Te Pītau O Te Tuakiri: Affirming Māori Identities and Promoting Wellbeing in State Secondary Schools
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TE PĪTAU O TE TUAKIRI: AFFIRMING MĀORI IDENTITIES AND PROMOTING WELLBEING IN STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY ARAMA RATA TARANAKI, NGĀRUAHINE, NGĀTI MANIAPOTO A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology Victoria Universtiy of Wellington 2012 Abstract Numerous researchers have posited links between ethnic identity and psychological wellbeing (Phinney, 1992; Martinez & Dukes, 1997; Roberts, Phinney, Masse, Chen, Robers, & Romero, 1999; Houkamau & Sibley, 2011), and Māori cultural interventions have been suggested as a means of promoting a range of positive outcomes (e.g. M. Durie, 1998; Durie, 2003b; Lawson-Te Aho, 1998). However, longitudinal evidence of causal pathways between Māori ethnic identity and psychological wellbeing remains scarce, and evidence of the positive impacts of cultural interventions is not well documented. The present thesis investigates Māori identity development in the context of State secondary schools, and explores the relationships between Māori cultural engagement, Māori identity, and psychological wellbeing. A methodology that incorporates both mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge) and Western scientific knowledge bases and research methods was applied. Interviews were held with Māori students and their whānau (families) at a State secondary school where a community-driven initiative to improve Māori student outcomes took place. Thematic analysis was used to generate Te Korowai Aroha Framework, outlining how Māori cultural initiatives can enable schools to fulfil their duty of care and meet Māori community needs by affirming individuals‟ cultural identity and agency, by building relationships based on mutual respect, and by working collaboratively within the school and with external services providers. Thematic analysis of these interviews was also conducted to generate The Pōwhiri Identity Negotiation Framework. The pōwhiri (formal welcome), in which Māori creation narratives are ritually re-enacted, is used as a metaphor for Māori identity negotiation. The stages of creation Te Kore, Te Pō, Te Whaiao, and Te Ao Marama are used to describe, respectively: those who were yet to display interest in Māori cultural identities; those who were interested in developing their Māori identities; those who were actively exploring their Māori identities; and those who felt secure in their Māori identities. Quantitative longitudinal survey data from over 300 Māori adolescents in the Youth Connectedness Project was then analysed. Structural Equation Modelling revealed that Māori cultural engagement positively predicted Māori ethnic identity, i and that Māori ethnic identity positively predicted psychological wellbeing, in support of hypotheses. In addition, Hierarchical Linear Modelling revealed that the higher a school‟s level of Māori cultural promotion, the higher the ethnic identity of its students was likely to be. The results of this thesis demonstrate the impact of school cultural environments on individual identity development, and provide evidence that cultural engagement initiatives can enhance Māori identities, which in turn can increase psychological wellbeing. The results from the studies presented in this thesis are incorporated into Te Pītau o te Tuakiri framework, outlining how Māori identities can be nurtured, and the results are also used to offer guidelines for individuals wishing to become more engaged in Māori culture, and institutions wishing to become more responsive to Māori communities. These findings are used to challenge educators and policy makers to ensure schools and other State institutions support Māori cultural expression and affirm Māori identities. ii Dedication In memory of Koro John Rata, Matua John Rata, and Aunty Wendy Looney. iii Acknowledgements I am indebted to many people, without whom I could not have completed this thesis. First and foremost I wish to thank my whānau: my unconditionally loving and supportive parents Jan and Chris Rata; the most generous person I have ever known, Kiri Rata; the most self-assured person on the planet, Hone Rata; the most fearless person alive, Crystal Rata; and the most considerate person ever likely to exist, Harmony Rata. I also wish to thank my siblings‟ spouses Janine Rata, and Bryce Wilson, and the mokopuna Alex, Lizzie, and Daniel for inspiring us all. In addition, I wish to thank my Nana Lucy Rata (nee Hetet) and my Aunty Karen and Uncle Charles Matenga for supporting me to take on this kaupapa. I am also deeply indebted to the support I received through the University. Thank you to: The School of Psychology; Liz Richardson, Dave Gittings and Te Rōpū Āwhina; Paul Meredith and the Office of the PVC Māori; Peter Adds and Te Kawa a Māui (School of Māori Studies); Meegan Hall and Manu Ao; and Ngāi Tauira. A huge thank you also to Ngā Pae o te Māramatanga, and Mai ki Pōneke for the overwhelming support, inspiration, and affirmation. And a heartfelt thank you to Te Ripowai Higgins, Kathy (Grandma) Samuel, Matu Stephens, Monoa Taepa and all the past, present, and future kaimahi at Te Tumu Herenga Waka for the material and spiritual shelter and sustainance provided to Māori students. To Te Kāhui Tōreni: Tāwhana Chadwick, Mariana Whareaitu, and Tai Ahu, thank you for being my „reference group‟ and for patiently educating me. To Ngā Rōpū Tuhutuhi: Māhina-a-rangi Baker, Te Rangimārie Williams, Jesse Pirini, Awanui Te Huia, Rachel Fabish, Erina Okeroa, and Krissi Jerram thank you for the collegial support. Thank you to the past and present Māori students at the School of Psychology for the comradery, and making the road less lonely: Rozi Pattison, Luke Rowe, Keri Lawson Te-Aho, Trish Young, Awanui Te Huia, Pania Lee, Haimona Waititi, Tāwhana Chadwick, Hikurangi Skipper, Natalie Goldsmith, Jenna-Faith Allan, Te Hiwi Preston, Amy Campbell, Tahlia Kingi, and Anne Waapu. Thank you to the community involved in the Kia Whakakotahi project for welcoming me, for allowing me to carry out this research, and for educating me about your community and your visions for the future. iv For guidance and support, thank you to Kim Workman, Tim McCreanor, Mike Niho, and Jaimee Stewart. Thank you also to the Māori women who have given me personal encouragement along the way: Dr Catherine Love, Dr Ocean Mercier, Dr Melinda Webber, Dr Pauline Harris, Dr Pip Pēhi, Dr Waikaremoana Waitoki, Bridgette Masters-Awetere, and Dr Melanie Cheung. Thank you to my PhD supervisors in Psychology: Professor James Liu and Assocaite Professor Paul Jose, who provided valuable academic supervision. Thank you also to my Mana Wahine supervisor Dr Jessica Hutchings for the academic advice, the unwavering affirmation and support, and for keeping me safe on this precarious journey. Finally, a huge thank you to my partner Māui Taewa for taking care of my emotional, physical, and spiritual wellbeing during this process. Tēnei te mihi aroha ki a koe taku tāringi. This doctoral research has been supported by: Victoria University PhD Scholarship Office of the PVC (Māori) Victoria University Deane Endowment Trust Ngā Pae o te Māramatanga MAI te Kupenga MAI ki Pōneke v Mihi Ko Rangi Ko Papa Ka puta ko Rongo, Ko Tane Mahuta Ko Tangaroa Ko Tumatauenga Ko Haumietiketike Ko Tawhirimatea Tokona te Rangi ki runga Ko Papa ki raro Ka puta te ira tangata ki te whaiao ki te ao marama Tihei mauriora! Ko Taranaki te maunga Ko Ouri te awa Ko Taranaki, Ngāruahine, me Ngāti Maniapoto ngā iwi Ko Titahi, me Ngāti Rora ngā hapū Ko Ōeo, Ōrimupiko, me Te Tokanganui-a-noho ngā marae Ko tēnei ahau e tuku mihi atu ana ki a koutou. For Māori, presenting one‟s whakapapa1 is an appropriate way of introducing, and positioning onself. In the section above I have presented some details of my whakapapa. As my research deals with Māori adolescent identity development in educational settings, I will also present details here on my own Māori identity development, and the role educational institutions have played in that development, in order to position myself in this research. My Māori identity development began at home with my Māori father and Pākehā2 mother, who made sure that my siblings and I knew we were Māori, and instilled in us a sense of pride in being Māori. In my early years we lived in Papakura, in South Auckland, where most of the whānau we interacted with were also Māori. However, we moved to a predominantly Pākehā community in Taranaki, where I was 1 Genealogy 2 New Zealander of European descent vi to learn from a young age that, beyond our family home, being Māori was not something to be proud of. When I began school at age eight I learnt a lot. I learnt that being Māori was negative. I learnt that Māori were dirty, lazy, poor, and delinquent. I learnt adding the prefix „Māori‟ to a noun was an effective way of establishing that the object was of inferior quality. I learnt that I was „just a Māori‟, and that I was „half-caste‟ (which I should not take offence to because it meant that I was half good). And I learnt that any behaviour I exhibited could be attributed to my being Māori. In response to this early education I promptly adopted a strategy (however ill- conceived) of limiting the extent to which I was perceived as Māori at school. Any behaviour, attribute, or attitude that was associated with being Māori, I tried to avoid. I self-consciously avoided music, clothing, foods, people, and places that were associated with „being Māori‟. My „success‟ in implementing this strategy was affirmed one day at school when a friend of mine exclaimed “Arama, I don‟t even see you as Māori!” And I didn‟t even have the good sense to be outraged. When I was in the fourth form, we did a module on the Treaty of Waitangi in Social Studies. This might have been the one compulsory component of my secondary education in which I learnt about Te Ao Māori3.