IDRC - Lib. 10 ,56 10
Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
by Rita Lindayati IDRC Intern
1996
Cities Feeding People Series Report 19
1 5- -i 1 6 Acknowledgements:
The Author received invaluable assistance from Ms. Madeleine Audet, Reference Specialist at the IDRC Library.
This paper was edited and prepared by BrendaLee Wilson, IDRC, December 1996.
For additional copies, or for further information about this document, please contact:
Luc J.A. Mougeot or BrendaLee Wilson Cities Feeding People IDRC PO Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada KIG 3H9
Telephone: (613) 236-6163 extension 2310 or 2475 E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Cities Feeding People Reports
International Development Research Centre IDRC, Canada
1. Urban Agriculture Research in East & Central Africa: Record, Capacities and Opportunities by Camillus J. Sawio, University of Dar es Salaam (1993).
2. Urban Agriculture Research in East Africa: Record, Capacities and Opportunities by Davinder Lamba, Mazingira Institute (1993).
3. Urban Agriculture Research in East & Southern Africa I: Record, Capacities and Opportunities by Kadmiel H Wekwete, University of Zimbabwe (1993).
4. Urban Agriculture Research in East & Southern Africa II: Record, Capacities and Opportunities by Admos Chimbowu and Davison Gumbo, ENDA-Zimbabwe (1993).
5. Urban Agriculture Research in West Africa: Record, Capacities and Opportunities by, Souleymane Diallo, EN.DA-Tiers Monde (1993).
6. Urban Agriculture Research in East & Southeast Asia: Record, Capacities and Opportunities by Yue-man Yeung, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (1993).
7. Urban Agriculture Research in Latin America: Record, Capacities and Opportunities by Julio Prudencio Bohrt, UNITAS (1993).
8. Urban Food Production: Evolution, Official Support, and Significance by Luc J.A. Mougeot, International Development Research Centre (1994).
9. Promoting Urban Agriculture: Strategy Framework for Planners in North America, Europe, and Asia by Paul Sommers and Jac Smit, The Urban Agriculture Network (1994).
10. Urban Agriculture and the Sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project, Tanzania by Camillus Sawio, UNCHS-IDRC Project Coordinator (1994).
11. Une historie de deux villes: Canadian Community Gardening in Montreal and Toronto by Sean Cosgrove, Toronto Food Policy Council (1994).
12. Urban Agriculture: Can Planners Make a Difference? by Timothy Greenhow, SWEDEPLAN/Swedish National Board ofHousing, Building and Planning (1994). Cities Feeding People Reports
International Development Research Centre IDRC, Canada
13. Agricultura urbana en America latina: evaluacion in situ para iniciativa regional por Julio Prudencio Bohrt, consultor del CIID (1994).
14. L'agriculture urbaine en Afrique tropicale:evaluation in situ pour initiative regionale par Kando Golhor. consultant du CRDI (1995).
15. Cities Feeding People Project Fact Sheets by Pascale Dennery, International Development Research Centre (1995).
16. Urban Agriculture in Canada: A Survey of Municipal Initiatives in Canada and Abroad by Michel Frojmovic, IDRC Consultant (1996).
17. The Third Meeting of the Support Group on Urban Agriculture (SGUA): Proceedings, 18-19 March 1996, IDRC, Ottawa, Canada by IDRC (1996).
18. Urban Agriculture, Progress and Prospect: 1975-2005 by Jac Smit, The Urban Agriculture Network (TUAN) (1996).
19. Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada by Rita Lindayati, IDRC Intern (1996).
Copies can be obtained free of charge by writing to BrendaLee Wilson, Cities Feeding People Series,' Programs Branch, IDRC, PO Box 8500, Ottawa, Ontario, KiG 3H9 Canada or by e-mail to [email protected] Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ...... 1
THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY ...... 2
METHODOLOGY ...... 3
URBAN AGRICULTURE IN CANADA ...... 4
Waste Management ...... 4 Case Study 1 Composting of Organic Solids ...... 6
Urban Farming/Gardening ...... 7 Case Study 2 Urban Farming in Relation to Urban Design ...... 9 Community Gardening ...... 10 Organic Farming/Gardening ...... I 1 Case Study 3 Organic Farming ...... 13 Permaculture ...... 14 Greenhouses ...... 14 Case Study 3.1 Greenhouse and Roof Garden Technologies ...... 15 Rooftop Gardening ...... 16 Case Study 3.2 Rooftop Gardening in Quebec and Ontario ...... 17
Urban Pest Management ...... 18
Urban Food Security ...... 19 Case Study 4 Food Security ...... 20
Urban Forestry ...... 21 Case Study 5 Urban Forestry ...... 23
Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas ...... 24 Case Study 6 Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas ...... 26
INTERNATIONAL URBAN AGRICULTURE ...... 27 Case Study 7 International Urban Agriculture ...... 29
CONCLUSION ...... 30
END NOTES ...... 31
Appendix 1: List of Contacts ...... 38
Appendix 2: Bibliography ...... 45 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
INTRODUCTION
This report responds to the many requests for information received by IDRC's Cities Feeding People Program Initiative on Canadian experience in urban agriculture. In general, such experience exists within municipalities, academic and research institutions, non-governmental organisations, and private industries. This study, focusing on Canadian academic and research expertise, constitutes Cities Feeding People's second initiative to document such experience.'
This Introduction is followed by a section clarifying the term "urban agriculture" and the scope of this study. Other sections outline the research methodology and examine Canadian scientific and technological capacity, expertise and experience in urban agriculture, both in the national and international contexts.
The investigation focuses on Canadian scientific initiatives - including teaching, research, and outreach programs - on various urban agriculture related activities (eg. waste management, urban farming/gardening, organic farming, permaculture, greenhouses, rooftop gardens, pest management, urban forestry, peri-urban agriculture, and international urban agriculture). The selection of these activities is based more on "diversity" considerations, rather than on any specific typology. Urban animal husbandry is excluded since, with rare exceptions, it is not practised within Canadian cities.'- Several case studies are presented to illustrate study findings. Relevant contacts and references for each activity are provided in Appendix I and 2, respectively.
1 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Urban agriculture is a relatively new field and, not surprisingly, does not yet have a precise academic definition. In a broad sense, it is defined as the production of food and non-food through cultivation of plant, tree crops, aquaculture, and animal husbandry, within urban and periurban areas.' In many studies, however, the meaning is considerably narrower and refers to farming or food production activities within a city's and pen-urban boundaries. This study takes both perspectives into account -- the broader definition is adopted, but emphasis is placed upon food-producing enterprises.
The infancy of "formal" urban agriculture research is also reflected by the fact that scholarly work on urban agriculture-based activities is scattered across various "traditional" disciplines. On the one hand, this reflects the field's ample horizons and interdisciplinary nature. On the other hand, the lack of general recognition of the subject matter means that many relevant studies do not always use the same "terms and language," rendering follow-up studies by other researchers very difficult.
The research in this paper traces and attempts to pull together the various urban agriculture- related scientific expertise which exists among numerous scattered subject areas. It may underrepresent the actual amount of Canadian scientific competence since some scholars may conduct relevant work without necessarily describing the topic as urban agriculture. The report is not intended to be exhaustive, and should be viewed as a preliminary study which will hopefully trigger further detailed research.
2 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
METHODOLOGY
Information for this report was collected from various sources and through various means (ie. telephone interviews, fax, e-mail, letters, field visits, Internet homepages, and literature study). Firstly, a search was done of IDRC's contact person and institution database. Other information was obtained from various academic and research institutions, libraries, professional associations, grassroots organizations, relevant individuals, and government offices across Canada. The Agricola and UMI databases were searched, as was the collection at McGill University's Ecological Agricultural Project. Additionally, a short tour of urban agriculture practises in the Ottawa-Hull region was very kindly provided by Doug Wolthausten, Chief of Greenbelt Division of the National Capital Commission.
3 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
URBAN AGRICULTURE IN CANADA
Waste Management
The aspect of waste management which is most relevant to urban agriculture is organic waste composting. Organic waste comes from both solid waste and organic sludge. The latter is usually a by-product of wastewater treatment. Municipalities, which rely on landfills for final urban solid waste and sludge disposal, are finding current landfills nearing peak capacity and new siting processes extremely difficult. As a result, cities are increasingly turning to composting (i.e. on- site and centralized) as an environmentally and economically sound waste reduction option at source.
In general, research on composting in relation to its use for urban agriculture can be grouped into several themes. They include composting technology, management and use; soil properties with regards to compost use; and agronomic response to composts.
Scientific work on compost technology is primarily concerned with developing environmentally sound, hygienically safe, and economically viable composting processes and facilities. Techniques to optimize compost stability and maturity, to control odour, and to improve compost quality for soil amendment are but some examples of detailed research inquiries. Management and legal issues, particularly with regards to urban waste reduction, siting composting facilities, and compost standardization are also drawing research attention.
Another research topic is on soil properties and agronomic quality in response to compost use. Organic matter in compost can affect the biological, chemical, and physical properties of soil. It also can affect yields and other agronomic characteristics of crops or other plants and agroecosystem components.
There are several engineering faculties which offer waste management programs. Among them, the Department of Engineering, University of Guelph, offers Bachelor, MSc, and PhD programs in environmental engineering, with one stream specifically focusing on composting of organic solids (Case Study 1). One faculty member, Dr. Lambert Otten, specializes in both the technological and legal aspects of composting and compost use. Under his supervision, several students have conducted research on the technological and managerial development of composting systems. Canadian literature on composting, however, is not yet extensive,' and research attempts to directly link compost use and urban agriculture are scarce.'
4 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Other research pertinent to composting includes soil properties and agronomic response to compost use. Such research is also not very extensive in Canada.' However, some scientists do work on such subjects with community groups. The Residential Compost Program of Greater Vancouver Regional District, for example, involves faculty from the Department of Soil Science, University of British Columbia to organize its soil management program.' The department's program focuses on improving the efficiency of organic and inorganic nutrient sources in various soil management schemes.
5 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 1 Composting of Organic Solids 8
Institution: School of Engineering, University of Guelph
Degrees Offered: B.Sc., Msc, Ph.D. Program: Environmental Engineering
Summary: Environmental Engineering research involves methods to prevent or mitigate damage to the environment by reduction, treatment, and reclamation of soil, liquid, and gaseous by-products of industrial, agricultural and municipal activities. Emphasis is on the behaviour and fate of contaminants in the environment. Research topics include: composting of organic solids, wastewater treatments, soil/site remediation technology, supercritical fluid extraction, odour control, control of spills, policy innovations, air pollution meteorology, air-surface exchange measurement and modelling. Supporting Facilities:
Teaching laboratories, bench research laboratory, research and development laboratories (environmental labs, electrical lab, biological labs, food research labs, Arkell and Elora research stations). Contact person: Dr. Lambert Otten
Director and Professor of School of Engineering School of Engineering, University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, Canada N 1 G 2W 1
Phone: (519)824-4120 Ext.2434; Fax: (519)836-0227
6 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Urban Farming/Gardening
As indicated earlier, urban agriculture is most commonly associated with urban gardening and farming. In Canada, as in other countries, growing plants and trees in cities has occurred since urban civilizations were first created. However, its importance as a "serious" food production activity has risen and fallen according to time, history and changing societal values. Historically, wars and economic recessions caused urban food growing and animal husbandry to flourish.' Once the industrial revolution arrived, however, nations began to prosper, the rural-urban divide increased, and growing plants in cities was considered primarily for their recreational, leisure, and aesthetical values. Today, livestock rearing in urban boundaries is often prohibited because of health concerns.10
This trend is typical of the modern urban culture, which considers urban food growing as marginal and ephemeral. Other factors such as zoning and planning restrictions, soil contamination and airborne pollutants, relatively low food prices (sometimes cheaper to buy rather than to grow), and high land values reinforce this tendency." Additionally, federal and provincial agriculture authorities often lack interest in urban food growers, whom they do not see as part of their constituency.'2
Over the last few years, the situation has begun to gradually change as public groups grow more aware of environmental issues. Urban landscape design which emphasizes leisure and aesthetical values, and thus suppresses its productive role, is now regarded as unsustainable." The concept of productive and sustainable cities, as opposed to consumptive and unsustainable ones, is being promoted by a growing number of people, including academics. Various grassroots movements have also emerged to promote urban gardening and food production in an environmentally sustainable manner.
In Canada, urban farming is not yet popular as an academic field unto itself. However, although still very limited, it is beginning to be considered by some scholars from urban-oriented academic fields (eg. landscape architecture, urban planning, urban ecology) as an alternative means toward sustainable cities. Attention is often focused on the environmental philosophy of urban farming practices, rather than its agronomic and financial aspects. Some faculties which incorporate urban farming and environmentally-sustainable urban design in their teaching programs include the Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University (Dr. Michael Hough, see Case Study 2), and the Department of Urban and Rural Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Nova Scotia (Dr. Susan Guppy). A few other scholars are also beginning to pay attention to this under-researched subject.14
7 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
The aforementioned description is not intended to overlook Canadian urban gardening expertise, which is likely quite developed. This expertise, however, is perhaps more technical, rather than analytical in the academic sense. Several universities and technical colleges, for example, have extension programs for people who are interested in becoming practising gardeners. Some examples are the Master Gardener Program from the University of Saskatchewan, as well as various horticultural courses (ie. home gardening, garden design, turf management, urban tree management, etc.) offered by the Distance Education program of Okanagan University College and the University of Guelph.15
8 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 2 Urban Farming in Relation to Urban Design 16
Institution: Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University Degrees Offered: BSc, MES, PhD Course: City Form and Natural Process Objective: To develop creative ways of thinking about human environments that are in tune with ecological thought and feeling; to encourage critical observation, evaluation and understanding of the living environment; to develop the basis for further thinking and research. Summary: The course's major topics include urban ecology (basis for design), urban climate, water, plants, wildlife, city farming, and the connection among them. The course examines the argument that an environmental view of the city is now an essential component of urban design, one that is in tune with contemporary issues of energy and resource conservation and environmental awareness. Advancing urbanization often replaces a once diverse natural landscape for a biologically sterile one, and efforts to reclaim mined or derelict urban land substitute naturally-regenerating sites for new horticultural deserts that perpetuate the very conditions they intend to cure. These two landscapes symbolize a fundamental conflict in the perception of nature -- the desire to nurture the one and suppress the other, in a perpetual struggle to maintain order and control. In arguing that the unrecognized natural processes occurring in cities can provide us with alternative basis for urban design, the course offers a radical look at this problem urging for a re-examination of all unbuilt assumptions about open space. Contact: Dr. Michael Hough (Landscape architect and Professor) Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1L3; Phone: (416)736-5252; Fax: (416)736-5269
9 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Community Gardening
Community gardening is one form of socially-organized urban agriculture. Broadly defined, a community garden is "where people share basic resources -- land, water, and (especially in the city or densely built areas) sunlight."" This definition includes allotment gardens (where plots of land for cultivation are allotted to individuals for a fee), as well as communal open spaces like school gardens or youth demonstration gardens.
Community gardening in Canada began to flourish again in the 1970s due to the growing number of abandoned lots, the fact that parks were too distant from the neighbourhoods they served," and the increasing city density which caused land to be less affordable. Other trends, such as growing environmental awareness (ie. the desire to work with nature and/or to consume more natural, pesticide-free food), more leisure time, rising food prices, and community self- determination, also facilitated this movement. Some regions which were active in early community gardening projects are the Ottawa National Capital Commission (ie. Greenbelt area) and the island of Montreal. Montreal, with 6278 garden plots in 1994, is considered to have the largest and best managed community gardens in Canada.'9
Although the number of community gardens would appear to be increasing all over the country, research and other academic initiatives are still poorly developed. Researchers almost uniformly cite the lack of readily available scientific information by way of explanation. Most research, accordingly, relies on direct surveys, popular writing (ie. newspapers, popular magazines) and anecdotal information.
Scientific research related to community gardening usually focuses on its social, philosophical and environmental dimensions. One of the major recurrent themes is how community gardens contribute to better and healthier urban landscapes, including the social and psychological well- being of urban individuals and society. Gardeners' socio-economic characteristics, as well as obstacles to community garden sustainability (eg. temporal land tenure, vandalism, unsupporting policies) are also typical research topics. The various functions of community gardens and the unique properties they possess have contributed to the wide range of subjects in which academic research is scattered. Examples include urban agriculture, landscape architecture, community development, community health, urban planning, and environmental ethics.
Dr. Moura Quayle, University of British Columbia Landscape Architecture Program, was one of the first to conduct a comprehensive survey of community gardens. Quayle's ongoing work on community gardens is typical, in the sense that community gardens are not seen as an end in themselves. Rather, they are a means to promote diverse activities (both in the physical and
10 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
social senses) and sustainability in the urban setting.20 A growing number of students in landscape architecture programs at UBC and other universities have become interested in working on community gardening issues.
Organic Farming/Gardening
Conceptually, there is no single universally accepted definition of the word "organic," since it can mean different things to different people.2' Terminologies such as "ecological," "biological," "bio-dynamic," "sustainable," and "natural" are often used interchangeably with "organic,""-- although they may not necessarily mean the same thing. In its narrowest sense, organic farming usually refers to agricultural operations which avoid or totally exclude synthetic chemical inputs (ie. fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, additives, growth hormones). Critics, however, allege this "technique-based" definition loses the ethical dimensions (eg. attitudes toward nature and future generations), which is the primary message of the organic movement.
Hill and MacRae state that these various concepts of organic farming can be understood as a range of approaches within the whole sustainable agriculture spectrum.'-' In its most developed form, organic farming is a manifestation of both ecologically viable and socially responsible agricultural philosophy and farming practices.24 Similarly, Lampkin defined organic farming as "an approach to agriculture where the aim is to create integrated, humane, environmentally sustainable agricultural production systems, which maximize reliance on farm-derived renewable resource and management of ecological and biological processes and interactions, so as to provide acceptable levels of crop, livestock and human nutrition, protection from pests and diseases, and an appropriate return to the human and other resources employed."25
The modern organic movement, which initiated in Germany, can be traced back to the 1920s.26 However, it was not until the past quarter century that the movement gained its momentum. In Canada, the movement began in the 1950s, influenced by the spread of literature and expert visits from Europe and the USA.'-' In the 1970s, organic farming gained a stronger foothold, marked by the creation of several provincial organic farming organizations. Its further development has also been greatly facilitated by the public's continually increasing environmental awareness.
The 1980s saw the development of research and teaching on sustainable agriculture, with several universities and colleges introducing relevant courses. One example is the Issues in Alternative Agriculture course offered at MacDonald College, McGill University.28 Research on various socio-economic and agronomic aspects of organic farming have also been conducted. Most
11 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
studies, however, suffer from methodological deficiencies and very few embrace the agroecological paradigm.29
Beginning in the 1970s, urban residents and grassroots associations began to encourage the organic gardening movement 30 At the academic level, initiatives to promote organic gardening were also present. Dr. John Evans from Memorial University's Biology Department started to teach the subject in 1974.'' At McGill University, the Ecological Agriculture Project, established in 1974, has become an excellent resource (both individual expertise and literature) on ecological agriculture. One of the project's missions is to promote the development of sustainable urban agricultural practices (Case Study 3).32
12 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 3 Organic Farming 33
Institution: Ecological Agriculture Projects (EAP), MacDonald Campus, McGill University Mission: To facilitate the establishment of food systems worldwide that are nutritionally sound, socially just, humane, economically viable and environmentally sustainable. Summary: To accomplish the project mission, the EAP collects, organizes, and disseminates essential information, conducts research, and provides expert analysis and advice to farmers, consumers, government, academia, agribusinesses and the media. The project also facilitates the development of urban agriculture by establishing demonstration gardens, writing and distributing numerous publications, acting as a consultant to various related projects, giving lectures, workshops, and building up a reference collection of materials. Recent achievements in education and extension include providing 3,000 information requests from around the world, 80 lectures, workshops and media interviews; offering university-level courses and a degree program in ecological agriculture; publishing more than 100 papers and bibliographies; establishing the Agro-Bio Information Service for government extension agents in Quebec and elsewhere. Recent achievements in policy and representation include conducting more than a dozen government policy studies; representing more than 20 local, national, and international committees and boards. Recent achievements in research and consulting include preparing consultant reports on soil amendments, safe pest control products, composting devices, and farm/landscape design and management; establishing a participatory on-farm research program, and on-campus "certified organic" research plots. Contact: Dr. John Henning (Acting Director, EAP, and Professor, MacDonald College, McGill University); Dr. Stuart B. Hill (Associate Director, EAP, and Professor, MacDonald College, McGill University); Ecological Agriculture Projects; Centennial Centre CCB 13, McGill University (MacDonald Campus), 21, 111 Lakeshore Road, Ste-Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada H9X 3V9. Phone (514) 398-7771; fax (514) 398-7621. Email: [email protected] Web site http://www.agrenv.mcgill.ca/Extension/EAP After January 1,1997 www.eap.mcgill.ca
13 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Permaculture
Permaculture or permanent agriculture, is another variant within the spectrum of alternative sustainable agricultural practices. It is intended to be "a designed agriculture, so that the species, composition, array and organization of plants and animals are the central factor ... The philosophy is to work with, rather than against, nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation rather than protracted and thoughtless labour; and of looking at plants and animals in all their functions, rather than treating an area as a single-product system. " The central tenet of permaculture is sustainable agricultural practices which rely on the knowledge and respect of natural ecological processes. Permaculture in an urban context is designed to reverse the global tendency of consumptive cities toward more productive, self reliant, and self-sustaining urban ecosystems. In practical terms, it attempts to educate people so they are better able to produce their own food and livelihoods in an environmentally benign manner.
Since the 1970s, philosophical and methodological concepts of permaculture have spread worldwide, especially through the work of Australian ecologist Bill Mollison (reference provided in Appendix 2). In Canada, attempts to publicly disseminate the concept are also underway. One example is the initiative of the Institute for Bioregional Studies, Charlottetown, PEI (see Appendix 1), which offers permaculture courses and workshops to the general public. Instructors are drawn from both professional and academic practitioners, with a focus on urban permaculture and the concept of ecocities.
Greenhouses
Greenhouses are commonly found in urban Northern landscapes, where the climate does not allow year-round outdoor gardening and farming. There are many technical experts and guide books for greenhouse design, construction, and management. These guide books usually address various types of greenhouses which serve different purposes. Size, structure, technology, and management vary according to, for example, household/family size and commercial purpose. Greenhouses can also differ according to the type of crops grown, energy used (ie. solar, artificial lighting), and ecosystem management (i.e. biological, artificial chemical control).
Greenhouses are usually an integral part of agronomic facilities at universities and technical colleges (Case Study 3.1). In the urban context, it was Agriculture Canada which specifically published a detailed manual for energy-conserving urban greenhouse design, construction and
14 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 3.1 Greenhouse and Roof Garden Technologies
Institution: Centre de Recherche en Horticulture (CRH), Faculte des sciences de 1'agriculture et de 1'alimentation, Laval University. Mission: To train researchers and specialists in diverse disciplines of horticultural science at the doctoral and masters levels; to increase knowledge in the horticultural sciences and the various contributing disciplines; to meet the requirements of the horticultural industry in Quebec and Canada by finding ecologically sound, high-performance alternatives to current technology, thereby increasing competitiveness and the quality of products for consumers. Summary: This Centre was created from two groups, the Specialization Center for Greenhouse Production and the Fruit and Vegetable Conservation Research Group, and continues a research program on greenhouse productivity. The main priority of the CRH researchers is to develop and transfer knowledge on new technologies, and to improve the quality and safety of horticultural products. Applied research projects include: greenhouse vegetable and ornamental plant production, field production of market fruit and vegetables, and nursery and turf production. The Centre's Envirotron has eight specialized laboratories and controlled-environment chambers to study the physiology and protection of plants. More than 100 individuals are doing work through the Centre, which led last year to the publication of 90 articles in peer- reviewed scientific journals. Research is funded by the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and through many private sector grants. Contact: Mr. Serge Yelle, Director CRH, Universite Laval, Quebec G1K 7P4; E-mail: [email protected]; Andre Gosselin, CRH, Pavillon de l'Envirotron, Universite Laval, Quebec G1K 7P4; E-mail: [email protected]
management.35 Greenhouse construction in cities requires specific expertise so that its design meets unique urban social and ecological requirements. The research branch of Agriculture Canada recognized this important fact. Specific considerations which were examined include building codes and permits, property easements, aesthetic values, fire regulations, costs, solar access, airborne pollutants, snow, hazards, and different management practices.
15 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Rooftop Gardening
Advocates of the greening of cities often lament the thousands of hectares of barren rooftops, which could otherwise be used as productive gardens. Indeed, in some parts of Europe, roof green space is a legal requirement.36 In Canada, roof gardens are also starting to gain in popularity, with some specialists actively promoting them to the general public (Case Study 3.2).''
Gardening on elevated structures is a logical consequence of the lack of affordable land in metropolitan areas. Roof garden proponents often claim that this farming method can be a part of the sustainable and healthy city solution. It does not consume land, can reduce air pollution and stormwater runoff, promote urban production and food self-sufficiency, reduce food transportation costs, and increase a building's economic value. It also promotes city beautification and is accessible for leisure activities.
Many obstacles, however, exist. No matter which planting techniques (ie. container, hydroponics, greenhouses, coldframes) are used, transporting the required materials to the roof location is not as easy as for conventional ground gardens.38 In addition, prospective gardeners must also consider the roof support capacity, which can limit the garden's design. Roof elevation, strong winds, high temperature, and suitable plant species also require serious consideration. For instance, strong wind, which can wipe out leaves and vines, or high temperatures which necessitate more frequent watering, may discourage some gardeners.
Academic initiatives in rooftop gardening do not appear to be widespread, and those who support the idea do not necessarily research or practise it.39 Some early attempts, however, were conducted in the mid 1970s by some faculty staff of the School of Architecture and Brace Research Institute, McGill University. The project was carried out in collaboration with the University Settlement Community Centre. The project published a detailed manual on rooftop gardening techniques, which became the basis for a Department of Agriculture pamphlet on this subject. This two-year, federally-funded demonstration project has long ceased, but a few faculty members are still available to provide public information on rooftop gardening."
16 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 3.2 Rooftop Gardening in Quebec and Ontario
Quebec City Private Sector: One company working with the Centre de Recherche en Horticulture is SOPREMA. They have developed a lightweight rooftop system for growing plants called SOPRANATURE, which can adapt to extreme weather conditions. Contact: SOPREMA Headquarters: 800, rue Saint-Vallier Ouest, Quebec, Qc. GIN 1C9; Phone: (418) 681-8127; 1-800-463-2382; FAX: (418) 681-1224.
Toronto Community: The Rooftop Garden Resource Group Mission: To create a rooftop gardening culture in Metropolitan Toronto. Strategy: By linking community, professional and government interests, they actively promote rooftop gardens through education, community action, and the media. A number of pilot projects within the community are being created, including projects at city schools. The founding members of this group work for the Toronto Food Policy Council, Grow T.O.gether Community Gardeners, and the City of Toronto's Department of Housing, and they are urban planners, architects, and engineers. They are dedicated to making the Toronto urban environment a greener and healthier place to live and work through the creation of rooftop gardens which support urban food production, improve air quality and increase habitat for birds, promote community cultural diversity, and create job opportunities. Contact: Monica E. Kuhn, Architect, 14 Sackville Place, Toronto, Ontario M4X 1A4; Phone (416) 923-9034.
Prepared by BrendaLee Wilson, IDRC, based on information provided at the American Community Gardening Association Conference, Montreal, September 26-29, 1996
17 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Urban Pest Management
Urban pest management is an integral aspect of urban agriculture. Various types of indoor and outdoor pests, from fungi to microbes, insects, and weeds are commonly found in urban environments. Insect pests such as the beetle grub, webworm, and chinch bug can damage home and commercial lawns and ornamental plants. Aphids, flee beetles, horn worms, snails, and various weeds, are but some additional examples of the obstacles posed to home gardeners and urban horticulturalists. Similarly, trees in urban areas are also susceptible to pest attacks.
Many different control measures can be used to eliminate urban pests. The most common is chemical spraying using such pesticides as insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Yet, in recent years, this reliance on pesticides has caused increased concern and controversy over potential detrimental consequences to human health and environmental safety. Pesticide overuse has also led to pesticide-resistant species which are even more difficult to manage. This has helped popularize alternative urban pest management systems such as biological control, organic pest management, and integrated pest management.
Urban integrated pest management (IPM), as popularized by American scientists W.Olkowski and H.Olkowski, is a fairly new phenomenon.41 IPM relies on a combination of various economically and environmentally-appropriate techniques to suppress (but not entirely exterminate) pest populations, and to minimize damage to acceptable levels.42 The IPM approach is based on the assumptions that: (1) most pests are an integral part of the ecology in a given area; (2) although pests usually cannot be eliminated, their population can be controlled; and (3) a certain level of pest injury is acceptable.43 Methods range from physical treatments (eg. traps) to use of natural predators, resistant and adapted plants, habitat modification, etc.
Insects are the most common pests to be found in urban settings," which may partially explain the development of the field of urban entomology. Historically, urban entomology did not pay as much attention to horticultural issues, as it did to silviculture 45 Therefore, the literature on horticulture entomology is relatively sparse.46 In Canada, academic expertise on urban entomology can be found in several technical colleges and universities. Some institutions which offer urban entomology programs are the University of Toronto, through its Faculty of Forestry, and Sir Sandford Flemming College, Lindsay, Ontario, through its Environmental Pest Management Program.
18 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Research on urban pest management takes various forms. Some of the most recurrent topics are the identification and behaviour of urban pest species, as well as their effective control and management. Such studies have been conducted, for example, by researchers from the Agriculture Canada Research Centre. The persistence and behaviour of pesticides in urban ecosystems (eg. soil, folial tissues, surface and ground water) are also of great concern, as are the potential impacts on human health (for example, research conducted by researchers at the University of Guelph's Toxicology Department).
Urban Food Security
Food security is defined as "the assurance of access to adequate nutrition, either through direct effort or exchange at acceptable prices."47 Urban agriculture holds particular significance due to its potential role in assuring urban food security. As indicated earlier, urban food growing in Canada, unlike most developing countries, is motivated more by recreational and environmental values, rather than by survival needs. This generalization, however, should not mask the fact that certain segments of urban society grow food solely for economic reasons, or to meet nutritional needs.
Economic hardship, in particular, is the principal variable that connects urban agriculture with food security. In Newfoundland, for instance, an allotment garden program regained much of its popularity during the province's recent economic recession.48 Another example is Toronto's Food Policy Council, an. institution created due to concerns over Toronto's food security, which promotes small-scale food production enterprises for low-income families.
There are a growing number of scholars interested in urban food security issues, as evidenced by those who are committee members on Toronto's Food Policy Council, and who have established a study group consisting of people with similar concerns (Case Study 4). Although newly established, membership is growing rapidly," demonstrating again the increased degree of academic interest in this subject matter.
19 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 4 Food Security 50
Institution: Centre for Studies in Food Security (CSFS), Ryerson Polytechnic University. Summary: The CSFS has organised a research network (Toronto Food Research Network) consisting of academics, researchers, and practitioners concerned with food security issues and involved in research in this area. The TFRN has presently about 100 members and some of them meet on a monthly basis. CSFS is also working on partnerships with the University of Toronto and York University to organize joint research projects and possible graduate courses and training programs in food security. The research project currently focuses on changing food practices among immigrants in Metropolitan Toronto and Sustainable Urban Food Systems. The project is also planning to organize an International Conference on Sustainable Urban Food Systems from May 22-25, 1997 in Toronto. The conference will deal with food security, food policy, urban agriculture, distribution and food access systems, health and nutrition, and hunger. Contact: Dr. Mustafa Koc (Coordinator of Centre for Studies in Food Security, and Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Ryerson Polytechnic University); E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Jennifer Welsh (Professor, School of Nutrition, Consumer and Family Studies, Centre for Studies in Food Security, Ryerson Polytechnic University); 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5B 2K3; Phone (416) 979 5000, ext. 6931, fax (416) 979 5204; E-mail: j welsh@acs. ryerson.ca
20 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Urban Forestry
First introduced in 1965 at the University of Toronto, urban forestry has since become an established branch of forestry studies." The anthropocentric definition of urban forestry is "a branch of forestry which aims to cultivate and manage trees and forest for their potential contribution to the psychological, sociological, and economic well being of urban societies ..."5' Urban forests can be found in public open spaces, along city streets and boulevards, residential lands, and around industrial and commercial buildings. Although the exact boundaries of urban forests are still in dispute, they often refer to all trees within the environs of all populated places, from the tiniest villages to the largest cities.53
The concept of urban forestry emerged from the recognition that the continuous existence of urban forests requires specific policies and management actions which recognize them as a unified system rather than separate, unconnected vegetation.54 Simply stated, individual trees must be viewed in the context of urban forests, and urban forests must be considered from the perspective of the entire urban landscape.55 Urban forest management, therefore, requires a sound knowledge and understanding of both urban physical, environments and ecological processes, and specific social-institutional settings.
The survival of a city's vegetation is threatened by such environmental pressures as air pollution, limited space due to competition with urban facilities (ie. roads, sewer systems, buildings), compacted soils, glare, etc. In addition, social and legal aspects such as land-use zoning and regulations, land tenure, land values, public awareness and perception, and political climate all contribute to the complexity of sustainable urban forest management. These complexities can, at times, create contradictions. Urban forest management which preserves wildlife habitat, for example, may come into conflict with public hygiene standards. In other cases, vegetative diversity and the lack of order necessary for wildlife habitat may not always suit the scenic appetite of city dwellers.56
It is imperative to recognize the different, and sometimes incompatible purposes urban forests can serve, as well as the appropriate vegetative structures which are necessary.57 The challenge of urban forestry programs and practitioners, therefore, is to understand these complexities and tradeoffs, and to take them into account when attempting to create socially viable and environmentally benign urban forest landscapes.
As with any other applied science, urban forestry is interdisciplinary in nature, requiring both natural and social science perspectives for its development. It embraces aspects of forestry, urban ecology, atmospheric science, landscape architecture, urban planning, political science,
21 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
sociology, psychology, biology and even engineering. From its social and ecological functions, for example, urban forests can be studied according to their contribution to a city's air and atmospheric quality, energy and water conservation, biological diversity, environmental education, psychological enjoyment, and community development. From an economic and institutional viewpoint, urban forestry can encompass cost-benefit analyses, specific planning and management, public policies and regulations, land tenure arrangements, and administrative structures.
Canadian expertise in urban forestry is relatively well developed (in comparison with urban food production). The leading academic institution in urban forestry development is the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry and Urban Forests Centre. The Faculty of Forestry offers a specific graduate program on Urban Forests Conservation.58 The Urban Forests Centre actively works with other academic, government, and non-government institutions to conduct research and outreach programs on various socio-economic, technological, institutional, and ecological aspects of Canadian urban forest conservation (Case Study 5).
Another university to incorporate urban forest issues in their curriculum is the Faculty of Forestry, University of Laval. Of the technical colleges, there are Sir Sandford Flemming College and Okanagan University College. The former offers urban tree and park management programs in its School of Natural Resources and the latter offers similar courses in its Horticulture Program.
22 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 5 Urban Forestry s9
Institution: Urban Forests Centre, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. Mission: To promote and protect treed areas and green spaces in inhabited landscapes across Canada. Objectives: (1) to provide one-window access of up-to-date scientifically sound information; (2) to identify knowledge gaps and to facilitate collaborative, problem-based research to fill these gaps; and (3) to encourage the free exchange and integration of information among all Canadian urban forest stakeholders. Summary: Some of the Centre's projects are Information Exchange, Cool Communities and Quantitree, York Region Tree Inventory Programme, Count Your Trees In, and Non-commercial Tree Planting. The Information Exchange project includes the development of a database of individuals and groups concerned with issues relating to Canada's urban forests; Newsletters; Requests for Information; and Internet Service. In the Cool Communities and Quantitree project, the Centre was approached by Tree Plan Canada's Ontario Regional Office and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources to develop a proposal for a project to demonstrate American Forest's Cool Communities Model. The York Region Tree Inventory Programme developed a programme to easily summarise tree information based on the location of the tree and its management history and/or requirements. The main objective of the Count Your Trees In project was to encourage citizens to look at their urban forests with a more critical eye. The Centre's contribution has been the development of a manual for the collection of tree data. In the Count Your Trees In project, the Urban Forests Centre worked in conjunction with Global ReLeaf and Active Living to develop a program that assists community groups conducting tree inventories in their neighbourhoods. Contact: Dr. Andrew Kenney (Director), Urban Forests Centre, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto; 33 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3BZ; E-mail: [email protected]
23 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas
For more than three to four decades, the body of literature on peri-urban studies in Canada has been continually growing, with agriculture being one of its major recurrent themes. Peri-urban zones, also called urban fringes, are the "interface zone between concentrated and dispersed population, and between urban and resource production systems."b0 Urban fringes are a rich study subject since they combine unique social and geographical dynamics where the properties of urban and rural landscapes interact, and where land use conversion rapidly occurs.
Beesley recently reviewed the development of peri-urban studies in Canada 61 He noted that urban fringe (later becoming rural and urban fringe) studies emerged as early as the 1950s, largely marked by Ralph Krueger's seminal work on the changing land use patterns of the Niagara fruit belt.6- Beesley described Krueger's work as forming the foundation for later urban fringe research in Canada.
Urban fringe research has many of its roots in land use analysis.63 Geographers and planners are especially concerned over continuing urban encroachment on rural landscapes and resources. In contrast to popular perception, only 11% (105 m ha) of Canada's agricultural land is suitable for production, and only 43% of this 105 m ha (45.9 ha) can grow crops.` Almost one third of Canada's farmland is located in the country's peri-urban zones.65 Approximately 55% of the country's high quality farmland (Canada Land Inventory Classes 1-3) is located within a 161 km radius of Canada's 23 largest urban centres 66 Ironically, much of Canada's rapid urban expansion, particularly since 1950, has taken place on this high-quality agricultural land.67
Warnings over the fragility of Canada's urban fringe productive resources and the value of preserving high-quality agricultural land have often been voiced. Some major concerns are the country's food production ability, its environmental and resource base protection and management, the diminishment of the social and economic life of the countryside, and deteriorating natural and scenic values.
Studies have demonstrated that a complex set of interacting forces and issues combine to affect agricultural land loss at the urban fringe. Scholars have also studied the various functions which urban fringes can perform, and the policies and management actions required for their preservation. The unit of research analysis varies from individual farmers to community groups, municipalities, provinces, and even to national and international levels. Some agriculture-related themes include farmer's perception and spatial behaviour, urban fringe agricultural dynamics, labour and farm diversification, capital investment, the role of rental of land, etc.68
24 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
The development of peri-urban studies in Canada is an unavoidable consequence of associated research. In relation to agriculture, some prominent scholars can be found in the Geography Department, University of Montreal (Dr. Chris Bryant); Geography Department, Simon Fraser University (Dr. John Pierce); Geography Department, York University (Dr. G. Walker), Scarborough College, University of Toronto (Dr. M. Bunce), Geography Department, University of Western Ontario (Dr. M.J. Troughton) and Trent University Agricultural College (Dr. K. Beesley).69 In addition, the Department of Geography and School of Rural Planning and Development, University of Guelph is also recognized for its expertise in rural-urban fringe studies.
Universities like Waterloo, York and Trent have included courses on rural and urban fringe issues since 1980s.70 The Department of Geography, University of Montreal also offers an undergraduate course (and will also be offering a graduate course) on peri-urban areas, in which agriculture is one of the major focuses (Case Study 6).7' Another landmark of the development of rural-urban fringe studies is the establishment of the Commission on the Sustainability of Rural Systems, to pursue work in urban-fringe agriculture.
25 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 6 Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas 72
Institution: Department of Geography, University of Montreal Course: Les grandes regions metropolitaines (undergraduate and graduate levels) Summary: One of the major foci of this course is on urban-fringe agriculture. The course considers the roles and functions of agricultural and open spaces in metropolitan structures and forms. These functions include production, landscape functions, environmental functions, social functions (food security, employment opportunities). It also considers the structure and dynamics of agricultural spaces in different spatial contexts (enclaves, semi-enclaves, broad open spaces); the forms of socio-economic organization and reproduction from agricultural and open spaces; management and planning challenges and opportunities for these spaces; and the link between these spaces and community. Contact: Dr. Chris Bryant (Vice-Chair of the Commission on the Sustainability of Rural Systems and Professor Geography Department, University of Montreal); Succursale Centre-Ville, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3C 3J7; Phone (514) 343 8000; Fax (514) 343 8008.
26 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
INTERNATIONAL URBAN AGRICULTURE
Although still limited, the term "urban agriculture," if placed in a developing-country context, would seem to enjoy more academic recognition than in the Canadian context. In part, this may due to the fact that the growing of crops and other food stuffs in developing-country cities is usually linked to peoples' survival strategies. Urban food cultivation is also inextricably linked to the developing world's economy, and thus, sounds more "legitimate" as an agricultural activity.
Many cities in the South produce a large portion of their food needs. In low-income cities, urban agriculture is even considered as the primary source of employment. In Kenya and Tanzania, for example, two out of three urban households are engaged in food production activities.'' Big cities in China produce 90% of their vegetable consumption74, and Kampala devotes 50% of its land for urban food production. Cities such as Addis Ababa, Harare, Dar es Salaam, to name but a few, are among the many southern cities where urban agriculture comprises a large portion of the urban economy.75
Academic interest and research on international urban agriculture are growing. Research themes are diverse but typically support, explicitly and implicitly, the concept of self-sufficiency and self-sustaining cities. As Smit and Nasr put it, "sustainable cities require an economic process to close the open loop system where consumables are imported into the urban areas and their remainders and packaging dumped as waste into the bioregion and biosphere."76
Major research themes within urban agriculture are associated with analyses of the various activities, actors, and institutions involved in urban food systems, from pre-production to production, post-production, distribution, consumption and disposal. These interrelated and overlapping components can be viewed from diverse social, economic, technical, political, and environmental dimensions. Unit analyses range from gender to the household, local, municipal, national and international level. Conceptually, urban agriculture is usually placed within the broader context of its potential contribution to overall sustainable development.
Among Canadian institutions, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) has been a world leader in supporting research and development of international urban agriculture. The Centre has worked in this area for several decades, and has sponsored basic and applied research for policy and technology intervention. Activities have included: North-South conferences; publications; training and capacity building for NGOs, academia and governmental agencies; outreach projects; regional and global networks for information dissemination; and collaboration among development support agencies.''
27 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Aside from the IDRC, more and more Canadian institutions and scholars are becoming interested in doing work on this subject. The Canadian Urban Institute (CUI), for instance, is participating in an urban agriculture project in Cuba. The growing interest is also reflected in the increasing amount of student research. When taught, urban agriculture is usually introduced in the context of Third World urbanization and food security (e.g. Department of Geography, University of Ottawa).
Yet, Canadian academic expertise in this area is still limited. At York University, scholars include Dr. Donald. B. Freeman, Department of Geography and Dr. Christine Furedy, Urban Studies. Dr. Freeman incorporates international urban agriculture in several of his geography courses on Third World development and environment. Dr. Furedy focuses her work primarily on solid waste reuse and its associated health aspects within the context of urban and peri-urban farming in Asian cities, notably Calcutta. She also introduces the topic in her courses on World Urbanization and Planning Sustainable Cities. At the University of Toronto, there is Dr. Joe Whitney of the Department of Geography, who has conducted research on human ecology and solid waste management in Khartoum.
At the University of British Columbia, international urban agriculture is also becoming popular. This is especially facilitated by the existence of the Centre for Human Settlements, which has conducted urban agriculture projects in Asia (Case Study 7). Dr. Aprodicio A. Laquian, the Director of the Centre, also incorporates the topic of urban agriculture in his graduate courses.
28 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Case Study 7 International Urban Agriculture 78
Institution: Centre for Human Settlements, University of British Columbia Project: Mega-urban Development in China's largest cities (Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou); funding from CIDA Centre of Excellence grant; $ 5.8 million for over six years (1991-1997) Summary: The project is jointly carried out with Tsinghua University, Beijing; Tongji University, Shanghai; and Zhongsan University, Guangzhou. One of the sectors being studied is water management in relation to urban agriculture. The project is looking at the way Chinese authorities allocate limited water resources to various sectors. Chinese regional and urban development policy provides for a secure food supply for large urban areas. From 20 to 30% of the working population of very large cities are often classified as agricultors and, under the old "household registration system," such agricultors are expected to produce their own grain supply. Urban water supply, therefore, must include provisions for irrigated agriculture aside from water for domestic consumption and industry. The project is also analyzing means/methods by which waste water can be used as an input to urban agriculture and various instruments and measures used by Chinese authorities in managing water for agriculture and urban purposes. This includes the institutional allocation of authority among local and central government agencies, technologies used for water distribution and recycling, and the costs and benefits of retaining highly priced land for urban agriculture. Contact: Dr. Aprodicio A. Laquian (Director, Centre for Human Settlements and Professor at University of British Columbia); Centre for Human Settlements, 2206 East Mall, 4th floor, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z3; Phone (604) 822-5254; Fax (604) 822-6164; E-mail: [email protected].
29 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
CONCLUSION
Urban agriculture encompasses a broad range of activities and dimensions which are difficult to conceptualize within any single framework or typology. In the Canadian setting, urban agriculture is not yet well recognized as a field in itself, especially in the sense of food production endeavors. This is mainly due to the still prevailing perception of a rural-urban divide, whereby agriculture is classified as a rural occupation with rural land use.
By contrast, growing food in cities is usually considered recreational and ephemeral. Other reasons include Canada's short growing season and the still relatively limited interest by federal and provincial agricultural authorities. The latter attitude, in particular, makes it even more difficult to generate research funding.
Canadian scientific and technological expertise in urban agriculture is patchy, with scholarly research and initiatives scattered among various "traditional" disciplines. On the one hand, this reflects the field's ample horizons and interdisciplinary nature. On the other hand, the general lack of recognition of this subject matter causes relevant studies to use different conceptual frameworks, terms, and language, which renders follow-up studies by other researchers extremely difficult. While overall there is a lack of concentrated research on urban agriculture, some sub-disciplines are attracting considerable interest. Urban forestry, urban entomology and peri-urban agriculture enjoy relatively high attention. Research and development on these subjects is growing, and expertise can be found in several universities and technical colleges.
Though still limited and relatively isolated from each other, some scholars have begun to pay attention to the urban food production phenomenon. This trend is especially linked to the widespread environmental movement which promotes the concept of sustainable cities. In the international context, Canadian academic interest is also growing, as is reflected by the increasing amount of research from both students and faculty.
30 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
END NOTES
1 The previous report documented urban agriculture initiatives within Canadian municipalities. See Frojmovic, Michel. "Urban Agriculture in Canada: A Survey of Municipal Initiatives in Canada and Abroad". Cities Feeding People Series, Report 16. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. 1996.
2. Some scientists may do work on animal husbandry in peri-urban areas. However, this is difficult to trace since they usually do not label or distinguish their work according to geographical boundaries.
3. Mougeot, Luc. African City Farming from a World Perspective: p.1. In "Cities Feeding People": p.1-24. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. 1994.
4. Lambert, Otten (Director and Professor School of Engineering, University of Guelph). "Letter to the author". August 28, 1996.; M.M. Dillon Limited and Cal Recovery Systems Incorporated. "Composting: A Literature Study": p. 7-1. Queen's Printer for Ontario. 1991.
5. Lambert, Otten. "Letter to the author".
6. Lavkulich, L.M. (Director of Institute for Resources and Environment and Professor at Department of Soil Science, University of British Columbia). "Personal communication". July 25, 1996.
7. Weber, Bev (Compost Program Officer of Residential Compost Program, Greater Vancouver Regional District). "Personal Communication." August, 1996.
8. This case study is from University of Guelph Homepage (http://www.uoguelph.ca).
9. Von Baeyer, Edwinna. "Rhetoric and Roses: A History of Canadian Gardening 1900- 1930". Fitzhenry and Whiteside Ltd., Markham, Ontario. 1984.; Hough, Michael. "Cities and Natural Process". Routledge, London and New York. 1995.
10. Hough, Michael. "Cities and Natural Process".
31 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
11. Guppy, Susan (Director and Professor, Department of Urban and Rural Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Nova Scotia). "Personal Communication". September 3, 1996.
12. Hill, Stuart. B (Director of Ecological Agriculture Project, and Professor at Department of Entomology, MacDonald Campus, McGill University). "Personal Communication". August 19, 1996.; Bryant, Chris (Professor, Department of Geography, University of Montreal). "Personal Communication". September 16, 1996.
13. Hough, Michael. "Cities and Natural Process".
14. For instance Dr. Gerda Wekerlee, Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University is researching the various types and traditions of urban gardens from different ethnic groups/Canadian immigrants (Wekerlee, Gerda. "Personal Communication". July 30, 1996); Dr. Ian Wight, City Planning, University of Manitoba, is also considering incorporating urban agriculture issues in his regional landscape planning studio (Wight, Ian. "Personal Communication". August 16, 1996).
15. This information is from University of Saskatchewan homepage (http://www. usaskat.ca) and Okanagan University College homepage (http://www.ouc.bc.ca).
16. This information is from course outline, City Form and Natural Process, prepared by Michael Hough.
17. Wagner, Judith in Naimark, Susan (Ed.)." A Handbook of Urban Gardening": p.5. Boston Urban Gardeners, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 1982.
18. Muirhead, Barbara. "The Contribution of Community Open Space to Placemaking". Major Paper for the degree of Master in Environmental Studies, York University, Ontario, Canada. 1992.
19. Cosgrove, Sean. "Une histoire de deux villes: Canadian Community Gardening in Montreal and Toronto". Cities Feeding People Series, Report 11. 1994.
20. Quayle, Moura (Director and Professor Landscape Architecture Program, University of British Columbia)."Personal Communication". September 11, 1996.
21. Lockeretz, William. Alternative Agriculture. In "New Direction for Agriculture and Agricultural Research: Neglected Dimensions and Emerging Alternatives": p. 291-311.
32 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
K.A. Dhalberg (Ed.). CAB International. 1986.
22. Lockeretz in Lampkin, Nicolas. Organic Farming: Sustainable Agriculture in Practise. In "The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective": p.3-9. N.H.Lampkin and Spadel (Eds.). CAB International. 1995.
23. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod. J. MacRae. Organic Farming in Canada. "Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment". 39: p. 71-84. 1992.
24. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. "Organic Farming in Canada".
25. Lampkin, Nicolas. Organic Farming: Sustainable Agriculture in Practise: p.4-5. In "The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective": p.3-9. N.H. Lampkin and S. Padel (Eds.). CAB International, 1995.
26. Tate, W. B. The Development of the Organic Industry and Market: An International Perspective. In "The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective": p.11- 25. N.H. Lampkin and S. Padel (Eds.). CAB International. 1995
27. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. " Organic Farming in Canada".
28. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. Developing Sustainable Agriculture Education in Canada. "Agriculture and Human Values": p. 92-95. Fall, 1988.
29. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. "Organic Farming in Canada".
30. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. "Organic Farming in Canada".
31. Evans, John. Home Food Production in Newfoundland. "Alternative": p. 19-22. (?)
32. Hill, Stuart B. "Personal Communication". August 19, 1996.
33. This information is from EAP brochure and personal communication with Stuart B. Hill, August 19, 1996.
34. Mollison, Bill. "Permaculture Two: Practical Design for Town and Country in Permanent Agriculture": p.1. Tagari, Australia. 1979.
35. Department of Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIA OC7.
33 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
36. Kuhn, Monica. Rooftop Resource. "Natural Life". (1). August, 1995. (This article is from CityFarmer Homepage - http://www.cityfarmer.org)
37. For example Rooftop Gardens Resource Group. 14 Sackville Place, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada M4X 1 A4. Phone (416) 923 9034.
38. Anonym. "High Rise Horticulture: Every Twenty Storeys, Perhaps One Good Plot". (?). This article is available at Ecological Agricultural Project, MacDonald Campus, McGill University.
39. Kuhn, Monica (Architect, specialized in Rooftop Gardens and Permaculture Design) "Personal Communication". September, 1996.
40. Sijpkes, Peter (Professor, School of Architecture, McGill University). "Personal Communication". September, 1996.
41. Gilkeson, Linda. Integrated Pest Management: p.l. In "Green Cities: Ecologically Sound Approaches to Urban Space": p.159-168. D. Gordon (Ed.). Black Rose Books, Ltd. Montreal, New York. 1990.
42. Gilkeson, Linda. "Integrated Pest Management": p. 160.
43. Brewer, J.W. and R.E. Stevens. Integrated Pest Management of Outdoor Ornamental Plants: p. 441. In "Urban Entomology: Interdisciplinary Perspectives": p. 441-458. G.W. Frankie and C.S. Koehler (Eds.). Praeger, New York. 1983.
44. Racke, K.D. Urban Pest Control Scenarios and Chemicals: p.3. In "Pesticides in Urban Environments": p.2-9. K.D. Racke and A.R. Leslie (Eds.). American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. 1993.
45. Olkowski, W., H. Olkowski, T. Dtlik, N. Heidler, M. Minter, R. Zuparko, L. Lamb, and L. Orthel. Pest Control Strategies in Urban Integrated Pest Management: p.215. In "Pest Control Strategies": p. 215-34. E.H. Smith and D. Pimentel (Eds.). Academic Press, New York. 1978.
46. Olkowski, W., H. Olkowski, T. Dtlik, N. Heidler, M. Minter, R. Zuparko, L. Lamb, and L. Orthel. "Pest Control Strategies in Urban Integrated Pest Management": p.215.
47. Hopkins, Raymond. F. Food Security, Policy Options and the Evolution of State Responsibility: p. 11. In "Food, the State, and International Political Economy: Dilemmas
34 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
of Developing Countries". F. LaMond Tullis and W. Ladd Hollist (Eds.). University of Nebraska Press, London. 1986.
48. Evans, John. "Home Food Production in Newfoundland".
49. Koc, Mustafa (Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Ryerson Polytechnic University; a member of Toronto Food Policy Council; and the Coordinator of the Centre for Studies in Food Security). "Personal Communication". September 11, 1996.
50. This information is from Mustafa Koc. "Personal Communication". September 11, 1996.
51. Jorgensen, Erik. "Urban Forestry in Canada". Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Canada. 1970.
52. Jorgensen, Erik. "Urban Forestry in Canada": p.16.
53. Grey, G.W. and F.J. Daneke. "Urban Forestry" (2nd Ed.): p. 14. John Wiley and Sons, U.S.A. 1986.
54. Jorgensen, Erik. Preservation of Trees and Urban Spaces: Required Policies and Desirable Legislation: p.73. In "Urban Forestry: Myth or Reality (French version: La foresterie urbaine: mythe ou realite): p.73-86. Association forestirie quebecoise Inc. and Societe internationale d'arboriculture - Quebec Inc. University of Laval, Quebec. Proceedings of the International Urban Forestry Symposium, May 24-27, 1979.
55. Bradley, Gordon. Urban Forest Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives: p.4. In "Urban Forests Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives": p. 3-11. G.A. Bradley (Ed.). University of Washington Press, Seattle, London. 1995.
56. Bradley, Gordon. "Urban Forest Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives".
57. Bradley, Gordon. "Urban Forests Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives".
58. This information is from the Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto homepage (http://www.utoronto.ca/forest/fachome.htm).
59. This information is from the University of Toronto homepage (http://www.utoronto.ca).
35 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
60. Russwurm. "The Surroundings of Our Cities":p. 16. Community Planning Press, Ottawa. 1977.
61. Beesley, K.B. Introduction: Rural and Urban Fringe Studies in Canada: Retrospect and Prospect. In "Rural Urban Fringe Studies in Canada": p. 1-44. K.B. Beesley (Ed.). Geography Department, York University, Geographical Monographs, No.21, 1991.
62. See Krueger, R.R. Changing Land Use Patterns in the Niagara Fruit Belt. "Transaction of the Royal Canadian Institute". 32 (67): 39-140. 1959.
63. Beesley, K.B. "Introduction: Rural and Urban Fringe Studies in Canada: Retrospect and Prospect".
64. Furuseth and Pierce in Pierce, J.T. "Resource and Economic Considerations in the Allocation of Agricultural Land in Peri-Urban Areas: A Canadian Perspective". Elsevier Science Publichers, B.V., Amsterdam. 1983.
65. Pierce, J.T. "Resource and Economic Considerations in the Allocation of Agricultural Land in Peri-Urban Areas: A Canadian Perspective".
66. Smit, Barry and Chris Cocklin. Future Urban Growth and Agricultural Land: Alternatives for Ontario. "Ontario Geography": p. 47. (18): p. 47-55. 1981.
67. Pierce, J.T. "Resource and Economic Considerations in the Allocation of Agricultural Land in Peri-Urban Areas: A Canadian Perspective".
68. Bryant, Chris (Professor, Department of Geography, University of Montreal and Vice- Chair of the Commission on the Sustainability of Rural Systems). "Personal Communication". September 16, 1996.
69. Bryant, Chris. "Personal Communication".
70. Beesley, K. B. "Introduction: Rural and Urban Fringe Studies in Canada: Retrospect and Prospect".
71. Bryant, Chris. "Personal Communication".
72. This information is from Chris Bryant. "Personal Communication".
36 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
73. Mangizira Institute in Smit, Jac and Joe Nasr. Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities: Using Wastes and Idle Land and Water Bodies as Resources: p. 142. "Environment and Urbanization". 4(2): p. 141-152. October, 1992.
74. Smit, Jac and Joe Nasr. "Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities: Using Wastes and Idle Land and Water Bodies as Resources": p.142.
75. Tinker, Irene. Urban Agriculture is Already Feeding Cities: p. xi. In "Cities Feeding People: An Examination of Urban Agriculture in East Africa": p. v-xiv. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. 1994.
76. Smit, Jac and Joe Nasr. "Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities: Using Wastes and Idle Land and Water Bodies as Resources": p. 141.
77. For more detailed information on IDRC's initiatives on urban agriculture, contact Luc Mougeot or BrendaLee Wilson, whose addresses are indicated in Appendix 1. See also IDRC's web site home page on Cities Feeding People Program Initiative (http://www.idrc.ca).
78. Laquian, A.A. "Personal Communication". September 17, 1996.
37 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 1 List of Contacts
URBAN AGRICULTURE IN CANADA
Waste Management
Dr. Lambert Often (Director and Professor, School of Engineering, Univeristy of Guelph). Areas of research: Integrated solid waste management, composting of municipal solid waste (focusing on composting science and technology such as sampling techniques, odour control, policy development, use of compost, etc.); food and farm waste composting; thermal and mass transfer properties of biological products; grain drying, handling and storage; microwave applications in animal heating, treatment of hypothermia and food processing. Also involved in waste management and composting in developing countries. Address: School of Engineering, University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1. Phone: (519) 824-4120 Ext.2434; Fax: (519) 836-0227
Dr. Arthur. A. Bomke (Professor, Department of Soil Science) University of British Columbia) Address: Department of Soil Science, University of British Columbia, Room 139, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4. Phone: (604) 822-2783; Fax: (604) 822- 8639.
Dr. L. M. Lavkulich (Director, Institute for Resources and Environment; Professor, Department of Soil Science, University of British Columbia). Address: Institute for Resources and Environment, Room 436 E - 2206 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z3. Phone: (604) 822-9249; Fax: (604) 822-9250
38 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 1 List of Contacts
Urban Farming/Gardening
Dr. Michael Hough (Landscape architect and Professor, Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University) Address: (1) Faculty of Environmental Studies, Lumbers Building, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3. Phone: (416)736-5252; Fax: (416)736-5679 (2) Hough Woodland Naylor Dance Ltd. (Principal) 916 The East Mall, Suite B, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9B 6K1. Phone: (416) 620 6577; Fax: (416) 620-9546
Dr. Susan Guppy (Director and Professor, Department of Urban and Rural Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Nova Scotia). Areas of research: Environmental costs of habitation (especially suburbs), urban ecology. Address: Department of Urban and Rural Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Nova Scotia, PO Box 1000, Halifax, Canada B3J 2X4. Phone: (902) 420 2621; Fax: (902) 423 6672; e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Gerda Wekerlee (Professor, Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University) Areas of research: Urban planning, urban sociology, social planning/social policy, social movements, women and environments, gender and public policy, housing, qualitative research methods. Address: Faculty of Environmental Studies, Lumbers Building, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3. Phone: (416) 736 5252; e-mail: [email protected]
Sara Williams (Program coordinator, Saskatchewan's Master. Gardener program) Address: Extension Division, University of Saskatchewan 108 Kirk Hall, Saskatoon, Canada S7N 5C8. Phone: (306) 966 5593; Fax: (306) 966 5567
Horticulture Program (Distance Education), Okanagan University College in collaboration with University of Guelph.
Extension Service Department; Okanagan University College, 1000 KLO Road, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada V1Y 4X8. Phone: (604) 862-5458 or 1-800-836-5499 (toll free within B.C)
39 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 1 List of Contacts
Community Gardening
Dr. Moura Quayle (Director and Professsor, Landscape Architecture Program, University of British Columbia). Address: Landscape Architecture Program, University of British Columbia, 248-2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4. Phone: (604) 822 6180; Fax: (604) 822-1660; e-mail: [email protected]
Organic Farming/Gardening
Dr. Stuart B. Hill (Associate Director, Ecological Agriculture Project and Professor, Department of Natural Resource Sciences, MacDonald College, McGill University) Address: Ecological Agriculture Project, Centennial Centre CCB13, MacDonald Campus, McGill University, 21, 111 Lake Shore Road, Ste-Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada H9X 3V9 Phone: (514) 398 7771; Fax: (514) 398 7621
Dr. John Henning (Acting Director, Ecological Agriculture Project and Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, MacDonald College, McGill Univeristy). Address: Ecological Agriculture Project (see above). Phone: (514) 398 7826.
Permaculture
Phil Ferraro (Director); Institute for Bioregional Studies; 449 University Avenue Suite 126; Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada Cl A-8K3. Phone: (902) 892-9578; e-mail ([email protected]); website (http://www.cycor.ca/IBS).
Greenhouses
Research Branch, Department of Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A OC7. Phone: (613) 759 1000.
Rooftop Gardening
Rooftop Gardens Resource Group.14 Sackville Place, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4X 1A4; Phone: (416) 923 9034.
Dr. Peter Sijpkes (Professor, School of Architecture, McGill University). Address: School of Architecture, McGill University, 845 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2T5. Phone: (514) 398 6700
40 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 1 List of Contacts
Urban Pest Management
Dr. Timothy. G. Myles (Director); Urban Entomology Program, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto Address: Urban Entomology Program, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, 33 Willcocks, St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3B3. Phone: (416) 978 978
Alain VanRyckeghem Address: Environmental Pest Management Program, Sir Sandford Flemming College, P.O. Box 8000 Lindsay, Ontario, Canada K9V 5E6; e-mail: ([email protected]).
A. D. Tomlin; D. G. R. McLeod; L. V. Moore; J. W. Whistlecraft; J. J. Miller; J. H. Tolman Address: Research Centre, Agriculture Canada, 1400 Western Road, London, Ontario, Canada NG6 2V4
K.R.Solomon, S.A. Harris, and G.R. Stephenson. Address: Centre for Toxicology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N I G' I Y3. Phone: (519) 824 4120.
Food Security
Dr. Mustafa Koc (board member, Toronto Food Policy Council; Coordinator, Centre for Studies in Food Security; professor, Department of Sociology, Ryerson Polytechnic University). Areas of research: Food and agriculture (dealing mostly with development and agricultural transformation in a global economy). Address: Department of Sociology, Centre for Studies in Food Security, Ryerson Polytechnic University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5B 2K3. E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Jennifer Welsh (President, Canadian Association of Research on Home Economics; Professor, School of Nutrition, Consumer and Family Studies, Ryerson Polytechnic University). Address: School of Nutrition, Consumer and Family Studies, Centre for Studies in Food Security, Ryerson Polytechnic University (See the above address). Phone: (416) 979 5000, ext. 6931; Fax: (416) 979 5204; e-mail: [email protected]
41 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 1 List of Contacts
Robin Young (PhD Candidate, Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University; member, Toronto Food Research Network). Areas of Research: Global food Security, urban agriculture, and older women and poverty in urban context. Address: Faculty of Environmental Studies, Lumbers Building, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3. Phone: (416) 487 5281, ext. 210; Fax: (416) 467 5328
Urban Forestry
Dr. W. Andrew Kenney (Director), Urban Forests Centre, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. Address: Urban Forests Centre, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, 33 Wilicocks Stree, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3B2. Phone: (416) 978 0474; Fax (416) 978 3834; e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. M. Pineau (Professor, Faculty of Forestry and Geomatique, University of Laval). Address: Faculty de Foresterie et de geomatique, Pavillion Abitibi - Price, Universite Laval, Quebec, Canada G1K 7P4. Phone: (418) 656 2131, ext. 7239; Fax (418) 656 3177
Urban Tree and Park Management Programs, School of Natural Resources, Sir Sanford Flemming College, P.O. Box 8000 Lindsay, Ontario, Canada K9V 5E6.
Horticulture Program, Okanagan University College in collaboration with University of Guelph (see section Urban Farming/Gardening).
Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas
Dr. Chris Bryant (Professor, Department of Geography, University of Montreal). Areas of Research: Urban fringe agriculture, open space management in urban and metropolitan regions, local and community development, the dynamics and management of agricultural spaces in inner urban fringe and metropolitan areas (Canada and Western Europe). Address: Department of Geography, Universite de Montreal, Succursale Centre-ville, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3C 3J7. Phone: (514) 343 8000; Fax (514) 343-8008.
Dr. J.T. Pierce (Chair and Professor, Department of Geography, Simon Fraser University). Address: Department of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5A 1S6. Phone: (604) 291 3321; Fax (604) 291 5841; e-mail: john [email protected]
42 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 1 List of Contacts
Dr. Michael John Troughton (Professor, Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario). Research interests: Agricultural geography in Canadian context (eg. the industrialization of modern agriculture); development of rural settlement in Canada, rural planning and development, development of rural-urban fringe, especially land use and agricultural impacts of urban expansion. Address: Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A S2C. Phone: (519) 679-2111; Fax: (519) 661-3292; e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. K. Beesley (Professor, Department of Geography, Trent University) Address: Department of Geography, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada K9J 7B8 Phone: (705) 748 1011
Dr. M. F. Bunce (Professor, Department of Geography, Scarborough College, University of Toronto). Address: Department of Geography, Scarborough College, University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada M 1 C 1A4.
Dr. Gerald E. Walker (Professor, Department of Geography, York University). Address: Department of Geography, S410 Ross Building, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3. Phone: (416) 736 5106.
INTERNATIONAL URBAN AGRICULTURE
Dr. Aprodicio A. Laquian (Director, Centre for Human Settlements; and Professor, Community and Regional Planning, University of British Columbia). Address: Centre for Human Settlements, 2206 East Mall, 4th Floor, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z3. Phone: (604) 822 5254; Fax (604) 822-6164.
Dr. Christine Furedy (Professor, Urban Studies Program, York University) Areas of Research: Solid wastes and waste reuse/recycling in urban and peri-urban farming, public health and environmental aspects of solid waste reuse. Address: Urban Studies Program, Faculty of Arts, York University, 24 Astley Avenue, Toronto, Canada M4W 3B4. Phone: (416) 924-2484; Fax (416) 962-4253; e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Donald. B. Freeman (Professor, Department of Geography, York University). Address: Department of Geography, S410 Ross Building, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3. Phone: (416) 736-5107; Fax: (416) 736-5988; e-mail: [email protected]
43 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 1 List of Contacts
Dr. Joe Whitney (Profesor, Department of Geography, University of Toronto) Address: Department of Geography, University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, Canada M5S 1Al. E-mail: [email protected]
Lisa Cavicchia (Project Officer) Canadian Urban Institute 6th Floor, St.Patrick Towers, 30 St. Patrick Street, Toronto, Ontario Canada M5T 3A3. Phone: (416) 598 4653; Fax: (416) 598 5145; e-mail: 76212.3004@compuserve. com
44 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Waste Management
Canada
Anonym. "Composting of Domestic and Municipal Waste in an Urban Setting": May 30- 31, 1991, Ramada Renaissance du Parc, Montreal, Quebec. Compostage des dechets domestiques et municipaux dans un contexte urbain, 30 et 31 mai 1991, Ramada Renaissance du Parc, Montreal, Quebec. Technical University of Nova Scotia, Halifax, Nova Scotia. 1991.
Lambert, Otten. "Composting Operations in Canada". Environment Canada, Ottawa, Canada. 1993.
M. M. Dillon Limited and Cal Recovery Systems Incorporated. "Composting: A Literature Study". Queen's Printer for Ontario. 1991.
Petit, J. "Compost: theories et pratiques". Editions du mouvement pour 1'agriculture biologique au Quebec (MAB), Montreal, Quebec. 1977.
The Composting Council of Canada. "National Survey of Composting Operations in Canada" (2nd ed.). Environment Canada, Ottawa, Canada. 1995.
45 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Urban Gardening/Farming
General
Olkowski, H. and W. Olkowski. "The City People's Book of Raising Food". Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pa. 1975.
MacLean, J.T. "Urban Horticulture, 1970-1985". U.S. National Agricultural Library, Quick Bibliography Series. 1985.
Maclean, J. T. "Urban and Community Gardening, 1970-1984". U.S. National Agricultural Library, Quick Bibliography Series. 1984.
Todd, John and George Tukel. "Reinhabiting Cities and Towns: Designing for Sustainability." Planet Drum Foundation, San Francisco, California, 1981.
Canada
Archibald, C. "City of Toronto Support for Urban Food Production: Creating a Garden City". City of Toronto Interdeparmental Technical Working Group on Urban Food Production. City Clerks Department, City Hall, Toronto, Canada. November, 1993.
Brule, Liz. Urban Agriculture. "Probe Post": p. 26-29. Fall, 1986.
Cosgrove, Sean. "Metropolitan Agriculture in Victoria, B.C." Master's Thesis for the Faculty of Environmental Design, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. 1990.
Eguillor, P. "Urban Food Production: A Seed for Sustainable Cities ?" Master's Thesis in Planning, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. 1993.
Gordon, D (Ed.). "Green Cities: Ecologically Sound Approaches to Urban Space". Black Rose Books, New York. 1990.
Hough, Michael. "Cities and Natural Process". Routledge, London. 1995.
Von Baeyer, Edwinna. "Rhetoric and Roses: A History of Canadian Gardening". Fitzhenry & Whiteside Ltd, Markham, Ontario, Canada. 1984.
46 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Community Gardening
Canada
Jaakson, Reiner and Grant R. Peart. Allotment Gardens. "Plan Canada". 19 (2): p. 141- 152. June, 1979.
Muirhead, Barbara. "The Contribution of Community Open Space to Placemaking". Major Paper for Master in Environmental Studies. Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Ontario, Canada. 1992.
National Capital Commission. "The Ottawa Allotment Garden Program". National Capital Commission, Ottawa. 1975.
Ontario Public Interest Research Group (OPIRG). "The Growing City: A Guide to Urban Community Gardening in Toronto". Toronto, Canada. 1986.
Quayle Moura. Canadian Community Gardens: A Sustainable Legacy. "Landscape Architectural Review": p. 17-20. March, 1989.
Quayle, Moura. 1989. The Changing Community Garden: Legitimizing Non-traditional Open Spaces. "Landscape Architectural Review": p. 23-27. May 1989.
Quayle, Moura and Paul Sangha. "Report on Community Gardening in Canada". University of British Columbia, B.C., Canada. 1986.
Recreation, Parks and Community Development Department. "Montreal's Community Gardens Program". Ville de Montreal. June, 1994.
Organic Farming/Gardening
Canada
Henning, John. Economics of Organic Farming in Canada. In "The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective": p. 143-160. N. H. Lampkin and S. Padel (Eds.). CAB International. 1995.
47 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Hill, S.B. and MacRae, R.J. Organic Farming in Canada. Agriculture. "Ecosystem and Environment". 39 (1/2). 1992.
MacRae, R.J., J.C. Henning, and S.B. Hill. "Financing Sustainable Agriculture: Current Problems and New Strategies". Ecological Agriculture Projects, McGill University, Quebec. 1989.
Canadian Organic Growers (COG). "Organic Resource Guide" (3rd Ed.). Canadian Organic Growers, 1995.
Ecological Agriculture Projects. "An Organic Garden". Ecological Agriculture Projects, MacDonald College, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec. 1989.
Gagnon, Yves. "La culture ecologique". Les editions colloidales, St-Didace, Quebec. 1990.
Permaculture
General
Mollison, Bill. "Permaculture Two: Practical Design for Town and County in Permanent Agriculture". Tagari, Australia. 1979.
Mollison, Bill. "Permaculture: Practical Guide for Sustainable Future". 1990.
Mollison, Bill. "Introduction to Permaculture". 1993.
Todd, Nancy Jack and John Todd. "Bioshelters, Ocean Arks, City Farming: Ecology as the Basis of Design". Sierra Club Books, San Francisco. 1984.
48 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Greenhouses
Canada
Anonym. (English Version) "Energy-conserving Urban Greenhouses for Canada: Construction and Management". Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Canada. 1987.
Anonym. (French Version) Les economies d'energie dans les serres urbaines au Canada: construction et exploitation.
Craft, Mark A. and Terry Lyster. Winter Greens: Solar Greenhouses for Cold Climates. Undated.
Klein, M. "Horticultural Management of Solar Greenhouses in the Northeast". The Memphremagog Group, Newport, VT. 1980.
Gilkeson, L and M. Klein. "A Guide to the Biological Control of Greenhouse Aphids". Ark Project, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada. 1981.
49 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Urban Pest Management
General
Bennet, G.W. and J.Mowens (Eds.). "Advances in Urban Pest Management". Van Nostrand Reindholt Company, New York. 1986.
Frankie, G.W. and C.S. Koehler (Eds.). "Urban Entomology: Interdisciplinary Perspectives". Praeger, New York. 1983.
Olkowski, W. and H.Olkowski. Urban Integrated Pest Management. "Journal of Arboriculture". 4(11): 241-46. 1978.
Olkowski, W., H. Olkowski, R. van den Bosch, and R. Hom. Ecosystem Management: A Framework for Urban Pest Control. "BioScience". 26(6): p.383-89. 1978
Olkowski, W., H. Olkowski, T. Dtlik, N. Heidler, M. Minter, R. Zuparko, L. Lamb, and L. Orthel. Pest Control Strategies in Urban Integrated Pest Management. In "Pest Control Strategies": p.215-34. E.H. Smith and D. Pimentel (Eds.). Academic Press, New York. 1978.
Racke, K.D. and A.R. Leslie (Eds.). "Pesticides in Urban Environments: Fate and Significance". American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. 1993.
Canada
Czerwinski, C and M.B. Isman. Urban Pest Management: Decision- making and Social Conflict in Control of Gypsy Moth in West-coast Cities. "Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America". 32(1): p. 36-41. 1986.
Gilkeson, Linda. Integrated Pest Management. In "Green Cities: Ecologically Sound Approaches to Urban Space": p.159-168. D.Gordon. (Ed.). Black Rose Books, Ltd. Montreal, New York. 1990.
K.M.S. Sundara. "Persistence and Fate of Methoxychlor Used for Elm betle Control in the Urban Environment of the National Capital Area." Report, Chemical Control Research Institute, Canada. 1976.
50 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Miles, J.R.W.and C.R. Harris. Organochlorine Insecticide Residues in Streams Draining Agricultural, Urban-agricultural, and Resort Areas of Ontario, Canada - 1971. "Pesticide Monitoring Journal". 6(4): p.363-368
Steiner, M. and D. Elliott. "Biological Pest Management for Interior Plantscapes" (2nd Ed.). Alberta Environmental Centre, Vegreville, Alberta. 1978.
Solomon, K.R., S.A. Harris, and G.R. Stephenson. Applicator and Bystander Exposure to Home Garden and Landscape Pesticides. In K.D. Racke and A.R. Leslie (Eds.). "Pesticides in Urban Environments: Fate and Significance": p. 263-74. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. 1993.
Tomlin, A.D., D.G.R. McLEod, L.V. Moore, J.W. Whistlecraft, J.J. Miller, J.H. Tolman. Dispersal of Aleochara bilineata (Col.: Staphylinidae) Following Inundative Releases in Urban Gardens. "Entomophaga". 37 (1): p. 55-63. 1992.
Yeary, R.A. and J.A. Leonard. 1993. Measurement Pesticides in Air During Application to Lawns, Trees, and Shrubs in Urban Environments. In "Pesticides in Urban Environments: Fate and Significance": p.275-281. K.D. Racke and A.R. Leslie (Eds.). American Chemical Society, Washington, U.S.A.
51 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Food Security
General
Bakker, J. I. Introduction: Food Production, Distribution and Exchange: Conceptualizing Food Security and Insecurity in Comparative International and Multidisciplinary Perspective. In "The World Food Crisis: Food Security in Comparative Perspective". J. I. Bakker (Ed.). Canadian Scholar's Press Inc., Toronto, Canada. 1990.
Erlich, Paul R.; Anne H. Ehrlich, and G.C. Daily. Food Security, Population, and Environment. "Population and Development Review". 19 (1): p. 1-32. March, 1993.
MacRae, R. So, Why is the City of Toronto Concerned about Food and Agriculture Policy? A Short History of the Toronto Food Policy Council. "Culture and Agriculture". 50:p. 15-18. 1994.
Warnock, John W. "The Politics of Hunger: The Global Food System". Methuen Publications, Toronto. 1987.
52 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Urban Forestry
General
Albrecht, J. "Urban Forestry: A Bibliography". International Society of Arboriculture, Savoy, IL. 1993.
Bradley, Gordon (Ed.). "Urban Forests Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives". University of Washington Press, Seattle, London. 1995.
Braatz, S.M. Urban Forestry in Developing Countries: Status and Issues. In "Growing Greener Communities: Proceedings of the Sixth National Urban Forest Conference, Minneapolis, MN, Sep. 14-18, 1993": p. 85-88. American Forests, Washington, DC. 1994.
Carter, E.J. "The Potential of Urban Forestry in Developing Countries: A Concept Paper". Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization. 1993.
Grey, G.W. and F.J. Danneke. "Urban Forestry" (2nd Ed.). New York, Wiley: 1986.
Moll, G. Anatomy of the Urban Forest. "American Forests". 94(7/8): p. 22-24, 74-74. 1988.
Nowak, D.J. Understanding the Structure of Urban Forests. "Journal of Forestry". 92(10): p. 42-46. 1994.
Olembo, R.J. and P. de Rham. Urban Forestry in Two Different Worlds. "Unasylva". 39 (1): p. 26-35.
Rodbell, P.D. (Ed.). "Proceedings of the Fifth National Urban Forest Conference", Nov. 1991. American Forestry Association, Los Angeles, Washington, DC. 1991.
Willeke, D.C. Seeing Around Corners: Emerging Issues in Urban Forestry. "Journal of Forestry". 92(10): 16-18. 1994.
Canada
Andersen, J.W. and W.B. Granger. Metropolitan Toronto's Urban Forests: History and Future. "Arboricultural Journal". 10: p. 309-18. 1986.
53 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Blouin, G. and R. Comeau (Eds.). "First Canadian Urban Forests Conference, Winnipeg, May 30 - June 2, 1993". Canadian Forestry Association, Ottawa. 1993.
Crombie, David. "Regeneration: Toronto's Waterfront and the Sustainable City". Queen's Printer of Ontario. 1992.
Desbiens, E. Urban Forestry in Quebec. "Journal of Arboriculture". 14(1): p. 24-26. 1988.
Jorgensen, Erik. The History of Urban Forestry in Canada. In "First Canadian Urban Forests Conference, Winnipeg, May 30 - June 2, 1993". Blouin, G. and R. Comeau (Eds.). Canadian Forestry Association, Ottawa. 1993.
Morley, P.M. 1988. Urban Forestry in North York. "Forestry Chronicle". 64(4): p. 360- 64. 1988.
Morsink, W.A.G. et al.. An Urban Forestry Strategy for Ontario. "Forestry Chronicle". 65(2): 97-101. 1989.
Urban Forest Working Group. "Sustainable Forests in Urban Ontario: A Framework for an Ontario Urban Forest Strategy". Queen's Printer of Ontario. 1995.
54 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas
Canada
Beesley, Kenneth B. (Ed.). "Rural Urban Fringe Studies in Canada." Geographical Monographs No. 21. Geography Department, Atkinson College, York University, Toronto. 1991.
Bryant, C. R. Some New Perspectives of Agricultural Land Use in the Rural-urban Fringe. "Ontario Geography". 10: p. 64-78. 1976.
Bryant, C. R. The Recent Evolution of Farming Landscapes in Urban-centred Regions. "Landscape Planning". 11: p.307-326. 1984.
Bryant, C. R. Agriculture in the Urban Fringe: A Systems Perspective. "Rural Systems".
1 1 :p . 1-15. 1985.
Bunce, M. F. Agricultural Land as a Real Estate Commodity: Implications for Farmland Preservation in the North American Urban Fringe. "Landscape Planning". 12: p. 177-192. 1985.
Deslauriers, Pierre; Chris Bryant; and Claude Marois. Farm Business Restructuring in the Urban Fringe: The Toronto and Montreal Regions. "Contemporary Rural Systems in Transition". Vol.1: Agriculture and Environment: p. 74-85. CAB International. 1992.
Krueger, R. R. Changing Land Use Patterns in the Niagara Fruit Belt. "Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute". 32(67): p. 39-140. 1959.
Krueger, R. R. The Struggle to Preserve Specialty Crop Land in the Rural-Urban Fringe of the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario. In "The Pressures of Change in Rural Canada": p. 292-313. M.F. Bunce and M. J. Throughton (Eds). Geographical Monographs No. 14, Atkinson College, York Univeristy, Toronto. 1984.
Pierce, J. T. Resource and Economic Considerations in the Allocation of Agricultural Land in Peri-urban Areas: A Canadian Perspective. " Landscape Planning". 10: p. 363-388. 1983.
Smit, B and C. Coklin. Future Urban Growth and Agricultural Land: Alternatives for Ontario. "Ontario Geography": 18: p. 47-56. 1981.
55 Urban Agriculture: a Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
Troughton, M. J. The Rural-urban Fringe: A Challenge to Resource Management ?. In "The Rural-urban Fringe: Canadian Perspectives": p. 218-43. K. B. Beesley and L. H. Russwurm (Eds.). Geographical Monographs No. 10, Atkinson College, York Univeristy, Toronto. 1981.
Troughton, M. J. The Policy and Legislative Response to Loss of Agricultural Land in Canada. "Ontario Geography". 18: p. 79-109. 1981.
Walker, G. Farmers in the Urban Shadow: A Behavioural Profile. In "The Rural Urban Fringe: Canadian Perspectives": p. 185-198. K. B. Beesley and L. H. Russwurm (Eds.). Geographical Monographs No. 10, Atkinson College, York University, Toronto. 1981.
Walker, G. E. Farmers in the Urban Shadow: The Neighbourhood Effect and Neighbourhoods. "Ontario Geography". 22: p. 29-46. 1983.
56 Urban Agriculture: a Survey ofAcademic Expertise and Programs in Canada
Appendix 2 Bibliography
INTERNATIONAL URBAN AGRICULTURE
Canada
Djabatey, Raphael. "A Spatial Analysis of Urban Agriculture in the Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana". Paper presented at Joint International Congress, Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning and Association of European Schools of Planning, Ryerson Polytechnic University, Toronto, July 26-28, 1996.
Egziabher, A.G. et al. "Cities Feeding People: An Examination of Urban Agriculture in East Africa". International Development Research Centre, Ottawa. 1994.
Freeman, Donald B. "A City of Farmers: Informal Urban Agriculture in the Open Spaces of Nairobi, Kenya". McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal. 1991.
Furedy, C. "Solid Waste Management and Urban Agriculture: Planning Dilemmas in Developing Countries". Paper presented at Joint International Congress, Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning and Association of European Schools of Planning, Ryerson Polytechnic University, Toronto, July 26-28, 1996.
Furedy, C. Garbage: Exploring Non-conventional Options in Asian Cities. "Environment and Urbanization". 4(2): p. 42-61. October, 1992.
Furedy, C. Social Aspects of Human Excreta Reuse: Implications for Aquaculture in Asia. In "Wastewater-fed Aquaculture in Asia": p. 251-66. P. Edwards and R. Pullin (Eds.). Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok. 1991.
Furedy, C. Incidental Greening - Saving Resources in Asian Cities. In "Green Cities": p. 43-53. D. Gordon (Ed.). Black Rose, Montreal. 1989.
Hietkamp, Fern. "Urban Food Production in Bandung, Indonesia: Constraints and Opportunities." Master Thesis. School of Community and Regional Planning, University of British Columbia. 1996.
Whitney, Joe. Goats and Garbage in Khartoum. "Human Ecology". Jan-Dec. 1996.
57