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59

“Edible” urban as part of inclusive, sustainable cities

J. Castro, S. Krajter Ostoić, P. Cariñanos, A. Fini and T. Sitzia © PALOMA CARIÑANOS

Urban and peri-urban forests eeding an increasingly urban popu- of urban food forests and (referred can produce a range of foods to lation and ensuring the economic to here generally as urban food forests supplement local diets and provide Fand social well-being of urban and also sometimes as -based edible a focus for community activity. dwellers will be the primary challenge for landscaping), can help address a range of cities in coming decades. The impacts of problems caused by rapid and unplanned José Castro is Professor of Landscape are expected to slow down , such as food scarcity, pov- Ecology at the Polytechnic of Bragança, Portugal, and a member of the Silva urban economic growth, exacerbate envi- erty, the deterioration of human health and Mediterranea Working Group on Urban and ronmental degradation, increase poverty well-being, , and Peri-urban (FAO WG7). and erode urban . Many cities loss (FAO, 2016). Silvija Krajter Ostoić is Research Associate and Head of Department at the Croatian are on a quest for more sustainable urbani- The use of edible in urban and Research Institute, and a member of FAO WG7. zation pathways that will enable effective peri-urban forestry varies among cities Paloma Cariñanos is Professor of Botany at the responses to the increasing socio-economic and is infuenced by historical, cultural University of Granada, Spain, and a member of FAO WG7. and environmental challenges they face. and socio-economic factors. Overall, it has Alessio Fini is Associate Professor of In the search to “make cities and human tended to be neglected in modern cities. and Urban Forestry at the settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences – Production, Landscape and sustainable” ( Above: The pomegranate (Punica Agroenergy, University of Milan, Italy, and a Goal 11 in the United Nations Sustainable granatum) – “granada” in Spanish – member of FAO WG7. Development Agenda 2030), interest is is the heraldic symbol of the city of Tommaso Sitzia is Assistant Professor at the Granada, Spain, where it appears University of Padova, Italy, and a member of increasing in growing . Edible on streets throughout the town. It FAO WG7. green , mainly in the form produces a highly nutritious

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This article explores the potential of urban herbs that were sold locally to raise funds urban food forest (McLain et al., 2012) is and peri-urban forests as sources of food for maintenance. probably the best-studied. Seattle Public and the role that urban food forests can In the Industrial Revolution in the nine- Utilities owns the Beacon Food Forest, play in fostering sustainable cities. teenth century, however, the edible elements but the forest’s fruit trees were planted of urban landscapes tended to be replaced by community volunteers, many of whom WHAT ARE URBAN FOOD FORESTS? by ornamental vegetation. Today, most continue to work in the forest and maintain Clark and Nicholas (2013) defned urban cityscapes are largely devoid of edible com- the orchards. Ongoing participation gives food forests and trees as “the intentional ponents and instead feature traditional shade community members a sense of steward- and strategic use of woody perennial trees, lawns and other -cover plantings. ship and pride in the space. food-producing species in edible urban Urban food forest typologies are infu- Lemon Grove – a municipality of landscapes to improve the enced by city histories. In Central America, 26 000 inhabitants in California – is and resilience of urban communities”. As for example, native of multistrata preparing to grow public orchards in city an “edible landscaping” practice, urban systems coexist with colonial parks as part of efforts to preserve the city’s food forestry involves a combination of cityscapes featuring large trees and exotic history and small-town charm. Issues to be , forestry and agroforestry in plants (González-García and Gómez-Sal, addressed in selecting sites for fruit trees urban areas to supply cities with food. It 2008). Socio-economic circumstances may include proximity to roadways and side- may involve various species of fruit and also play a role: in Berlin, Germany, the esti- walks; accessibility for mobility-impaired nut trees, berry bushes, vegetables, herbs, mated fruit-tree density is still signifcantly individuals; access for maintenance; and edible fowers and other ornamental plants. higher in the eastern part of the city than in input from community members and The integration of urban food forests the west (8.6 trees/ha versus 1.6 trees/ha) experts (Federman, 2017). into the infrastructure of a city can pro- (Larondelle and Strohbach, 2016). The San Francisco Urban Orchard vide urban dwellers with many benefts. Project provides ongoing resources for There is evidence that urban food forests EFFORTS TO APPLY URBAN FOOD the planting and maintenance of publicly can motivate practices and FORESTRY WORLDWIDE accessible fruit trees. The programme part- give inhabitants opportunities to interact The applicability of urban food forestry ners with local not-for-proft organizations with and each other (McLain et al., and its effcacy in addressing social and to fruit- and nut-tree orchards and to 2012); enable the development of more environmental challenges depend on a assist community-based groups in their resilient food systems and promote social range of social, environmental and other roles as local stewards of green spaces and environmental sustainability (Yates, local factors. Only a few examples exist (SF Environment, undated). 2014); improve social cohesion and well- of modern efforts to encourage urban food Barnum is one of eight city parks in being and strengthen local communities forestry, and these are mostly limited to Denver, Colorado, with urban orchards. (Lwasa et al., 2015); enhance biodiversity relatively small urban settings. It is in what used to be one of the city’s (Dennis and James, 2016); and provide In Todmorden, West Yorkshire, in the least desirable neighbourhoods, but things economic benefts for both municipalities of Great Britain and took a turn for the better when Denver and citizens (Lafontaine-Messier, Gélinas Northern Ireland, volunteers grow fruit, Urban Gardens – a not-for-proft organi- and Olivier, 2016). herbs and vegetables for everyone to share; zation that supports community gardens Tree-based edible landscaping in urban they do so without paid staff, buildings in the city – purchased a vacant lot. This areas has been practised since ancient or funding from statutory organizations. is now a that grows times. Ancient Egyptian and Persian gar- The volunteers also run events to help red currants, raspberries, grapes and dens combined fruit trees with fowers, strengthen the local community; income winter squash among fruit trees (Extreme ponds, pot plants, vine-clad pergolas and is generated through donations and fees Community Makeover, 2016). places to sit in winter sun or summer shade. for talks and tours ( Classical ornamental gardens had water Todmorden, undated). In Copenhagen, Developing countries channels, pools, fountains and cascades , in contrast, citizens do not Rapid urbanization in many developing cooling the air, fowers producing scents, collect fruit from urban forests because it countries is leading to increased urban and fruit trees providing food and shade. is widely perceived that doing so would poverty and pressure on green spaces. Medieval monastic gardens produced fresh break social norms (Yates, 2014). Edible landscaping is often in the form fruit and vegetables, as well as fowers of small-scale subsistence agriculture, and and medicinal herbs. Renaissance estates United States of America such gardens represent signifcant propor- had plots and terracotta pots for growing Among examples of urban food forestry tions of urban . Even fowers and producing fruit, vegetables and in the United States of America, Seattle’s in inner-city areas, residents cultivate

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roadsides and riverbanks, along railroads, Disputes arise about who can plant, har- but do not care for “doubt tenure” on vacant private lands and in parks, based vest or otherwise use urban forests when trees. In South Africa, homestead fruit and on minimal user rights such as informal laws or ordinances do not specify rights nut trees are important sources of food, rents, leases and inheritances. In Taipei, for the use of common areas (Rana, 2008). especially in informal settlements, where Taiwan Province of China, however, the Fear of eviction is a strong disincentive for the poorest people live. Residents of new law forbids the planting of fruit trees and people to introduce food trees and shrubs. low-cost housing make especially exten- vegetables in parks and public spaces In illegal settlements in Kathmandu and sive use of urban tree products harvested (Chang et al., 2016). Lalitpur, Nepal, people grow seasonal food in public urban spaces because they have fewer homestead trees than residents in informal areas and townships (Kaoma and Shackleton, 2014). Urban food forestry is not widely implemented in Asia and the Pacifc, but innovative urban forestry practices are evolving in the region (Kuchelmeister, 1998). In China, residents can harvest fruit in many parks; in Queensland, Australia, residents and schools maintain edible pub- lic parks, producing fruit, herbs, fowers and vegetables (Kuchelmeister, 1998).

Africa Agroforestry gardens are probably the most signifcant type of in West African countries (Fuwape and Onyekwelu, 2011). In arid and semiarid areas, it is common practice to establish windbreaks to protect urban areas and enhance soil productivity (Kuchelmeister, 1998). practices that contribute to food security include collecting wild edible plants, planting fruit-bearing street trees, and establishing medicinal public parks. Fruit trees are planted in many residential compounds, especially those on urban fringes and in new urban settlements. Despite the marked differences in the sociospatial and environmental settings of Botswana, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, South Africa and the United Republic of Tanzania, wild food trees are integral to most urban and peri-urban households in small and mid-sized cities in those countries. This applies not only to poor families lacking access to productive

An educational initiative in Chinandega, Nicaragua, is designed to help protect urban fruit trees, such as this large mango tree (Mangifera indica). Fruit trees are common in indigenous

© JOSÉ CASTRO neighbourhoods in Central America

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In public areas of impoverished districts in Cabo Verde, people plant, care for and protect fruit trees in preference to ornamental trees © JOSÉ CASTRO

but also to those with a higher standard of local food production from urban food Russo et al. (2017) analysed more than of living (Schlesinger, Drescher and forests, and there have been few attempts 80 peer-reviewed publications focusing on Shackleton, 2015). A study in Senegal to explore the adaptation and application urban ecosystem services and disservices. nearly three decades ago (Brun, Reynaud of local practices in other contexts or to They identifed eight typologies of edible and Chevassus-Agnes, 1989) found that scale them up. The lack of research prob- green infrastructure, including edible urban food forests did not make a signif- ably refects the general bias of studies forest gardens and edible urban forests, cant contribution to food consumption and on urban ecosystem services in western which were addressed in 38 percent of the nutrition but were instrumental in improv- Europe and , where cities publications. Some publications showed ing the income and social status of women today depend mostly on outside sources urban food forestry to be a multifunctional and increasing their awareness of evolving of food (Larondelle and Strohbach, 2016). urban landscape practice combining an food habits in urban areas. Although edible urban landscapes were extended range of ecosystem services In Cabo Verde, the extent of urban food widely used for centuries in the European effciently in cities and integrating the forestry varies according to the actors Mediterranean, the contributions of such provision of food with environmental, involved. Trees planted and managed by landscapes to the livelihoods of modern sanitary, social, cultural and economic municipalities are mostly ornamental, while urban communities are far from fully co-benefts. Evidence of the trade-offs those planted and cared for by residents explored. Of existing experiments, none has between the supporting, provisioning, are usually fruit trees (e.g. Carica papaya, explicitly addressed the food-provisioning regulating and cultural services of urban Mangifera indica and Terminalia catappa). aspects of urban trees (Valette, Perrin food forests is lacking, however. and Soulard, 2012). A recent review of Also lacking is a conceptual framework ISSUES FACING URBAN FOOD urban food forestry collected information that would enable the synthesis and analy- FORESTS AND TREES on 37 initiatives worldwide (Clark and sis of existing knowledge on urban food Research and literature on urban food Nicholas, 2013): it evaluated 30 urban forest forestry. Such a framework is needed to forestry are scarce, despite the long history master plans in various cities and found integrate the relevant aspects of urban of growing forest foods in urban areas. that human food security was a primary food forestry into urban planning, such Most existing studies report specifc cases objective in only four of them. as the area required, species, knowledge,

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management, governance, and fnancial they are used for urban food forestry to forestry may be due to soil characteristics and human resources. As to the area avoid health risks posed by the uptake by and the plant species used. needed, Richardson and Moskal (2016) plants of pollutants such as heavy metals. Another health risk that can occur from calculated that a 58-km buffer around Species selection and cultural techniques the consumption of raw fruit produced in Seattle would be required to meet 100 per- can also help prevent the accumulation of urban food forests is an allergic reaction cent of the city’s food needs. pollutants in the edible parts of plants: known as oral allergy syndrome. This In most countries, the actual and poten- the translocation of pollutants absorbed can occur in sensitized individuals due to tial contribution of urban food forestry by to edible parts, as well as the cross-reactions between aeroallergens and to sustainable and resilient urban devel- amount of airborne pollutants penetrat- food allergens – such as between pollen opment models is unknown. Although ing the fruit epicarp, has been shown to produced by species in the Cupressaceae research into, and the practice of, urban differ widely by species (von Hoffen and family and the fruit of Prunus persica, agriculture is growing, urban food forestry Säumel, 2014). giving rise to “cypress–peach syndrome” has been implemented systematically in Vegetables from urban and peri-urban (Popescu, 2015). only a few countries, and its practices are farming may contain unacceptable quanti- Unharvested fruit can be hazardous and little explored. ties of trace elements (Nabulo et al., 2012; unsightly when they drop from trees, and Samsøe-Petersen et al., 2002; Säumel et al., they can also attract vermin and pests. Risks of urban food forestry 2012); on the other hand, some studies Highly perishable crops require quick Certain risks are associated with the have found it possible to produce healthy processing, such as canning, freezing or implementation of urban food forestry. food from fruit trees grown along streets drying, or suffcient people to quickly Poe et al. (2013), for example, pointed in large cities (von Hoffen and Säumel, consume surplus supplies (Brown, 2016). out that the toxicological profiles of 2014). The apparent discrepancy between Most widely used fruit tree species urban soils should be investigated before studies on the health risks of urban food belong to only a few families or genera

Orange trees planted as part of a new urban development in Porto, Portugal. Urban food forestry involves a combination of , forestry and agroforestry techniques and

© JOSÉ CASTRO strategies

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(e.g. Rosaceae in temperate environments). can provide a pathway towards sustainable But the use of a small number of species urban development. Developed countries may challenge the 30–20–10 biodiversity have started to rediscover urban tree-based rule proposed by Santamour (1990) to edible landscaping but, in most cases, food maximize protection against pest out- production is still not the primary objec- References breaks.1 Many commonly grown fruit tive of urban and peri-urban forestry. In trees are indeed very sensitive to pests developing countries, knowledge gaps need Brown, S.P. 2016. Edible landscaping. and pathogens, but this can be managed to be identifed to stimulate research on ENH971. Gainesville, USA, Environmental through wise, inventory-based species strategies to consolidate traditional models Department, Florida selection. New releases and the restora- of tree-based edible landscaping and to Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of tion of ancient resistant of widely foster new approaches. Food and Agricultural Sciences, University used species, as well as the use of minor, The potential of urban food forests is of Florida. neglected species with edible uses, might still far from adequately exploited, and Brun, T., Reynaud, J. & Chevassus-Agnes, S. help improve the tolerance of urban food there is a need to develop modelling tools, 1989. Food and nutritional impact of one forests to pests and diseases. advanced design principles, and effcient home garden project in Senegal. Ecology of management and governance strategies. Food and Nutrition, 23(2): 91–108. Urban food forestry strategies Initiatives are needed to gather knowl- Chang, S.E., Yang, Z.J., Duo, M.Y. & The development of an urban food forestry edge on existing efforts and to fully assess Hsiao, T.H. 2016. Participatory agri- strategy requires a broad range of exper- issues associated with food safety, such cultural humanities for the new ruralism tise to ensure a comprehensive approach. as the risks posed by soil, water and air tea-community revitalization in Taiwan. It involves the integration of knowledge pollution. Environment–Behaviour Proceedings from social and environmental sciences Further research is needed to identify Journal, 1(3): 251–256. and disciplines such as urban forestry and the species, compositions and confgura- Clark, K.H. & Nicholas, K.A. 2013. arboriculture, urban agriculture, urban tions that will maximize the benefts of Introducing urban food forestry: a multi- ecology, landscape and urban architec- urban food forests for local communities functional approach to increase food security ture, economics, policy and governance. and minimize the risks to human health. and provide ecosystem services. Landscape Effective, effcient collaboration among Cultivars and genotypes are needed that Ecology, 28(9): 1649–1669. experts, policymakers, local governments, are adapted to harsh urban environments, Dennis, M. & James, P. 2016. User participa- the private sector and citizens is essential especially in the context of climate change. tion in urban green commons: exploring to ensure effective urban food forestry. Collaboration – subnationally, nationally the links between access, voluntarism, bio- and internationally – among scientists, diversity and wellbeing. Urban Forestry and CONCLUSION citizens, policymakers and city managers Urban Greening, 15: 22–31. The examples in this article show that is crucial for establishing a robust con- Extreme Community Makeover. 2016. Park urban food forestry can be applied in ceptual framework for urban food forests. it at Barnum [online]. Extreme Community diverse contexts and to meet various It is also desirable to compile traditional Makeover. [Cited 2 October 2017]. www. objectives. Urban food forests and trees tree-based edible landscaping practices to extremecommunitymakeover.org/lifestyle/ are located mostly on formal and informal guide the design of projects in which food park-it-at-barnum public land, and implementing an urban production is the central objective. Urban FAO. 2016. Guidelines on urban and peri- food forest approach depends on owner- food forests are potentially a valuable urban forestry, by F. Salbitano, S. Borelli, ship, local rules, norms, policies, and an multifunctional component of the broader M. Conigliaro & Y. Chen. FAO Forestry effective governance model. Comparative green infrastructure of the cities of the Paper No. 178. Rome. studies and lessons learned are needed to future and can help achieve the Sustainable Federman, K. 2017. Urban edible landscapes understand the most effective approaches Development Goals. u in Lemon Grove: city park orchards, com- in different contexts. munity gardens, and school gardens. USA, The consideration of urban food for- San Diego State University. ests and trees and their integration into Fuwape, J.A. & Onyekwelu, J.C. 2011. Urban regional, national and local urban policies forest development in West Africa: benefts and challenges. Journal of Biodiversity and 1 Under this rule, no more than 30 percent of trees Ecological Sciences, 1: 77–94. in the same family, 20 percent of trees in the same genus, and 10 percent of the same species González-García, A. & Gómez-Sal, A. 2008. should be planted. See also the article on page 11. Private urban greenspaces or “patios” as a

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