Chapter 17. The house in the mountains Chapter 18. Pleading for W. Heisenberg Chapter 19. Voices on the situation at that time Chapter 20. Congress in America Chapter 21. Physicists' dispute Chapter 22. Journey to Romania Chapter 23. The last war years Chapter 24. The end of the war Chapter 25. New beginning at the university Chapter 26. The first post-war years Chapter 27. The last years of life Chapter 28. Concluding remarks Appendix Literature cited Glossary 4 Author's foreword By Johanna Vogel-Prandtl In the course of the last few years, I have felt more and more impelled to sketch a biographical study of the personality of my father, Ludwig Prandtl. As his daughter, I could, after all, use many personal memories as a basis for preparing a sketch that would do justice to the different facets of his personality. Scenes that took place within the innermost circle of the family should not be absent from such a sketch---scenes reflecting Prandtl's nature that I, as the last member of his family, would like to put on record, at least for the sake of my children and of those who knew Prandtl either personally or by name. I must mention that my uncle, Professor Ludwig Föppl, brought up the subject of writing memoirs again and again in conversations with his brother-in-law, trying to impress on him the importance of doing it on reaching the age he had, just as his father August Föppl had done earlier. Prandtl always put him off, saying with a smile: ''Probably later, I still have many other important things to do!'' But I knew Father well enough to realize that he had no intention whatever of reflecting upon his own life and writing about it, then or later. When Father died in 1953, my uncle, Ludwig Föppl, approached me saying: ''Now you should write about him!'' In any case, this first suggestion set me thinking on how I could possibly succeed in such an undertaking. One shortcoming would certainly not escape notice. I would certainly not be in a position to give professionally competent interpretations of his scientific work, and could therefore speak only in very general terms on it. But his scientific output has been extensively documented in his Collected Works (Gesammelte Abhandlungen [50]), and this is accessible to the reader. Besides, there are numerous further references given, which facilitate the interested reader in continuing his or her study of Ludwig Prandtl's work. When I finally began sorting out papers to write this biography, it turned out that I could fall back on many published material in these matters that had appeared in journals, articles and letters. These are often quoted here. It is quite possible that aerodynamicists and readers interested in science would find my commentaries on particular works of Prandtl inadequate. My objective here has only been to make at least a reference to all the work that obviously occupied such a central position in his life. My more important purpose in this book, however, is to describe the ''human being'' in Ludwig Prandtl. This venture owes much to his letters and articles, and to letters by his pupils, so that my account can for the most part claim a certain authenticity. Finally I wish to thank my husband for going through the text and for making corrections. 5 Special thanks are due to Herr Dr. Julius Rotta, whose close participation in my work made him contribute several supplements. He added scientific articles to the book and examined many quotations for their authenticity. The extensive bibliography of Ludwig Prandtl's writings, prepared by him, has added special value to this book. I wish to extend particular thanks to Herr Dr. Julius Rotta also for proof-reading the work. I feel I owe a debt of thanks also to Herr Dr. Walter Tillmann, the administrator of the MPI-Archives, for his obliging help and competent assistance at the stage of the book going into print. 6 Translator's preface By V. Vasanta Ram It is perhaps no exaggeration to state that it is unlikely to find a fluid dynamicist today who is not in some way influenced by works of Prandtl, of which his 1904 paper on boundary layers is seminal. The Translator is no exception. Later, when he was a research student at Prof. Schlichting's Institut für Strömungsmechanik in Braunschweig, he had the occasion to come in contact with people who had worked with Prandtl. During this period and later, he obtained glimpses of Prandtl's personality through occasional and informal narratives of people who knew him in person. These accounts, together with what the Translator had read about Prandtl in published literature, generated in him a keen interest in wishing to learn more about Prandtl's personality. This interest remained unfulfilled for a long time, until Johanna Vogel-Prandtl's biographical sketch of her father, "Ludwig Prandtl---Ein Lebensbild, Erinnerungen, Dokumente", appeared as a report of MPI in 1993, in German. This publication, while meeting the immediate needs of the present Translator, made him feel that its contents ought to be made known to the community of fluid dynamicists in the world as a whole, many of whom today may not be conversant with German. This feeling would have, most probably, merely stayed as an intention within the Translator's person, had his long-standing friend, Professor K.R. Sreenivasan, not given him the impetus for undertaking the translation into English.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Final Exam December 16, 2004 Name (Print, Last first): Signature: on My Honor, I Have Neither Given Nor Received Unauthorized Aid on This Examination
    21111 21111 Instructor(s): Prof. Seiberling PHYSICS DEPARTMENT MET 1010 Final Exam December 16, 2004 Name (print, last ¯rst): Signature: On my honor, I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on this examination. YOUR TEST NUMBER IS THE 5-DIGIT NUMBER AT THE TOP OF EACH PAGE. (1) Code your test number on your answer sheet (use 76{80 for the 5-digit number). Code your name on your answer sheet. DARKEN CIRCLES COMPLETELY. Code your UFID number on your answer sheet. (2) Print your name on this sheet and sign it also. (3) Do all scratch work anywhere on this exam that you like. Circle your answers on the test form. At the end of the test, this exam printout is to be turned in. No credit will be given without both answer sheet and printout with scratch work most questions demand. (4) Blacken the circle of your intended answer completely, using a #2 pencil or blue or black ink. Do not make any stray marks or some answers may be counted as incorrect. (5) The answers are rounded o®. Choose the closest to exact. There is no penalty for guessing. (6) Hand in the answer sheet separately. There are 33 multiple choice questions. Clearly circle the one best answer for each question. If more than one answer is marked, no credit will be given for that question, even if one of the marked answers is correct. Guessing an answer is better than leaving it blank. All questions are worth 3 points except 1, marked 4 points. Good Luck! 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Saraband for Dead Lovers
    Saraband for Dead Lovers By Helen de Guerry Simpson Saraband for Dead Lovers I - DUCHESS SOPHIA "I send with all speed," wrote Elizabeth-Charlotte, Duchesse d'Orléans, tucked away in her little room surrounded by portraits of ancestors, "to wish you, my dearest aunt and Serene Highness, joy of the recent betrothal. It will redound to the happiness of Hanover and Zelle. It links two dominions which have long possessed for each other the affection natural to neighbours, but which now may justly embrace as allies. It appears to me that no arrangement could well be more suitable, and I offer to the high contracting parties my sincerest wishes for a continuance of their happiness." The Duchess smiled grimly, dashed her quill into the ink, and proceeded in a more homely manner. "Civilities apart, What in heaven's name is the Duke of Hanover about? This little Sophie-Dorothée will never do; she is not even legitimate, and as for her mother, you know as well as I do that Eléonore d'Olbreuse is nothing better than a French she-poodle to whom uncle George William of Zelle treated himself when he was younger, I will not say more foolish, and has never been able to get rid of since. What, with all respect, was your husband thinking of to bring French blood into a decent German family, and connected with the English throne, too! In brief, my dearest aunt, all this is a mystery to me. I can only presume that it was concluded over your head, and that money played the chief role.
    [Show full text]
  • Gustave Eiffel, a Pioneer of Aerodynamics
    Int. J. Engineering Systems Modelling and Simulation, Vol. 5, Nos. 1/2/3, 2013 3 Gustave Eiffel, a pioneer of aerodynamics Bruno Chanetz* Onera, 8 rue des Vertugadins, F-92 190 Meudon, France Fax: +33-1-46-23-51-58 and University Paris-Ouest, LTIE-GTE, EA 4415, 50 rue de Sèvres, F-92410 Ville d’Avray, France Fax: +33-1-40-97-48-73 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author Martin Peter Laboratoire Aérodynamique Eiffel, 68 rue Boileau, F-75016 Paris E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: At the beginning of the 20th century, Gustave Eiffel contributes with Ludwig Prandtl to establish a new science: aerodynamics. He was going to study the forces to which he was confronted as engineer during his life: gravity and wind. Keywords: Eiffel wind tunnel; diffuser; laminar regime; turbulent regime; transition; drag of the sphere; Eiffel chamber. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Chanetz, B. and Peter, M. (2013) ‘Gustave Eiffel, a pioneer of aerodynamics’, Int. J. Engineering Systems Modelling and Simulation, Vol. 5, Nos. 1/2/3, pp.3–7. Biographical notes: Bruno Chanetz joins Onera in 1983 as a Research Engineer. He was the Head of Hypersonic Group in 1990, Head of Hypersonic Hyperenthalpic Project in 1997 and Head of Experimental Simulation and Physics of Fluid Unit in 1998, then Deputy Director of the Fundamental and Experimental Aerodynamics Department in 2003. He was a Lecturer in Charge of the course ‘Boundary Layer’ at the Ecole Centrale de Paris from 1996 to 2003, then Associate Professor at the University of Versailles from 2003 to 2009.
    [Show full text]
  • The Uncrowned Lion: Rank, Status, and Identity of The
    Robert Kurelić THE UNCROWNED LION: RANK, STATUS, AND IDENTITY OF THE LAST CILLI MA Thesis in Medieval Studies Central European University Budapest May 2005 THE UNCROWNED LION: RANK, STATUS, AND IDENTITY OF THE LAST CILLI by Robert Kurelić (Croatia) Thesis submitted to the Department of Medieval Studies, Central European University, Budapest, in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Master of Arts degree in Medieval Studies Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU ____________________________________________ Chair, Examination Committee ____________________________________________ Thesis Supervisor ____________________________________________ Examiner Budapest May 2005 THE UNCROWNED LION: RANK, STATUS, AND IDENTITY OF THE LAST CILLI by Robert Kurelić (Croatia) Thesis submitted to the Department of Medieval Studies, Central European University, Budapest, in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Master of Arts degree in Medieval Studies Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU ____________________________________________ External Examiner Budapest May 2005 I, the undersigned, Robert Kurelić, candidate for the MA degree in Medieval Studies declare herewith that the present thesis is exclusively my own work, based on my research and only such external information as properly credited in notes and bibliography. I declare that no unidentified and illegitimate use was made of the work of others, and no part of the thesis infringes on any person’s or institution’s copyright. I also declare that no part of the thesis has been submitted in this form to any other institution of higher education for an academic degree. Budapest, 27 May 2005 __________________________ Signature TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________1 ...heind graffen von Cilli und nyemermer... _______________________________ 1 ...dieser Hunadt Janusch aus dem landt Walachey pürtig und eines geringen rittermessigen geschlechts was..
    [Show full text]
  • Berger ENG Einseitig Künstlerisch
    „One-sidedly Artistic“ Georg Kolbe in the Nazi Era By Ursel Berger 0 One of the most discussed topics concerning Georg Kolbe involves his work and his stance during the Nazi era. These questions have also been at the core of all my research on Kolbe and I have frequently dealt with them in a variety of publications 1 and lectures. Kolbe’s early work and his artistic output from the nineteen twenties are admired and respected. Today, however, a widely held position asserts that his later works lack their innovative power. This view, which I also ascribe to, was not held by most of Kolbe’s contemporaries. In order to comprehend the position of this sculptor as well as his overall historical legacy, it is necessary, indeed crucial, to examine his œuvre from the Nazi era. It is an issue that also extends over and beyond the scope of a single artistic existence and poses the overriding question concerning the role of the artist in a dictatorship. Georg Kolbe was born in 1877 and died in 1947. He lived through 70 years of German history, a time characterized by the gravest of political developments, catastrophes and turning points. He grew up in the German Empire, celebrating his first artistic successes around 1910. While still quite young, he was active (with an artistic mission) in World War I. He enjoyed his greatest successes in the Weimar Republic, especially in the latter half of the nineteen twenties—between hyperinflation and the Great Depression. He was 56 years old when the Nazis came to power in 1933 and 68 years old when World War II ended in 1945.
    [Show full text]
  • Brief History of the Early Development of Theoretical and Experimental Fluid Dynamics
    Brief History of the Early Development of Theoretical and Experimental Fluid Dynamics John D. Anderson Jr. Aeronautics Division, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 1 2 Early Greek Science: Aristotle and Archimedes 2 As you read these words, there are millions of modern engi- neering devices in operation that depend in part, or in total, 3 DA Vinci’s Fluid Dynamics 2 on the understanding of fluid dynamics – airplanes in flight, 4 The Velocity-Squared Law 3 ships at sea, automobiles on the road, mechanical biomedi- 5 Newton and the Sine-Squared Law 5 cal devices, and so on. In the modern world, we sometimes take these devices for granted. However, it is important to 6 Daniel Bernoulli and the Pressure-Velocity pause for a moment and realize that each of these machines Concept 7 is a miracle in modern engineering fluid dynamics wherein 7 Henri Pitot and the Invention of the Pitot Tube 9 many diverse fundamental laws of nature are harnessed and 8 The High Noon of Eighteenth Century Fluid combined in a useful fashion so as to produce a safe, efficient, Dynamics – Leonhard Euler and the Governing and effective machine. Indeed, the sight of an airplane flying Equations of Inviscid Fluid Motion 10 overhead typifies the laws of aerodynamics in action, and it 9 Inclusion of Friction in Theoretical Fluid is easy to forget that just two centuries ago, these laws were Dynamics: the Works of Navier and Stokes 11 so mysterious, unknown or misunderstood as to preclude a flying machine from even lifting off the ground; let alone 10 Osborne Reynolds: Understanding Turbulent successfully flying through the air.
    [Show full text]
  • Big Rhetoric: the Art and Rhetoric of Spectacle in Classical and Contemporary Experience
    Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Graduate Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 2014 Big rhetoric: The ra t and rhetoric of spectacle in classical and contemporary experience Jonathan Mark Balzotti Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd Part of the Rhetoric Commons Recommended Citation Balzotti, Jonathan Mark, "Big rhetoric: The ra t and rhetoric of spectacle in classical and contemporary experience" (2014). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 13916. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/13916 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Big rhetoric: The art and rhetoric of spectacle in classical and contemporary experience by Jonathan Mark Balzotti A dissertation submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major: Rhetoric and Professional Communication Program of Study Committee: Charles Kostelnick, Major Professor Michael Mendelson Benjamin Crosby Mark Rectanus Maggie Leware Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 2014 Copyright © Jonathan Mark Balzotti, 2014. All rights reserved. ii DEDICATION To my wife Mariel, and to my children Gabriel, Nico and Alia, who are the most interesting spectacle of all iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v ABSTRACT vi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 On Definitions 2 Big Rhetoric, a Useful Concept 5 Methodological Approach 11 Notes 14 Works Cited 16 CHAPTER 2.
    [Show full text]
  • IN FO R M a TIO N to U SERS This Manuscript Has Been Reproduced from the Microfilm Master. UMI Films the Text Directly From
    INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed through, substandard margin*, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. A Ben A Howeii Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor. Ml 48106-1346 USA 313.761-4700 800.521-0600 RENDERING TO CAESAR: SECULAR OBEDIENCE AND CONFESSIONAL LOYALTY IN MORITZ OF SAXONY'S DIPLOMACY ON THE EVE OF THE SCMALKALDIC WAR DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By James E.
    [Show full text]
  • Nostromo a Tale of the Seaboard
    NOSTROMO A TALE OF THE SEABOARD By Joseph Conrad "So foul a sky clears not without a storm." —SHAKESPEARE TO JOHN GALSWORTHY Prepared and Published by: Ebd E-BooksDirectory.com AUTHOR'S NOTE "Nostromo" is the most anxiously meditated of the longer novels which belong to the period following upon the publication of the "Typhoon" volume of short stories. I don't mean to say that I became then conscious of any impending change in my mentality and in my attitude towards the tasks of my writing life. And perhaps there was never any change, except in that mysterious, extraneous thing which has nothing to do with the theories of art; a subtle change in the nature of the inspiration; a phenomenon for which I can not in any way be held responsible. What, however, did cause me some concern was that after finishing the last story of the "Typhoon" volume it seemed somehow that there was nothing more in the world to write about. This so strangely negative but disturbing mood lasted some little time; and then, as with many of my longer stories, the first hint for "Nostromo" came to me in the shape of a vagrant anecdote completely destitute of valuable details. As a matter of fact in 1875 or '6, when very young, in the West Indies or rather in the Gulf of Mexico, for my contacts with land were short, few, and fleeting, I heard the story of some man who was supposed to have stolen single-handed a whole lighter-full of silver, somewhere on the Tierra Firme seaboard during the troubles of a revolution.
    [Show full text]
  • RERL Fact Sheet 1, Community Wind Technology
    Renewable Energy Research Laboratory, University of Massachusetts at Amherst Wind Power: Wind Technology Today Community Wind Power on the Community Scale Wind Power Fact Sheet # 1 RERL—MTC Community Wind Wind Power Technology for Fact Sheet Series Communities In collaboration with the Mas- sachusetts Technology Col- This introduction to wind power technology is We also recommend a visit to a modern wind laborative’s Renewable Energy meant to help communities begin considering or power installation – it will answer many of your Trust Fund, the Renewable planning wind power. It focuses on commercial initial questions, including size, noise levels, foot- Energy Research Lab (RERL) and medium-scale wind turbine technology avail- print, and local impact. Some possible field trips able in the United States. are listed on the back page. brings you this series of fact sheets about Wind Power on the community scale: Wind Power Today 1. Technology 2. Performance Wind power is a growing industry, and the technol- 3. Impacts & Issues ogy has changed considerably in recent decades. 4. Siting What would a typical commercial-scale* turbine 5. Resource Assessment installed today look like? 6. Wind Data • Design - 3 blades 7. Permitting - Tubular tower The focus of this series of fact • Hub-height - 164 - 262 ft (50 - 80 m) sheets is medium- • Diameter: - 154 - 262 ft (47 - 80 m) and commercial- • Power ratings available in the US: scale wind. - 660 kW - 1.8 MW * Other scales are discussed below. A wind turbine’s height is usually described as the height of the center of the rotor, or hub. Inside this Edition: Technology Size Ranges What do we mean here when we say “community-scale wind power”? Introduction p.
    [Show full text]
  • Nikolai Passek
    V Nikolai Passek After the departure of Ungern-Sternberg, Nikolai Gavrilovich Matiunin was appointed to the Melbourne consulate, but owing to ill health he was unable to take up the position. In July 1899, without having reached Australia, he was relieved of his duties. On 29 August (OS) 1899, Nikolai Pompeyevich Passek was appointed Russian consul.1 He left St Petersburg in February 1900 for Odessa, and from there sailed for Suez, and thence on the French steamer Australien to Melbourne, where he arrived at the very end of March, after a short stay in Adelaide. When the Australian press announced his arrival, a brief profile appeared: ‘Although he has never previously visited Australia Mr Passek is acquainted with our system of Government and politics. The Consul is a typical Russian and speaks several languages.’2 Nikolai Passek was born on 15 November (OS) 1850 into a landowning family in Kharkov. Having received his basic education at home, he was sent by his parents to King’s College in London, to improve his English. He then received his higher education at Moscow University, from which he graduated in 1874. From there, he went to work in the auditing office in Kharkov. He joined the Foreign Ministry in January 1876 and was attached to its Asian desk, but soon left to work in private enterprise. At the age of nearly fifty, he rejoined the Foreign Ministry and in 1899 3 received his first diplomatic posting, as consul in Melbourne. 1 AVPRI: 159-464-2577, ff 19–20. 2 The Advertiser, 27 March 1900, p.
    [Show full text]
  • Information Contained in a METAR Example METAR Codes
    METAR METAR is a format for reporting weather information. A METAR weather report is predominantly used by pilots in fulfillment of a part of a pre-flight weather briefing, and by meteorologists, who use aggregated METAR information to assist in weather forecasting. Raw METAR is the most common format in the world for the transmission of observational weather data. [citation needed] It is highly standardized through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which allows it to be understood throughout most of the world. Information contained in a METAR A typical METAR contains data for the temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction, precipitation, cloud cover and heights, visibility, and barometric pressure. A METAR may also contain information on precipitation amounts, lightning, and other information that would be of interest to pilots or meteorologists such as a pilot report or PIREP, colour states and runway visual range (RVR). In addition, a short period forecast called a TRED may be added at the end of the METAR covering likely changes in weather conditions in the two hours following the observation. These are in the same format as a Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). The complement to METARs, reporting forecast weather rather than current weather, are TAFs. METARs and TAFs are used in VOLMET broadcasts. Example METAR codes International METAR codes The following is an example METAR from Burgas Airport in Burgas, Bulgaria. It was taken on 4 February 2005 at 16:00 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). METAR LBBG 041600Z 12003MPS 310V290 1400 R04/P1500 R22/P1500U +S BK022 OVC050 M04/M07 Q1020 OSIG 9949//91= • METAR indicates that the following is a standard hourly observation.
    [Show full text]