1207
Annex A: Data Formats A Annex
Oliver Montenbruck, Ken MacLeod
ported by a given receiver depends largely on the type GNSS formats have developed within government, of user and application. industry, and academia. Their standardization Complementary to the aforementioned standards has facilitated the efficient development of the for the exchange of GNSS receiver data, a variety of GNSS industry. Current GNSS formats support meta- standards have been developed by the IGS to harmo- data such as GNSS station, receiver, antenna and nize the exchange of products and metadata. Examples equipment calibration information, GNSS obser- include: vation and broadcast navigation information and also GNSS products such as precise orbits, clock The Standard Product 3 (SP3) for orbit and clock corrections, atmospheric measurements and sta- information, tion coordinates. RINEX, BINEX and IGS standards The Clock RINEX format for the exchange of have been widely accepted and have become de postprocessed satellite and receiver clock offset so- factostandards.RTCMdejurestandardsonthe lutions, other hand have developed within a standards The IONosphere EXchange format (IONEX), organization and were adopted by industry. The The ANTenna Exchange (ANTEX) format for the development of new GNSS constellations has lead provision of antenna phase center offsets and varia- to the need for new formats and also encouraged tions, a higher level of cooperation and integration be- The SiteLog format for station related information, tween the GNSS standards groups. The most widely and used GNSS standards are described in this chapter. The Solution INdependent EXchange (SINEX) for- mat for a harmonized exchange of estimated param- eter sets. The GNSS community relies on a variety of stan- dards that have been developed by different entities to In view of their primary application within the IGS facilitate an interoperable and efficient exchange of data community, the latter standards are generally more open and products between providers and users. and flexible than formal standards established by indus- Even though most manufacturers employ company trial or governmental standardization organizations. specific – and sometimes nondisclosed – message for- Within the following sections the key features of the mats for communication with their GNSS receivers, various standards are briefly described along with illus- a variety of nonvendor-specific formats have been de- trating examples. For a more detailed discussion and veloped by various nonprofit organizations [A.1]: concise definitions the readers are referred to the official documentation published by the corresponding organi- RTCM SC-104 standard for Differential GNSS Ser- zation. vices of the Radio Technical Commission for Mar- itime Services (RTCM) A.1 Receiver Formats The GNSS-related parts of the NMEA 0183 inter- face standard of the National Marine Electronics A.1.1 NMEA 0183 Association (NMEA) The National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA) The Receiver INdependent EXchange (RINEX) for- [A.2] is a nonprofit organization that was founded in mat developed by the International GNSS Service 1957 by a group of electronic dealers with the goal of (IGS and RTCM SC-104) strengthening their relationships with electronic man- The BINary Exchange (BINEX) format of the Uni- ufacturers. NMEA standards include the NMEA 0183 versity NAVSTAR consortium (UNAVCO). standard (using an ASCII text format) and a mod- A subset of these protocols and formats is typically sup- ernized version NMEA 2000 (binary). Both standards ported in addition (or alternative) to proprietary data enable interoperability between marine electronics and formats by all receivers. However, the various standards support communications as well as data message stan- coexist with each other and the specific standard(s) sup- dards. ypes and satellite/signal ] as their primary source of in- 3 ] at a fee contributed to cover the work of 2 Geographic position latitude/longitude GPS range residuals GPS DOP and active satellitesfix (positioning type, mode, satellites used inVDOP) fix, PDOP, HDOP and GPS pseudorange noise statistics GPS satellites in view (numbersatellite satellites number, in azimuth view, and elevation,noise signal-to- ratio) True heading Recommended minimum navigation information (UTC time and date, latitudeover and ground, longitude, status, speed etc.) Course over ground and ground speed Time and date (UTC time,time calendar zone date, UTC local offset) Description GPS almanac data Bearing: origin to destination (UTCposition, time, true current & magnetic bearingdestination) and distance to Datum reference Global Positioning System fix dataposition, (UTC quality time, indicators, use ofcorrections) differential Common NMEA 0183 GNSS messages Short list of selected NMEA 0183 talker identi- Device Electronic chart display & informationGlobal system Positioning System receiver Integrated navigation system Radar Weather instrument Timekeeper (quartz) While substantial documentation on the format of $GPGLL $GPGRS $GPGSA $GPGST $GPGSV $GPHDT $GPRMC $GPVTG $GPZDA ID EC GP IN RA WI ZQ Msg ID $GPALM $GPBOD $GPDTM $GPGGA NMEA 0183 standard also supportslevel a variety observation of lower- data.satellites This with includes information a ontion list their line-of-sight and of direc- visible receivedrange residuals signal of all satellites strength usedlution in the ($GPGSV) ($GPGRS). navigation so- While or originallyreceivers, conceived the for the GPS current NMEAsiders 0183 other GNSS standard constellations also (GLONASS,through Galileo) con- dedicated messageidentifiers. t the most popular NMEA 0183able from GPS public messages Internet sources, is users avail- shouldthe consider official standard [A. Table A.1 Table A.2 formation. It can be obtainedweb directly site from [A. the NMEA fications this organization. tt)and . In addi- ]), which 3 A.2 reflecting the equipment hh
tion to these, vendor-specific messages are supported by the standard and are in usetures. by These are various identified receiver by $P manufac- and a three-letterID vendor instead of the standard message headerand (e.g., $PUBX $PASH for uBlox and Ashtech receivers),wise but follow other- the message concept described above. employed GPS positiontrated message in ($GPGGA) Fig. is illus- terms of geographic longitudethe and latitude height along above with seatween ellipsoidal level and but geoid alsocomputation. height the assumed Since used difference only in be- the its the $GPGGA message, time-of-day a complementary is $GPZDA dateand given time message in mayspecification need of to the current be epoch. output for a unique in position-, velocity- and time-related information, the Following the messaged1,d2,... header, individual data fields provided as a commaparameters separated is list. specific for Thevalues each sequence may message of be type. omitted Optional butbe the provided separating to comma enablemessage must an unambiguous is decoding. terminated The checksum by (introduced an bycarriage-return optional, line-feed an two-character characters. asterisk) and asages for set GPS devices is of provided in Table character string comprisinga three the character message ID talker (mmm): ID ( type (Table has widely been adopted in aeronautical and personal navigation, providesspecifications generic of electrical requirements, protocolsmessage and formats for a wide rangeinterface of bus. devices Such via devices may a include serial electronic chart display and informationment, systems, radars, heading timekeeping sensors, equip- andC sounders, LORAN- (LOng RAngereceivers for global Navigation) navigation satellite receivers, systems. as wellASCII text as messagesRS232) via serial interface. an At a RS422 nominalapproximately rate (or, of 4800 alternatively, 600 baud, characterssecond, can which be is generally transmittedof compatible communicating per with position, speed the and needs slow auxiliary moving data vessels. of Eachsigned device a sending two data letter is as- Annex A 1208 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1209
Fig. A.1 Example A Annex 13 of an NMEA 12345678910111214 15 0813 Global $GPGGA,061419,4808.9315,N,01133.9530,E,1,08,1.2,543.2,M,46.9,M,,*4C Positioning System Fix
h m s Data message 1 UTC time (06 14 19.0 ) ($GPGGA) 23 Geographic latitude and hemisphere (48°08.9315′ North) 45 Geographic longitude and hemisphere (11°33.9530′ East) 6 Quality indicator (1 = valid GPS navigation fix) 7 Number of satellites in view (8) 8 Horizontal dilution of precision (1.2) 910 Altitude above mean sea-level (geoid) and unit (543.2 m) 11 12 Height of geoid above WGS-84 ellipsoid and unit (46.9 m) 13 Age of differential corrections (not used) 14 Differential reference station ID (not used) 15 Checksum (4C)
A.1.2 RINEX navigation data for the GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Bei- The Receiver INdependent EXchange (RINEX) for- Dou, QZSS, IRNSS/NavIC, and SBAS constellations. mat [A.4, 5] was developed under the leadership To support both human and machine reading, all of Werner Gurtner, Astronomical Institute of Bern RINEX data files employ printable ASCII text formats (AIUB), in 1989. A first version was defined to sup- with predefined field widths for data and labels. A maxi- port the first large European GPS campaign (EU- mum line width of 80 characters is defined for RINEX 2 REF 89), where data from four different receiver but has been given up for RINEX 3.x observation files types was converted from proprietary formats into to better accommodate the large number of individual RINEX 1. In 1990, RINEX 2 supporting both GPS and observations available with new and modernized navi- GLONASS was developed and released. In subsequent gation systems. years RINEX 2 was continuously updated to support The complete documentation of the RINEX stan- the needs of the GNSS community. The latest release dard including past and current versions is available RINEX 2.11 [A.6] supports GNSS observation data for from the data server of the IGS web site [A.8]. GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and SBAS, navigation data for GPS, GLONASS, and SBAS as well as a dedicated Observation Data. RINEX 3 observation data files format for meteorological data. are made up of a variable-length header followed by Even though RINEX 2.11 is still widely used today a series observation record providing the measurements within the GNSS community, its inherent limitations at each epoch. The header is itself made up of a series of have long been recognized and led to the development individual records with a data section in columns 1−60 of a new and fully generic multi-GNSS observation and and descriptive labels in columns 61−80. It closes with navigation data format. RINEX 3.x was triggered by a parameterless END OF HEADER line after which the the gradual buildup of the Galileo system and the on- first observation record is given. going GPS modernization and offers more flexible and As illustrated in Fig. A.2, the header starts with two detailed observation signal codes than its predecessor. lines identifying the file type (Observation Data) and At the same time RINEX 3.x observation records were format version (3.03) as well as details of its generation. modified to enable a more human-readable structure. In Intermediate header records (shown in red) provide RINEX 3 complete observation records (pseudorange, relevant metadata of the station such as a four-letter phase, signal-to-noise ratio and loss of lock indicator) marker name and a site number, the employed equip- are provided for each tracked signal. Originally worked ment (receiver, firmware, antenna, radome), the ap- out by W. Gurtner (AIUB) and Lou Estey (UNAVCO), proximate coordinates of a surveyed monument marker the RINEX 3 standard is now jointly maintained by point, and, finally, the offset of the antenna reference the IGS RINEX Working Group and the RTCM Spe- point relative to that marker. cial Committee 104 (Sect. A.1.3). RINEX Version The header continues with a series of 3.03 [A.7] released in 2015 supports observation and SYS / # / OBS TYPES records serving as in- types Observation Epoch range ,afull End header of Site meta data meta Site Start header of A.2 Units m cy Hz dB-Hz ferent groups of header records. ) 0 N header records define rise multiple components = Omitted lines Omitted lines C END OF HEADER MARKER NAME Observation Pseudorange Carrier-phase Doppler Signal strength ( RINEX 3 observation types and units . e actual file. Colors indicate dif The observation codes listed in the The second and third characters of the observa- A.5 ID C L D S SYS /the # set of / observations providedconstellation. for OBS In satellites the of TYPES Galileo a example given of Fig. tion code indicateband number) the and the frequencymode specific band (single-letter modulation or attribute). (single-digit tracking and Since modernized many signals comp of(e.g., the an new in-phase channeland with navigation a information dataless pilotdistinct code attributes on are the definedponents quadrature for (e.g., channel), the individual I,both com- components Q) (e.g., and X).defined RINEX An the 3 overview observation combined of codesble is currently tracking provided in of Ta- set of four measurementsDoppler, (pseudorange, carrier-phase, signal strength)the is pilot specified components for ofE5a tracking (*5Q), the of E5b E1 (*7Q) Open and E5 Service AltBOC (*1C), (*8Q) signals. Table A.4 . Even though addi- A.4 (I) are formally permitted System GPS GLONASS SBAS payload Galileo BeiDou QZSS IRNSS/NavIC OBSERVATION DATA M RINEX VERSION / TYPE RINEX DATA M OBSERVATION ESA/ESOC OBSERVER / AGENCY OBSERVER / ESA/ESOC . Except for GPS (G) and SBAS (S) the 0.0950 0.0000 0.0000 ANTENNA: DELTA H/E/N 0.0000 0.0950 0.0000 S2L C5Q L5Q D5Q S5Q SYS / # / OBS TYPES S2L C5Q L5Q D5Q S5Q SYS / # / OBS TYPES L8Q D8Q S8Q RINEX 3 satellite system identifiers A.3 3.03 Sample RINEX 3 observation file header from the IGS KOUR station in Kourou, French Guyana. Rulers in the first and 30.000 INTERVAL 30.000 2013 11 6 0 0 0.0000000 GPS TIME OF FIRST OBS 0 0 0.0000000 GPS 2013 11 6 GPS TIME OF LAST OBS 2013 11 6 23 59 30.0000000 3839591.4332 XYZ APPROX POSITION -5059567.5514 579956.9164 The individual observations types for each constel-
G 18 C1C L1C D1C S1C C1W S1W C2W L2W D2W S2W C2L L2L D2L SYS / # / OBS TYPES S1C C1W S1W C2W L2W D2W S2W C2L G 18 C1C L1C D1C S7Q C8Q SYS / # / OBS TYPES S1C C5Q L5Q D5Q S5Q C7Q L7Q D7Q E 16 C1C L1C D1C S2C SYS / # / OBS TYPES S1C C2P L2P D2P S2P C2C L2C D2C R 12 C1C L1C D1C SYS / # / OBS TYPES S2I C7I L7I D7I S7I C 8 C2I L2I D2I ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8| ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8| kour sbf2rin-8.5.1 ESA/ESOC 20131107 000707 LCL PGM / RUN BY / DATE PGM / RUN BY / 000707 LCL 20131107 ESA/ESOC sbf2rin-8.5.1 97301M210 MARKER NUMBER 97301M210 Automatic 3001301 SEPT POLARX4 2.5.2 REC # / TYPE / VERS SEPT POLARX4 2.5.2 3001301 ANT # / TYPE SEPCHOKE_MC NONE 5129
R S E C J I ID G satellite system identifiers are(Russia, derived Europe, from the China,specific nation constellation. Japan, India) operating the lation are describedcode. by Its first character a identifies one three-charactermeasurements of the defined observation four in types Table of tional pseudo-observations such as channel number (X) and ionospheric phase delay by the RINEX 3community. standard, they are rarely used by the dex of thesatellites observation of types eachconstellations GNSS provided constellation. later are The foridentifier individual identified the in bysupported column systems 1 a andin of designations single-character Table are these summarized records. Currently Fig. A.2 Table A.3 Selected records from the original RINEX file have been omitted for brevity last line have been added for illustration only and are not part of th Annex A 1210 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1211
Table A.5 RINEX 3 observation codes for carrier-phase Table A.5 (continued) A Annex observations. Corresponding observation codes with ini- System Band Code Description tial letters C, D, and S apply for pseudorange, Doppler and QZSS L1 L1C C/A-code signal strength observations L1S, L1L, L1X L1C (data, pilot, System Band Code Description combined) GPS L1 L1C C/A-code L1Z L1-SAIF signal L1S, L1L, L1X L1C (data, pilot, L2 L2S, L2L, L2X L2C-code combined) (medium, long, L1P P-code (unencrypted) combined) L1W Semicodeless P(Y) L5 L5I, L5Q, L5X L5 (data, pilot, tracking combined) L1Y Y-code (with decryp- E6 L6S, L6L, L6X LEX signal (short, tion) long, combined) L1M M-code IRNSS/NavIC L5 L5A SPS Signal L1N codeless L5B, L5C, L5X RS (data, pilot, L2 L2C C/A-code combined) L2D Semi-codeless P(Y) S L9A SPS signal tracking L9B, L9C, L9X RS (data, pilot, (L1 C/A+(P2-P1)) combined) L2S, L2L, L2X L2C-code (medium, long, combined) L2P P-code (unencrypted) Later, in the observation section of the file, a total of L2W Semicodeless P(Y) 16 matching measurements will be provided for each tracking Galileo satellite. L2Y Y-code (with decryp- A (truncated) example of an observation record tion) corresponding to the header of Fig. A.2 is shown in L2M M-code Fig. A.3. The record starts with an epoch line (marked L2N codeless by a “>” character in column 1) specifying the date and L5 L5I, L5Q, L5X L5 (data, pilot, com- time of the observations (here: 6 Nov 2013 00:00:00.0 bined) GPS time) and the number of tracked satellites (here: GLONASS L1 L1C C/A-code 20). Subsequently the observations are provided in L1P P-code a single line for each satellite. The individual satellites L2 L2C C/A-code are identified in columns 1–3 by the satellite number. L2P P-code This is made up of the satellite system indicator and L3 L3I, L3Q, L3X L3 (data, pilot, com- a two-digit number identifying the transmitted pseudo- bined) random noise (PRN) code or, in case of GLONASS, SBAS L1 L1C C/A-code the slot number of the tracked satellite. Each obser- L5 L5I, L5Q, L5X L5 (data, pilot, com- bined) vation is stored in a fixed field of 14 characters and Galileo E1 L1A PRS signal with three trailing digits after the decimal point. Carrier- L1B, L1C, L1X OS (data, pi- phase and pseudorange observations are furthermore lot,combined) complemented by an optional loss-of-lock indicator (0, L1Z PRS + blank, or 1) and/or a single-digit signal-strength indica- OS(data+pilot) tor in the two cells adjacent to the actual measurement E5a L5I, L5Q, L5X E5a (data, pilot, value. combined) Although the RINEX format supports the loss-of- E5b L7I, L7Q, L7X E5b (data, pilot, lock indicator for each observation type, it is common combined) practice to only indicate it on the phase observations. E5 L8I, L8Q, L8X E5 AltBOC (data, Likewise, the single-digit signal-strength field is often pilot, combined) omitted if the signal strength (in dB-Hz) is explicitly BeiDou B1 L2I, L2Q, L2X B1I(OS),B1Q,com- provided as an observation type. (BDS-2) bined B2 L7I, L7Q, L7X B2I(OS),B2Q,com- bined Hatanaka Compression. A practical problem asso- B3 L6I, L6Q, L6X B3I, B3Q, combined ciated with the transfer and storage of RINEX obser- vation data is the large file size caused by the use of
aebe de o lutainol n r o ato h culfile actual the of part not are and only illustration for added been have
apeosrainrcr rmaRNXosrainfieotie yteISKU tto nKuo,Fec uaa uesi h rtadls line last and first the in Rulers Guyana. French Kourou, in station KOUR IGS the by obtained file observation RINEX a from record observation Sample i.A.3 Fig.
Signal strength and loss-of-lock indicators loss-of-lock and strength Signal Satellite number Satellite
----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8|0---+---9|0---+--10|0---+--11|0---+--12|0---+--13|0---+
7 07 7 7 07 7 5582661278723-3.1 4.5 2482.6 0527.7 6708 43.500 -647.018 102512178.677 25458828.466 43.250 -836.718 132570867.233 25458822.666 C11
C12 6 6 60 7 7 70 25394611.396 132236540.716 -985.074 -985.074 132236540.716 25394611.396 102253547.414 -761.759 43.750 -761.759 102253547.414 25394615.635 40.500
R05 7 7 70 7 7 70 116743131.475 2026.164 2026.164 116743131.475 21839218.040 46.750 21839233.552 90800281.606 1575.910 1575.910 90800281.606 21839233.552 46.750 44.000 44.000 ...
23228568.363 124257247.389 -2230.894 42.250 23228573.599 96644606.112 -1735.120 -1735.120 96644606.112 23228573.599 42.250 -2230.894 124257247.389 23228568.363 36.250 36.250 R19 7 7 70 6 6 60 ...
252885 119170642.678 22254258.875 470 252716 92688257.971 22254267.166 44.750 174.797 38.750 38.750 135.988 R04 76 07 7 6 06 ...
21481799.314 114792351.979 -3609.734 -3609.734 114792351.979 21481799.314 45.000 21481813.243 89282811.398 -2807.690 -2807.690 89282811.398 21481813.243 45.000 43.250 43.250 R15 7 7 70 7 07 7 ...
24458718.261 127362937.751 2345.948 2345.948 127362937.751 24458718.261 420 457769 98485138.617 24458727.629 44.250 1814.036 48.000 1814.036 C14 7 07 7 8 08 8
129328208.848 2479.388 44.250 2479.388 129328208.848 24236049.702 R06 7 07 7
21623927.772 115470629.183 3608.897 3608.897 115470629.183 21623927.772 46.750 21623935.553 89810480.728 2806.903 2806.903 89810480.728 21623935.553 46.750 41.000 41.000 R09 7 07 7 6 06 6 ...
23768181.065 124902773.053 -802.817 -802.817 124902773.053 23768181.065 41.500 23768180.905 23768180.905 41.500 200 361259 97326913.632 23768182.589 22.000 G29 633 6 0 6 3 0 ...
21917255.393 115176179.658 1821.021 1821.021 115176179.658 21917255.393 50.000 21917255.309 21917255.309 50.000 820 112376 89747789.384 21917253.796 38.250 G12 8 08 8 6 6 60 ...
87 08 8 7 7 0 ... 904220 103099905.211 19300482.290 820 904106 80188907.525 19300491.076 48.250 145.853 47.750 47.750 113.435 R16
5 5 50 2 2 20 ... 596273 133434050.213 25391662.793 35.000 25391662.346 25391662.346 35.000 442.853 12.000 25391683.036 25391683.036 12.000 103974640.592 G14
... 7 7 70 4 04 4 23632299.040 124188483.902 2852.612 43.750 23632298.312 23632298.312 43.750 2852.612 124188483.902 23632299.040 25.750 23632307.451 23632307.451 25.750 96770225.028 G18
... 877 8 0 8 7 0 21004445.599 110379323.363 -1995.581 -1995.581 110379323.363 21004445.599 50.000 21004445.701 21004445.701 50.000 300 104151 86009975.306 21004451.511 43.000 G24
... R20 6 6 60 6 6 60 23006036.629 123023649.961 -1272.486 -1272.486 123023649.961 23006036.629 36.000 23006052.039 95685099.644 -989.603 -989.603 95685099.644 23006052.039 36.000 38.500 38.500
... G05 744 7 0 7 04 124019495.786 -1485.409 -1485.409 124019495.786 23600086.200 43.500 23600086.267 23600086.267 43.500 970 300908 96638667.313 23600089.098 29.750
... G25 6 06 6 4 4 40 23279919.760 122336912.640 2828.062 2828.062 122336912.640 23279919.760 38.250 23279919.300 23279919.300 38.250 570 379485 95327536.001 23279924.875 25.750
... 7 7 70 5 5 50 G15 23437270.527 123163643.916 -899.995 -899.995 123163643.916 23437270.527 44.500 23437270.523 23437270.523 44.500 050 332257 95971703.908 23437282.587 30.500
... 755 7 0 7 05 G21 21789794.010 114506100.360 21789794.010 47.500 21789793.282 21789793.282 47.500 1720.652 500 188065 89225577.902 21789800.645 35.000
2013 11 06 00 00 0.0000000 00 00 06 11 2013 20 > 0
----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8|0---+---9|0---+--10|0---+--11|0---+--12|0---+--13|0---+
Epoch No. of satellites of No. Truncated Annex A 1212 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1213
an ASCII text format. Considering a 30 s sampling, All header parameters are optional and may com- A Annex a multi-GNSS reference station with 40 or more com- prise different types of ionospheric model parameters monly tracked satellites provides daily RINEX 3 obser- and time conversion parameters. These include the eight vations of about 25 MB and an even higher data volume coefficients ˛0;:::;˛3 and ˇ0;:::;ˇ3 of the Klobuchar is obtained with 1 Hz high-rate data. This problem can model for GPS and QZSS users or the Klobuchar-style partly be alleviated through standard compression tools model employed by BeiDou. For Galileo, a set of four such as compress, zip, and rar, which achieve a com- parameters A0;:::;A3 is provided that enables iono- pression ratio of 1 W 3to1W 4 for typical RINEX files. spheric corrections of single-frequency observations A complementary compression technique [A.9], with the NeQuick model. An overview of these mod- which retains the ASCII representation but reduces the els is provided in Chap. 6 and references therein, while high level of redundancy in the observation data them- detailed information on the application of the broadcast selves has been developed by Yuki Hatanaka at the ionospheric parameters is given in the interface specifi- Geospatial Information Authority (GSI), Japan. It is cations of the individual GNSSs [A.10–14]. based on the observation that a time series of consec- The remaining header parameters provide the rela- utive measurements may better be represented by an tion of different GNSS timescales among each other initial value and the differences between epochs, since and with UTC. These include the number of UTC the differences are smaller in size than the absolute val- leapseconds since 1980 (or, equivalently the integer ues and require a reduced number of digits. seconds time difference between GPS time and UTC) as Hatanaka compression retains most of the RINEX well as linear polynomials for the fractional time differ- file header but replaces the observation records with the ences (which typically amount to some tens or at most differenced data and uses a “&” separator between data hundreds of nanoseconds). The individual time correc- fields to minimize the overall amount of white space. tion parameters are identified by a 2 + 2 character code The resulting Compact RINEX format already achieves in columns 1−4 of the TIME SYSTEM CORR header a file size reduction by a factor of 3−4. In combina- lines and contain the polynomial coefficients (Af0, Af1) tion with standard file compression tools, an overall as well as the corresponding reference epoch (week and reduction by a factor of approximately eight is achieved seconds of week). While not a mandatory header line, compared to the original RINEX file. It should be noted provision of the leapseconds information is strongly that the Hatanaka compression is lossless and enables recommended since it facilitates the translation between a full recovery of the original observations data upon the native time systems of each constellation and en- decompression. ables the processing of the subsequent ephemeris data in a consistent timescale. Navigation Data. As a complement to the observa- Following the header, a series of ephemeris data sets tion data format discussed above, the RINEX standard for individual satellites and epochs are given. Following also defines a navigation data format for the exchange the satellite identification and reference epoch, the vari- of broadcast ephemeris information. These broadcast ous ephemeris parameters are provided in fixed fields ephemerides comprise the orbit and clock parameters as of 19 characters. The set of parameters and their to- well as auxiliary data transmitted by each GNSS satel- tal is predefined for each individual constellation (GPS, lite for use in real-time navigation. Even though the GLONASS, BeiDou, Galileo, QZSS, IRNSS/NavIC, broadcast ephemerides are generally less accurate than and SBAS) and reflects the different types of informa- postprocessed ephemeris products, the navigation data tion made available in the various types of navigation files are frequently used for preprocessing of GNSS messages. data (e.g., elevation screening), relative positioning, and Common to all constellations, the satellite clock as a priori information for precise GNSS orbit and clock offset is specified through a clock reference epoch determination. (toc) and a clock offset polynomial (af0, af1, and, for While distinct GPS and GLONASS files were fore- most systems, af2). For many GNSSs, the clock offset seen in early versions, the current RINEX 3 standard information is complemented by differential code bi- supports mixed files with navigation data for all GNSSs. ases (known as timing group delay (TGD), broadcast Similar to the observation data format, navigation files group delay (BGD) or intersignal correction (ISC) pa- are fixed-format text files but are limited to 80 charac- rameters). These enable a consistent processing of the ters per line. The file header follows the same concepts transmitted clock offsets when using single-frequency as introduced before and starts with two lines identi- observations or a different set of signals than the ones fying the file type and format version. For the purpose used by the control segment to determine the broadcast of illustration an annotated format example is given in clock offsets. Clock-related parameters in the format Fig. A.4. example of Fig. A.4 are highlighted in blue color. , ic C )and , 0 rs M C , , 0 rc ! Galileo Galileo , C ephemeris ephemeris Ionosphere parameters parameters 0 GLONASS Time system , End header of t Start header of ˝ d , Row 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Row 0 1 2 3 0 i ˝= , e ASS ephemeris records , ,d t a d p k s) = (sec) Omitted lines Omitted lines Omitted lines ) ) 2 = 2 (rad 1 s t = E5bE1 d (m (rad) (s (rad) a 0 is ˝= f2 ) for use with a perturbed Keplerian orbit 5 a M p C d BGD 5 Message frame time (s) Health Frequency channel Age of information us END OF HEADER C , uc C , ) ) ) ) ). Layout of Galileo and GLON ic 2 2 2 s) s s s = categories: orbital elements ( C perturbation coefficients= i (d = = = top (s (sec) N s) (km (km (km = s) 2 2 2 + red color t t t = E5aE1 d d d (rad) (rad (s (rad) D = = = (rad) x y z 0 n us and f1 2 2 2 f1 4 a d d d 4 a C ˝ ! Week BGD blue s) s) s) (s) = = = N − (km (km (km t t t (m) (m) (rad) (s) D d d d = = = rs ic rs x y z f0 f0 3 a d d d 3 a C e C C Data source Health NAVIGATION DATA M (Mixed) RINEX VERSION / TYPE RINEX DATA M (Mixed) NAVIGATION / RUN BY / DATE 044603 GMT PGM 20131107 MGEX s) ,UTC) ,GPStime) = oc oc t t (rad nav t (rad) Orbit information parameters provided in the (s) d (rad) = (km) (km) uc (km) i 6.200000000000e+01-1.281250000000e+00 3.154417108420e-09-1.584524137928e+00 6.200000000000e+01-1.281250000000e+00 2.676000000000e+05 5.774199962616e-08 1.159805493823e+00 5.587935447693e-09 1.159805493823e+00 2.676000000000e+05 5.774199962616e-08 9.589155555733e-01 1.139062500000e+02-2.779965207269e+00-5.471656487884e-09 1.765000000000e+03 7.568172387615e-10 5.130000000000e+02 2.682550000000e+05 5.000000000000e+00 1.293956201172e+04 1.558908462524e+00-0.000000000000e+00 oe 0 Format example of a multi-GNSS RINEX navigation file ( x y z d Accuracy (m) Transmission time (s) 2 Epoch ( 2 Epoch ( IOD C t i individual broadcast navigation datadifferent constellations, vary but among fall the in either of two basic 3.03 16 16 1694 7 LEAP SECONDS 7 16 16 1694 -2.607703208923e-08 9.329034946859e-05 1.055561006069e-05 5.440608764648e+03 -2.607703208923e-08 9.329034946859e-05 -1.000000000000e+00 3.900000000000e+02-2.793967723846e-09-2.561137080193e-09 -1.547962890625e+03-2.572350502014e+00-3.725290298462e-09 0.000000000000e+00 -1.547962890625e+03-2.572350502014e+00-3.725290298462e-09 0.000000000000e+00 9.313225746155e-10 -2.189239355469e+04 1.099916458130e+00 ; clock and orbit parameters are highlighted by GPSA 0.2515e-07 -0.7451e-08 -0.1192e-06 0.1192e-06 IONOSPHERIC CORR 0.0000e+00 1.0834e-02 -5.7031e-01 GAL 1.2525e+02 QZSA 0.5122e-07 -0.3353e-06 0.3517e-05 IONOSPHERIC CORR -0.1192e-06 IONOSPHERIC CORR ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8| BCEmerge GPSB 0.1331e+06 -0.4915e+05GPSB 0.1331e+06 -0.1311e+06IONOSPHERIC CORR -0.1311e+06 IONOSPHERIC CORR -0.8356e+06 0.4063e+07 -0.6554e+07 QZSB 0.1536e+06 0 TIME SYSTEM CORR 172800 1765 GAUT 1.3969838619e-08-5.329070518e-15 GLGP 1765 0 TIME SYSTEM CORR 0.000000000e+00 259200 -3.8184225559e-07 GLUT 1765 0 TIME SYSTEM CORR 0.000000000e+00 259200 -1.8579885364e-07 0 TIME SYSTEM CORR 5.329070518e-15 345600 1757 GPGA 9.6333678812e-09 GPUT 1765 0 TIME SYSTEM CORR 405504 -1.8626451492e-08-0.532907052e-14 QZUT 2.7939677238e-08-3.552713680e-14 491520 1765 0 TIME SYSTEM CORR 491520 1765 QZUT 2.7939677238e-08-3.552713680e-14 E12 2013 11 06 02 20 00 3.416970139369e-05 1.233502189280e-11-1.734723475977e-18 20 00 3.416970139369e-05 E12 2013 11 06 02 R03 2013 11 06 02 15 00 2.223066985607e-06 0.000000000000e+00 2.664000000000e+05 0.000000000000e+00 R03 2013 11 06 02 15 00 2.223066985607e-06 ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8|
Sat Field Sat 1 Field 1
(bottom Fig. A.4 Annex A 1214 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1215
Fig. A.5 RTCM SC-104 v3.x message A Annex Message [0, …, n-1] 0xD3 Res. n CRC-24 protocol. The first field contains the Msg.No. Other data 8 bit preamble (hex value 0xD3) model or Cartesian state vectors (x, y, z, xP, yP, zP, xR, yR, zR) use of a message format made up of fixed-length data for numerical integration or polynomial interpolation of words with parity protection similar to that of the GPS the trajectory across short time intervals. Details of the navigation message, a revised, variable-length message orbit models and the employed parameters are provided format was introduced for use from version 3.0 on- in Chap. 3 as well as the interface specifications of wards. It comprises a header with an 8 bit preamble, the individual constellations [A.10–15]. Broadcast 6 bit reserved fields and a 10 bit message length field ephemerides with orbital elements are presently used (Fig. A.5). for GPS, QZSS, Galileo, BeiDou, and IRNSS/NavIC Following the header, a data field of up to 1023 bit while state vectors are provided by the GLONASS is provided and the message concludes with a 24 bit and SBAS satellites. The corresponding parameters are cyclic redundancy check (CRC) checksum to ensure in- highlighted using red color in the format example of tegrity of the transmitted data. Except for zero-length Fig. A.4. filler messages, all messages start with a 12 bit message Up to version 3.03 the RINEX navigation format number that identifies the message type and provides supports only legacy navigation data (i. e., one pa- the key to decoding the subsequent message data fields. rameter set per constellation), but will be extended RTCM SC-104 v3.x defines various groups of mes- for CNAV, CNAV2 and other modernized broadcast sages for observation data, network RTK corrections, ephemeris data sets in subsequent releases. auxiliary and metadata as well as state space correction data (Table A.6). Various multisignal messages pro- A.1.3 RTCM SC-104 DGNSS Data Format vide similar parameters albeit in different combinations The Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Ser- and/or resolutions. In this way positioning services of vices (RTCM) was formed as a United States govern- different accuracy may be implemented that make best ment advisory committee in 1947. Currently, the RTCM use of the available communication bandwidth. is an international nonprofit scientific, professional and educational organization that is supported by its mem- Multisignal Messages. Early versions of the RTCM bers from all over the world. Membership consists of SC-104 standard were strongly focused on the GPS both corporate and government organizations. RTCM and GLONASS systems and their legacy L1/L2 signals. members charter Special Committees (SC) to address As of version 3.2, the concept of multisignal mes- in-depth radio communication and radio navigation is- sages (MSMs, [A.19]) has been introduced, to establish sues, with the goal of supporting interoperability. a truly generic framework for observations of all GNSS RTCM Special Committee 104 (RTCM-SC104) constellations and all transmitted signals. was chartered to address differential global navigation The multisignal messages employ a highly efficient satellite systems (DGNSSs). Initially, RTCM SC-104 packing scheme, which minimizes the overall amount focused on standards and protocols for differential GPS of data that need to be transmitted. For each observed for maritime applications. SC-104’s mandate has grown satellite, the pseudorange and carrier-phase observa- to support not only maritime differential GNSS, but also tions are decomposed into the sum of a rough range and real-time kinematic and precise GNSS data formats and a fine range. The rough range at each epoch is common Network Transport of RTCM using Internet Protocol to all observations of the given satellite collected simul- (NTRIP, [A.16]). taneously on the individual signals. The remaining fine The following paragraphs provide an overview of range reflects the differences in ionospheric path delays the RTCM SC-104 standard for DGNSS services based and systematic GNSS satellite and receiver biases. It is on the latest version 3.3 [A.17]. A full specification is generally confined to less than ˙300 m, which requires available from the RTCM [A.18] at a service fee, which considerably fewer data bits for storage than the origi- contributes to covering the work of this organization. nal value. Other MSM features include the signal and satel- Message Types and Format. RTCM SC-104 mes- lite masks, which serve as an index for the overall set sages are primarily designed for real-time GNSS ap- of tracked signals (across all satellites of a constella- plications and use a binary protocol to minimize the tion) and the subset tracked for a specific satellite. In overall data volume that needs to be transferred be- this way, the presence of modernized signals available tween providers and users. While early versions made for only part of a constellation (e.g., L2C on GPS Block The state- ven though these are 1230 1021−1027 1057−1062 (GPS) 1063−1068 (GLONASS) 4001−4095 Messages 0−100 1001−1004 1009−1012 1071−1077 (GPS) 1081−1087 (GLONASS) 1091−1097 (Galileo) 1101−1107 (SBAS) 1111−1117 (QZSS) 1121−1127 (BeiDou) 1005−1008, 1032−1033 1014 1015−1017, 1037−1039 1030−1031, 1034−1035 1013 1019, 1020, 1042, 1044, 1045, 1046 1029 Network-RTK Residual Error 17]. Another class of network-RTK e-frequency users, e 20]. These include satellite position correc- not yet part of the RTCMnature SC-104 standard. of The the generic SSR corrections makespendent them from largely inde- the userfor location global and PPP applications. provides the basis cable processing conventions are provided in the RTCM SC-104 standard [A. messages comprises the messages, which are usedas to virtual implement base concepts stations such specific to users. improve the RTK service for State-Space Representation Messages. space representation (SSR)for represents the a provision new ofmatic concept correction precise data point intions. real-time Rather positioning kine- than (PPP-RTK) providingobservation applica- space, combined the corrections SSR in posed approach employs corrections decom- tosources [A. remove individual GNSStions (in error three dimensions)tions as and well as satellite code biases. Different clocksupported message types correc- for are individual orcorrections. combined Furthermore, orbit distinct and high-raterection clock clock messages cor- are availablewith to fast ensure that changingcharacterized. satellites The atomic SSR concept clocks also foreseession can the of provi- vertical be total electrontion accurately content (VTEC) for informa- singl or individual GNSSs pheric corrections geometric Auxiliary station data Geometric and ionos Network RTK residuals and FKP gradients System parameters Satellite ephemeris Text (unicode) GLONASS code/phase biases Orbit & clock corrections, code biases, URA Type GPS L1, L1/L2 GLONASS L1, L1/L2 Multi Signal Messages f Station coordinates, receiver and antenna description (dispersive) correction Network-RTK refers to 31). Compared to a single ref- ionospheric and 26 RTCM SC-104 v3 message groups Finally, a total of seven different multisignal mes-
Proprietary messages Auxiliary information Transformation parameters State Space Representation parameters Site metadata Network RTK corrections Groups Experimental messages Observations IIR-M and L5 on Blockrequiring IIF) empty can or be padded supportedlites. without data fields for older satel- sages are defined for eachmessage constellation. types The individual arethe distinguished message by number and the offertary different final sets of digit observations elemen- of (pseudorange,strength, and carrier-phase, Doppler) at signal different levels (compact, full) of range and resolution. Network-RTK Messages. real-time kinematic positioningtion data (RTK) derived from using astations network correc- of (Chaps. terrestrial reference Table A.6 erence station, theapplied network-based in corrections a canphase wider ambiguity be resolution region becomes less andthe dependent on the base quality station ofdard distance. offers carrier- a Thesuch harmonized RTCM corrections framework to SC-104 the forlying user stan- transmitting network independent of architecture. the Bothnetwork-RTK under- services GPS are and supported through GLONASS dedicated messages. Aside from station-relatedvided information in pro- the auxiliary(nondispersive) and station data message, data may be transmittedsages. Details in of distinct the or respective messages combined and mes- the appli- Annex A 1216 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1217
Fig. A.6 Basic BINEX message A Annex protocol Sync Rec ID n Message [1, …, n] CRC
1 byte 1–4 1–4 1–16 bytes bytes bytes
A.1.4 GNSS BINary Exchange (BINEX) Format Table A.7 Common BINEX record types The BINary Exchange (BINEX) format, is a GNSS ID Sub ID Contents format standard that supports both research and opera- 0x00 Site Metadata tional applications. BINEX was developed at UNAVCO 0x01 GNSS Navigation Information under the leadership of Lou Estey (UNAVCO) to 0x00 coded (raw bytes) GNSS ephemeris achieve a better data compression and increased re- 0x01 decoded GPS ephemeris liability for real-time data streams from permanent 0x02 decoded GLONASS-FDMA GPS monitoring stations [A.21, 22]. Other than com- ephemeris mon binary formats, BINEX is designed to support 0x03 decoded SBAS ephemeris both little-endian and big-endian word-orders, which 0x04 decoded Galileo ephemeris allows use on a wide range of hardware platforms 0x05 decoded Beidou-2/Compass and processors. Also, a wide range of message lengths ephemeris is supported through checksum and message number 0x06 decoded QZSS ephemeris fields with a varying number of bytes. The BINEX 0x07 decoded IRNSS ephemeris format supports observation and navigation messages 0x41–0x47 raw navigation subframe/block/page for individual constellations for all current GNSS constellations as well as meta- 0x7d Receiver Internal State data messages to encapsulate site-specific parameters. 0x00 Temperature and power BINEX is supported by major GNSS receiver manufac- 0x7e Ancilliary Site Data Prototyping turers (Trimble, Topcon, Javad, Leica, Septentrio) and 0x00 Meteorological and local geophysi- is continuously extended and refined to meet the needs cal data of new signals and systems. The official documentation 0x7f GNSS Observable Prototyping of the BINEX format is maintained as a living docu- 0x00 for JPL LEO support network ment on the UNAVCO web site [A.23]. 0x01 for UCAR COSMIC and GPS/MET 0x02 for UCAR Suominet Record Structure. BINEX data files are made up of 0x03 for EarthScope a sequence of consecutive BINEX data records that can 0x04 for EarthScope be processed independent of each other. Since BINEX 0x05 Generic multi-GNSS observation files do not contain a file header, multiple BINEX files data can easily be concatenated for further processing with- out the need for special tools. The BINEX standard 4 byte CRC-32) are employed depending on the length supports various generic forms of message frames for of the message data field. different applications. These are designed to enable any foreseeable type of GNSS receiver data, auxiliary infor- Message Types. While BINEX is a highly generic pro- mation as well as final data products. tocol intended to support the binary transfer of all types In their most simple (and widely used) form, each of GNSS-related information, only a limited number of record comprises a header with synchronization byte, messages are widely used at present. All of these em- record identifier and message length field before the ac- ploy a 1 byte record identifier and belong to one of five tual message data and concludes with a checksum field major categories shown in Table A.7. (Fig. A.6). The message itself may contain additional For most record types, the message fields start with fields (subrecord ID, etc.) to further distinguish the ac- a 1 byte subrecord ID to further distinguish the data tual contents. contained within. Even though records 0x7e and 0x7f Both the record identifier and the message length are formally considered as prototype messages that are stored in an unsigned BINEX integer (ubnxi) data shall eventually be replaced by 0x03 and 0x02 mes- word, which occupies between 1−4 byte depending on sages, some of them (such as 0x7f 0x05) represent a de the size of the encoded value. Likewise, different types facto standard and have already been adopted by vari- of checksum (1 byte XOR checksum, 2 byte CRC-16, or ous receiver manufacturers. mm of the a 2 D character speci- + ) provides integer- orb for each spacecraft, a A.7 for undifferenced carrier- characters), which provide / u+U The basic format and contents ,and % , + , ” in column 3). Thereafter the calendar # V based on the comprehensive specification ]. It comprises a header section with auxiliary ”or“ A.7 P 25 Following these initial header lines, a block of five The first header line indicates the format version The file header comprises various blocks of lines ” for SP3d in column 2) and distinguishes position- d phase and codedescriptor, observations), the type the of coordinate orbitthe product system responsible and institution. an acronym of or more lines introduced by a single date of the initial epoch andprovided. the Along number with of the data points stepsize25−38 is provided of in columns line 2, theclock epochs data of records are all fully subsequent definedmation. orbit by Complementary and this to header the infor- specification ofepoch the in start line 1,of a weeks and (redundant) seconds representation asModified in well Julian terms as Day integer count and areinformation fractional given in in the line first 2. headerthe Further includes employed an data (e.g., indicator for valued orbit accuracy indicators relevant indices and parameters fortation the of proper the interpre- subsequentrecords. orbit, clock and accuracy data (“ only files from files withtion position and (“ velocity informa- from which the standard deviation fies the total number of satellites,(constellation the letter satellite plus identifiers number)satellites and for the which sequence orbit of in and clock the data are epochwiseblock later SP3 (highlighted given in data red in blocks. Fig. The next header respective orbit errors across all epochs can be obtained. information for thequent proper data records. processing These provideas of orbit well and the as clock subse- optional data an accuracy equidistant and event epoch informationnumber grid on of satellites for and aoriginally epochs. While limited previously the to specified format aa was line 22-line width header, of abeen 80 introduced larger characters in number and SP3d to ofsatellites accommodate and header more extended than lines comments. 85 has (introduced by in [A. or more. Clock variations, onerned the by other stochastic hand, processesinterval are gov- (down and to a 30 smaller sinterpolation. sampling PPP or users less) may isplement therefore required SP3 prefer for to orbit accurate com- datadata with (Sect. separate A.2.2), high-ratebeen provided generated clock by that a common both provider,sistent using products processes. fully con- have Format Description. of an SP3din orbit Fig. and clock data file are illustrated 24]. Even . A.3 127) that require more format defines a widely D ata products and auxiliary for non-GNSS satellites in ]. 8 , various record identifiers have been assigned to Standard Product 3) (SP3 In addition to the public messages described in Ta- Even though the SP3 format is specifically de- SP3 originates from two types of GPS orbit data A.7
than one byte for ubnxi encoding. different institutions or companies tomentation enable of private the BINEX imple- messages. Theseof make use record IDs beyond 0x7f ( ble Complementary to the textchange and binary of formats receiver-related fornavigation ex- data, information metadata, (observations, etc.) aent wide formats range of have differ- beenInternational GNSS developed Service (IGS). in These the enablesistent a frame con- exchange of of GNSS the d A.2 IGS Product and Metadata Formats information among userscommon and examples analysis include precise centers.formation, orbit Most atmospheric and products, clock antenna in- and information site metadata, all of whichtion. are Current described in and this sec- pastspecifications are versions available of in thethe electronic IGS various form web format through site [A. signed to combine orbitin and a clock fully offset consistentsired manner, information at clock higher data rate.GNSS are In orbits often view with de- ofinterpolated periods their of from smooth 12−24 known h motion, can values readily at be a 15 min spacing A.2.1 SP3 Ephemeris Format The addition to the designations in Table used standard forclock the data provision of GNSS ofservation satellites. precise Aside data, from orbit the RINEXforms and ob- SP3 the basis orbit of mostapplications. and precise IGS point clock orbit positioning (PPP) and information tently clock products made are available consis- analysis centers in and can SP3 besoftware utilized format packages. by all by common PPP the various formats (SP1, SP2)Geodetic Survey developed (NGS). bythat Other the were than limited US its torates orbit-only National predecessors clock data, data SP3 and accuracy alsothough information incorpo- [A. both textbeen and defined, binary only versionsacceptance have the and originally former continues has toversion, be found SP3d, developed. the widespread format In supports its alltions latest GNSS using constella- satellite identifiersthe consistent RINEX with standard those (Sect. of use A.1.2). To for facilitate precise aEarth joint orbit orbit information (LEO), ofthermore a satellites been constellation introduced in letter low “L” has fur- Annex A 1218 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1219 ne A Annex
----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8| #dP2014 1 14 0 0 0.00000000 96 u+U IGb08 FIT GFZ ## 1775 172800.00000000 900.00000000 56671 0.0000000000000 Start of header + 55 G01G02G03G04G05G06G07G08G09G10G11G12G13G14G15G16G17 + G18G19G20G21G22G23G24G25G26G27G28G29G31G32R01R02R03 + R04R05R06R07R08R09R10R11R12R13R14R15R16R17R18R19R20 Satellite list + R21R22R23R24 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 + 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ++ 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 6 6 5 7 5 8 5 8 9 6 ++ 6 6 7 7 5 6 9 6 5 5 6 8 5 6 7 6 5 Global ++ 8 8 5 8 5 8 6 8 6 9 10 8 5 7 6 6 10 ++ 8 5 5 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 accuracy codes ++ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 %c M cc GPS ccc cccc cccc cccc cccc ccccc ccccc ccccc ccccc %c cc cc ccc ccc cccc cccc cccc cccc ccccc ccccc ccccc ccccc %f 1.2500000 1.025000000 0.00000000000 0.000000000000000 Parameters %f 0.0000000 0.000000000 0.00000000000 0.000000000000000 %i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 %i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 /* PCV:IGS08_1771 OL/AL:FES2004 NONE YN CLK:CoN ORB:CoN /* Format example Comments /* /* * 2014 1 14 0 0 0.00000000 PG01 -22719.489032 -12954.464685 4947.520826 100.299587 18 18 16 217 PG02 9976.466832 20308.487654 14556.052309 472.605048 18 17 17 205 PG03 -6463.720164 -14712.776290 -21679.213455 312.055000 21 19 20 235 PG04 -5817.639961 14805.054074 20935.719513 4.845698 20 18 19 227 M Epoch PG05 3611.450463 24622.788248 -9096.600235 -392.445998 17 19 18 210 ... Omitted lines Sat, orbit, clock, PR20 -22545.743726 -3235.075024 -11530.456734 -87.973609 30 27 29 276 accuracy codes, PR21 -24750.255662 4458.159423 3954.708793 999999.999999 25 23 26 999 EP P flags PR22 -14589.418582 10212.984872 18328.006528 110.608442 16 16 16 193 PR23 5123.982462 10175.849396 22816.989886 -588.600287 16 17 16 187 PR24 20756.252131 4380.870362 14144.802842 -105.908108 17 18 19 207 ... Omitted lines ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8|
Fig. A.7 SP3d format example
The header continues with a block of auxiliary pa- 62−73) as well as additional flags (columns 75−80 for rameters, most notably the time system indicator in the clock events (“E”), orbit maneuvers (“M”) and predicted first line starting with %c. It concludes with a block orbit or clock data (“P”). Similar to the global accuracy of four or more comment lines used within the IGS to indicators described above, these indicators provide the identify various processing conventions such as antenna exponent a for computing the standard deviation of the offset or tide models. respective value using a relation of the form D ba. Each of the subsequent data blocks starts with an Other than using a fixed base of b D 2, the base value epoch header line specifying the epoch date and time, can be selected by the provider and is separately spec- which must be consistent with the sequence of the ified in the %f header line for position and clock data. record and the epoch grid defined in the file header. In this way a better resolution of the accuracy informa- Thereafter, the position (in units of km) and clock offset tion is achieved. Using epochwise accuracy indicators (in s) are specified for each satellite in lines marked by is optional but enables a better distinction of predicted an initial “P” character. For files containing both posi- orbit and clock information from values based on actual tion and velocity information, each position record is observations. complemented by a subsequent velocity record (indi- For completeness, we note that the SP3 stan- cated by the initial “V” character), which provides the dard also foresees the use of an optional position spacecraft velocity (in units of 0:1m=s) and clock rate and clock correlation record (EP) as well as a cor- (in 10−4 s). Unknown or invalid data in both records responding EV record for velocity and clock rate in- are indicated by zero values (position and velocity) or formation. These records enable provision of a fully 999999.999999 (clock offset and clock rate). four-dimensional covariance matrix to describe the Fig. A.7 also illustrates the use of optional epoch- statistical properties of the respective data. However, and componentwise accuracy indicators (columns neither the position nor the clock correlation records ]. 26 (A.4) (A.5) (A.6) )maybe A.3 th-order Lagrange n / / j j t t − − i at the grid epochs. Alter- t t . . i i v 0 n ¤ D j j Y 32] is recommended. / /; t /; k t t . i . 1 l 0 i − i l i t To enable a consistent use of multi- v r . 0 0 i 0 n n n ¤ D D D i i k k X X X ]. Also, high-order interpolation must not be D D D 27 / / / t t t . . . 0 i v v l At the 15 min spacing adopted for most GNSS or- Within the IGS, GNSS satellite positions provided Clock data, in contrast, refer to an adopted antenna denotes the time derivative of the based on known values where polynomial. It may be notedare that the also above expressions applicable forvalues. interpolation However, a of constant nonequidistant step sizeSP3 (as format) implied simplifies the by computation the of thepolynomials Lagrange and contributes to aninterpolation errors. even distribution of bit products, a ninth-ordernumber polynomial of grid using points an on bothepoch equal sides offers of an the interpolation interpolation accuracythe compatible numerical with resolution of the SP3 orbit data [A. applied to clock data,orbit which information. are Here, not linear interpolation ascubic or interpolation smooth [A. at as most the Conventions. GNSS orbit and clockthat files, information the SP3 for standard allmon requires satellites time shall and referheader. reference to Despite this, a system further com- specifications identifieduct by in provider the will prod- the typicallyinterpretation file be of the required data. for the proper in the SP3 precisethe ephemeris spacecraft products are center-of-massterrestrial referred and coordinate to system (which a may differ mean-crust-fixed millimeters by a from few a barycentricformation system of due the Earth). to tidal de- phase center and acombination conventional (L1/L2 dual-frequency P(Y)-code signal observations for GPS). However, larger interpolation errorstered may near the be beginning encoun- riod or [A. end of the ephemeris pe- natively, the interpolating polynomial ( differenced to obtain the relation obtained through Lagrange interpolation n th- n (A.3) (A.2) (A.1) / can likewise be n ], among which t : 29 ; :::;
0 , the elementary i j j ]. t D -coordinates of the posi- ¤ D 31 i z i i . 30,
, -, and 24 / y / j j t t + 1 epochs for -, − − x n /; i t t t . . . Based on its history, SP3 is designed i
l i i r ¤ ], but polynomial interpolation is prob- j 1 0 ; n 0 0 Y 28 n D
D i j X denotes the values of the position vectors at the D D 26– D i / / r j / t t t . . . i i l Given a set of r l Various forms of interpolators for GNSS ephemeris
order Lagrange polynomials the Lagrange method appears best suitedvalues when (such as multiple the tion vector) have to begrid. interpolated It on the is samewith therefore epoch SP3 commonly orbit data recommended [A. for use can conveniently be expressed as a linear combination where With this result the interpolating polynomial of order are first computed. Thesebut are one designed grid to point, i. vanish e., at all as a tabular ephemeris format,at which equal provides all intervals. data information This generated is a bysoftware natural numerical and choice orbit facilitatesdiate for the prediction values. orbit interpolation Having saidmay of be that, interme- required to some ensureavailable synchronization that at clock the data same canEven be epochs made though as the the orbitvision SP3 information. of format epochwise supports positionbeen the recognized and that velocity joint position-only data, pro- informationerally it is sufficient, gen- has sincethese velocity data can through befunction. differentiation obtained Versions with of and from without complementary an ve- locity interpolating (and clock rate)the data SP3 are format. Aside therefore from supported their reducedonly by size, position- SP3 filesposition-velocity ensure full information consistency andsome of avoid transformation the of the derived inertialdata. cumber- to Earth-fixed velocity data have beenture proposed [A. and studied in the litera- have foundproducts. widespread acceptance in officialInterpolation. IGS ably most widely used.been developed A for variety this of purpose algorithms [A. have given grid points. The velocity at time Annex A 1220 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1221 ne A Annex ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8| 3.00 CLOCK DATA G RINEX VERSION / TYPE Start of header goaLib.tdp2rnxClk JPL 20140123 180643 UTC PGM / RUN BY / DATE G 4 C1P L1P C2P L2P SYS / # / OBS TYPES GPS TIME SYSTEM ID G GIPSY/PvsCA CODE's 30-day GPS P1-C1 DCB solution SYS / DCBS APPLIED G GIPSY IGS08_1740 SYS / PCVS APPLIED Processing 2 AR AS # / TYPES OF DATA parameters JPL JPL USING GIPSY/OASIS-II ANALYSIS CENTER 1 # OF CLK REF USN3 40451S007 ANALYSIS CLK REF 80 IGb08 # OF SOLN STA / TRF AB11 UNKNOWN -2658010411 -693674824 5737338498SOLN STA NAME / NUM ANKR 20805M002 4121948460 2652187872 4069023826SOLN STA NAME / NUM AREQ 42202M005 1942826240 -5804070343 -1796894183SOLN STA NAME / NUM ... Omitted lines Station list YAKT 12353M002 -1914999151 2308241477 5610225509SOLN STA NAME / NUM YARR 50107M006 -2389025300 5043315501 -3078533281SOLN STA NAME / NUM ZAMB 34601M001 5415352973 2917210074 -1685888704SOLN STA NAME / NUM 31 # OF SOLN SATS G01 G02 G03 G04 G05 G06 G07 G08 G09 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 PRN LIST Satellite list G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25 G26 G27 G28 G29 G31 PRN LIST G32 PRN LIST END OF HEADER End of header AR AB11 2014 1 15 0 0 0.000000 2 6.499754781087e-08 8.439171608513e-11 AR ANKR 2014 1 15 0 0 0.000000 2 9.769804722732e-05 8.756057498951e-11 Omitted lines Station (receiver) ... clock offsets AR YARR 2014 1 15 0 0 0.000000 2 3.572224937511e-09 8.625967501824e-11 AR ZAMB 2014 1 15 0 0 0.000000 2 -7.047014800876e-08 8.572597246593e-11 AS G01 2014 1 15 0 0 0.000000 2 1.005156164617e-04 7.551891115286e-11 AS G02 2014 1 15 0 0 0.000000 2 4.727939503967e-04 7.355088299119e-11 ... Omitted lines Satellite AS G31 2014 1 15 0 0 0.000000 2 3.323450819402e-04 7.201648815328e-11 clock offsets AS G32 2014 1 15 0 0 0.000000 2 -5.016907537156e-04 7.131600355336e-11 ... Omitted lines ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8|
Fig. A.8 RINEX clock format example
Furthermore, the dominant relativistic contribution to and atomic clocks of national time standard laborato- the apparent clock caused by the orbital eccentricity has ries. been removed from the provided clock data to better The structure and contents of a Clock RINEX file reflect the clock’s proper time. As such, a corresponding are illustrated in Fig. A.8. In accordance with RINEX correction must be added to clock offsets retrieved from observation and navigation data formats (Sect. A.1.2), the SP3 ephemeris for the proper modeling of GNSS the clock data file header is made up of a sequence observations (Sect. 19.2). of header lines identified by their labels in columns 61−80. These mandatory or optional header lines pro- A.2.2 Clock RINEX Format vides auxiliary information for the proper interpreta- The RINEX Extensions to Handle Clock Informa- tion of the actual clock data and are terminated by tion [A.33] were introduced in 1998 as a generic frame- a END OF HEADER line. Key parameters provided work for the exchange of general clock offset infor- within the header comprise a time system indicator, in- mation. Today, the format is primarily used to provide formation on the signal or signal combination used in precise GNSS satellite and receiver clock data derived the clock offset determination for each GNSS constel- from the analysis of global networks of monitoring sta- lation, information on the application of phase center tions. Despite its name, the Clock RINEX format has offsets, phase pattern variations and differential code therefore evolved to a GNSS product format rather than biases, and the station clock serving as a reference for a receiver data format. Clock RINEX data are widely all clock offsets. Additionally, lists of all stations and used for precision point positioning (PPP) and also satellites used in the clock offset estimation process are to monitor the performance of GNSS satellite clocks provided. ] 38 and 6 )used header 6 %=TRO and a for- A.8 %=BIA . ). These are used in lines. An overview of 39] and provide esti- longitude and latitude A.9 . The SINEX troposphere A.10 label A.9 centric ...- Following the example of the label . SINEX bias files are distinguished + A.9 ] extends the SINEX format to capture tro- ]. The format is specifically designed to 36 37 GIM products in IONEX format are generated by SINEX troposphere files follow the overall con- line. A.2.4 IONEX Format The IONosphere EXchange (IONEX) format [A. has been developed forsphere maps the (GIMs) derived from exchange the of analysisobservations. of GNSS global Aside iono- fromand ionospheric space analyses, weather thesecurate maps monitoring enable and more precise ac- single-frequencythan position the Klobuchar estimates or NeQuick models (Chap. 19) to compute the ionosphericcessing path of pseudorange delays and in phase the observations. pro- combination with a single-layer model (Chaps. at discrete time intervals (Fig. for real-time ionospheric correction insideceiver. a GNSS re- various IGS analysis centersmated vertical [A. total electron contentan (VTEC) equidistant values grid on in geo dedinaframeof mat example is provided in Fig. SINEX data blocks file is given in Table SINEX Troposphere Format. format [A. pospheric observations and estimates.contain The the format can totalitable and water vapor, wet and gradients zenith thereofrespective along path standard with deviations. delays, the In addition, precip- standardmospheric at- measurements such astemperature, barometric pressure, and relativeGNSS humidity users can cancorrect use be the the provided. range SINEX observationsestimate. troposphere to Weather improve data the reporting to positionalso and use the observed prediction and estimated meteorological agencies contained data in the SINEX tropospheremodeling file and for climatological numerical archives. ventions of a standardvarious of SINEX its data file blocks, but format areheader identified and by line. a inherit A listformat of is provided labels in specific Table to the troposhere handle differential codehandle biases carrier-phase (DCB), and butassociated intersystem labels for biases. can the bias-specific A data also blocks listvided is pro- in of Table Bias SINEX Format.SINEX troposphere format, ahas tailored also SINEX been version proposedphase for biases the exchange oftions of satellites code [A. and and GNSS monitoring sta- from standard SINEX files through the AR” (for analysis header line and ter- footer. In between, various %=SNX oning Integrated by Satellite %ENDSNX 35]. ] was originally designed to facilitate the 34 SINEX employs a fixed-format text representation The subsequent data section of the RINEX clock file A fixed stepsize is not required but it is a common The format has also been adopted and extended to A basic SINEX file contains station coordinate and
with a maximum lineis width started of with 80 a characters. mandatory Each file minated with an provides clock offset valuesand for receivers each on an of epoch-by-epochtive these basis. lines stations The are respec- marked by a leading “ data, receivers) and” “AS and (for contain analysis explicit epoch data, information. satellites) fields The specify remaining the number ofclock data offset and, items optionally, its followed standard by deviation. Both values the are provided in units of seconds.rate If and desired, clock acceleration as wellmay as also their be standard given deviation on a continuation line. practice among theon IGS the analysis product centers.30 and s Depending provider, are most step frequently sizesavailable used, for but of 5 high-precision s 5 applications. min products Linearpolation are and inter- of also clock datarecommended in between view consecutive of epochs thecal is clock stochastic variations. nature of typi- A.2.3 SINEX The Solution INdependentmat EXchange [A. (SINEX) for- exchange and distribution of stationities coordinates, veloc- and Earth orientationthe parameters IGS (EOP) analysis between tinely centers. estimated from These the processingGNSS parameters of network the are using global IGS rou- aA wide common range format ofa software was comparison tools. therefore and required combinationsolutions. SINEX of to has the enable been analysis used1995 onwards for center and this received purpose continuous from handle amendments new to parameters over the past decades. meet the needs of(VLBI), Satellite Very Laser Long Ranging (SLR) and Baseline Dopplerbitography Interferometry Or- and Radiopositi (DORIS) techniques. The combinationniques is of used these to tech- Reference generate Frame the (ITRF). International Terrestrial Earth rotation parameter estimates alonginformation with about auxiliary the site, such astype, receiver eccentricity and antenna and phasedition, center covariance information information. or In normal ad- equationsbe can stored to facilitate the combinationdifferent of analysis solutions from centers and/orsystems [A. geodetic observation blocks of data mayblock be is given identified in by arbitrary a order. predefiend Each label and embed- Annex A 1222 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1223
Fig. A.9 A Annex %=SNX2.01COD14:019:09616IGS14:013:0000014:016:00000P008481SEA SINEX *------format example. +FILE/REFERENCE Labels as well as DESCRIPTIO CODE, Astronomical Institute, University of Bern header, trailer and OUTPU CODE IGS 3-day solution INPU CODE IGS 1-day solutions comment lines -FILE/REFERENCE are highlighted in *------color +SITE/ID *CODE PT __DOMES__ T _STATION DESCRIPTION__ APPROX_LON_ APPROX_LAT_ _APP_H_ ABMF A 97103M001 P LesAbymes, FR 298 28 20.9 16 15 44.3 -25.6 ZIMJ A 14001M006 P Zimmerwald, CH 7 27 54.4 46 52 37.7 954.3 -SITE/ID +SITE/RECEIVER *SITE PT SOLN T DATA_START__ DATA_END____ DESCRIPTION______S/N__ FIRMWARE___ ABMF A 1 P 14:013:00000 14:015:86370 TRIMBLE NETR9 ------ZIMJ A 1 P 14:013:00000 14:015:86370 JAVAD TRE_G3TH DELTA ------SITE/RECEIVER +SITE/ANTENNA *SITE PT SOLN T DATA_START__ DATA_END____ DESCRIPTION______S/N__ ABMF A 1 P 14:013:00000 14:015:86370 TRM57971.00 NONE ----- ZIMJ A 1 P 14:013:00000 14:015:86370 JAVRINGANT_DM NONE ------SITE/ANTENNA +SITE/GPS_PHASE_CENTER *DESCRIPTION______S/N__ L1->ARP(M)_(U,E,N)__ L2->ARP(M)_(U,E,N)__ JAVRINGANT_DM NONE ----- 0.0893 0.0011 0.0009 0.1196 0.0003 -.0001 IGS08_1771 TRM57971.00 NONE ----- 0.0668 0.0011 -.0003 0.0578 0.0001 0.0007 IGS08_1771 -SITE/GPS_PHASE_CENTER +SITE/ECCENTRICITY *SITE PT SOLN T DATA_START__ DATA_END____ AXE ARP->BENCHMARK(M)______ABMF A 1 P 14:013:00000 14:015:86370 UNE 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 ZIMJ A 1 P 14:013:00000 14:015:86370 UNE 0.0770 0.0000 0.0000 -SITE/ECCENTRICITY *------+SATELLITE/ID *SITE PR COSPAR___ T DATA_START__ DATA_END____ ANTENNA______G063 01 2011-036A P 11:197:00000 00:000:00000 BLOCK IIF R735 24 2010-007B P 10:060:00000 00:000:00000 GLONASS-M -SATELLITE/ID +SATELLITE/PHASE_CENTER *SITE L SATA_Z SATA_X SATA_Y L SATA_Z SATA_X SATA_Y MODEL_____ T M G063 1 1.5613 0.3940 0.0000 2 1.5613 0.3940 0.0000 IGS08_1771 A E R735 1 2.4830 -.5450 0.0000 2 2.4830 -.5450 0.0000 IGS08_1771 A E -SATELLITE/PHASE_CENTER *------+SOLUTION/EPOCHS *CODE PT SOLN T _DATA_START_ __DATA_END__ _MEAN_EPOCH_ ABMF A 1 P 14:013:00000 14:015:86370 14:014:43185 ZIMJ A 1 P 14:013:00000 14:015:86370 14:014:43185 -SOLUTION/EPOCHS +SOLUTION/ESTIMATE *INDEX TYPE__ CODE PT SOLN _REF_EPOCH__ UNIT S __ESTIMATED VALUE____ _STD_DEV___ 1 STAX ABMF A 1 14:014:43200 m 2 0.291978574407741E+07 .346952E-03 2 STAY ABMF A 1 14:014:43200 m 2 -.538374500399109E+07 .547673E-03 3 STAZ ABMF A 1 14:014:43200 m 2 0.177460477599520E+07 .307686E-03 769 STAX ZIMJ A 1 14:014:43200 m 1 0.433129380015458E+07 .353701E-03 770 STAY ZIMJ A 1 14:014:43200 m 1 0.567542294104827E+06 .204759E-03 771 STAZ ZIMJ A 1 14:014:43200 m 1 0.463313582612440E+07 .365545E-03 778 XPO ------1 14:013:00000 mas 2 0.301765028159985E+02 .775857E-02 782 YPO ------1 14:013:00000 mas 2 0.329956712999544E+03 .781743E-02 786 UT ------1 14:013:00000 ms 2 -.110025006935236E+03 .145173E-03 793 SATA_Z G063 LC ---- 14:014:43185 m 2 0.156129999660433E+01 .145173E-05 848 SATA_Z R735 LC ---- 14:014:43185 m 2 0.248300000792411E+01 .145173E-05 -SOLUTION/ESTIMATE *------%ENDSNX ). Optionally, A.11 , serial number, timespan) for orbit, EOP, troposphere, etc.) val, elevation cutoff, mapping function, etc.) d of applicability, value and standard deviation approximate location) epoch. Each TECrecords map providing TEC is values for itselfthe a made given specified latitude up over longitude of grid multiple (Fig. Eccentricities, i. e., distances ofveyed antenna marker reference for point each from site sur- List of employed GNSS satellitesvehicle with and antenna COSPAR number type (or assatellite block), well as space identifier associated (=PRN/slot RINEX/SP3 number) andGNSS period satellite of antenna use/assignment phase centerfor offsets each from frequency the band center-of-mass List of observation timespan forwhich each parameters solution, have site been and estimated pointType (range, for time, scale, etc.)vidual and solutions period of biases estimatedStatistical in properties indi- (no. of observationsresiduals, and etc.) unknowns, sampling, Estimated values and standard deviationsA of priori all values solution and parameters constraintsUpper applied or in lower the triangle estimation ofmatrix correlation, covariance, or information A priori correlation, covariance, orform information matrix in triangular Right-hand side of the unconstrainedUnconstrained (reduced) normal normal equations equation matrix in triangular form Contents Information on organization, software andgeneration hardware used in the file General comments on the SINEXInformation file on the agency, sourceters, data and period, content techniques, type parame- (station, Source data files List of contributing agencies Employed nutation model (IAU1980, IERS1996, IAU2000a/b) Employed precession model (IAU1976, IER1996) Designation of VLBI radio sources Description of key site parametersniques, (identifiers, description, observation tech- Employed receivers (type, serial number,Employed timespan) antennas for and each radomes site (type GPS L1/L2 phase center offsetsGalileo of each E1/E5a/E6/E5b/E5ab antenna phase type center offsetstype of each antenna each site (m) (r/m) (o) (m) (r/m) (r/m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (r) (m) (m) (o) (r) (o) (o) (m, VLBI) (m, VLBI) (m, VLBI) and list of parameters providedetc.) in the solution (estimated zenith delays, meteorological data, Contents Values of analysis parameters (sampling inter Employed stations and their coordinates Values of estimated parameters at discreteSpecification time of steps solution for parameters each (samplingType site interval, of bias etc.) (signals, satellite, station), perio (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) The IONEX file format follows Common SINEX data blocks; (m), (r), and (o) indicate mandatory, recommended and optional blocks Data blocks specific to the SINEX Troposphere and SINEX Bias formats; (m) indicates mandatory blocks
TROP/STA_COORDINATES TROP/SOLUTION BIAS/DESCRIPTION BIAS/SOLUTION SOLUTION/NORMAL_EQUATION_VECTOR SOLUTION/NORMAL_EQUATION_MATRIX Label TROP/DESCRIPTION SOLUTION/STATISTICS SOLUTION/ESTIMATE SOLUTION/APRIORI SOLUTION/MATRIX_ESTIMATE SOLUTION/MATRIX_APRIORI SATELLITE/PHASE_CENTER SOLUTION/EPOCHS BIAS/EPOCHS SITE/ANTENNA SITE/GPS_PHASE_CENTER SITE/GAL_PHASE_CENTER SITE/ECCENTRICITY SATELLITE/ID INPUT/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS NUTATION/DATA PRECESSION/DATA SOURCE/ID SITE/ID SITE/RECEIVER Label FILE/REFERENCE FILE/COMMENT INPUT/HISTORY INPUT/FILES the RINEX2 template withtains 80 a column records. file It header con- followed by a TEC map for each Format Description. Table A.9 Table A.8 Annex A 1224 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1225 ne A Annex Latitude (°) Global Ionosphere Map 2014/01/14 14:00 Latitude (°) Global Ionosphere Map 2014/01/14 18:00 90 90 75 75 60 60 45 45 30 30 15 15 0 0 –15 –15 –30 –30 –45 –45 –60 –60 –75 –75 –90 –90 –180 –150 –120 –90 –60 –30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 –180 –150 –120 –90 –60 –30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
0 20406080100 VTEC
Fig. A.10 Global ionosphere maps of the IGS CODE analysis center
Fig. A.11 IONEX products. Likewise, the longitude grid for global maps ı ı Header file structure includes TEC values for D −180 and D +180 de- spite the resulting redundancy. A second set of header lines provides the set of differential code biases (DCBs) Ionosphere map time 1 of all satellites and stations incorporated in the genera- VTEC record latitude 1 tion of the TEC maps. Since ionospheric path delays VTEC record latitude 2 are retrieved from differences of observations made at two different frequencies (Chap. 39)suchbiaseshave … a direct impact on the estimated ionospheric activity. VTEC record latitude nj Provision of the biases in the file header ensures full transparency and consistency, even though the values … are not actually required, to use TEC maps in single- frequency positioning applications. Each TEC map is made up of a series of consec-
Ionosphere map time ni utive records providing the TEC values over the full set of longitude grid points at a specified latitude. Us- ing a predefined scale of typically 0:1 TECU, all values can be represented through integer numbers with at most five digits. Individual TEC maps are embedded the TEC maps may be complemented by RMS TEC in a START OF TEC MAP and END OF TEC MAP maps providing the expected uncertainty of the TEC frame and marked by their sequence number. Further- values. more, the calender date and time of the respective epoch A truncated example illustrating the basic format are provided to ease their identification. of the IONEX header and data records is shown in Fig. A.12. The header primarily specifies the range in Interpolation. The global ionosphere maps provide time, longitude and latitude as well as the correspond- the values VTECi;j;k of the vertical total electron con- '0 ing step sizes for the TEC information given in the tents at discrete times ti, geocentric latitudes j ,and various TEC maps. Even though the format is designed longitudes k (Fig. A.10). Application of the single- to support three-dimensional maps, current products are layer model requires interpolation of these values for confined to two-dimensional single-layer representation a given time t and location (, '0) of the ionospheric with a fixed height relative to a specified mean Earth pierce point (i. e., the point at which the signal path in- radius. To facilitate interpolation, both 00:00 h and tersects the thin shell used to represent the ionosphere; 24:00 h epochs are usually included in the daily IONEX see Chap. 19,Fig.19.1). / 0 (A.9) (A.10) /; ' i t . A modi- − +1 i / / t 0 0 End file of Code biases Code Specifcation TEC records A.10 / End header of 0 Start header of (data grid, etc.) !. − . Improved results .; ' .; ' i i +1 . .; ' i t +1 +1 i i < t VTEC VTEC Ä / / i VTEC VTEC t can subsequently be employed / 1− 1− i . . t + + − Omitted lines Omitted lines Omitted lines D D +1 / / i 0 0 /=.t i t ;;' ;;' t t − . . t h, which is illustrated in Fig. . = DESUSELBAVRESBO ı D 15 VTEC VTEC For interpolation in time, a linear interpolation D may, however be obtained, byionospheric taking activity varies into mostly with account local that timethan rather UTC. This resultsof in the an average apparent electron westwards! density shift distribution at a rate of with across the time interval fied relation Ä END OF FILE ... END OF HEADER k (A.8) (A.7) and +1 k 0 k j ; ; j +1 ; k i +1 ; +1 j j ; ; k i i <' ; 0 +1 j ' ; i VTEC Ä / 0 VTEC VTEC j q / / ' q edocotdelevelesahpreirracyaw-enO VTEC /.q / / / p /.1− k 0 j p ' /.1− /.q p 1− p − − . . . 1− . +1 + + + +1 0 j k D / 0 /=.' /=. 0 j k ' − − .; ' 0 i , limited by the surrounding grid points. .' . +1 D k D VTEC p q For interpolation to the given location a bilinear in- IONEX file format example. Rulers at the start and end have been added for information only and are not part of the terpolation < is applied across the intervals with coefficients 1 END OF TEC MAP 1 START OF MAP TEC 1.0 IONOSPHERE MAPS GNSS IONEX VERSION / TYPE 2 MAP DIMENSION 87.5-180.0 180.0 5.0 450.0 LAT/LON1/LON2/DLON/H 13 # OF MAPS IN FILE 10.0 ELEVATION CUTOFF 87.5 -87.5 -2.5 LAT1 / LAT2 / DLAT -1 EXPONENT 56 # OF SATELLITES 23 23 24 25 26 27 28 3029 31 32 33 34 34 35 36 36 37 37 38 38 38 38 3738 37 37 36 36 36 35 35 34 34 34 33 33 33 33 3233 32 32 32 32 3232 31 31 31 30 30 29 29 28 28 27 26 26 25 24 24 23 23 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 23 -87.5-180.0 180.0 5.0 450.0 LAT/LON1/LON2/DLON/H 450.0 450.0 0.0 HGT1 / HGT2 / DHGT 278 # OF STATIONS G01 -10.591 0.007 PRN / BIAS / RMS R ZIMJ 14001M006 -13.992 0.038 STATION / BIAS / RMS 190 190 191 191 191 191 190 190 189 188 188 187 186 185 184 183 182 181 179 178 177 176 175 174 173 171 170 169 168 167 165 164 163 162 161 160 158 157 157 156 155 154 154 154 153 153 154 154 154 155 156 157 158 159 161 163 164 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 180 182 183 185 186 187 188 189 190 2014 1 14 0 0 0 EPOCH OF CURRENT MAP NONE MAPPING FUNCTION 2014 1 14 0 0 0 EPOCH OF FIRST MAP 2014 1 15 0 0 0 EPOCH OF LAST MAP 7200 INTERVAL -180.0 180.0 5.0 LON1 / LON2 / DLON 6371.0 BASE RADIUS ADDNEQ2 V5.3 AIUB 18-JAN-14 21:04 PGM / RUN BY / DATE ... ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8| ... CODE'S GLOBAL IONOSPHERE MAPS FORDAY 014, 2014 COMMENT Web page: www.aiub.unibe.ch/content/ionosphere/ DESCRIPTION ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8| DCB values in ns; zero-meanDIFFERENTIAL CODE condition BIASES wrt END OF AUX DATA satellite values COMMENT TEC/RMS values in 0.1 TECU; 9999, ifDIFFERENTIAL CODE BIASES no value START OF AUX DATA available... COMMENT
Fig. A.12 actual format Annex A 1226 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1227 ne A Annex a) L1 +y (Az = 0°) b) L2 +y (Az = 0°)
30°0 60° 90° 30°0 60° 90° –x (Az = 270°) +x (Az = 90°) –x (Az = 270°) +x (Az = 90°)
–y (Az = 180°) –y (Az = 180°)
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 Phase center variation (mm)
Fig. A.13 Azimuth and boresight angle-dependent phase center variation of Leica AR25.R4 antenna as provided in the igs08.atx antenna calibration file for GPS L1 (a) and L2 (b) signals. Image courtesy of A. Hauschild is therefore recommended by [A.38] for interpolation Fig. A.14 Basic of IONEX TEC maps in time. Here, the second map File header structure of is shifted in longitude with respect to the first one to Antenna 1 ANTEX antenna compensate for Earth rotation between the respective data files epochs. Antenna header PCO/PCV frequency band 1 A.2.5 ANTEX … The ANTenna EXchange (ANTEX) format [A.40]was developed to facilitate the documentation and distri- PCO/PCV frequency band n bution of phase center offsets (PCOs) and phase cen- … ter variations (PCVs) for GNSS receiver and satellite antennas (Fig. A.13). These corrections are used in Antenna N GNSS precise point positioning applications as well Antenna header as GNSS satellite orbit and clock determination for high-accuracy modeling of carrier-phase observations PCO/PCV frequency band 1 (Chap. 19). … Except for PCV data that require an extended line PCO/PCV frequency band n width, ANTEX files employ a line format with parame- ters in columns 1−60 and descriptive labels in columns 61−80. Following a brief header, a series of data records with information for individual antennas are provided vehicle number and the international (COSPAR) satel- (Fig. A.14). Each record is itself made up of an antenna- lite number are specified in the first record header line. specific header and several sets of PCO/PCV data for Next, the grid of azimuth and boresight angle values for distinct constellations and frequency bands. the provision of phase center variations is specified. In A truncated format example illustrating the basic addition, a validity period is specified that reflects the structure of the ANTEX file and the data blocks is timespan during which the space vehicle was assigned provided in Fig. A.15. Different colors are used to high- the given satellite identifier. For GNSS receiver anten- light the header of individual antenna records (blue) as nas, the antenna and radome name are identified along well as PCO/PCV data for the GPS L1 (red) and L2 with the method used for calibration of the phase pat- (green) frequency. For GNSS satellite antennas, the an- tern. Since 2005, absolute antenna phase patterns are tenna type (associated with the block type of a GPS exclusively used within the IGS [A.41]. These may be satellite), the three-character RINEX satellite identifier based on either robot calibrations or anechoic chamber (constellation letter and PRN or slot number), the space measurements. . Indi- A.10 Satellite Receiver File header antenna dataantenna antenna dataantenna Omitted lines Omitted lines form is presentlyTEX provided product, in although thebeen made various standard to derive efforts IGS two-dimensional PCV haveGPS maps AN- and for GLONASS already all satellites. For arection, given boresight the di- PCV maps canlinear be (for interpolated one-dimensional using PCVs) either lation or (for bilinear two-dimensional PCVs). interpo- A.2.6 Site Log Format Building and maintaining aof GNSS stations requires station a orarchive standardized network station that information describesequipment, the responsible station agencytion. including and location, To contact meet informa- a these dedicated needs, sitetext the log files IGS with format. an14 has Site 80-character numbered established width logs sections and described are made in stored up Table of as END OF ANTENNA END OF HEADER START OF ANTENNA END OF ANTENNA START OF ANTENNA keyword) NOAZI block identified by the -coordinates. Phase center START OF FREQUENCY z -and y -, x COD/ESA 0 25-MAR-11 METH / BY / # / DATE Antenna information for a specific frequency ANTEX file format example. Rulers at the start and end have been added for information only and are not part of the 0.58 -0.37 91.85 NORTH / EAST / UP band is embedded inRINEX constellation a letter and frequency band number. The offset of the antennathereafter phase center the is first phase provided, ceiver center antenna variations phaserespect are center to the given. offsets antenna Re- reference areordinate point system (ARP) defined aligned and with with aand the co- nominal Up North, directions. East, GNSSare satellite defined phase with center respect offsets toand the body-fixed satellites center-of-mass ...END OF FREQUENCY variations referring toprovided the in same the reference formdependent system of pattern an are (marked averaged boresight by angle- the as well asdependent an pattern. optional For azimuth GNSS and satellites boresight only angle- the first 5.0 0.00 -0.12 -0.48 -1.02 -1.69 -2.44 -3.24 -4.03 ... 5.45 9.20 ...... 0.0 DAZI 0.0 17.0 1.0 ZEN1 / ZEN2 / DZEN 2 # OF FREQUENCIES 1.4 M ANTEX VERSION / SYST 0.0 0.00 -0.27 -0.98 -2.07 -3.42 -4.87 -6.26 -7.43 ... 8.68 13.67 5.0 0.00 -0.27 -0.98 -2.06 -3.41 -4.86 -6.25 -7.41 ... 8.73 13.73 ...... -0.08 -0.59 120.35 NORTH / EAST / UP 0.0 0.00 -0.12 -0.48 -1.02 -1.69 -2.44 -3.24 -4.04 ... 5.50 9.31 5.0 DAZI 0.0 90.0 5.0 ZEN1 / ZEN2 / DZEN 2 # OF FREQUENCIES 394.00 0.00 1597.30 NORTH / EAST /UP 394.00 0.00 1597.30 NORTH/ EAST /UP 355.0 0.00 -0.13 -0.49 -1.03 -1.69 -2.44 -3.24 -4.04 ... 5.55 9.43 360.0 0.00 -0.12 -0.48 -1.02 -1.69 -2.44 -3.24 -4.04 ... 5.50 9.31 G02 END OF FREQUENCY 355.0 0.00 -0.27 -0.98 -2.07 -3.42 -4.88 -6.27 -7.43 ... 8.65 13.64 360.0 0.00 -0.27 -0.98 -2.07 -3.42 -4.87 -6.26 -7.43 ... 8.68 13.67 G01 END OF FREQUENCY G02 START OF FREQUENCY NOAZI 0.00 -0.13 -0.51 -1.08 -1.79 -2.58 -3.39 -4.17 ... 5.68 9.44 NOAZI 0.00 -0.23 -0.90 -1.93 -3.22 -4.62 -5.96 -7.09 ... 9.08 14.23 G01 START OF FREQUENCY NOAZI 6.10 4.40 2.80 1.30 -0.20 -1.40 -2.80 -3.90 ... 18.20 23.50 G02 END OF FREQUENCY NOAZI 6.10 4.40 2.80 1.30 -0.20 -1.40 -2.80 -3.90 ... 18.20 23.50 G01 END OF FREQUENCY G02 START OF FREQUENCY G01 START OF FREQUENCY 2010 5 28 0 0 0.0000000 VALID FROM AOAD/M_T NONE TYPE / SERIAL NO ROBOT Geo++ GmbH 2 25-MAR-11 METH / BY / # / DATE ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8| BLOCK IIF G25 G062 2010-022A TYPE / SERIAL NO A PCV TYPE / REFANT ----+---1|0---+---2|0---+---3|0---+---4|0---+---5|0---+---6|0---+---7|0---+---8|
actual format. Ellipses denote characters or lines that have been deleted to fit the available print space Fig. A.15 Annex A 1228 Annex A: Data Formats Annex A: Data Formats 1229 ne A Annex KZN2 Site Information Form Fig. A.16 Site log International GNSS Service format example (truncated 0. Form sections are Prepared by (full name) : Renat Zagretdinov indicated by Date Prepared : 2012-02-24 Report Type : NEW ellipses)
1. Site Identification of the GNSS Monument Site Name : KAZAN Four Character ID : KZN2 Monument Inscription : KFU GNSS STATION IERS DOMES Number : 12374M001 CDP Number : NONE Monument Description : PILLAR Height of the Monument : 13(m) Monument Foundation : CONCRETE BLOCK Foundation Depth : 2(m) Marker Description : (CHISELLED CROSS/DIVOT/BRASS NAIL/etc) Date Installed : 2010-10-01 Geologic Characteristic : CLAY and SAND ...
2. Site Location Information City or Town : KAZAN State or Province : TATARSTAN Country : Russian Federation Tectonic Plate : Eurasian Approximate Position (ITRF) X coordinate (m) : 2352345.7 Y coordinate(m) : 2717466.1 Z coordinate(m) : 5251458.5 Latitude (N is +) : +554726.82 Longitude (E is +) : +0490709.28 Elevation (m,ellips.) : 94.6 Additional Information :
3. GNSS Receiver Information 3.1 Receiver Type : TRIMBLE NETR9 Satellite System : GPS+GLO+GAL+CMP Serial Number : 5049K72275 Firmware Version : 4.43 Elevation Cutoff Setting : 5 Date Installed : 2012-02-24T00:00Z Date Removed : 2012-08-14T13:00Z Temperature Stabiliz. : 20-30 ...
4. GNSS Antenna Information 4.1 Antenna Type : TRM59800.00 Serial Number : 5106354023 Antenna Reference Point : BPA Marker->ARP Up Ecc. (m) : 0.0750 Marker->ARP North Ecc (m) : Marker->ARP East Ecc (m) : Alignment from True N : 0 Antenna Radome Type : SCIS Radome Serial Number : 0702 Antenna Cable Type : LMR400, Times Microwave Systems Antenna Cable Length : 30(m) Date Installed : 2012-02-24T00:00Z Date Removed : (CCYY-MM-DDThh:mmZ) ... ,21–29 55 http://kb.igs. nt (ARP), marker-to-antenna ARP off- iption and pictures, antenna graphics and ncy, effective dates beginning and end. Re- or update), link to previous site log and list of pproximate Cartesian and and geographic act: name, telephone, fax and email, repeated cription, IERS domes number, CDP number; ate and start and end date. Corresponding in- dome type and serial number, antenna cable type re sensor, water vapor radiometer and other . (2008) faces, Interface Specification, IS-GPS-200H,2013 (Global Positioning 24 Sep. Systems Directorate,geles Los 2013) An- dent Exchange Format(IGS/RTCM – RINEX Version Working Group, 2.11, 2012) 26 Jun. 2012 mat – VersionRTCM-SC104, Pasadena 3.03, 2015) 14 July 2015 (IGS RINEX WG, org/hc/en-us/articles/201096516-IGS-Formats observation data, Bull. Geogr. Surv. Inst. A.16 eristics of foundation (soil, rock) tenna reference poi A.10 Navstar GPS Space Segment/Navigation User Inter- A.6 W. Gurtner, L. Estey: RINEX:A.7 The Receiver Indepen- RINEX – The ReceiverA.8 Independent Exchange For- International GNSS Service: IGS Formats A.9 Y. Hatanaka: A compression format and tools for GNSS In this way,record site of logs all the provide changescated users that format have with taken example place. aFig. A of complete trun- a site log file is shown in ng, construction, etc.) (3), 1–11 2 http://www. and length, date (installed and removed). Repeated for each change set, antenna alignment w.r.t true north, ra peated for each change Agency, abbreviation, address, primary cont for secondary contact and additionalSame information content as in sitePrimary contact and section secondary data center,diagram, URL horizon for mask, station detailed information, monument availability descr of site map, monument description, height (m) anddate foundation installed, (type geological and charact depth); marker description and Tied marker: name, usage (SLR,components VLBI, (ITRS) control), (m) CDP : number, dx, domesinformation dy number, as and differential required. dz, Repeated accuracy, survey forType method, each (internal, date additional external and tie and additional and type), campaign input freque List of instrumentation present andates the (start site: and type end) (DORIS, and SLR,Humidity notes VLBI, sensor: etc.), manufacturer, status, serial effective number,height sampling difference interval, to accuracy, antenna, aspiration, calibration d meteorological sensors Radio interference, multipath sources, signalDate, obstruction event (tree cleari additional information Contents Lists the author, preparation date,changes type (new Site name, four-character ID, monument ins City or town, state, country,coordinates tectonic plate, a Receiver type, GNSS systems supported,angle, serial date number, (installed firmware and version, removed). elevationAntenna Repeated cutoff type, for serial each number, change an formation for pressure sensor, temperatu (7), 48–52 (1994) 5 Mikulskinger, (Spri Berlin, Sitelog file contents messages, data transfer andTransp. formats, 11th Syst. Int. Telemat., Conf. 2011, Communications TST in 2011, ComputerScience, and Vol. Katowice-Ustrón, Information 239, ed. byHeidelberg J. 2011) pp. 338–345 (1989) change format, GPS World nmea.org Electronics Association, Severna Park 2011) change format for GPS data, CIGNET Bull. Local conditions Local episodic effects On site contact Responsible agency More information Frequency standard Collocation information Meteorological instrumentation GNSS receiver GNSS antenna Surveyed local ties Section Form Site identification Site location
9 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 3 4 5 No. 0 1 2 A.1 J. Januszewski: Satellite navigation systems, data A.2 National Marine Electronics Association: vidual parameters withinby each predefined labels section withrating are colons the identified in labels columnsite and 31 parameters. conditions sepa- When change equipment the or relevant block is updated. Table A.10 A.5 W. Gurtner: RINEX: The receiver-independent ex- A.3 NMEA 0183 Interface Standard, v4.10A.4 (National Marine W. Gurtner, G. Mader, D. MacArthur: A common ex- References Annex A 1230 References References 1231
A.11 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System Interface Specifica- A.27 H. Yousif, A. El-Rabbany: Assessment of several in- A Annex tion – Satellite Positioning, Navigation and Timing terpolation methods for precise GPS orbit, J. Navig. Service, IS-QZSS-PNT-001, Draft 12 July 2016 (Cabinet 60(3), 443–455 (2007) Office, Tokyo 2016) A.28 M. Horemuz, J.V. Andersson: Polynomial interpola- A.12 BeiDou Navigation Satellite System Signal In Space tion of GPS satellite coordinates, GPS Solut. 10(1), Interface Control Document – Open Service Signal, 67–72 (2006) v2.1, Nov. 2016 (China Satellite Navigation Office, Bei- A.29 W.H. Press, S.A. Teukolsky, W.T. Vetterling: Numerical jing 2013) Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing (Cambridge A.13 European GNSS Service Centre: European GNSS Univ. Press, Cambridge 2007) (Galileo) Open Service Signal In Space Interface Con- A.30 B. Hofmann-Wellenhof, H. Lichtenegger, E. Wasle: trol Document, OS SIS ICD, Iss. 1.3, Dec. 2016 (EU 2016) GNSS: Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, A.14 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System – Signal GLONASS, Galileo, and More (Springer, Berlin, Heidel- In Space ICD for Standard Positioning Service, version berg 2008) 1.0, June 2014 (Indian Space Research Organization, A.31 G. Xu: Orbits (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 2008) Bangalore 2014) A.32 J.F. Zumberge, G. Gendt: The demise of selective A.15 Global Navigation Satellite System GLONASS – Inter- availability and implications for the international face Control Document, v5.1, (Russian Institute of GPS service, Phys. Chem. Earth (A) 26(6–8), 637–644 Space Device Engineering, Moscow 2008) (2001) A.16 G. Weber, D. Dettmering, H. Gebhard, R. Kalafus: A.33 J. Ray, W. Gurtner: RINEX Extensions to Handle Clock Networked transport of RTCM via internet protocol Information – Version 3.02, 2 Sep. 2010 (Ntrip) – IP-streaming for real-time GNSS applica- A.34 IGS: SINEX – Solution (Software/technique) INde- tions, ION GPS 2005, Long Beach, 2005 (ION, 2005) pendent EXchange Format, Version 2.02, 1 Dec. pp. 2243–2247 2006, https://www.iers.org/IERS/EN/Organization/ A.17 RTCM 10403.3, Differential GNSS Services, Version 3, AnalysisCoordinator/SinexFormat/sinex.html 7 Oct. 2016 (RTCM, Arlington) A.35 M. Rothacher, H. Drewes, A. Nothnagel, B. Richter: A.18 Radio Technical Commision for Maritime Services: Integration of space geodetic techniques as the basis http://www.rtcm.org for a global geodetic-geophysical observing sys- A.19 A. Boriskin, D. Kozlov, G. Zyryanov: The RTCM multiple tem (GGOS-D): An overview. In: System Earth via signal messages: A new step in GNSS data stan- Geodetic-Geophysical Space Techniques (Springer, dardization, ION GNSS 2012, Nashville, 2012 (ION, 2012) Berlin 2010) pp. 529–537 pp. 2947-2955 A.36 IGS: SINEX_TRO – Solution (Software/technique) IN- A.20 M. Schmitz: RTCM state space representation mes- dependent EXchange Format for combination of sages, status and plans, PPP-RTK & Open Stand. TROpospheric estimates, Version 0.01, 01 Mar. 1997, Symp., Frankfurt, 2012 (BKG, Frankfurt a.M. 2012) ftp://igs.org/pub/data/format/sinex_tropo.txt pp. 1–31 A.37 SINEX_BIAS – Solution (Software/technique) INde- A.21 L. Estey, C. Meertens, D. Mencin: Application of BINEX pendent EXchange Format for GNSS Biases, Version and TEQC for real-time data management, IGS Netw. 1.00, 7 Dec 2016, http://www.biasws2015.unibe.ch/ Workshop, Oslo, 2000 (IGS, Pasadena 2000) documents.html A.22 L. Estey, D. Mencin: BINEX as a format for near-real A.38 S. Schaer, W. Gurtner, J. Feltens: IONEX: The IONo- time GNSS and other data streams, G43A-0663, AGU sphere map EXchange format Version 1, IGS AC Work- Fall Meet. 2008, San Francisco, 2008 (AGU, Washing- shop, Darmstadt, 1998 (IGS, Pasdena 1998) ton D.C. 2008) A.39 M. Hernández-Pajares, J.M. Juan, J. Sanz, R. Orus, A.23 UNAVCO: BINEX: Binary Exchange Format, http:// A. Garcia-Rigo, J. Feltens, A. Komjathy, S.C. Schaer, binex.unavco.org/binex.html A. Krankowski: The IGS VTEC maps: a reliable source of A.24 B. Remondi: Extending the National Geodetic Survey ionospheric information since 1998, J. Geodesy 83(3– Standard for GPS Orbit Formats, NOAA Technical Re- 4), 263–275 (2009) port NOS 133 NGS 46 (National Geodetic Information A.40 M. Rothacher, R. Schmid: ANTEX: The Antenna Ex- Branch, NOAA, Rockville, MD, Nov. 1989) change Format, Version 1.4, 15 Sep. 2010, ftp://igs.org/ A.25 S. Hilla: Extending the standard product 3 (SP3) or- pub/station/general/antex14.txt bit format, International GPS Serv. Netw. Data Anal. A.41 R. Schmid, M. Rothacher, D. Thaller, P. Steigenberger: Cent. Workshop, Ottawa, 2002 (IGS, Pasadena 2002) Absolute phase center corrections of satellite and re- A.26 M. Schenewerk: A brief review of basic GPS orbit in- ceiver antennas, GPS Solut. 9(4), 283–293 (2005) terpolation strategies, GPS Solut. 6(4), 265–267 (2003) 1233
Annex B: GNSS Parameters
Oliver Montenbruck, Michael Meurer, Peter Steigenberger ne B Annex
when sharing a frequency band with other wideband This chapter summarizes important GNSS-related signals. GNSS signals are commonly described as parameters. Next to general physical constants, key parameters of the GNSS constellations and the S D sI cos.2 ft/ ˙ sQ sin.2 ft/; (B.1) various GNSS signals are provided. where the cos-component of the signal is designated B.1 Physical Constants as the in-phase component (I), while the sin-signal is termed the quadrature component (Q) [B.11]. Depend- Physical constants and parameters of relevance for the ing on the choice of sign in the above equation, the generation and processing of GNSS observations are instantaneous phase of the Q-channel is either behind provided in Table B.1. (plus-sign) or ahead (minus-sign) of the I-channel. To distinguish both options, we use the notations B.2 Orbital Parameters S D sI+ cos.2 ft/ + sQ+ sin.2 ft/ (B.2)
Table B.2 summarizes the orbital parameters of current and global and regional navigation satellite systems.
S D sI− cos.2 ft/ − sQ− sin.2 ft/; (B.3) B.3 Signals for the specification of the channel (Ch), where the The spectra of current and planned GNSS navigation superscript of the I- and Q-symbols indicates the em- signals are illustrated in Fig. B.1. Key parameters of the ployed signal description. In the absence of a super- individual signals are compiled in Table B.3. script, the association of signals to the I- and Q-channel Signal bandwidths (BW) given in the table refer and/or the concise phase relation is not traceable from to the location of the first minimum outside the main public information. However, signals designated as I lobe(s). The actual spectral usage depends on the filter- and Q, respectively, are known to be modulated in ing and may cover a larger frequency range, particularly phase-quadrature with respect to each other. ,and ] e 5 ) m 2 ) ı 56 56 43 55 29 Ä i ( 64.8 55 55 h ] 4 23 m ] ] , eccentricity ] 4 1 h 4 ] ] ] ] ] ] 6 6 6 6 7 7 [B. 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 e 0.0 0.0 0.0 [B. 2 −7 c 0 ] revolutions (rev) per sidereal c 10 ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] 8 9 10 9 2 3 4 4 4 m = = GRS80 [B. GRS80 [B. GRS80 [B. DE421 [B. [B. [B. [B. TSI/ DE421 [B. [B. References and remarks IAU 1991 [B. [B. [B. Defining constant [B. [B. 4 1 [B. [B. EGM2008, TT-compatible [B. GRS80 [B. n 23 220 35 790 35 790 35 790 35 790 h (km) 19 130 20 180 21 530 −2 s −1 −2 −1 −2 −2 −2 −2 −2 −1 s s kg s −1 3 3 3 3 m rad s m m m Wm Nm m m Unit s s s ms m NA Fm C kg m , height above the Earth a 29 600 42 160 42 160 42 160 42 160 a (km) 25 510 26 560 27 910 8 6 8 6 8 : 20 11 12 14 −3 −5 −6 −7 −31 −11 −19 −12 10 10 10 10 −19 −33 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1360 32.184 96 : ::: m m m m m m m m ::: 6 7374 : 5391 257222101 05 56 56 56 56 16 58 53 1 : : 08263 h h h h h h h h 378137 : : 4 67408 292115 : 1 : 6 14 23 23 23 23 Period (h) 11 11 12 99792458 6 : 298 7 inertial rotations of the Earth (approximately 10938356 2 902800076 986004415 : : : 9 m 4 3 6021766208 49597870700 566370614 : : ) : 854187817 : 1 1 8 sid 12 32712440040944 : d 1 = 1 1 1 1 1 8 7 10 Value ======2 1 1 1 1 Period (rev 17 13 17 Selenocentric grav. constant Mean lunar radius Heliocentric grav. constant Astronomical unit Mean solar radius Total solar irradiance Radiation pressure at 1 AU Geocentric grav. constant Dynamic form factor Equatorial radius Flattening factor Nominal mean angular velocity Constant of gravitation Permeability of vacuum Permittivity of vacuum Elementary charge Electron mass Description Time offset TT and TAI Time offset GPS time and TAI Time offset BDS time and TAI Speed of light in vacuum ) of global and regional navigation satellite system satellites. A period of i Representative orbital parameters (period, semi-major axis Physical constants and parameters ) results in a ground-track repeat track after sid ª ˇ ˚ f
e 0 ˚ ª ˇ ˇ ˚ = 2 0
IRNSS (IGSO) BeiDou/IRNSS/QZSS (GEO), SBAS GLONASS GPS BeiDou (MEO) Galileo QZSS (IGSO) BeiDou (IGSO) System Moon GM R Sun GM AU R TSI P GM J R 1 ! G e m Earth Quantity Time TT−TAI GPST−TAI BDT−TAI Universal c Table B.2 Table B.1 inclination day (d Annex B 1234 Annex B: GNSS Parameters Annex B: GNSS Parameters 1235
1575.42 MHz 1176.45 MHz 1227.60 MHz L1C(D+P), TMBOC(6,1,4/33) L5−I, BPSK(10) P(Y), BPSK(10) P(Y), BPSK(10) I M(D+P), M(D+P), BOC(10,5)mux BOC(10,5)mux GPS
Q L2C(M+L), C/A, BPSK(1)mux BPSK(1) L5−Q, BPSK(10) B Annex 1202.025 MHz 1246.0 MHz 1602.0 MHz I L3OC−D L2SF(P), BPSK(5) L1SF(P), BPSK(5) BPSK(10) GLONASS L3OC−P Q BPSK(10) L2OF(C/A), BPSK(0.5) L1OF(C/A), BPSK(0.5)
1248.06 MHz 1600.955 MHz I L2SC, BOC(5,2.5) L1SC, BOC(5,2.5) GLONASS modernized Q L2OC−P, BOC(1,1) L1OC−P, BOC(1,1) L2OC−D, BPSK(1) L2OC−D, BPSK(1) 1191.795 MHz 1176.45 MHz 1207.14 MHz 1278.75 MHz 1575.42 MHz I CS−(D+P), OS−(D+P), BPSK(5) CBOC(6,1,1/11) E5a−D E5b−D Galileo AltBOC(15,10) E5a−P E5b−P Q PRS, PRS, BOCc(10,5) BOCc(15,2.5) 1207.14 MHz 1268.52 MHz 1561.098 MHz I OS, BPSK(2) RS, BPSK(10) OS, BPSK(2) BDS−2 RS, BPSK(10) RS, BPSK(10) Q RS, BPSK(2) 1191.795 MHz 1268.52 MHz 1575.42 MHz 1176.52 MHz 1207.14 MHz B3C−D, BPSK(10) 1561.098 MHz I OS, BPSK(2) B1A−D, BOC(14,2) B1C−(D+P), TMBOC(6,1,4/33) B2a−D B2b−D B3A−(D+P), BDS−3 BOC(15,2.5) TD−AltBOC(15,10) B3C−P, BPSK(10) B2a−P B2b−P Q B1A−P, BOC(14,2)
1176.45 MHz 1227.60 MHz 1278.75 MHz 1575.42 MHz I L5−I, BPSK(10) L1C(D+P), TMBOC(6,1,4/33) SAIF, BPSK(1) QZSS L2C(M+L), L62, BPSK(1)mux BPSK(5)mux Q L5−Q, C/A, BPSK(10) BPSK(1) 1176.45 MHz 2492.028 MHz I RS−P, BOC(5,2) RS−P, BOC(5,2) SPS, BPSK(1) SPS, BPSK(1) IRNSS
Q RS−D, BOC(5,2) RS−D, BOC(5,2)
Lower L−Band Upper L−Band S−Band
Fig. B.1 GNSS signals overview. Colors indicate open signals (shades of green), authorized signals (shades of red), and signals that can be tracked with restrictions (yellow)
study
h
Notes: lc IIA/IIR; Block oia hs eainhp e i 7 fCA s 10; msg CNAV of 273 bit see relationship, phase Nominal III; Block IIF; Block IIR-M; Block planned; +6; −7 number channel frequency D k
::: a e d c b g f
oaalblt fpbi nomto o euae/iiayservices regulated/military for information public of nonavailability n/a multiplexed; mux channel; Ch bandwidth; BW System; Sys Abbreviations: D D D D D
L5OCM L5 ? ? ? ? ? 1176.45 ] 24 [B. ? ? ?
h
L2OC-P 0230/50 10 0.5115 mux BOC(1,1) Q 2 1248.06 ] 23 , 21 [B. ? – Kasami ˙
− g
L2OC-D ? ? mux BPSK(1) Q 1 1248.06 ] 23 , 21 [B. ? ? ? ˙
− g
L2SC L2 ? 5.115 BOC(5,2.5) I 7 1248.06 ] 23 , 21 [B. ? ? ? ˙
− g
L1OCM ? ? ? ? ? 1575.42 ] 24 [B. ? ? ?
h
L1OC-P 1023 0.5115 mux BOC(1,1) Q 2 1600.955 ] 22 , 21 [B. ? – Gold ˙
− g
L1OC-D 1023/2 0.5115 mux BPSK(1) Q 1 1600.955 ] 22 , 21 [B. ? 125/250 Gold ˙
− g
L1SC L1 ? 5.115 BOC(5,2.5) I 5 1600.955 ] 22 , 21 [B. ? ? ? ˙
− g
L3OC-P 0230 10 10.23 BPSK(10) Q 10 1202.025 ] 21 , 20 [B. ? – Kasami ˙
−
L3OC-D L3 0230 10 10.23 BPSK(10) I 10 1202.025 ] 21 , 20 [B. ? 100/200 Kasami ˙
−
2F(C/A) L2OF 511 0.511 BPSK(0.5) Q 0.5 4375 0 0+ 1246 ] 19 [B. −161.0 50 M-seq. ˙ k
: : f
2F(P) L2SF L2 1 000 110 5 5.11 BPSK(5) I 5 4375 0 0+ 1246 ] 18 , 17 [B. n/a 50 M-seq. ˙ k
: : f
1F(C/A) L1OF 511 0.511 BPSK(0.5) Q 0.5 5625 0 0+ 1602 ] 19 [B. −161.0 50 M-seq. ˙ k
: : f
1F(P) L1SF L1 GLO 1 000 110 5 5.11 BPSK(5) I 5 5625 0 0+ 1602 ] 18 , 17 [B. n/a 50 M-seq. ˙ k
: : f
L5Q 0230/20 10 10.23 BPSK(10) Q 10 ] 16 [B. −157.0 , −157.9 – M-seq. ˙
+ d c
L5I L5 0230/10 10 10.23 BPSK(10) I 10 1176.45 ] 16 [B. −157.0 , −157.9 50/100 M-seq. ˙
+ d c
M-P 5.115 mux BOC(10,5) I 15 n/a n/a n/a ] 15 , 14 , 11 [B. −164.0 ˙
+
M-D 5.115 mux BOC(10,5) I 15 100/200 n/a n/a ] 15 , 14 , 11 [B. −164.0 ˙ Ä
+
2CL L2 0.5115 mux BPSK(1) Q 1 – M-seq. 250 767 ] 12 , 2 [B. −161.5 , −163.0 ˙
+e d c b ;
2CM L2 0.5115 mux BPSK(1) Q 1 25/50 M-seq. 230 10 ] 12 , 2 [B. −161.5 , −163.0 ˙
+e d c b ;
1227.60 P(Y) L2 10.23 BPSK(10) I 10 50/50 M-seq. 10 9 6 ] 12 , 2 [B. −161.5 , −164.5 ˙
:
+ 12 d c b a ; ;
M-P 5.115 mux BOC(10,5) I 15 n/a n/a n/a ] 15 , 14 , 11 [B. −158.0 ˙
+
M-D 5.115 mux BOC(10,5) I 15 100/200 n/a n/a ] 15 , 14 , 11 [B. −158.0 ˙ Ä
+
L1C-P 1.023 TMBOC(6,1,4/33) I 2 – Weil 230/1800 10 ] 13 [B. −158.25 ˙
+
L1C-D 1.023 TMBOC(6,1,4/33) I 2 50/100 Weil 230 10 ] 13 [B. −163.0 ˙
+
C/A 1.023 BPSK(1) Q 1 50/50 Gold 1023 ] 12 , 2 [B. −158.5 ˙
+
1575.42 P(Y) L1 GPS 10.23 BPSK(10) I 10 50/50 M-seq. 10 9 6 ] 12 , 2 [B. −161.5 ˙
: + 12
(MHz) (MHz) (chips) (MHz) (dBW) (bps/sps)
Band Sys Frequency Signal BW Modulation Ch oeprim./second. Code Rate Type oe mn rcvd.) (min. Power Data References
mle hnteata rnmsinbnwdhadobadbnps leig usinmrsidct isn rudfie information undefined or missing indicate marks Question filtering. bandpass onboard and bandwidth transmission actual the than smaller
NSsgasoeve.Teseie adit B)rfr otelcto ftefis iiu usd h anlb()o h inladi generally is and signal the of lobe(s) main the outside minimum first the of location the to refers (BW) bandwidth specified The overview. signals GNSS al B.3 Table Annex B 1236 Annex B: GNSS Parameters Annex B: GNSS Parameters 1237 ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] 31 ] 31 ] 31 ] 31 ] 31 ] 26 26 28 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 , , ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] , , , , , , , , , – – – – – ] ] ] 25 25 26 25 25 26 25 25 25 25 25 3 27 3 3 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 References [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. [B. ne B Annex Power (min. rcvd.) (dBW) −160.0 −160.0 n/a −158.0 −158.0 n/a −158.0 −158.0 −158.0 −158.0 −163.0 n/a n/a n/a −163.0 n/a −163.0 ? ? n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a ? ? ? ? j j k k k Data (bps/sps) 125/250 – n/a 500/1000 – n/a 25/50 25/50 25/50 25/50 250/500 25/50 n/a n/a n/a 250/500 25/50 n/a 25/50 50/100 – 50/100 n/a 500/500 500/500 50/100 – 25/50 – Type rand. rand. n/a rand. rand. n/a M-seq. M-seq. M-seq. M-seq. LFSR n/a LFSR n/a LFSR n/a LFSR ? ? n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a ? ? ? ? k k nonavailability of public information for regulated/military services; k D , 2046/20 , 2046/20 j j Code prim./second. (chips) 4092 4092/25 n/a 5115 5115/100 n/a 10 230/20 10 230/100 10 230/20 10 230/100 2046 n/a 10 230/20 n/a 2046 n/a 2046/20 10 230 10 230/20 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a ? ? ? ? Rate (MHz) 1.023 1.023 2.5575 5.115 5.115 5.115 10.23 10.23 10.23 10.23 2.046 2.046 10.23 10.23 2.046 10.23 2.046 1.023 1.023 n/a n/a 10.23 10.23 2.5575 2.5575 10.23 10.23 10.23 10.23 i restricted service D i authorized service (planned) (15,2.5) (10,5) linear feedback shift register; n/a m cos cos D Modulation CBOC(6,1,1/11) CBOC(6,1,1/11) BOC BPSK(5) BPSK(5) BOC AltBOC(15,10) BPSK(2) BPSK(2) BPSK(10) BPSK(10) BPSK(2) BPSK(10) BPSK(2) TMBOC(6,1,4/33) TMBOC(6,1,4/33) BOC(14,2) BOC(14,2) BPSK(10) BPSK(10) BOC(15,2.5) BOC(15,2.5) TD-AltBOC(15,10) − − − − + + + − − − − − − + + + Ch I I Q I I Q I Q I Q I Q I Q I Q I ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? I Q I Q channel; LFSR public regulated service; RS D D 2 2 17 5 5 15 25 10 10 10 10 2 2 10 10 2 10 2 2 2 16 16 10 10 17 17 25 10 10 10 10 open service (planned); BW (MHz) ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ l bandwidth; Ch MEO/IGSO; D k Frequency (MHz) 1575.42 1278.75 1191.795 1207.14 1176.45 1561.098 1268.52 1207.14 1561.098 1575.42 1268.52 1191.795 1207.14 1176.45 GEO; commercial service; PRS j m m l m m m l m l l l D l System; BW D Signal OS-D(B) OS-P(C) PRS(A) CS-D(B) CS-P(C) PRS(A) E5b-D E5b-P E5a-D E5a-P OS RS RS RS OS RS OS B1C-D B1C-P B1A-D B1A-P B3C-D B3C-P B3A-D B3A-P B2b-D B2b-P B2a-D B2a-P (continued) Band E1 E6 E5ab E5b E5a B1-2 B3 B2b B1-2 B1 B3 B2 combined signal; i open service; CS D Abbreviations: Sys Notes: OS Sys GAL BDS-2 BDS-3 Table B.3
t50bps 500 at
Notes: lc II; Block I; Block etddt ae rdc sfixed is product rate, data lected se with varies length code Secondary component; signal Optional signals; all of power received minimum Specified
o n r q p
tnadpstoigsrie(open) service positioning standard SPS service; D
oaalblt fpbi nomto o euae/iiaysrie;RS services; regulated/military for information public of nonavailability n/a multiplexed; mux channel; Ch bandwidth; BW System; Sys Abbreviations: restricted D D D D D D
L5Q 0230/? 10 10.23 BPSK(10) Q 10 ] 39 , 11 [B. −161.0 250/500 M-seq. ˙ Ä
q p r
L5I L5 0230/2 10 10.23 BPSK(10) I 10 1176.45 ] 39 , 11 [B. −161.0 250/500 M-seq. ˙
p
C/A 1023 1.023 BPSK(1) Q 1 ] 39 , 11 [B. −161.0 250/500 Gold ˙ Ä
q p
C/A L1 SBAS 1023 1.023 BPSK(1) I 1 1575.42 ] 38 , 11 [B. −161.0 250/500 Gold ˙
p
RS-P 8192/40 2.046 BOC(5,2) I 16 ] 37 , 36 [B. −162.3 – n/a ˙
−
RS-D 8192 2.046 BOC(5,2) Q 16 ] 37 , 36 [B. −159.3 25/50 n/a ˙
−
SPS S 1023 1.023 BPSK(1) I 16 2492.028 ] 37 , 36 [B. −162.3 25/50 M-seq. ˙
−
RS-P 8192/40 2.046 BOC(5,2) I 16 ] 37 , 36 [B. −159.0 – n/a ˙
−
RS-D 8192 2.046 BOC(5,2) Q 16 ] 37 , 36 [B. −156.0 25/50 n/a ˙
−
SPS L5 IRNSS 1023 1.023 BPSK(1) I 24 1176.45 ] 37 , 36 [B. −159.0 25/50 M-seq. ˙
−
L5Q 0230/20 10 10.23 BPSK(10) Q 10 ] 34 , 32 [B. −157.0 , −157.9 – M-seq. ˙
+ o n
L5I L5 0230/10 10 10.23 BPSK(10) I 10 1176.45 ] 34 , 32 [B. −157.0 , −157.9 50/100 M-seq. ˙
+ o n
0230 10 5.115 mux BPSK(5) – 5 ] 35 [B. −159.8 2000/250 Kasami ˙
L62 0230 10 5.115 mux BPSK(5) – 5 ] 35 [B. −159.8 2000/250 Kasami ˙
o
– Kasami 575 048 1 5.115 mux BPSK(5) – 5 ] 35 , 32 [B. −158.7 ˙
1278.75 L61(LEX) L6 5.115 mux BPSK(5) – 5 2000/250 Kasami 230 10 ] 35 , 32 [B. −158.7 ˙
n
2CL L2 0.5115 mux BPSK(1) – 1 – M-seq. 250 767 ] 34 , 32 [B. −163.0 ˙
1227.60 CM L2 L2 0.5115 mux BPSK(1) – 1 25/50 M-seq. 230 10 ] 34 , 32 [B. −163.0 ˙
SAIF 1.023 BPSK(1) – 1 500/250 Gold 1023 ] 32 [B. −161.0 ˙
TMBOC(6,1,4/33) I ] 34 [B.
o +o
L1C-P 1.023 BOC(1,1) Q 2 – Weil 230/1800 10 ] 33 , 32 [B. −158.2 ˙
n +n
TMBOC(6,1,4/33) ] 34 [B.
o
L1C-D 1.023 BOC(1,1) I 2 50/100 Weil 230 10 ] 33 , 32 [B. −163.0 ˙
n +
Q ] 34 [B.
+o
1575.42 C/A L1 QZS-1 1.023 BPSK(1) I 1 50/50 Gold 1023 ] 33 , 32 [B. −158.5 ˙
+n
(MHz) (MHz) (chips) (MHz) (dBW) (bps/sps)
Sys Frequency Signal Band BW Modulation Ch oeprim./second. Code Rate Type oe mn rcvd.) (min. Power Data References
(continued) al B.3 Table Annex B 1238 Annex B: GNSS Parameters References 1239
References
B.1 IAU (1991) Recommendation IV, The Terrestrial Time B.16 Navstar GPS Space Segment/User Segment L5 Inter- (TT) (XXIst General Assembly of the International faces, Interface Specification IS-GPS-705D, 24 Sep. Astronomical Union, Buenos Aires, 1991) http:// 2013 (Global Positioning Systems Directorate, Los An- www.iers.org/IERS/EN/Science/Recommendations/ geles Air Force Base, El Segundo, California, 2013) recommendation4.html B.17 B.A. Stein, W.L. Tsang: PRN codes for GPS/GLONASS: A
B.2 Navstar GPS Space Segment/Navigation User Inter- Comparison, ION NTM 1990, San Diego (ION, Virginia B Annex faces, Interface Specification IS-GPS-200, 24 Sep. 1990) pp. 31–35 2013 (Global Positioning Systems Directorate, Los An- B.18 J. Beser, J. Danaher: The 3S Navigation R-100 Fam- geles Air Force Base, El Segundo, California, 2013) ily of Integrated GPS/GLONASS Receivers: Description B.3 BeiDou Navigation Satellite System Signal In Space and Performance Results, ION NTM 1993, San Fran- Interface Control Document – Open Service Signal, cisco (ION, Virginia 1993) pp. 25–45 v2.1, Nov. 2016 (China Satellite Navigation Office, Bei- B.19 Global Navigation Satellite System GLONASS – In- jing 2016) terface Control Document, v5.1 (Russian Institute of B.4 P.J. Mohr, D.B. Newell, B.N. Taylor: CODATA Recom- Space Device Engineering, Moscow 2008) mended Values of the Fundamental Physical Con- B.20 Y. Urlichich, V. Subbotin, G. Stupak, V. Dvorkin, A. Po- stants: 2014 (National Institute of Standards and valiaev, S. Karutin: GLONASS developing strategy, ION Technology, Gaithersburg 2015) http://arxiv.org/abs/ GNSS 2010, Portland (ION, Virginia 2010) pp. 1566–1571 1507.07956 B.21 Y. Urlichich, V. Subbotin, G. Stupak, V. Dvorkin, A. Po- B.5 N.K. Pavlis, S.A. Holmes, S.C. Kenyon, J.K. Factor: The valiaev, S. Karutin: GLONASS modernization, ION GNSS development and evaluation of the Earth Gravita- 2011, Portland (ION, Virginia 2011) pp. 3125–3128 tional Model 2008 (EGM2008), J. Geophys. Res. (2012), B.22 Global Navigation Satellite System GLONASS Inter- doi:10.1029/2011JB008916 face Control Document, L1 Open Access Code Division B.6 H. Moritz: Geodetic Reference System 1980, J. Geod. Radio Navigation Signal, v1.0 (JSC Russian Space Sys- 74(1), 128–133 (2000) tems, Moscow 2016) in Russian B.7 W.M. Folkner, J.G. Williams, D.H. Boggs: The Plane- B.23 Global Navigation Satellite System GLONASS Inter- tary and Lunar Ephemeris DE 421, IPN Progress Report face Control Document, L2 Open Access Code Division 42-178 (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena 2009) Radio Navigation Signal, v1.0 (JSC Russian Space Sys- B.8 E.V. Pitjeva, E.M. Standish: Proposals for the masses tems, Moscow 2016) in Russian of the three largest asteroids, the Moon-Earth mass B.24 S. Revnivykh: GLONASS status and evolution, IAIN ratio and the Astronomical Unit, Celest. Mech. Dyn. World Congress, Prague (IAIN, Netherlands 2015) Astron. 103(4), 365–372 (2009) http://www.iainav.org/iain-iwc2015/iain-2015- B.9 B.A. Archinal, M.F. A’Hearn, E. Bowell, A. Conrad, G.J. keynote-lecture-revnivykh.pdf Consolmagno, R. Courtin, T. Fukushima, D. Hestrof- B.25 European GNSS (Galileo) Open Service Signal In Space fer, J.L. Hilton, G.A. Krasinsky, G. Neumann, J. Oberst, Interface Control Document, OS SIS ICD, Iss. 1.3, Dec. P.K. Seidelmann, P. Stooke, D.J. Tholen, P.C. Thomas, 2016 (EU, Brussels 2016) I.P. Williams: Report of the IAU Working Group on B.26 J.-A. Avila-Rodriguez, G.W. Hein, S. Wallner, J.-L. cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: Issler, L. Ries, L. Lestarquit, A. de Latour, J. Godet, 2009,Celest.Mech.Dyn.Astron.109(2), 101–135 (2010) F. Bastide, T. Pratt, J. Owen: The MBOC modulation: B.10 G. Kopp, J.L. Lean: A new, lower value of total solar The final touch to the Galileo frequency and signal irradiance: Evidence and climate significance, Geo- plan, Navigation 55(1), 15–28 (2008) phys. Res. Lett. (2011), doi:10.1029/2010GL045777 B.27 T. Grelier, J. Dantepal, A. Delatour, A. Ghion, L. Ries: B.11 J. Betz: Engineering Satellite-Based Navigation and Initial observations and analysis of Compass MEO Timing – Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Sig- satellite signals, Inside GNSS 2(4), 39–43 (2007) nals, and Receivers (Wiley-IEEE, Hoboken 2016) B.28 G.X. Gao, A. Chen, S. Lo, D. De Lorenzo, T. Walter, B.12 P. Ward: GPS satellite signal characteristics. In: Un- P. Enge: Compass-M1 broadcast codes in E2, E5b, and derstanding GPS – Principles and Applications,2nd E6 frequency bands, IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal Process. edn., ed. by E.D. Kaplan, C.J. Hegarty (Artech House, 3(4), 599–612 (2009) Norwood 2006) pp. 83–117, Chap. 4 B.29 Description of systems and networks in the B.13 Navstar GPS Space Segment/User Segment L1C Inter- radionavigation-satellite service (space-to-Earth faces, Interface Specification IS-GPS-800D, 24 Sep. and space-to-space) and technical characteristics of 2013 (Global Positioning Systems Directorate, Los An- transmitting space stations operating in the bands geles Air Force Base, El Segundo, California, 2013) 1164–1215 MHz, 1215–1300 MHz and 1559–1610 MHz, B.14 B.C. Barker, J.W. Betz, J.E. Clark, J.T. Correia, J.T. Gillis, Recommendation M 1787, rev. 2, Sep. 2014 (ITU, S. Lazar, K.A. Rehborn, J.R. Straton III: Overview of Geneva 2014) https://www.itu.int/rec/R-REC-M.1787/ the GPS M code signal, Proc. ION NTM 2000, Anaheim en (ION, Virginia 2000) pp. 542–549 B.30 W. Xiao, W. Liu, G. Sun: Modernization milestone: B.15 W.A. Marquis, D.L. Reigh: The GPS Block IIR and IIR-M BeiDou M2-S initial signal analysis, GPS Solutions broadcast L-band antenna panel: Its pattern and 20(1), 125–133 (2016) performance, Navigation 62(4), 329–347 (2015) (1), 147–152 18 L6-001, Draft 12 July 2016 (Cabinet Office, Tokyo2016) In Space ICD for Standard Positioning1.0, Service, June version 2014 (IndianBangalore Space 2014) Research Organization, Signal and clock characterizationgional of Navigation System, the GPS Solutions Indian Re- (2014) GPS/WAAS Airborne Equipment, RTCA DO-229D, 13 Dec. 2006 (RTCA, Washington, DC 2006) May 2008 (The Europeantion Organisation Equipment, for Paris Civil 2008) Avia- B.36 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System – Signal B.37 S. Thoelert, O. Montenbruck, M. Meurer: IRNSS-1A – B.38 Minimum Operational Performance Standards for B.39 Signal Specification forSBAS L1/L5, ED-134, v.3, Draft (6), 1014–1021 54 (2011) terface Specification forQZSS, 2014 IS-QZSS, (JAXA, v1.6, 2014) Nov. 28 Satellites System, Ph.D.Marine Thesis (Tokyo Science UniversityJapanese and of Technology, Tokyo 2007),– in Satellite Positioning, Navigationvice, and IS-QZSS-PNT-001, Timing Ser- DraftOffice,Tokyo 12 2016) July 2016 (Cabinet – Centimeter Level Augmentation Service, IS-QZSS- Ran, Y.L. Zhou: TD-AltBOC: Alation, new Sci. COMPASS China B2 Phys. modu- Mech. Astron.
B.32 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System Navigation Service In- B.33 H. Maeda: System Research on The Quasi-Zenith B.34 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System Interface Specification B.35 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System Interface Specification B.31 Z.P. Tang, H.W. Zhou, J.L. Wei, T. Yan, Y.Q. Liu, Y.H. Annex B 1240 References 1241
About the Authors
Zuheir Altamimi Chapter F.36
Institut National de l’Information Zuheir Altamimi is Research Director at the Institut National de l’Information Géographique et Forestière (IGN) Géographique et Forestière (IGN), France. His research focuses are space geodesy Université Paris Diderot (LAREG) and theory and realization of terrestrial reference systems. He is Head of the IGN Paris, France Terrestrial Reference Systems Research group and the International Terrestrial System [email protected] (ITRS) Center. He received his PhD in Space Geodesy from Paris Observatory and his habilitation from Paris University VI.
Felix Antreich Chapter A.4 Authors
Federal University of Ceará (UFC) Felix Antreich received a Doktor-Ingenieur (PhD) in Electrical Engineering from Dept. of Teleinformatics Engineering Munich University of Technology (TUM), Germany, in 2011. Since July 2003, he Fortaleza, Brazil has been an Associate Researcher with the Department of Navigation, Institute of [email protected] Communications and Navigation of the German Aerospace Center (DLR), Oberpfaf- fenhofen, Germany. His research interests include sensor array signal processing for global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) and wireless communications, estimation theory, and signal design for synchronization and GNSS.
Ron Beard Chapter A.5
US Naval Research Laboratory Ronald Beard is the former Head of the NRL Advanced Space PNT Advanced Space PNT Branch Branch. In the 1970s, he was the project scientist in the NRL GPS Washington, USA Program Office that developed Navigation Technology Satellites 1 and 2, [email protected] which operated the first atomic clocks in space. He became the Program Manager of the NRL GPS Clock Development program in 1984 and Precise Time and Time Interval (PTTI) technology for military navigation and communication systems.
Alexey Bolkunov Chapter B.8
Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) Alexey Bolkunov is a Senior Research Associate of the PNT Informa- PNT Information and Analysis Center tion and Analysis Center of the Central Scientific Research Institute Korolyov, Russian Federation for Machine Building, Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), Russia, alexei.bolkunov@glonass-iac.ru which he joined as a graduate of Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research University) in 2007. He received his PhD in 2011 from the same institute. Alexey Bolkunov’s research interests include GNSS performance and PNT legal and regulatory framework studies.
Michael S. Braasch Chapter C.15
Ohio University Michael S. Braasch holds the Thomas Professorship in the Ohio University School of School of Electrical Engineering & Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and is Principal Investigator with the Computer Science Ohio University Avionics Engineering Center (AEC). One focus of his research has Athens, USA been the characterization and mitigation of the effects of multipath in GNSS. Other [email protected] areas of research include GNSS software-defined receiver development, novel general aviation cockpit displays and unmanned aerial vehicle sense-and-avoid systems.
Thomas Burger Chapter B.9
European Space Agency (ESA) Thomas Burger is Principal Signal Engineer within the Galileo Project Office at the Galileo Project Office European Space Agency in Noordwijk (The Netherlands). He received his PhD in Noordwijk, The Netherlands Engineering Sciences from the Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany. He has [email protected] been working on space systems, focussed on space-based navigation applications and systems, synthetic aperture radar and microwave instruments, and signal processing for precision applications. ilitation 2002). She 1989) and his Hab 1977) and PhD (1983) degrees from hnology and Space Applications at the hybridization and deep-space geodesy. eceived the MSEE ( Marco Falcone is theat System the Manager European in the Spacereceived his Galileo Agency Master’s Project in in Office Computer Noordwijk ScienceItaly from (The (1987) the Netherlands). University and of He aUniversity Pisa, Master’s of in Delft, Space Theexperience in Systems Netherlands system engineering Engineering (1999). mainly applied from He to has the large space 28 systems. years’ work James T. Curran received aand Bachelor a degree Doctorate in in Electrical Telecommunications, fromIreland. Engineering University Since College then Cork, he hasincluding worked as the a researcher PLAN atJoint various Group institutions, Research at Centre the offocusing University the on of radio-navigation, European Calgary his Commission,processing, and research Italy. information at interests Although the theory, alsoradio. include cryptography signal and software defined Chapter B.9 Chapter C.18 Gunnar Elgered r Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.of He Electrical Measurements is and Professor Head ofis the department. space His geodesy, research using area radiosystems telescopes (GNSS). and More global recently, navigational his satellite data focus for has climate been research and on evaluation the of use climate of models. GNSS Estel Cardellach received a PhD fromworks UPC, on scientific Barcelona, applications Spain of ( the Global(GNSS) Navigation Satellite Systems for remote sensingradio-occultations. of She enjoyed the postdoctoral Earth,Laboratory positions and including Harvard at reflectometry Smithsonian Jetshe and Center Propulsion works for at the Astrophysics. Institute Currently of Space Sciences (ICE-CSIC/IEEC), Spain. Chapter G.38 Chapter G.40 Bernd Eissfeller received his(venia PhD legendi) in Inertial in Geodesy Navigationof ( Navigation and at Physical theUniversity Geodesy Institute of of (1996). the Space He Bundeswehr Tec research is (Federal interests Full Armed are Professor Forces/UFAF), indesign, Munich. the GNSS/INS His multi-sensor field current of Galileo system optimization, GNSS receiver Pascale Defraigne received her PhDLouvain in (UCL), Physics Belgium fromBelgium (1995). the in She Université the Catholique was de fieldTime Assistant of Laboratory. at GNSS She the Time participated andSystem Royal in Frequency Galileo Observatory the transfer and of development andConsultative chairs of Committee is of the the now Time working Head and European Frequency. of group Navigation the on GNSS Time Transfer of the Chapter C.13 Chapter G.41 Marco Falcone James T. Curran Galileo Project Office Noordwijk, The Netherlands [email protected] European Space Agency (ESA) European Space Agency (ESA) Noordwijk, The Netherlands [email protected] Brussels, Belgium [email protected] Royal Observatory of Belgium Chalmers University of Technology Dept. of Earth andOnsala, Space Sweden Sciences [email protected] Institute of Space Sciences ICE (IEEC-CSIC) Cerdanyola del Valles, Spain [email protected] Gunnar Elgered Pascale Defraigne Estel Cardellach
Universität der Bundeswehr München Inst. of Space TechnologyApplications and Space Neubiberg, Germany [email protected] Bernd Eissfeller Authors 1242 About the Authors About the Authors 1243
Richard Farnworth Chapter E.30
Eurocontrol Experimental Centre Richard Farnworth is the Deputy Head of the Navigation and CNS Research Unit Centre du Bois des Bordes - BP15 within the Eurocontrol Directorate of Air Traffic Management. He supports the Bretigny sur Orge, France deployment of performance-based navigation and contributes to several projects [email protected] addressing approaches with vertical guidance. He began his career with Eurocontrol at its Experimental Centre in 1996, where he was employed as an expert in satellite navigation looking at how to use GNSS in aviation.
Jay A. Farrell Chapter E.28
University of California, Riverside Jay A. Farrell earned BS degrees from Iowa State University, and MS and PhD Dept. of Electrical and Computer degrees in Electrical Engineering from the University of Notre Dame. He has worked Engineering at Draper Lab and is a Professor and two time Chair of the Department of Electrical Riverside, USA
and Computer Engineering at the University of California, Riverside. His research Authors [email protected] interests relate to control, state estimation, sensor fusion, and planning for autonomous vehicle applications.
Jeff Freymueller Chapter F.37
University of Alaska Jeff Freymueller received his PhD in Geology in 1991 from the University Geophysical Institute of South Carolina. After a postdoctoral fellowship at Stanford University, Fairbanks, USA he has been on the faculty at the University of Alaska Fairbanks since [email protected] 1995. Throughout his career he has worked on the application of space geodesy to the study of deformation of the Earth, including studies in tectonics, earthquakes and the earthquake cycle, volcanism, and changes in cryospheric loads.
A.S. Ganeshan Chapter B.11
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) A.S. Ganeshan is the former Programme Director of Satellite Navigation ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC) Program and Group Director, Space Navigation Group at the ISRO Bangalore, India Satellite Centre, Bangalore. He also served as Executive Head of the [email protected] realization of the certified GAGAN system over India. He originated the concept of regional navigation satellite system (IRNSS) and has played a key role in the realization of the same. He is currently associated with Airports Authority of India as Advisor on GAGAN related matters.
Steven Gao Chapter C.17
University of Kent Steven Gao is Professor and Chair of RF and Microwave Engineering at the University School of Engineering and Digital Arts of Kent, UK. His research covers satellite antennas, smart antennas, phased arrays, Canterbury, Kent, UK GNSS antennas, RF/microwave/millimetre-wave/THz circuits, satellite communi- cation, radars (synthetic aperture radar, UWB radars) and small satellites. He has published over 200 papers and 2 books.
Gabriele Giorgi Chapter E.27
Technical University of Munich Gabriele Giorgi is a lecturer and researcher at the Institute for Communications and Inst. for Communications and Navigation Navigation, Technical University of Munich, Germany. He obtained a PhD following Munich, Germany his work on global navigation satellite system (GNSS) for aerospace applications at [email protected] the Delft Institute of Earth Observation and Space Systems (DEOS), Delft University of Technology (The Netherlands). His current research focuses on reliable GNSS positioning for aeronautics applications. 2014. published hnology since 1988, eceived BS and MS degrees in titute of Tec Thomas Hobiger is Associate Professor forthe Space MSc Geodesy. and He received PhDUniversity degrees in of Geodesy Technology, and Austriaa Geophysics (2002, Japanese from 2005). the research He Vienna institute,He spent before plays 8 moving an years to activegeodetic role at Chalmers in systems in the (in development particularfor of VLBI such next-generation and space- techniques. GNSS) and processing tools Jörg Hahn is HeadGalileo of Project the Office Galileo at SystemHe the Procurement received Service European his in Space PhD the AgencyFederal in in Engineering Armed Noordwijk. Sciences Forces from Munich-Neubiberg,22 the years’ Germany University of work (1999). experience Hesatellite in navigation, has and system large engineering, space systems. mainly with timing, Chapter B.9 Chapter A.6 Christopher J. Hegarty iswith the The Director MITRE for Corporation, where CNSapplications he Engineering of has & worked GNSS Spectrum mainly sinceElectrical on Engineering 1992. aviation from WPI He and r ais DSc currently degree the in Chair EE ofInc., from the and GWU. Program co-chairs He Management RTCA Committee Special of Committee 159 RTCA, (GNSS). Richard Gross has overresearch 30 interests years’ include Earth experiencerecently, rotation, in terrestrial time reference space variable frame geodesy.over gravity determination. His 60 and, He peer-reviewed most articles has onPropulsion these topics Laboratory, and California has Ins where worked at he the is Jet aof Senior the Research Geodynamics Scientist and and, Space Geodesy since Group. 2006, the Supervisor Chapter F.36 Chapter B.7 Grant Hausler is Coordinator forAustralia. the He National Positioning holds InfrastructureUniversity a at of Geoscience Bachelor Melbourne. Grant ofPositioning, provides Geomatic Navigation Secretariat Engineering and toInfrastructure Timing and the Advisory Working Australian a Group Board, Government PhD and andGeneral’s represents Space from the Community Geoscience National the of Australia Positioning Interest. on the Attorney André Hauschild isat a DLR’s researcher German in Spacethe the Operations Technical GNSS Center University Technology (GSOC). Munich, andreal-time He Germany, clock Navigation received in offset his Group estimation 2010. PhD forGNSS His GNSS from processing field using satellites modernized for of and precisespace-borne work new GNSS positioning, focuses satellite applications. multi- navigation on systems, as well as Chapter F.33 Chapters D.19, D.20 Thomas Hobiger Jörg Hahn European Space Agency (ESA) Galileo Project Office Noordwijk, The Netherlands [email protected] Onsala, Sweden [email protected] Chalmers University of Technology Onsala Space Observatory Wessling, Germany [email protected] German Aerospace Center (DLR) German Space Operations Center California Institute ofJet Technology Propulsion Laboratory Pasadena, USA richard.s.gross@jpl.nasa.gov The MITRE Coporation Bedford, USA [email protected] Christopher J. Hegarty André Hauschild Richard Gross
Symonston, Australia [email protected] Geoscience Australia Grant Hausler Authors 1244 About the Authors About the Authors 1245
Urs Hugentobler Chapter A.3
Technical University of Munich Urs Hugentobler has been Professor for Satellite Geodesy at the Technical University Satellite Geodesy Munich, Germany and Head of the Research Facility Satellite Geodesy since 2006. Munich, Germany He obtained his PhD in Astronomy from the University of Bern, Switzerland, in 1998. [email protected] His research activities include precise positioning applications using GNSS, precise orbit determination and modeling, and clock modeling, using the new GNSS satellite systems.
Todd Humphreys Chapter C.16
The University of Texas at Austin Todd Humphreys (BS, MS, Electrical Engineering, Utah State University; PhD, Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University) is Associate Professor in the Department Mechanics, of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics at the University of Texas at W.R. Woolrich Laboratories, C0600 Austin, where he directs the UT Radionavigation Laboratory. He specializes in the Austin, USA [email protected] application of optimal detection and estimation techniques to problems in satellite
navigation, autonomous systems, and signal processing. Authors
Norbert Jakowski Chapters A.6, G.39
German Aerospace Center (DLR) Norbert Jakowski received his PhD in Solid State Physics in 1974 from Institute of Communications and the University of Rostock. Since 1974 he has been working in the Institute Navigation of Space Research and since 1991 at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) Neustrelitz, Germany at their branch in Neustrelitz. His research activities include monitoring, [email protected] modeling and predicting ionospheric processes related to space weather events and studying their impact on radio wave propagation, in particular on GNSS applications.
Christopher Jekeli Chapter A.2
Ohio State University Christopher Jekeli received his PhD degree in Geodetic Science from School of Earth Sciences the Ohio State University in 1981. He was employed by the U.S. Air Columbus, USA Force Geophysical Laboratory as geodesist (1981–1993), joined the [email protected] faculty of the Department of Geodetic Science, and the School of Earth Sciences, at the Ohio State University (2005). His principal research interests are geodesy and the Earth’s gravity field, its modeling and measurement for geodetic and geophysical applications.
Gary Johnston Chapter F.33
Geoscience Australia Gary Johnston leads the Geodesy and Seismic Monitoring Group at Geoscience Symonston, Australia Australia. He is the Chair of the International GNSS Service (IGS) Governing Board [email protected] and the Chair of the UN Global Geospatial Information Management (UN GGIM) working group on the Global Geodetic Reference Frame (GGRF).
Allison Kealy Chapter E.29
University of Melbourne Dr Allison Kealy is an Associate Professor in the Department of Infrastructure Dept. of Infrastructure Engineering Engineering at The University of Melbourne Australia. She holds a PhD in GPS and Parkville, Australia Geodesy from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. Allison’s research interests [email protected] include sensor fusion, Kalman filtering, high precision satellite positioning, GNSS quality control, wireless sensor networks and location based services.
Satoshi Kogure Chapter B.11
National Space Policy Secretariat, Satoshi Kogure is the former Mission Manager for QZSS in the Satellite Cabinet Office Navigation Unit, JAXA. He received an MS from Nagoya University in QZSS Strategy Office 1993 and joined the Japanese National Space Agency. He started system Tokyo, Japan design work for the Japanese navigation satellite system QZSS in 2001 [email protected] and led its technical validation and demonstration after the first satellite launch in 2010. Since 2016, he coordinates the QZS programme within the Japanese Cabinet Office. zech Academy llite geodesy since hnology (IST), Islamabad, itions at the Geological Survey hnology team at the Canadian onducting research since 1981. He holds a PhD in Experimental Moazam Maqsood received his Communicationdegree Systems from Engineering the InstitutePakistan of in Space 2006, Tec Surrey, and UK, MS in and 2009 PhDProfessor in and degrees the 2013. Electrical from Engineering He theinterests Department is at include University IST. use currently His of of research serving syntheticapplications. aperture as radars Assistant (SAR) for public safety Jan Kouba obtained hisof Doctorate of Sciences Science in from 1994.1970. the He He C has has held beenof several working Canada research in and pos sate Resources the Canada Geodetic (NRCan). Survey During DivisionActive Control 1994–1998 (GSD) Technology/IGS he of (International led theTeam GPS the at Natural Service) Canadian GSD Analysis andIGS. served as the first Analysis Center Coordinator of Chapter E.25 Chapter C.17 Ken MacLeod received a Bachelor ofof Science Toronto degree in from 1985. the Hesince University joined 1995 the he Canadian hassystems. Geodetic worked He survey on in is the 1987 currentlychairman. and development the of IGS/RTCM SC104 GNSS RINEX augmentation working group Annex A itigation, and navigation for safety-critical applications. Dr Michael Meurer is Head ofCenter the (DLR), Department of Institute Navigation of of theDirector Communications German of Aerospace and the DLR Navigation, Center and ofof Excellence the for Electrical Coordinating Satellite Navigation. Engineering He is and alsoHis Director Professor current research of interests the include GNSS Chairspoofing signals, of m GNSS Navigation receivers, interference at and RWTH Aachen. François Lahaye leads the GeodeticGeodetic Space-based Survey Tec of Naturalfrom Resources Laval Canada. University, Canada. He holds an MSc in geodetic sciences Richard B. LangleyEngineering is at Professor the University in ofbeen New the teaching Brunswick and Department in c Fredericton, ofSpace Canada, Science Geodesy where from he York and University, has Toronto.applications His Geomatics of general GNSS area and of he expertisesince has is been the precision active early in 1980s. the development of GNSS error models Chapter A.4; Annex B Chapter E.25 Chapter A.1 Moazam Maqsood Jan Kouba Natural Resources Canada Canadian Geodetic Survey Ottawa, Canada [email protected] Institute of SpaceDept. Technology of Electrical Engineering Islamabad, Pakistan [email protected] Chaps. A.1, A.2, A.3, B.8, B.10, B.11, C.17, E.32; Annexes A, B For biographical profile, please see the section “About the Editors”. German Aerospace Center (DLR) Institute of Communications and Navigation Wessling, Germany [email protected] Natural Resources Canada Canadian Geodetic Survey Ottawa, Canada [email protected] Ottawa, Canada [email protected] Natural Resources Canada Canadian Geodetic Survey Michael Meurer Ken MacLeod François Lahaye
Engineering Fredericton, Canada [email protected] University of New Brunswick Dept. of Geodesy & Geomatics Oliver Montenbruck Richard B. Langley Authors 1246 About the Authors About the Authors 1247
Terry Moore Chapter E.29
University of Nottingham Professor Terry Moore is Director of the Nottingham Geospatial Institute (NGI) at Nottingham Geospatial Institute the University of Nottingham. He holds a BSc degree in Civil Engineering and a PhD Nottingham, UK degree in Space Geodesy, both from the University of Nottingham. He is a Fellow, and [email protected] a Member of Council, of both the Institute of Navigation and of the Royal Institute of Navigation.
Dennis Odijk Chapters D.21, E.26
Fugro Intersite B.V. Dennis Odijk received his PhD degree in Geodetic Engineering from Leidschendam, The Netherlands Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands (2002). From 2009 to [email protected] 2016 he was a Research Fellow at the GNSS Research Centre at Curtin University in Perth, Australia, where he focused on RTK and integer ambiguity resolution enabled PPP. At present Dennis is working as Senior Geodesist with Fugro Intersite in the Netherlands, where he contributes to Authors Fugro’s GNSS positioning algorithms.
Thomas Pany Chapter C.14
Universität der Bundeswehr München Prof. Thomas Pany is with the Universität der Bundeswehr München Inst. of Space Technology and Space where teaches navigation. He obtained a PhD from the Graz University Applications of Technology. His research focuses on GNSS signals, GNSS receiver Neubiberg, Germany design and integration with other sensors. Previously he worked for [email protected] IFEN GmbH and is the architect of the world’s most powerful GNSS software receiver.
Mark G. Petovello Chapter C.18
University of Calgary Mark G. Petovello received his BSc and PhD degrees in Geomatics Engineering Geomatics Engineering at the University of Calgary in 1998 and 2003, respectively. He is currently a Pro- Calgary, Canada fessor at the same university with research interests in satellite-based navigation, [email protected] inertial navigation, and multi-sensor integration. He has written and licensed sev- eral navigation-related software packages and is actively involved in the navigation community.
Sam Pullen Chapter E.31
Stanford University Sam Pullen is Technical Manager of the Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics research effort within the GNSS Laboratory at Stanford University, where he received Stanford, USA his PhD in Aeronautics and Astronautics in 1996. He has supported FAA and other [email protected] service providers in developing system concepts, technical requirements, integrity algorithms, and performance models for GBAS, SBAS, and other GNSS applications. He has performed GNSS system design, applications, and risk assessment through his consultancy.
Sergey Revnivykh Chapter B.8
RESHETNEV’s Information Satellite Sergey Revnivykh is Deputy Head of the GLONASS Directorate and Systems Coporation Director of the GLONASS Evolution Department of Reshetnev’s Infor- GLONASS Evolution Department mation Satellite Systems Corporation. Since 2001 he has been actively Moscow, Russian Federation involved in the GLONASS Federal Program development, management, [email protected] and implementation. Since 2005 he has been a co-chair of the Working Group on GNSS Compatibility and Interoperability of the International Committee on GNSS. He received his PhD from Moscow Aviation Institute (2006). 1974. 1999. He started oduction of the Asia titute of the University 1986, he has been with the Spanish Research Council Chapter B.8 ities. Since Tim Springer studied Aerospace Engineeringof at the Delft, Technical and University workedof at Bern, the where Astronomical hethe received Ins company his PosiTim, PhD whichaccuracy in GNSS offers Physics marked in services based on andHe the has solutions ESA/ESOC been for software working NAPEOS. at high Darmstadt the since Navigation 2004. Support Office of ESA/ESOC in As a graduate ofin the geodesy University at of GeoscienceOperator Tasmania, Australia, Anna of where started she the is herresearch robotic currently activities career GNSS include the GNSS antenna Primary analysis for calibrationPacific the Reference facility. pr Frame Other (APREF) andthe providing verification legal of traceability position for within Australia. Chapter F.34 Chapter F.33 Kenneth L. Senior receivedBowling his Green State PhD University, inLaboratory in Applied 1997. as Mathematics He a from joinedSpace scientist the Positioning in Naval Navigation Research 2001 andLaboratory. and Timing His Branch currently research of heads interests thetransfer, timescales, include the Naval and Research precision Advanced the time analysis of and precision frequency clocks. Chapter A.5 BeiDou, and QZSS. Peter Steigenberger received hisTechnical Master’s University and of PhD Munich degreeshe (TUM) in is in Geodesy Scientific Staff from 2002 MemberHis the and at research 2009, DLR’s interests respectively. German focus Currently, Spaceclock determination Operations on of Center GNSS GNSS (GSOC). satellites data and analysis, the in evolving navigation particular systems Galileo, precise orbit and Communications Complex, Madrid,astronomical Spain, activ where heand the was Institut d’Estudis responsible Espacials de for Catalunya. radio Chris Rizos is Professor oftal Geodesy Engineering, and University Navigation, of SchoolPresident of New of the Civil South International and Association Wales, Environmen- of Australia.ing Geodesy Board Chris (IAG), a of is member the of immediate International theAsia GNSS Past Govern- Steering Service Committee. (IGS), and Chris co-chairof has of GPS been the and researching Multi-GNSS other the navigation/positioning technology systems and since applications 1985. Antonio Rius received aFrom PhD 1975 degree to from 1985, Barcelona he University, Spain, was a in member of the technical staff at NASA’s Deep Space Chapter F.35 Chapter G.40 Chapter F.34; Annex B Tim Springer Anna Riddell PosiTim UG Seeheim-Jugenheim, Germany [email protected] Geoscience Australia Symonston, Australia [email protected] Institute of Space Sciences ICE (IEEC-CSIC) Cerdanyola del Valles, Spain [email protected] German Space Operations Center Wessling, Germany [email protected] German Aerospace Center (DLR) [email protected] US Naval Research Laboratory Advanced Space PNT Branch Washington, USA Peter Steigenberger Ken Senior Antonio Rius
Kensington, Australia [email protected] The University of New SouthSchool Wales of Civil &Engineering Environmental Alexander Serdyukov (deceased) Chris Rizos Authors 1248 About the Authors About the Authors 1249
Jing Tang Chapter B.10
China National Administration of GNSS Jing Tang is an engineer at China National Administration of GNSS and Applications and Applications (CNAGA). She received her BA in English from Henan University of Science and Beijing, China Technology in 1996. Since 2007, she has been closely involved in the bilateral [email protected] frequency coordination between BeiDou and other GNSSs. She has been an active participant of the Internal Committee of GNSS (ICG) meetings since 2008. She has coauthored several papers about the Beidou Satellite Navigation System.
Pierre Tétreault Chapter E.25
Natural Resources Canada Pierre Tétreault is a member of the Space Based Technology team of Canadian Geodetic Survey the Canadian Geodetic Survey at Natural Resources Canada. His work is Ottawa, Canada focused on GNSS based end-user applications for reference frame access. [email protected] He received an MSc with specialization in geodesy from the University
of Toronto in 1987. Authors
Peter J.G. Teunissen Chapters A.1, D.22, D.23, D.24 For biographical profile, please see the section “About the Editors”.
Sandra Verhagen Chapter D.22
Delft University of Technology Sandra Verhagen is Assistant Professor at Delft University of Technol- Faculty of Civil Engineering and ogy. She received her PhD in Geodesy from the same university. She Geosciences is Theme Leader of Sensing from Space of the Delft Space Institute, Delft, The Netherlands and was the president of Commission 4 Positioning and Applications [email protected] of the International Association of Geodesy (2007–2011). Her research interests are mathematical geodesy and positioning, with a focus on algorithm development for very precise and reliable positioning with GNSS.
Todd Walter Chapter B.12
Stanford University, GPS Lab Todd Walter is a Senior Research Engineer in the Department of Aeronautics and Stanford, USA Astronautics at Stanford University. He received his PhD in Applied Physics from [email protected] Stanford University in 1993. His research focuses on implementing high-integrity air navigation systems. He is active in international standards bodies coordinating the use of global navigation satellite systems to implement these systems. He is a Fellow of ION and has also served as its President.
Lambert Wanninger Chapter E.26
Technical University Dresden Lambert Wanninger is Professor of Geodesy at the Technical University of Dresden Geodetic Institute (TU Dresden). He holds a Dr.-Ing. degree in Geodesy from the University of Dresden, Germany Hannover, Germany, and a Habilitation degree in Geodesy from TU Dresden. He has [email protected] been involved in research on precise GNSS positioning since 1990.
Jan P. Weiss Chapter F.34
University Corporation for Atmospheric Jan P. Weiss is Manager of the COSMIC Data Analysis and Archive Research Center at the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research in Boul- COSMIC Program der, CO. His research focuses on precise orbit and clock determination, Boulder, USA and geodetic applications of GNSS. At JPL, he worked as an analyst [email protected] and developer for the JPL IGS Analysis Center, GIPSY-OASIS software, NASA Global Differential GNSS System, and next generation GPS control segment navigation software. ophysics of the eceived his PhD from Karl- hnology and Space Applications (formerly Jan Wendel received the Dipl.-Ing.Engineering and from Dr.-Ing. degrees the inrespectively. Electrical University From of 2003 until KarlsruheUniversity 2006 of in Karlsruhe, he 1998 where was hehe and Assistant is joined currently Professor 2003, a MBDA at private in lecturer. the Munich.in In 2006, Munich, In 2009, Germany, he nowvarious joined Airbus activities related EADS DS to Astrium GmbH, satellite GmbH where navigation. he is involved in Chapter E.28 Yuanxi Yang is ProfessorResearch of Institute of Geodesy SurveyingAdministration and of and Navigation GNSS Mapping and at andPhD Applications both (CNAGA). in China He Xian Geodesy National received from his Chinese the Academy Institute of of Science. Geodesy Hisdata and main processing, research Ge navigation, field and includes geodetic geodetic coordinate system, etc. Chapter B.10 Centre for Geosciences (GFZ)He and was is Principal responsible Investigator of foraboard the the GNSS German pioneering remote CHAMP GPS satellite sensing and RadioSensing, research. holds Occultation a Navigation experiment joint and professorship on Positioning GNSS2016. Remote of GFZ and Technische Universität Berlin since Jong-Hoon Won studied control(PhD). engineering He at joined Ajou the University, Institutethe Suwon, of Space South Institute Tec Korea of Geodesy(UFAF) Munich, and Germany Navigation), in UniversityEngineering 2005. of at Currently, Federal he Inha Armed is University,field South Assistant Forces of Korea. Professor GNSS His signals, of current receivers, Electrical navigation, research and target interests tracking are systems. in the Jens Wickert graduated in physicsFranzens-University Graz, from in TU 2002. Dresden Since and 1999 r he has been with the German Research Chapter G.38 Chapters C.13, C.14 Jan Wendel Airbus DS GmbH Navigation and Apps. Programmes Taufkirchen, Germany [email protected] GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Dept. of Geodesy Potsdam, Germany [email protected] China National Administration of GNSS and Applications Beijing, China [email protected] Yuanxi Yang Jens Wickert
[email protected] Inha University Faculty of Electrical Engineering Incheon, Korea Jong-Hoon Won Authors 1250 About the Authors 1251
Detailed Contents
List of Abbreviations ...... XXVII
Part A Principles of GNSS
1 Introduction to GNSS Richard B. Langley, Peter J.G. Teunissen, Oliver Montenbruck ...... 3 1.1 Early Satellite Navigation ...... 3 1.2 Concept of GNSS Positioning...... 5 1.2.1 Ranging Measurements ...... 5 1.2.2 Range-Based Positioning ...... 6 1.2.3 Pseudorange Positioning ...... 7 1.2.4 Precision of Position Solutions ...... 8 1.2.5 GNSS Observation Equations ...... 10
1.3 Modeling the Observations ...... 10 Cont. Detailed 1.3.1 Satellite Orbit and Clock Information ...... 10 1.3.2 Atmospheric Propagation Delay ...... 11 1.4 Positioning Modes...... 13 1.4.1 Precise Point Positioning...... 13 1.4.2 Code Differential Positioning ...... 14 1.4.3 Differential Carrier Phase ...... 14 1.5 Current and Developing GNSSs ...... 16 1.5.1 Global Navigation Satellite Systems...... 16 1.5.2 Regional Navigation Satellite Systems ...... 18 1.5.3 Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems...... 19 1.6 GNSS for Science and Society at Large ...... 19 References ...... 22
2 Time and Reference Systems Christopher Jekeli, Oliver Montenbruck ...... 25 2.1 Time ...... 25 2.1.1 Dynamic Time ...... 26 2.1.2 Atomic Time Scales ...... 27 2.1.3 Sidereal and Universal Time, Earth Rotation ...... 27 2.1.4 GNSS System Times ...... 30 2.2 Spatial Reference Systems ...... 31 2.2.1 Coordinate Systems...... 31 2.2.2 Reference Systems and Frames ...... 34 2.3 Terrestrial Reference System ...... 34 2.3.1 Traditional Geodetic Datums ...... 34 2.3.2 Global Reference System ...... 36 2.3.3 Terrestrial Reference Systems for GNSS Users ...... 39 2.3.4 Frame Transformations...... 40 2.3.5 Earth Tides ...... 42 2.4 Celestial Reference System...... 44 2.5 Transformations Between ICRF and ITRF ...... 46 59 56 46 55 91 91 91 59 59 61 66 52 50 54 97 96 93 97 99 63 66 67 71 72 87 85 79 80 74 81 77 83 83 116 113 114 117 118 102 107 107 109 ...... and Electromagnetic Foundation of Signals ...... 3.1.1 Basic Properties 2.5.1 Orientation of the Earth in Space 2.5.2 New Conventions 4.1.1 Maxwell’s Theory of Electromagnetic Waves 4.1.2 Modulation and Complex Baseband Representation 3.1.2 Keplerian Orbit Model 3.1.3 Ground Track and Visibility 3.2.1 Orbit Representation 2.5.4 Transformations 2.5.3 Polar Motion 4.2.1 Spread Spectrum Signals for Ranging 4.1.3 Frequency Bands and Polarization 4.2.2 Pseudo-Random Binary Sequences 4.2.3 Correlation and Time-Delay Estimation 4.4.1 Interplex 4.4.2 AltBOC 3.2.2 Perturbing Accelerations 4.3.14.3.2 Binary Phase Shift Keying Binary Offset Carrier Modulation and Derivatives 3.2.3 Perturbations at GNSS Satellite Altitude 3.2.4 Radiation Pressure 3.2.5 Long-Term Evolution 3.3.1 Almanac Models 3.3.2 Keplerian Ephemeris Models 3.2.6 Orbit Accuracy 3.3.3 Cartesian Ephemeris Model 3.3.4 Broadcast Ephemeris Generation and Performance References 4.1 Radiofrequency Signals Signals and Modulation Michael Meurer, Felix Antreich Satellite Orbits and Attitude Urs Hugentobler, Oliver Montenbruck 3.1 Keplerian Motion 2.6 Perspectives 4.2 Spread Spectrum Technique and Pseudo Random Codes 3.2 Orbit Perturbations 4.5 Navigation Data and Data-Free Channels References 4.3 Modulation Schemes 4.4 Signal Multiplexing References 3.3 Broadcast Orbit Models 3.4 Attitude
3 4
Detailed Cont. 1252 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1253
5 Clocks Ron Beard, Ken Senior ...... 121 5.1 Frequency and Time Stability ...... 122 5.1.1 Concepts...... 123 5.1.2 Characterization of Clock Stability ...... 123 5.2 Clock Technologies ...... 127 5.2.1 Quartz Crystal Oscillators ...... 127 5.2.2 Conventional Atomic Standards ...... 128 5.2.3 Timescale Atomic Standards ...... 135 5.2.4 Small Atomic Clock Technology ...... 136 5.2.5 Developing Clock Technologies ...... 137 5.3 Space-Qualified Atomic Standards...... 138 5.3.1 Space Rubidium Atomic Clocks ...... 139 5.3.2 Space-Qualified Cesium Beam Clocks ...... 140 5.3.3 Space-Qualified Hydrogen Maser Clocks ...... 141 5.3.4 Space Linear Ion Trap System (LITS)...... 142 5.3.5 Satellite Onboard Timing Subsystems ...... 142 5.3.6 On-Orbit Performance of Space Atomic Clocks ...... 144 5.4 Relativistic Effects on Clocks ...... 148 ealdCont. Detailed 5.4.1 Relativistic Terms ...... 148 5.4.2 Coordinate Timescales...... 150 5.4.3 Geocentric Coordinate Systems ...... 150 5.4.4 Propagation of Signals ...... 153 5.4.5 Relativistic Offset for GNSS Satellite Clocks...... 154 5.5 International Timescales...... 155 5.5.1 International Atomic Time (TAI) ...... 155 5.5.2 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) ...... 157 5.6 GNSS Timescales ...... 158 References ...... 160
6 Atmospheric Signal Propagation Thomas Hobiger, Norbert Jakowski ...... 165 6.1 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation ...... 165 6.1.1 Maxwell Equations ...... 166 6.1.2 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in the Troposphere ... 166 6.1.3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in the Ionosphere .... 167 6.2 Troposphere...... 168 6.2.1 Characteristics of the Troposphere ...... 168 6.2.2 Tropospheric Refraction ...... 170 6.2.3 Empirical Models of the Troposphere ...... 172 6.2.4 Troposphere Delay Estimation ...... 174 6.3 Ionospheric Effects on GNSS Signal Propagation ...... 177 6.3.1 The Ionosphere ...... 177 6.3.2 Refraction of Transionospheric Radio Waves ...... 179 6.3.3 Diffraction and Scattering of GNSS Signals...... 183 6.3.4 Ionospheric Models ...... 184 6.3.5 Measurement-Based Ionosphere Correction ...... 189 References ...... 190 203 203 204 215 197 197 199 204 205 206 209 216 211 211 205 216 210 217 210 197 219 250 251 220 219 219 247 248 221 223 225 225 226 229 232 233 241 243 236 235 237 238 ...... (CNAV-2) Data ...... 7.2.1 Overview 7.2.2 Evolution of Capabilities 7.1.17.1.2 Constellation Design and Management GPS Satellites 7.2.3 Operations 7.3.2 Modernized Signals 7.3.3 Power Levels 7.4.37.4.4 LNAV Data Content and Related Algorithms Civil Navigation (CNAV) and Civil Navigation-2 7.3.1 Legacy 7.4.2 LNAV Error Detection Encoding 7.4.1 Legacy Navigation (LNAV) Data Overview 9.2.1 Signal Components and Modulations 8.1.3 GLONASS Geodesy Reference PZ-90 8.1.2 Constellation 8.1.1 History and Evolution 8.1.4 GLONASS Time 8.2.1 GLONASS Services 8.2.2 FDMA Signals 8.2.3 CDMA Signals 8.3.1 GLONASS I/II 8.3.2 GLONASS-M 8.3.3 GLONASS-K 7.3 Navigation Signals 7.5 Time System and Geodesy 7.2 Control Segment 7.4 Navigation Data and Algorithms 7.6 Services and Performance References 7.1 Space Segment 8.1 Overview Galileo Marco Falcone, Jörg Hahn, Thomas Burger GLONASS Sergey Revnivykh, Alexey Bolkunov,Oliver Alexander Montenbruck Serdyukov The Global Positioning SystemChristopher (GPS) J. Hegarty 9.1 Constellation 9.2 Signals and Services 8.2 Navigation Signals and Services 8.3 Satellites References 8.4 Launch Vehicles 8.5 Ground Segment 8.6 GLONASS Open Service Performance
8 Part B Satellite Navigation7 Systems 9
Detailed Cont. 1254 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1255
9.2.2 Navigation Message and Services ...... 256 9.2.3 Ranging Performance ...... 258 9.2.4 Timing Accuracy...... 263 9.3 Spacecraft ...... 265 9.3.1 Satellite Platform ...... 266 9.3.2 Satellite Payload Description ...... 266 9.3.3 Launch Vehicles...... 268 9.4 Ground Segment ...... 269 9.5 Summary ...... 270 References ...... 271
10 Chinese Navigation Satellite Systems Yuanxi Yang, Jing Tang, Oliver Montenbruck ...... 273 10.1 BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System (BDS-1) ...... 275 10.1.1 System Architecture and Basic Characteristics ...... 275 10.1.2 Navigation Principle...... 277 10.1.3 Orbit Determination ...... 278 10.1.4 Timing ...... 278 10.2 BeiDou (Regional) Navigation Satellite System (BDS-2) ...... 279 ealdCont. Detailed 10.2.1 Constellation ...... 279 10.2.2 Signals and Services ...... 281 10.2.3 Navigation Message ...... 283 10.2.4 Space Segment...... 286 10.2.5 Operational Control System ...... 288 10.2.6 BeiDou Satellite-Based Augmentation System ...... 289 10.2.7 Coordinate Reference System ...... 290 10.2.8 Time System...... 291 10.3 Performance of BDS-2 ...... 293 10.3.1 Service Region ...... 293 10.3.2 Performance of Satellite Clocks ...... 293 10.3.3 Positioning Performance...... 295 10.3.4 Application Examples ...... 297 10.4 BeiDou (Global) Navigation Satellite System ...... 297 10.5 Brief Introduction of CAPS ...... 298 10.5.1 CAPS Concept and System Architecture...... 298 10.5.2 Positioning Principle of CAPS ...... 300 10.5.3 Trial CAPS System...... 301 References ...... 301
11 Regional Systems Satoshi Kogure, A.S. Ganeshan, Oliver Montenbruck ...... 305 11.1 Concept of Regional Navigation Satellite Systems ...... 306 11.2 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System ...... 306 11.2.1 Overview ...... 306 11.2.2 Constellation ...... 307 11.2.3 Signals and Services ...... 308 11.2.4 Spacecraft ...... 313 11.2.5 Control Segment ...... 317 11.2.6 Operations Concept ...... 319 11.2.7 Current Performance ...... 320 339 340 341 322 322 327 321 340 344 342 344 330 341 343 344 351 345 345 346 345 345 333 334 352 351 350 350 349 349 347 349 353 353 358 356 353 359 360 356 356 358 358 358 ...... Overlay Service (EGNOS) ...... 12.1.1 Aviation Requirements 12.1.3 Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) 11.3.2 Signal11.3.3 and Data Structure Spacecraft 11.3.4 Ground Segment 11.3.1 Constellation 12.1.2 Traditional Navigational Aids 12.2.4 Multipath 12.2.3 Troposphere 11.3.5 System Performance 12.1.4 Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) 12.2.1 Satellite Clock and Ephemeris 12.2.2 Ionosphere 12.5.1 Message Structure 12.2.5 Other Error Sources 12.3.3 Ground Uplink Stations and Geostationary Satellites 12.3.1 Reference Stations 12.3.2 Master Stations 12.5.3 Protection Levels 12.5.2 Message Application 12.4.3 Overbounding 12.4.2 Threat Models 12.3.4 Operational Control Centers 12.4.1 Integrity Certification 12.6.1 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) 12.7.2 Multiple Constellations 12.6.3 European Geostationary Navigation 12.6.2 Multifunction Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) 12.6.5 System12.6.6 of Differential Corrections and Monitoring BeiDou (SDCM) Satellite-Based Augmentation System (BDSBAS) 358 12.6.4 GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) 12.7.1 Multiple Frequencies 12.6.7 Korean Augmentation Satellite System (KASS) 12.1 Aircraft Guidance 11.3 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS/NavIC) Satellite Based AugmentationTodd Systems Walter 12.2 GPS Error Sources 12.3 SBAS Architecture References 12.5 SBAS User Algorithms 12.4 SBAS Integrity 12.6 Operational and Planned SBAS Systems References 12.7 Evolution of SBAS
12
Detailed Cont. 1256 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1257
Part C GNSS Receivers and Antennas
13 Receiver Architecture Bernd Eissfeller, Jong-Hoon Won ...... 365 13.1 Background and History ...... 366 13.1.1 Analog Versus Digital Receivers...... 366 13.1.2 Early Military Developments ...... 367 13.1.3 Early Civil Developments ...... 368 13.1.4 Early Receiver Developments for Other Satellite Navigation Systems ...... 369 13.1.5 Early BeiDou Receiver Developments ...... 371 13.2 Receiver Building Blocks ...... 372 13.2.1 Antenna ...... 373 13.2.2 RF Front End ...... 376 13.2.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion ...... 380 13.2.4 Oscillators ...... 383 13.2.5 Chip Technologies ...... 386 13.2.6 Implementation Issues...... 390 13.3 Multifrequency and Multisystem Receivers...... 391 ealdCont. Detailed 13.3.1 Civil Receivers for GPS Modernization...... 391 13.3.2 Galileo Receivers...... 394 13.3.3 GLONASS Receivers ...... 394 13.3.4 BeiDou/Compass Receivers ...... 395 13.3.5 Military GPS Receivers ...... 395 13.4 Technology Trends...... 396 13.4.1 Civil Low-End Trends ...... 396 13.4.2 Civil High-End Trends ...... 396 13.4.3 Trends in Military and/or Governmental Receivers ...... 397 13.5 Receiver Types ...... 397 13.5.1 Navigation Receivers Handheld ...... 397 13.5.2 Navigation Receivers Non-Handheld ...... 397 13.5.3 Engines, OEM Modules, Chips, and Dies ...... 398 13.5.4 Time Transfer Receivers ...... 398 13.5.5 Geodetic Receivers...... 398 13.5.6 Space Receivers ...... 398 13.5.7 Attitude Determination Receivers ...... 398 References ...... 399
14 Signal Processing Jong-Hoon Won, Thomas Pany ...... 401 14.1 Overview and Scope...... 402 14.2 Received Signal Model ...... 403 14.2.1 Generic GNSS Signal ...... 403 14.2.2 Signal Model at RF and IF...... 404 14.2.3 Correlator Model ...... 404 14.3 Signal Search and Acquisition ...... 406 14.3.1 Test Statistics...... 406 14.3.2 Acquisition Module Architecture ...... 408 14.3.3 Coherent Integration Methods...... 409 14.3.4 Search Space ...... 410 460 461 459 453 455 456 457 458 455 450 450 444 448 444 443 421 421 419 417 415 411 412 415 414 413 413 425 422 422 424 428 426 427 427 428 428 431 433 434 438 440 434 434 435 436 436 437 ...... 15.8.2 Short-Delay Multipath 15.8.1 Isolation of Pseudorange Multipath and Fast Fading Considerations 15.7.2 Antenna Type 15.7.3 Receiver Type 15.7.4 Measurement Processing 15.7.1 Multipath Mitigation via Antenna Placement 14.3.5 Acquisition Performance 14.4.9 BOC Tracking 14.4.8 Switching Rule 14.4.7 Aiding 14.4.6 NCO and Code/Carrier Generator 14.4.5 Loop Filters 14.3.6 Handling Data Bits and Secondary Codes 14.4.4 Discriminators 14.4.3 Correlators 14.4.1 Architecture 14.4.2 Tracking Loop Model 14.5.2 Data Bit/Symbol Demodulation 14.4.10 Tracking Performance 14.5.1 Bit/Symbol Synchronization 14.5.3 Frame14.5.4 Synchronization Bit Error Correction 14.5.5 Data Extraction 14.6.1 Code Pseudorange 14.6.2 Carrier Phase 14.6.3 Doppler 14.6.4 Signal Power 14.7.1 Tracking of GPS P(Y) 14.7.2 Generic Data/Pilot Multiplexing Approach 14.7.3 Combined Processing of Data and Pilot Signals 14.7.4 Combined Processing of Code and Carrier 14.7.5 Carrier Tracking Kalman Filter 14.7.6 Vector Tracking 15.7 Multipath Mitigation 15.8 Multipath Measurement 15.5 Multipath Error Envelopes 15.6 Temporal Error Variation, Bias Characteristics 15.3 Multipath Signal Models 15.4 Pseudorange and Carrier-Phase Error 15.2 Characterizing the Multipath Environment 15.1 The Impact of Multipath Multipath Michael S. Braasch 14.4 Signal Tracking 14.5 Time Synchronization and Data Demodulation 14.6 GNSS Measurements 14.7 Advanced Topics References
15
Detailed Cont. 1258 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1259
15.8.3 Multipath Repeatability ...... 462 15.8.4 Measurement of Carrier-Phase Multipath ...... 463 15.9 A Note About Multipath Impact on Doppler Measurements ...... 466 15.10 Conclusions ...... 466 References ...... 466
16 Interference Todd Humphreys...... 469 16.1 Analysis Technique for Statistically Independent Interference ...... 471 16.1.1 Received Signal Model ...... 471 16.1.2 Thermal-Noise-Equivalent Approximation...... 471 16.1.3 Limits of Applicability ...... 473 16.1.4 Overview of Interference Effects on Carrier Phase Tracking 474 16.2 Canonical Interference Models ...... 476 16.2.1 Wideband Interference ...... 476 16.2.2 Narrowband Interference ...... 476 16.2.3 Matched-Spectrum Interference ...... 478 16.3 Quantization Effects...... 479 16.3.1 One-Bit Quantization ...... 479 ealdCont. Detailed 16.3.2 Multibit Quantization ...... 479 16.4 Specific Interference Waveforms and Sources...... 481 16.4.1 Solar Radio Bursts ...... 481 16.4.2 Scintillation ...... 482 16.4.3 Unintentional Interference ...... 484 16.4.4 Intentional Interference ...... 485 16.5 Spoofing...... 485 16.5.1 Generalized Model for Security-Enhanced GNSS Signals .. 486 16.5.2 Attacks Against Security-Enhanced GNSS Signals ...... 486 16.6 Interference Detection ...... 491 16.6.1 C=N0 Monitoring ...... 491 16.6.2 Received Power Monitoring...... 491 16.6.3 Augmented Received Power Monitoring...... 493 16.6.4 Spectral Analysis ...... 494 16.6.5 Cryptographic Spoofing Detection ...... 495 16.6.6 Antenna-Based Techniques ...... 497 16.6.7 Innovations-Based Techniques ...... 497 16.7 Interference Mitigation ...... 498 16.7.1 Spectrally or Temporally Sparse Interference ...... 498 16.7.2 Spectrally and Temporally Dense Interference ...... 499 16.7.3 Antenna-Based Techniques ...... 500 References ...... 501
17 Antennas Moazam Maqsood, Steven Gao, Oliver Montenbruck ...... 505 17.1 GNSS Antenna Characteristics...... 506 17.1.1 Center Frequency ...... 507 17.1.2 Bandwidth ...... 507 17.1.3 Radiation Pattern...... 507 17.1.4 Antenna Gain ...... 507 17.1.5 3 dB Beam Width ...... 507 543 540 542 544 544 540 543 547 548 537 537 546 508 508 508 535 509 509 512 513 509 509 510 511 513 513 513 514 515 516 524 523 528 531 523 517 518 519 526 522 522 521 527 527 521 521 520 520 ...... 18.1.4 Record and Playback Systems 18.1.5 Details 18.2.2 Important Considerations 18.1.3 GNSS Simulators 18.2.1 Implementation 18.3.2 Important Considerations 18.1.1 Received RF Signal 18.1.2 GNSS Receivers 18.3.1 Implementation 17.1.8 Impedance Matching and Return Loss 17.1.9 Front-to-Back and Multipath Ratio 17.1.6 Polarization 17.1.7 Axial Ratio 17.1.10 Phase-Center Stability 17.2.5 Wide-Band Bow-Tie Turnstile Antenna 17.2.6 Wide-Band Pinwheel Antenna 17.2.1 Microstrip17.2.2 Patch Antenna Helix Antenna 17.2.3 Quadrifilar HelixAntenna 17.2.4 Spiral Antenna 17.3.1 Hand-Held Terminals 17.3.2 Surveying and Geodesy 17.3.3 Aviation 17.3.4 Space Applications 17.3.5 Antijamming Antennas 17.5.3 Reflector-Backed Monofilar Antenna 17.5.2 Patch Antenna Arrays 17.5.1 Concentric Helix Antenna Arrays 17.3.6 GNSS Remote Sensing 17.4.1 Metallic Reflector Ground Plane 17.4.7 Electromagnetic Band Gap (EBG) Substrate 17.4.6 Cross Plate Reflector Ground Plane 17.6.1 Basic Antenna Testing 17.6.2 Phase-Center Calibration 17.4.5 3-D Choke-Ring Ground Plane 17.4.4 Convex Impedance Ground Plane 17.4.2 Choke-Ring17.4.3 Ground Plane Noncutoff Corrugated Ground Plane 18.2 RF-Level Simulators 18.3 IF-Level Simulators Mark G. Petovello, James T. Curran Simulators and Test Equipment 18.1 Background 17.2 Basic GNSS Antenna Types 17.3 Application-Specific GNSS Antennas References 17.4 Multipath Mitigation 17.6 Antenna Measurement and Calibration 17.5 Antennas for GNSS Satellites
18
Detailed Cont. 1260 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1261
18.4 Record and Playback Systems ...... 549 18.4.1 Implementation ...... 550 18.4.2 Important Considerations...... 550 18.5 Measurement-Level Simulators ...... 552 18.5.1 Implementation ...... 553 18.5.2 Important Considerations...... 553 18.6 Combining Live and Simulated Data...... 554 18.6.1 Implementation ...... 555 18.6.2 Important Considerations...... 555 18.7 Other Considerations ...... 556 18.7.1 GNSS Systems Supported ...... 556 18.7.2 Interference and Spoofing ...... 556 18.7.3 Other Data...... 556 18.7.4 Configurability ...... 556 18.7.5 Expandability ...... 556 18.8 Summary ...... 557 References ...... 557
Part D GNSS Algorithms and Models Cont. Detailed
19 Basic Observation Equations André Hauschild ...... 561 19.1 Observation Equations ...... 561 19.1.1 Pseudorange Measurements...... 561 19.1.2 Carrier-Phase Measurements ...... 563 19.1.3 Doppler Measurements ...... 563 19.2 Relativistic Effects ...... 564 19.3 Atmospheric Signal Delays...... 565 19.3.1 Ionosphere ...... 566 19.3.2 Troposphere ...... 568 19.4 Carrier-Phase Wind-Up ...... 569 19.4.1 Wind-Up Effect for Radio Waves ...... 569 19.4.2 GNSS Satellite Attitude Modeling ...... 570 19.5 Antenna Phase-Center Offset and Variations ...... 572 19.5.1 Overview ...... 573 19.5.2 Calibration Techniques ...... 574 19.5.3 Examples for Phase-Center Variations ...... 575 19.6 Signal Biases ...... 576 19.6.1 Pseudorange Biases ...... 576 19.6.2 Carrier-Phase Biases ...... 578 19.7 Receiver Noise and Multipath ...... 578 19.7.1 Receiver Noise ...... 578 19.7.2 Multipath Errors ...... 579 References ...... 579
20 Combinations of Observations André Hauschild ...... 583 20.1 Fundamental Equations ...... 583 20.2 Combinations of Single-Satellite and Single-Receiver Observations 586 20.2.1 Narrow- and Wide-Lane Combinations ...... 586 617 613 615 612 615 615 619 627 630 618 623 623 625 625 625 632 605 631 631 612 606 609 609 590 589 633 634 634 607 633 633 634 606 601 603 591 596 594 594 635 635 599 598 596 ...... and Hardware Code (Group) Delays ...... 21.3.6 Precision and DOP 21.3.2 Some21.3.3 Remarks on the TGDs/DCBs Computation/Estimation of the Atmospheric Errors 21.3.1 Computation of the Satellite Clocks 21.3.4 Single-Constellation SPP Model 21.3.5 Multiconstellation SPP Model 21.4.6 Link Between PPP-RTK and PPP 21.3.7 PPP Model 21.4.1 Principle21.4.2 of DGNSS and (PPP-)RTK Impact of Orbit Errors 21.4.3 Ionosphere-Fixed/Weighted/Float Models 21.4.4 Undifferenced Relative Positioning Models 21.4.5 PPP-RTK Models 21.5.3 Redundancy of the Differenced Models 21.5.1 Single Differencing 21.5.2 Double and Triple Differencing 21.1.1 Single-GNSS Observation Equations 21.2.1 Linearizing the Receiver–Satellite Range 21.2.2 Linearized Observation Equations 20.2.4 Multipath Combination 20.2.2 Ionosphere20.2.3 Combination Ionosphere-Free Combination 21.6.5 Accuracy of the Positioning Concepts 21.6.4 Global/Regional Positioning: PPP-RTK 21.6.1 Global Positioning: SPP/PPP 21.6.2 Regional Positioning: Network DGNSS/RTK 21.6.3 Local Positioning: Single-Baseline DGNSS/RTK 21.1.2 Multi-GNSS Observation Equations 20.3.3 Double Difference 20.3.2 Between-Satellite Single Difference 20.3.1 Between-Receiver Single Difference 20.3.5 Single and Double Difference Zero-Baselines on 20.3.4 Triple Difference 21.4 Relative Positioning Models 21.5 Differenced Positioning Models 21.1 Nonlinear Observation Equations 21.3 Point Positioning Models 21.6 The Positioning Concepts Related Positioning Model Dennis Odijk 21.2 Linearization of the Observation Equations References 20.3 Combinations of Multisatellite and Multireceiver Observations References 20.4 Pseudorange Filtering
21
Detailed Cont. 1262 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1263
22 Least-Squares Estimation and Kalman Filtering Sandra Verhagen, Peter J.G. Teunissen ...... 639 22.1 Linear Least-Squares Estimation ...... 639 22.1.1 Least-Squares Principle ...... 639 22.1.2 Weighted Least-Squares ...... 640 22.1.3 Computation of LS Solution ...... 640 22.1.4 Statistical Properties...... 641 22.2 Optimal Estimation...... 641 22.2.1 Best Linear Unbiased Estimation ...... 641 22.2.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation ...... 642 22.2.3 Confidence Regions ...... 642 22.3 Special Forms of Least Squares ...... 644 22.3.1 Recursive Estimation ...... 644 22.3.2 Estimation with Partitioned Parameter Vector ...... 646 22.3.3 Block Estimation...... 647 22.3.4 Constrained Least-Squares...... 647 22.3.5 Rank-Defect Least Squares...... 647 22.3.6 Non-Linear Least-Squares ...... 648 22.4 Prediction and Filtering...... 650 ealdCont. Detailed 22.4.1 Prediction Problem ...... 650 22.4.2 Minimum Mean Squared Error Prediction ...... 651 22.4.3 Properties of MMSE Prediction...... 653 22.5 Kalman Filtering...... 653 22.5.1 Model Assumptions...... 653 22.5.2 The Kalman Filter Recursion ...... 654 22.5.3 Kalman Filter Information Form...... 655 22.5.4 Extended Kalman Filter ...... 656 22.5.5 Smoothing ...... 657 References ...... 659
23 Carrier Phase Integer Ambiguity Resolution Peter J.G. Teunissen ...... 661 23.1 GNSS Ambiguity Resolution ...... 662 23.1.1 The GNSS Model...... 662 23.1.2 Ambiguity Resolution Steps...... 662 23.1.3 Ambiguity Resolution Quality...... 663 23.2 Rounding and Bootstrapping ...... 666 23.2.1 Integer Rounding...... 666 23.2.2 Vectorial Rounding ...... 666 23.2.3 Integer Bootstrapping...... 667 23.2.4 Bootstrapped Success Rate...... 668 23.3 Linear Combinations ...... 669 23.3.1 Z-transformations...... 669 23.3.2 (Extra) Widelaning...... 669 23.3.3 Decorrelating Transformation...... 670 23.3.4 Numerical Example...... 672 23.4 Integer Least-Squares...... 673 23.4.1 Mixed Integer Least-Squares ...... 673 23.4.2 The ILS Computation...... 674 23.4.3 Least-Squares Success Rate ...... 676 732 730 726 728 734 687 723 725 733 678 724 724 678 689 711 709 710 706 710 705 705 696 695 679 687 677 689 712 711 700 697 697 681 683 680 679 689 690 692 692 713 714 715 717 ...... q ...... T ...... -Test Statistic ...... w ...... Expressed in LS Residuals ...... q T ...... 25.2.4 Differential Code Biases 25.2.3 Site Displacement Effects 25.2.1 Atmospheric25.2.2 Propagation Delays Antenna Effects 25.2.5 Compatibility and Conventions 23.6.2 Four Ambiguity Resolution Steps 25.1.2 Adjustment and Quality Control 25.1.1 Observation Equations 23.6.1 Model- and Data-Driven Rules 24.2.1 Null versus Alternative Hypothesis 24.5.3 Local and Global Testing 24.5.2 Models and UMPI Test Statistic 24.4.3 Unknowns in the Stochastic Model 24.5.1 Model and Filter 24.4.1 Detection,24.4.2 Identification and Adaptation Data Snooping 24.3.4 Optimality of the 24.3.3 Test Statistic 23.6.3 Quality of Accepted Integer Solution 24.2.2 Unbiased versus Biased Solution 24.5.5 Recursive Identification 24.5.4 Recursive Detection 24.3.6 Hazardous Missed Detection 24.3.5 The Minimal Detectable Bias 23.6.5 Optimal Integer Ambiguity Test 23.6.4 Fixed Failure-Rate Ratio Test 24.2.3 Effect of Influentialthe Bias 24.3.1 The Most Powerful Test Statistic 24.3.2 Alternative Expressions for Test Statistic 24.5.6 Recursive Adaptation: General Case 24.5.7 Recursive Adaptation: Special GNSS Case 24.2 Batch Model Validation 25.1 PPP Concept 25.2 Precise Positioning Correction Models 24.5 Recursive Model Validation Precise Point Positioning Jan Kouba, François Lahaye, Pierre Tétreault 23.5 Partial Ambiguity Resolution Batch and Recursive ModelPeter Validation J.G. Teunissen 24.1 Modeling and Validation 23.6 When to Accept the Integer Solution? 24.4 Testing Procedure References 24.3 Testing for a Bias References
Part E Positioning and25 Navigation 24
Detailed Cont. 1264 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1265
25.3 Specific Processing Aspects ...... 735 25.3.1 Single-Frequency Positioning ...... 735 25.3.2 GLONASS PPP Considerations ...... 736 25.3.3 New Signals and Constellations ...... 737 25.3.4 Phase Ambiguity Fixing in PPP ...... 739 25.4 Implementations ...... 741 25.4.1 Post-Processed Solutions ...... 741 25.4.2 Real-Time Solutions ...... 742 25.4.3 PPP Positioning Services ...... 742 25.5 Examples...... 743 25.5.1 Static PPP Solutions ...... 743 25.5.2 Kinematic PPP Solutions ...... 743 25.5.3 Tropospheric Zenith Path Delay...... 745 25.5.4 Station Clock Solutions ...... 745 25.6 Discussion...... 746 References ...... 747
26 Differential Positioning Dennis Odijk, Lambert Wanninger ...... 753 ealdCont. Detailed 26.1 Differential GNSS: Concepts ...... 753 26.1.1 Differential GNSS Observation Equations ...... 753 26.1.2 Differential GNSS Biases ...... 754 26.2 Differential Navigation Services ...... 760 26.2.1 DGNSS Implementations ...... 760 26.2.2 DGNSS Services ...... 761 26.2.3 Data Communication: RTCM Message ...... 762 26.2.4 Latency of DGNSS Corrections ...... 762 26.3 Real-Time Kinematic Positioning ...... 763 26.3.1 Double-Differenced Positioning Model ...... 763 26.3.2 Carrier-Phase-Based Positioning Methods ...... 764 26.3.3 GLONASS RTK Positioning ...... 766 26.3.4 Multi-GNSS RTK Positioning...... 768 26.3.5 RTK Positioning Examples ...... 770 26.4 Network RTK ...... 774 26.4.1 From RTK to Network RTK...... 774 26.4.2 Data Processing Methods for Network RTK...... 774 26.4.3 Network RTK Correction Models...... 776 26.4.4 Refined Virtual Reference Stations ...... 777 26.4.5 From Network RTK to PPP-RTK ...... 778 References ...... 778
27 Attitude Determination Gabriele Giorgi...... 781 27.1 Six Degrees of Freedom ...... 781 27.2 Attitude Parameterization ...... 784 27.2.1 The Space of Rotations ...... 784 27.2.2 Parameterization of the Rotation Matrix ...... 784 27.3 Attitude Estimation from Baseline Observations...... 787 27.3.1 Estimation of the Orthonormal Matrix of Rotations ...... 787 27.3.2 Orthogonal Procrustes Problem ...... 788 816 815 815 816 814 814 818 813 813 813 813 811 818 812 789 789 821 819 793 792 790 791 790 821 822 822 795 800 802 798 798 823 824 824 828 828 831 825 835 803 806 826 828 826 825 837 835 ...... 28.3.3 Inertial Sensor Errors 28.3.2 Accelerometers 28.3.1 Gyroscopes 28.2.5 Performance Characterization 28.4.1 Coordinate Systems 28.2.3 INS Computations 28.2.4 INS Error State 28.2.2 Sensor Models 28.2.1 Problem Statement 28.4.2 Attitude Calculations 27.3.3 Weighted Orthogonal Procrustes Problem 27.3.4 Attitude Estimation with Fully Populated Weight Matrix 27.3.5 On the Precision of Attitude Estimation 28.4.4 Position Calculations 28.4.3 Velocity Calculations 27.4.4 The Quality of Ambiguity and Attitude Estimations 27.4.3 The GNSS Ambiguity and Attitude Estimation 27.4.2 Resolution of the GNSS Attitude Model 27.4.1 Potential Model Errors and Misspecification 28.5.1 Short-Term Effects 28.5.2 Long-Term Effects 27.5.3 Marine Navigation 27.5.4 Land Applications 27.5.1 Space Operations 27.5.2 Aeronautics Applications 28.9.1 System Model 28.9.2 Measurement Models 28.8.1 Loose (Position Domain) Coupling 28.10.1 Standalone GNSS 28.8.4 Illustrative Comparison 28.8.3 Ultra-Tight or Deep Coupling 28.8.2 Tight (Observable Domain) Coupling 28.10.2 Advanced Bayesian Estimation 28.4 Strapdown Inertial Navigation 28.3 Inertial Sensors 28.1 State Estimation Objectives 28.2 Inertial Navigation GNSS/INS Integration Jay A. Farrell, Jan Wendel 27.4 The GNSS Attitude Model 28.5 Analysis of Error Effects 27.5 Applications 28.6 Aided Navigation 28.7 State Estimation 28.8 GNSS and Aided INS 28.10 Alternative Estimation Methods 27.6 AnReferences Overview of GNSS/INS Sensor Fusion for Attitude Determination 804 28.9 Detailed Example
28
Detailed Cont. 1266 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1267
28.11 Looking Forward...... 838 References ...... 839
29 Land and Maritime Applications Allison Kealy, Terry Moore...... 841 29.1 Land-Based Applications of GNSS...... 842 29.1.1 Personal Devices ...... 843 29.1.2 Location-Based Services ...... 845 29.1.3 Positioning Technologies and Techniques for PN and LBS...... 846 29.1.4 Intelligent Transport Systems ...... 853 29.2 Rail Applications ...... 856 29.2.1 Signaling and Train Control ...... 857 29.2.2 Freight and Fleet Management...... 862 29.2.3 Passenger Information Systems ...... 863 29.3 Maritime Applications...... 863 29.3.1 GNSS Performance Requirements for Maritime Applications ...... 864 29.3.2 Maritime Navigation ...... 867 ealdCont. Detailed 29.3.3 eLoran ...... 869 29.3.4 Automatic Identification System ...... 869 29.3.5 Shipping Container Tracking ...... 872 29.4 Outlook...... 873 References ...... 873
30 Aviation Applications Richard Farnworth ...... 877 30.1 Overview ...... 878 30.1.1 Conventional Navigation ...... 878 30.1.2 Area Navigation – RNAV ...... 879 30.1.3 The Arrival of GNSS ...... 880 30.2 Standardising GNSS for Aviation ...... 881 30.2.1 Aircraft Based Augmentation Systems...... 882 30.2.2 Satellite Based Augmentation Systems ...... 882 30.2.3 Ground Based Augmentation Systems ...... 883 30.3 Evolution of the Flight Deck ...... 884 30.3.1 The Navigation Data Chain...... 885 30.3.2 General Aviation ...... 885 30.3.3 Helicopters ...... 885 30.4 From the RNP Concept to PBN ...... 886 30.4.1 Performance Based Navigation (PBN) ...... 886 30.4.2 Navigation Specifications ...... 886 30.5 GNSS Performance Requirements ...... 888 30.5.1 Description of the Relevant Parameters ...... 888 30.5.2 GNSS Integrity Concepts ...... 890 30.6 Linking the PBN Requirements and the GNSS Requirements ...... 891 30.6.1 Phases of Flight ...... 891 30.6.2 RNAV Approaches ...... 893 30.6.3 RNP AR APCH ...... 895 30.7 Flight Planning and NOTAMs...... 897 954 955 955 952 951 910 909 909 938 939 942 946 926 928 925 928 917 921 911 908 908 907 908 933 907 933 934 936 928 930 930 897 897 905 906 929 898 898 899 899 899 900 900 900 901 901 ...... for Commercial Applications ...... 32.3.3 Ambiguity Resolution 32.3.4 Flight Demonstrations 32.3.2 Estimation Concepts 32.3.1 Differential Observations Models and 31.3.3 Fault Monitoring 31.3.2 Generation of Differential Corrections 31.3.1 Overview and Requirements 32.2.1 Trajectory Models 32.2.2 Real-Time Navigation 32.2.3 Precise Orbit Determination 31.3.8 Existing GBAS Ground Systems and Airborne Equipment 31.3.7 Typical GBAS Errors and Protection Levels 31.4.1 Origins and Use in Local-Area DGNSS 31.3.5 Additional Threats: RF Interference and Ionosphere 31.3.6 Equipment and Siting Considerations 31.3.4 User Processing and Integrity Verification 31.2.4 Broadcast Techniques 31.2.2 Carrier-Phase31.2.3 Corrections Reference Station Distribution 31.2.1 Pseudorange Corrections 32.1.1 GNSS32.1.2 Tracking in Space Spaceborne GPS Receivers 31.4.2 New-Generation Pseudolite Systems 30.8.1 Airworthiness Certification 30.8.2 Operational Approvals 30.10.1 Surveillance (ADS-B) 30.10.2 Datalink 30.11.1 GNSS Vulnerability and Alternative-PNT 30.11.2 Rationalisation of the Navigation Infrastructure 30.11.3 Multi-Constellation 32.3 Formation Flying and Rendezvous 31.4 Augmentation via Ranging Signals Pseudolites 31.3 Ground-Based Augmentation Systems 32.1 Flying High 32.2 SpacecraftNavigation References Space Applications Oliver Montenbruck Ground Based Augmentation Systems Sam Pullen 30.8 Regulation and Certification 31.1 Components 31.2 An Overview of Local Area Approaches 31.5 Outlook 30.9 Military Aviation Applications 30.10 Other Aviation Applications of GNSS 30.11 Future Evolution References
32 31
Detailed Cont. 1268 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1269
32.4 Other Applications...... 957 32.4.1 Attitude Determination ...... 957 32.4.2 Ballistic Missions ...... 958 32.4.3 GNSS Radio Science ...... 959 References ...... 959
Part F Surveying, Geodesy and Geodynamics
33 The International GNSS Service Gary Johnston, Anna Riddell, Grant Hausler...... 967 33.1 Mission and Organization ...... 967 33.1.1 Mission ...... 967 33.1.2 Structure...... 968 33.2 Components ...... 969 33.2.1 IGS Governing Board and Executive Committee...... 969 33.2.2 IGS Central Bureau ...... 969 33.2.3 IGS Network ...... 970 33.2.4 Analysis Centers...... 970 ealdCont. Detailed 33.2.5 Data Centers (DCs) ...... 970 33.2.6 Working Groups...... 971 33.3 IGS Products ...... 972 33.3.1 Orbits and Clocks ...... 972 33.3.2 Earth Orientation and Site Coordinates ...... 973 33.3.3 Atmospheric Parameters ...... 974 33.3.4 Biases...... 975 33.4 Pilot Projects and Experiments...... 976 33.4.1 Real-Time ...... 976 33.4.2 Multi-GNSS ...... 978 33.5 Outlook...... 981 References ...... 981
34 Orbit and Clock Product Generation Jan P. Weiss, Peter Steigenberger, Tim Springer...... 983 34.1 Global Tracking Network ...... 984 34.2 Models ...... 985 34.2.1 Reference Frame Transformation ...... 985 34.2.2 Site Displacement Effects ...... 985 34.2.3 Tropospheric Delay ...... 988 34.2.4 Ionospheric Delay ...... 988 34.2.5 Relativistic Effects ...... 989 34.2.6 Antenna Phase Center Calibrations ...... 989 34.2.7 Phase Wind-Up ...... 989 34.2.8 GNSS Transmitter Models and Information ...... 990 34.2.9 Models in Downstream Applications ...... 991 34.3 POD Process ...... 992 34.4 Estimation Strategies...... 993 34.4.1 Estimators ...... 993 34.4.2 Parameterization ...... 994 34.4.3 Ground Stations ...... 995 34.4.4 GNSS Orbits ...... 995 996 996 996 997 998 998 999 1041 1039 1040 1044 1039 1044 1047 1011 1013 1001 1002 1004 1053 1052 1050 1014 1000 1005 1005 1006 1016 1017 1019 1021 1023 1023 1024 1027 1029 1029 1030 1032 1033 1033 1035 1035 ...... for the Deformable Earth and Their Relationship with the ITRF Reference Frame Implementation ...... 34.4.6 Earth Orientation 34.4.7 Phase Ambiguity Resolution 34.4.5 Clock Offsets 36.1.1 The International Association of Geodesy 36.1.2 The Global Geodetic Observing System 36.2.1 Reference Frame Representations 36.2.2 Global Terrestrial Reference Frames 36.2.3 GNSS-Based Reference Frames 35.1.1 Static Positioning 34.4.8 Multi-GNSS34.4.9 Processing Terrestrial Reference Frame 34.6.1 IGS Orbit and Clock Combination 34.6.2 Formats34.6.3 and Transmission Using Products 36.2.5 GNSS, Reference Frame and Sea Level Monitoring 36.2.4 General Guidelines for GNSS-Based 35.1.2 Rapid-Static Positioning 34.4.10 Sample Parameterizations 34.4.11 Reducing Computation Cost 35.1.3 Kinematic Positioning 35.1.4 Real-Time Differential GNSS Positioning 35.1.5 Precise Point Positioning 35.2.1 Geodetic Survey Applications 35.2.2 Land Surveying Operations 35.2.3 Land Surveying and Mapping Applications 35.3.1 Engineering35.3.2 Surveying Real-Time Operations Engineering Surveying Applications 35.3.3 Project Execution and Related Issues 35.4.1 Hydrographic Surveying Applications 35.4.2 Operational Issues 36.2 Global and Regional Reference Frames Zuheir Altamimi, Richard Gross Geodesy Surveying Chris Rizos 36.1 GNSS and IAG’s Global Geodetic Observing System 35.1 Precise Positioning Techniques 34.5 Software 34.6 Products References 34.7 Outlook 35.2 Geodetic and Land Surveying 35.3 Engineering Surveying 35.4 Hydrographic Surveying References
35 36
Detailed Cont. 1270 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1271
36.3 Earth Rotation, Polar Motion, and Nutation ...... 1054 36.3.1 Theory of the Earth’s Rotation ...... 1055 36.3.2 Length-of-Day...... 1055 36.3.3 Polar Motion ...... 1056 36.3.4 Nutation...... 1058 References ...... 1059
37 Geodynamics Jeff Freymueller ...... 1063 37.1 GNSS for Geodynamics ...... 1064 37.1.1 Accuracy Requirements ...... 1064 37.1.2 Today’s GNSS Accuracy...... 1065 37.1.3 Accuracy Limitations and Error Sources ...... 1066 37.2 History and Establishment of GNSS Networks for Geodynamics ..... 1067 37.2.1 Campaign GPS Networks ...... 1067 37.2.2 Continuous GNSS Networks for Geodynamics ...... 1068 37.2.3 The Importance of Global Networks ...... 1071 37.3 Rigid Plate Motions ...... 1071 37.4 Plate Boundary Deformation and the Earthquake Cycle ...... 1073 37.4.1 Plate Boundary Zones ...... 1074 Cont. Detailed 37.4.2 Earthquake Cycle Deformation ...... 1075 37.4.3 Elastic Block Modeling ...... 1077 37.5 Seismology ...... 1078 37.5.1 Static Displacements ...... 1079 37.5.2 Dynamic Displacements from Kinematic GNSS ...... 1082 37.5.3 Real-Time Application to Earthquake Warning and Tsunami Warning...... 1083 37.5.4 Transient Slip ...... 1085 37.5.5 Postseismic Deformation...... 1085 37.6 Volcano Deformation...... 1088 37.7 Surface Loading Deformation...... 1091 37.7.1 Computing Loading Displacements ...... 1091 37.7.2 Examples of Loading Displacements in GNSS Studies...... 1092 37.7.3 Loads and Load Models ...... 1093 37.7.4 Impacts of Loading Variations on Reference Frame...... 1094 37.7.5 Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) ...... 1095 37.8 The Multi-GNSS Future ...... 1099 References ...... 1100
Part G GNSS Remote Sensing and Timing
38 Monitoring of the Neutral Atmosphere Gunnar Elgered, Jens Wickert...... 1109 38.1 Ground-Based Monitoring of the Neutral Atmosphere ...... 1110 38.1.1 Accuracy of Propagation Delays ...... 1111 38.1.2 From Delays to Water Vapor Content ...... 1112 38.1.3 Applications to Weather Forecasting...... 1115 38.1.4 Applications to Climate Research...... 1118 1125 1126 1124 1127 1120 1120 1120 1128 1139 1140 1140 1163 1164 1141 1144 1132 1128 1131 1133 1165 1167 1144 1145 1147 1167 1147 1148 1148 1148 1167 1169 1151 1152 1169 1153 1152 1155 1156 1170 1171 1171 1156 1158 1159 1159 ...... Deduced from GNSS Observations ...... 38.2.5 Measurement Accuracy 38.2.6 Prospects of New Navigation Satellite Systems 38.2.4 Occultation Number and Global Distribution 38.2.7 Weather Prediction 38.2.1 Introduction and History 38.2.2 Basic Principles and Data Analysis 38.2.3 Occultation Missions 38.2.8 Climate Monitoring 39.1.1 Calibration of TEC Measurements 39.1.2 Global Ionosphere Maps 40.1.1 GNSS-R Receivers 39.2.1 GNSS Radio Occultation 38.2.9 Synergy of GNSS Radio Occultation with Reflectometry 40.2.1 Delay-Doppler Coordinates 39.2.2 Ionosphere/Plasmasphere Reconstruction 39.3.1 Reconstruction Techniques 40.2.2 The Ambiguity Function 39.3.2 Near-Real-Time Reconstruction 39.4.1 Climatology of Radio Scintillations 39.4.2 Scintillation Measurement Networks 40.2.3 The Noiseless Waveform Model 40.2.4 Floor Noise Model 39.5.1 Direct Impact of Solar Radiation and Energetic Particles 40.2.5 Maximum Coherence Averaging Interval 39.5.3 Prediction of Space Weather Phenomena 39.5.2 Ionospheric Perturbations and Associated Effects 39.6.1 Atmospheric Signatures 40.2.6 Speckle Noise 40.2.7 Observed versus Modeled Waveforms 39.6.2 Earthquake Signatures 39.1 Ground-Based GNSS Monitoring Reflectometry Antonio Rius, Estel Cardellach Ionosphere Monitoring Norbert Jakowski 38.2 GNSS Radio Occultation Measurements 40.1 Receivers 39.2 Space-Based GNSS Monitoring References 38.3 Outlook 40.2 Models 39.3 GNSS-Based 3-D-Tomography 39.4 Scintillation Monitoring 39.5 Space Weather 39.6 Coupling with Lower Geospheres 39.7 Information and Data Services References
39 40
Detailed Cont. 1272 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1273
40.3 Applications...... 1172 40.3.1 Sea Surface Altimetry ...... 1173 40.3.2 Sea Surface Scatterometry...... 1175 40.3.3 Sea Surface Permittivity ...... 1177 40.3.4 Cryosphere: Ice and Snow ...... 1177 40.3.5 Land: Soil Moisture and Vegetation...... 1181 40.4 Spaceborne Missions ...... 1182 References ...... 1183
41 GNSS Time and Frequency Transfer Pascale Defraigne...... 1187 41.1 GNSS Time and Frequency Dissemination ...... 1187 41.1.1 Getting UTC from GNSS...... 1188 41.1.2 GNSS Disciplined Oscillators...... 1189 41.2 Remote Clock Comparisons ...... 1191 41.2.1 The GNSS Time Transfer Technique ...... 1191 41.2.2 Time Transfer Standard CGGTTS ...... 1192 41.2.3 Common View or All-in-View ...... 1193 41.2.4 Precise Point Positioning...... 1194 41.3 Hardware Architecture and Calibration ...... 1197 Cont. Detailed 41.3.1 Time Receivers ...... 1197 41.3.2 Hardware Calibration...... 1198 41.4 Multi-GNSS Time Transfer ...... 1201 41.4.1 General Requirements ...... 1201 41.4.2 GPS + GLONASS Combination...... 1202 41.4.3 Time Transfer with Galileo and BeiDou ...... 1203 41.5 Conclusions ...... 1203 References ...... 1204
Annex A: Data Formats ...... 1207 Annex B: GNSS Parameters...... 1233 About the Authors...... 1241 Detailed Contents...... 1251 Glossary of Defining Terms ...... 1253 Subject Index ...... 1281 1275
Glossary of Defining Terms
A Ambiguity Dilution of Precision (ADOP) A scalar measure in cycles that captures the intrinsic Accuracy precision of the estimated float ambiguity vector. The A measure for the closeness of a measured or ADOP is invariant for ambiguity re-parameterizing estimated quantity to the quantity’s true value. I Z-transformations and facilitates easy-to-compute Acquisition approximations of the ambiguity success rate. The process carried out by a GNSS receiver to Ambiguity identify which GNSS signals are present in the The initial unknown offset in a carrier phase received signal and to determine an approximate code observation when a GNSS receiver first locks onto delay and Doppler shift of those signals. a GNSS signal. It is the sum of the initial phase and Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS) the integer ambiguity. The ambiguity value remains A GNSS augmentation system that augments and/or constant as long as the receiver remains locked on the integrates the information obtained from the other signal. GNSS elements with information available on board Ambiguity Fixed Solution the aircraft. An integer ambiguity resolved GNSS parameter Airport Pseudolite (APL) solution. The precision of the ambiguity fixed solution A I pseudolite located within the boundary of an is never poorer than that of the I ambiguity float airport designed to augment the positioning geometry solution. of aircraft approaching or traveling near that airport. Ambiguity Float Solution Albedo A GNSS parameter solution for which the ambiguities A measure for the reflectivity of a body. Earth albedo are not resolved as integers. The precision of the is a source of indirect radiation pressure acting on ambiguity float solution is never better than that of the a satellite (I Earth Radiation Pressure). I ambiguity fixed solution. Alert Ambiguity Resolution A timely warning that a system may no longer be I Integer ambiguity resolution Glossary operating as previously described and that it could Ambiguity Success Rate now be providing misleading information. The probability of correct I integer ambiguity Alert Limit estimation. A maximum tolerable positioning error for an Anechoic Chamber operation to safely proceed. An alert limit has an A room or cabinet, the interior of which is associated I integrity risk probability and a maximum non-reflective, absorbing radio-frequency signals time before the user must be notified when the alert originating from within the chamber. In many cases it limit cannot be assured to that integrity risk level. is often desirable that it also contains these signals and Allan Deviation (ADEV) isolates the interior from externally originating The square-root of the I Allan Variance. signals. Typically used when it is necessary to model Allan Variance (AVAR) an infinite, reflector free space, when conducting A measure of clock stability named after the physicist a broadcast test, or in cases where the test must be David W. Allan. It describes the variance of the isolated from external interference, or when the test average clock frequency over different time scales not involves the broadcast of signals in protected or taking into account constant frequency errors. restricted bands. Almanac Antenna A set of coarse orbit parameters for an entire GNSS A hardware unit that converts electrical energy to constellation that is transmitted as part of the electromagnetic waves or vice versa. I navigation message by each satellite of the Antenna Gain Pattern constellation. The almanac facilitates rapid acquisition A direction-dependent measure of the antenna’s of all visible satellites. efficiency to convert electrical power into radio waves Alternative BOC (AltBOC) (transmit antenna) or vice versa (receiving antenna). A modulation scheme combining two quadrature Antenna Phase Center phase shift key signals in adjacent frequency bands, The point in the antenna radiation pattern where all into a combined wideband signal with superior the field emanates from or converges to. I noise and I multipath properties. AltBOC Antenna Reference Point modulation was first employed for the Galileo A well defined and easily accessible mechanical point E5a/E5b signal. of the antenna to which the electrical I antenna . . or fountain )tonine(e.g., attitude parameters horizontal system (UTC) is an atomic I I Euler angles Non Directional Beacon I I ). om’s ground state. he medium or long-frequency Coordinated Universal Time direction cosines commercial radio broadcast station. The probability that a userposition is with able the to specified determine accuracy its monitor and the is integrity able of to itsinitiation determined of position the at intended the operation. One of the coordinates in the Azimuth is the angle, measuredeast, positive between towards north the and theof projection the on direction the in horizon which an object is observed. A surveillance technique where eachautomatically aircraft broadcasts its own position periodically via data-link. an electronic aid to navigationrelative that bearing identifies of an the aircrafttransmitting from in a t radio beacon bandwidth, such as a A signal generator based onchange the in interrogation a of particular the energycontained state in of a a controlled specific environment. atom A time scale based onphenomena. atomic Elapsed or time molecular is resonance measuredcycles by of counting a frequency lockedmolecular to transition. an Atomic atomic time scales or the differ earlier from astronomical time scales,second which based on define the the rotationI of the Earth on its axis. time scale, since it definestransitions the of second the cesium based atom. on the The orientation of a rigidto body a in given reference space frame. withexpressed The respect in attitude various can forms be of I The set of variables usedorientation to of parameterize a the rigid bodyranges in from three space. (e.g., Their number The range of frequencies thatwithout pass (significant) through attenuation. a system A coordinate system whose centeraverage center-of-mass (origin) of is the at solar the system. The frequency range used bytransmitters conventional or receivers for performing pre/post-processing of the desired information. launched upwards in the gravityarrangement. field in In a this manner thean atoms interrogation pass region through that stimulatestransition a of the hyperfine at B Availability Azimuth Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) Atomic Frequency Standard Atomic Time Scale Attitude Attitude Parameters Bandwidth Barycentric System Baseband P-code and I antenna phase ). I to avoid the ed to place a satellite in its ionosphere phase center offsets . ontinuously determined I I , )drag and the radio propagation of can be referred and which can itself be I km. troposphere spoofing). : Global Positioning System I I corrections for both GNSS receivers and I 6Mio Flächenkorrekturparameter phase center variations electromagnetic waves such as radiosignals navigation ( The most distant point ofEarth. a satellite orbit from the An onboard rocket that is us final orbit from a highly elliptical transfer orbit. An instrument approach procedure withand both vertical lateral guidance supporting operationsa performance with that is betweenprecision non-precision approach. and I RNAV is a method ofoperation navigation of which an permits aircraft the onallows any its desired position to flight be path.wherever c It it is rather thanindividual only ground-based along navigation tracks aids. between The point on an orbitEquator at from which south a satellite to crosses north. the A unit of length thatwithin is the used Solar to System. specify Oneis distances astronomical approximately unit equal (AU) to thethe mean Earth distance and between the Sun,149: and amounts to roughly The use of signal encryption for the military generation and transmission of spoofedenemy signals ( by an phase center referred to the marker of a geodetic monument. The recoil force due tomicrowave transmission signals of which GNSS causes aacceleration non-gravitational of the satellite. The antenna exchange format isdistribute used a by consistent the set IGS of to absolute of the The shells of gases thatatmosphere surround affects the the motion Earth. of The Earth satellites orbit in ( low I A device using the frequencytransition of of an atoms electronic to generateclocks a are timescale. the Atomic most stablestandards time known. and frequency A signal generator/frequency standard basedlaser cooling on of the atoms inonce a cooled magneto-optical to trap near and absolute zero conditions, they are center satellites. Includes both
Apogee Apogee Kick Motor Approach Procedure with Vertical guidance (APV) Area Correction Parameters Area Navigation (RNAV) Ascending Node Astronomical Unit Anti-spoofing (A/S) Antenna Thrust ANTEX Atmosphere Atomic Clock Atomic Fountain Glossary 1276 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1277
Baseband Signal Bias-to-noise Ratio (BNR) A signal with a near-zero frequency and low A dimensionless measure of bias significance. The bandwidth, such as the GNSS spreading code and data influential-BNR drives the probability of hazardous modulated onto the carrier signal. Also termed the occurrence, while the testable-BNR drives the envelope signal. probability of missed detection. Baseline Binary Offset Carrier (BOC) Modulation The separation between two points in 2-D or 3-D An extension of I binary phase shift keying (BPSK) space. For I differential positioning the baseline modulation, in which the modulated signal is refers to the 3-D vector between two GNSS receivers, multiplied by an additional sine or a cosine square one set up on a I base station, the other at a point (or wave sub-carrier. Instead of a single lobe, the in space) whose coordinate is to be determined spectrum of a BOC-modulated signal exhibits two relative to the I base station. Baseline length is main lobes symmetrically shifted relative to the main a scalar quantity, being the inter-receiver distance carrier frequency. Therefore, BOC modulation is also expressed in length units. known as a split-spectrum modulation. The separation Base Station of the two lobes is determined by the sub-carrier I Reference station frequency. In GNSS, BOC signals are applied in order BeiDou to fulfill spectral separation requirements between A regional and global navigation satellite system non-interoperable signals of different systems. implemented by China. The name refers to the Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) Modulation constellation (Big Dipper or Plough) used to find the A modulation scheme for radio navigation signals, in north direction in stellar navigation. which the phase of the carrier is shifted by 0ı or 180ı BeiDou Satellite-based Augmentation System depending on the binary value of the modulated (BDSBAS) signals (i. e., ranging code and navigation data). A I satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) Bit Error Correction being developed as part of the BeiDou Navigation The process carried out within a GNSS receiver to Satellite System to provide horizontal and vertical identify and correct incorrectly received I navigation navigation throughout China. message bits. This process requires the navigation Best Linear Unbiased Estimator (BLUE) message to contain redundant bits. The estimator with the best precision, i. e., smallest Bit Synchronization variance, of all linear unbiased estimators. Linear The process carried out within a GNSS receiver to unbiased estimators are linear functions of the identify the epochs of navigation data bit/symbol Glossary observables that have an expectation equal to the transitions if the bit/symbol duration exceeds the to-be-estimated unknown parameter vector. primary code duration. Best Linear Unbiased Predictor (BLUP) Blunder The predictor having the smallest mean square A gross error in a measurement that is neither prediction error (best) of all linear unbiased systematic nor of random nature. predictors. Linear unbiased predictors are linear Block functions of the observables that have an expectation Different generations of Global Positioning System equal to the expectation of the to-be-predicted random (GPS) satellites built by different manufacturers are parameter vector. commonly termed blocks. The second generation is Between-receiver Difference further divided into Block II, IIA, IIR, IIR-M, and IIF Difference between (code or carrier-phase) GNSS satellites. observations or parameters at the same frequency for Boresight Angle two receivers tracking the same satellite. The angle between the line-of-sight direction and the Between-satellite Difference symmetry axis of an antenna. Difference between (code or carrier-phase) GNSS Boundary Layer observations or parameters at the same frequency The lowermost atmospheric layer directly affected by of two satellites that are tracked by the same the Earth’s surface. receiver. Box-wing Model Bias A simplified description of geometrical and optical In estimation, bias denotes the difference between the (reflection/emission) properties of a GNSS satellite expected value of an estimator and the true value for the modeling of I radiation pressure effects. being estimated. Biases are often the consequence of Broadcast Ephemeris an improper modeling of measurement processes, The I ephemeris transmitted by a GNSS satellite as such as the neglect of non-negligible systematic part of its I navigation message to enable errors. More loosely and generally, the term is often computation of the satellite positions within a receiver. used to describe a systematic error or offset in Broadcast Group Delay (BGD) a measurement. Alternative name for I Timing Group Delay (TGD). and Minimum I frequency celestial ephemeris I hydrogen maser I composed of the sensitive antenna suppression and are commonly used for antenna by clarifying the distinction between nutation and I multipath standards and contributes to theGLONASS System mathematical Time steered to UTC(SU). A process applied by awhether regulating an body object to has determine beenan manufactured approved according design to and thatcompliance the with design previously ensures specified requirements. The requirements are often specified in It extends the definition of the pole polar motion. Motion of thepole celestial within intermediate the celestial referencea frame frequency that between has -0.5 cycles(cpsd) per and sidereal +0.5 day cpsd isof defined the to celestial be intermediate nutation. polefrequency Motion outside band this is defined topolar be motion polar parameters motion. reported The bymeasurement Earth services rotation give the locationintermediate of pole the within celestial the rotating,terrestrial reference body-fixed frame. An imaginary sphere of infinitedirection radius are on projected. which radial The centersphere of may the be celestial viewed asbarycentric, being depending geocentric on the or definitionassociated of coordinate the system. The master clock of thecomprises GLONASS system. four It element and a surrounding, corrugatedwhich is ground typically plane, made upconductive of rings. multiple Choke concentric ring antennasI offer superior Operating Performance Standards (MOPS) related documents. A signal generator based onof the the hyperfine cesium frequency atom’s ground9 state 192 631 of 770 Hz. Typically, thethermally formed cesium into atoms a are beamseparated and into magnetically the ground state for interrogation. A characteristic period in therotation oscillation axis of relative the to Earth’s itsS.C. axis of figure Chandler. Due discovered by toEarth, the the non-rigid Chandler structure period of mayabout the vary 412−442 in days. a range of An analytical model describing theelectron height-dependent density variation in theindividual ionosphere layers or based its on simplifyingthe assumptions atmospheric structure of as wellrecombination as processes. the ionization and A positioning system developed intransfers China, ground-generated which navigation signalsvia to communication users satellites. An Certification Celestial Sphere Central Synchronizer Cesium Beam Frequency Standard Chandler Period Chapman Profile Chinese Area Positioning System (CAPS) Choke-ring Antenna inside polar motion polar motion right I I I sequence used as and employ ) 0 and and =N C , analogous to longitude L-band carrier phase nutation nutation I I I I declination I and pseudo-random noise (PRN) I a GNSS receiver includes anintroducing arbitrary an cycle integer-cycle count ambiguity. Dependingthe on specific tracking technique, half-cyclealso biases arise. may The measured carrierfurthermore phase affected range by is satellite orbiases receiver causing specific a float-valued ambiguitymeasured in carrier the phase range. coarse and acquisition ranging codePositioning within System the Global GPS. Each C/A-codeof 1023 has a chips length and isfamily transmitted of in C/A-codes 1 has ms. been Anas defined entire other for radio GPS navigation as systemsQZSS. well such The as serial SBAS number and assignedknown to as each the code PRN numberidentify and the commonly transmitting GPS used satellite. to A form of land surveyingmarking-out for of the land determination, property or boundaries. A periodic electromagnetic wave onranging which code the and navigation datasatellite of system a are radio modulated. navigation GNSScommonly signals located are in the frequencies in a range of about 1100−1600 MHz. The instantaneous phase (expressed incycles) radians of a or periodic electromagneticthe wave. term In is GNSS commonly relatedreceived to carrier the after beat mixing phase withfrequency, of the which the nominal represents signal a measurevariation of between the the transmitting range satellite andreceiver. the The measurement of the The part of the spectrumwith of carrier electromagnetic frequencies waves in theGHz range from 4 GHz to 8 The The ratio of the powernoise level power of within the a carrier 1 signal Hz to bandwidth. the Spherical coordinates of celestial objectsto with a respect celestial reference system, called and latitude, respectively. The reference pole for ascension that was adopted by theBy 1980 definition, IAU it theory is of adiurnal nutation. pole motions in that either exhibits the noreference celestial nearly frames. or terrestrial The reference pole for that was adopted by the 2000 IAU theory of nutation.
C
Carrier-to-noise Density Ratio ( Cadastral Surveying Carrier Carrier Phase Carrier Phase Ambiguity C-band C/A-code Celestial Coordinates Celestial Ephemeris Pole Celestial Intermediate Pole Glossary 1278 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1279
the highest accuracy user applications such as for Compatibility geodetic surveys or I continuously operating The ability of two navigation signals to be transmitted reference stations. and used along each other without causing harmful Circular Error Probable (CEP) interference for their users. The radius of a circle centered on the true value that Conductive Test contains 50% of the actual measurements. Testing a receiver by directly connecting a signal Clock Ensemble source to the receiver. A collection of clocks, not necessarily in the same Constrained Maximum Success-rate (CMS) Test physical location, operated together in a coordinated An ambiguity acceptance test which has the largest way to maximize the performance (time accuracy and success rate for a given user-defined failure rate. This frequency stability) and/or the availability of a time test requires the I integer least-squares (ILS) solution scale. Typically, the relative value of each clock is as its input. weighted, so that the best clocks contribute the most Construction Surveying to the average. Land surveying that addresses the different Clock Offset positioning requirements of civil engineers and The offset between the reading of a satellite or building professionals during the construction phase receiver clock involved in the timing of GNSS for any engineered structure. measurements and a given reference time scale, such Conterminous (or Contiguous) United States (CONUS) as the system time maintained by the GNSS control The 48 adjoining US states and Washington, DC. segment. CONUS is the portion of the United States that Coarse/Acquisition (C/A) Code excludes Alaska, Hawaii, and all offshore territories. I C/A-code Continental Drift Code Bias I plate motion A receiver and transmitter specific hardware I group Continuity delay affecting the I pseudorange (i. e., code The probability that a user is able to determine its observation) generation. position with the specified accuracy and is able to Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) monitor the integrity of its determined position over A multiple access scheme that allows different the time interval applicable for the corresponding transmitters to access the transmission channel phase of flight. Assuming the service is available at simultaneously using the entire available bandwidth the start of an operation, this is the probability of it where the transmitter is identified by a unique code becoming unavailable over a specified time interval Glossary assigned to it. CDMA signals form the basis of most linked to the duration of the operation. navigation satellite systems in use today. Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) Code Phase A GNSS receiver and antenna established on The instantaneous phase of the ranging code a permanent and stable site that serves as a I control modulated on a GNSS signal as sensed by a receiver. point of a geodetic network or reference station for It can be expressed as the number of full and I differential GNSS systems. fractional code chips, or, alternatively as a time or Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) distance value. The code phase is a measure of the The situation when a normally functioning aircraft transmission time (modulo the code duration) and under the complete control of the pilot is inadvertently used together with the current receiver time to form flown into an obstacle. a I pseudorange measurement. Control Point Code Shift Keying (CSK) A marker or monument used for surveying, typically A specific scheme used to increase the rate of with known coordinates in the local or national navigation data in a GNSS signal. The ranging code is geodetic I datum. May also be a I base station if shifted relative to a nominal starting point by an a GNSS receiver is operated at that point. amount that is determined by the encoded data word. Control Segment Code shift keying is, for example, employed in the E6 The ground infrastructure used to operate a global or signal of the Japanese I Quasi-Zenith Satellite regional navigation satellite system. System (QZSS) to transmit high-rate correction data Coordinated Universal Time for I precise point positioning to its users. I Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) Coherent Integration Time Coordinate Time (TCB,TCG) The time period chosen by a GNSS receiver to A set of fundamental relativistic time scales with rates compute correlation values of the received signal with based on the SI second in the respective reference internal replica signals. frames, i. e., at the Solar System’s center of gravity for Cold Start Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB) and the Earth’s Activation of a GNSS receiver with no prior center for Terrestrial Coordinate Time (TCG). information on time, user position, and satellite Correlation orbit/clock data. A measure of agreement between two statistical values or time series. In estimation, correlation is , measured ) observations equator . I scheme. Otherwise it is pseudorange , declination forms the I control points to sense the tracking error and a loop in modern GNSS signals. I right ascension I pilot signal forward error correction discriminator data bit I I filter to reduce the tracking noise. Difference of either receiver orbiases satellite on hardware the code (or of two frequencies. between the equator and awith celestial body. Together equatorial system of coordinates. The angle between the tangent(direction to of the gravity) plumb and line thea normal point. to the ellipsoid at Any displacement that changes theopposed shape to of rigid a body body, motion.volcanic as Active processes tectonic cause and both recoverablepermanent and deformation of the Earth. A controller used within aa GNSS replica receiver of to the align rangingafter code removal of with the the carrier. incominga The signal steerable DLL code combines generator withI a code A set of parameters andrealizes conventions a that coordinate defines system and fora geodetic national control or on global scale.3-D Nowadays Cartesian realized coordinates by or the 2-Dof geodetic a coordinates network of The altitude or height duringprocedure an where instrument approach the pilot mustcontinue decide the approach to to either landapproach or procedure. initiate the The missed decision isavailability of based the on required the visualdecision references. The altitude is measured aboveand mean a sea decision level height isis above the the point at ground. which Thedoes a DA/H not missed preclude approach is the initiated aircraftthis and height from before descending the below aircraft starts to climb. The angle, at right-angles to the called bit. A GNSS signal component usednavigation to data. broadcast For improved measurement performance, the data channel isa complemented by symbol, if the navigation messagea employs The process carried out withinextract a a GNSS data receiver bit to orGNSS data signal. symbol from a received A procedure to identify thewith observations gross errors. contaminated I Differential Code Bias (DCB) Deflection of the Vertical Deformation Delay Lock Loop (DLL) Datum Decision Altitude or Height (DA/H) Declination Data Channel Data Demodulation Data Snooping Data Symbol .In early carrier I delay lock I developed by covariance , which aim to binary phase I I without being . The term is most pseudo-random noise is the normalized version of I tracking loops in a conventional phase lock loop I I to sense the tracking error. of the incoming signal and Correlation correlators correlator is used, which employ time I I during an earthquake usually resulting from a temporary loss-of-lock late discriminator correlation I J.P. Costas that uses adiscriminator two-quadrant to phase track a signal with shift keying (BPSK) modulation affected by data bit transitions. A measure of how muchtogether. two random variables change commonly used to describe displacementsfrom that an result earthquake. An international satellite-based search andsystem. rescue A special form of a covariance. It is obtained byby dividing the the standard covariance deviations ofvariables. the two random A lower bound on theof variance deterministic of parameters. unbiased Named after estimators and H. C.R. Cramer Rao Operation on two (real ordelay-aligned complex) signals to Doppler estimate and theircoherence, temporal as a function offunction the is relative termed delay. waveform. Such An unknown discontinuity in the measured phase (e.g., due to shading) ina the GNSS carrier receiver. tracking loop of loop. means continuously align the replica codeincoming and signal. phase In with order the toinstantaneous best code measure offset, the a combinationand of a an The spacing (in units ofand PRN late chips) between the early shifted code replicas. The early-minus-lateof difference the correlator outputs cana then be used as defined as a normalized form of the codes match each other. A device used inside aI GNSS receiver to measure the a receiver-generated replica. The correlatorserve values as input for the GNSS signal processing, the correlationhow describes well two signals or The basic information unit ofmodulated the on navigation a message GNSS signal. This unit is called
D
Covariance COSPAS-SARSAT Costas Loop Cramer Rao Lower Bound (CRLB) Cross-correlation Cycle Slip Coseismic Correlator Spacing Correlator Data Bit Glossary 1280 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1281
Differential GNSS (DGNSS) Doppler/Delay Alignment GNSS positioning technique based on the principle Operation to compensate the delay experienced by that common biases between receivers can be a signal due to the relative motion of the transmitter eliminated or significantly reduced by processing and the receiver. For a short time interval the relative multi-receiver code (pseudorange) and/or motion can be modeled using two quantities, the carrier-phase data simultaneously tracked from the initial relative delay and the initial relative Doppler. same satellites. At least two receivers are needed; one Doppler Delay Map (DDM) is the reference and the other rover. This technique An evaluation of the I cross-correlation function of can be implemented either by differencing the the received signal with a replica signal expressed as observations of reference and rover, or by transmitting a function of code delay and I Doppler shift. corrections determined at the reference to the rover. Doppler Effect Dilution of Precision (DOP) I Doppler Shift. A scalar measure that captures the impact Doppler Range of the instantaneous receiver-satellite geometry on the The range of frequency offsets from the nominal precision of I single point positioning. It is computed signal frequency considered by a GNSS receiver in the as the square root of the sum of those diagonal signal search to account for the Doppler shift due to elements of the variance matrix excluding the variance the relative motion of transmitter and receiver as well factor for which the DOP needs to be evaluated (e.g., as the frequency error of the local oscillator. Position DOP based on the diagonal elements for Doppler Shift east, north and up and horizontal DOP when only the The frequency shift experienced by an diagonal elements for east and north are involved, etc.). electromagnetic (or acoustic) wave due the relative Direct Conversion motion of the transmitter and receiver. Named after A method to digitize a radio frequency signal without the Austrian nineteenth-century physicist Christian prior down-conversion. Doppler. Direction Cosine Double-difference the cosine of the angle formed by a vector in space Difference between either two I between-receiver and a reference direction. differenced observations/parameters that correspond Discriminator to different satellites, or two I between-satellite A function of I correlator values used to measure the differenced observations/parameters that correspond code, phase, or frequency offset between the incoming to different receivers. GNSS signal and the replica generated in the receiver. Down-conversion Glossary Dispersive Medium A method to convert the frequency of A medium in which an electromagnetic wave a radio-frequency signal to a reduced intermediate propagates for which the magnetic constant frequency by mixing it with a harmonic signal. (permeability) and/or the dielectric constant Down-conversion facilitates the analog-to-digital (permittivity) depend on frequency. Therefore, the conversion and the subsequent signal processing. phase velocity as well as the group velocity of an Draconitic Period electromagnetic wave in a dispersive medium also The time that elapses between two passages of the depend on frequency. orbiting object through its I ascending node. Displacement Draconitic Year The change in position of a point. All points on the The repeat period of the orientation of a GNSS Earth’s surface are displaced slowly and steadily by constellation with respect to the Sun, e.g., 351.5 days plate motions, but sudden displacements also can for GPS. occur due to events such as earthquakes. Seasonal Dual-frequency movements of mass cause quasi-periodic The use of GNSS measurements on two different displacements due to loading. signal frequencies, e.g., to eliminate the impact of Disposal Orbit ionospheric path delays. An orbit for satellites that are beyond the end of their Dynamical Time (TDB, TDT) service life, which is designed to minimize the A relativistic time scale having a rate that matches the probability of a collision with any other satellites or SI second at the Earth’s surface, defined as space debris. a re-scaling of the I Coordinate Time scales TCG Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) and TCB. In 1991 it was agreed by the International A combination of ground and airborne equipment Astronomical Union that Terrestrial Dynamical Time which provides a continuous slant range (TDT) should just be called I Terrestrial Time distance-from-a ground station by measuring the (TT). propagation delay of a signal transmitted by the aircraft to the station and responded back. The ground E equipment is a VHF transmitter and receiver (called the transponder) and the airborne equipment is called Early-minus-late Correlator the interrogator. I correlator ). ), the Terrestrial developed at I (or alternatively to enable for a single day horizon of the University Bern, I precise orbit determination . I radiation pressure in use beforehand. Within the I navigation message I . ellipsoidal height I Universal Time the antenna ground plane) will be considered. In geodesy, it generally refersdefined to by a geometric rotating figure an ellipsewhose about parameters its (size minor and axis flattening)yield and are a chosen good to approximation tomapping the surface geoid. for It horizontal is geodeticalso the control. called a It spheroid is togeneral distinguish tri-axial ellipsoid. it from a more The distance along the perpendicularellipsoid starting (normal) from to the an ellipsoid.is Ellipsoidal positive height for points outsidefor the points ellipsoid inside and the negative ellipsoid,ellipsoid. being zero on the The angle between two bodies, as seen by anA observer. model for solar The angle measured from theplane observer’s with horizontal respect to theMay station-satellite also line-of-sight. refer to awith station’s respect height in to metric the units zerowith datum level, or synonymous A threshold controlling the allocationtracking of in GNSS the for receiver orpositioning. for Only processing satellites in exceeding the theminimum defined angle above the the Astronomical Institute a member of the CenterEurope for (CODE). Orbit The Determination radiation in pressurewith is constant modeled and sine/cosine termssystem. in a Sun-oriented Based on a Greek expression ( An imaginary great circle onwhich the is celestial perpendicular sphere, to theThe Earth’s equator axis separates of the rotation. northern and southern Time (TT) term is widely used fordaily astronomical coordinates tables of giving a the planetbody. In or GNSS, other ephemerides solar system arepositions likewise and tabular clock offsets of(resulting, the e.g., GNSS from satellites a Furthermore, the term ephemeris isorbital used parameters transmitted for by a a setpart GNSS of of satellite its as computation of the satellite positions within a receiver. An astronomical time defined byof the the orbital Earth, motions Moon, andintroduced planets. in Ephemeris 1952 Time to was beindependent provide of a the time irregular, scale unpredictablein variations the rotation of theI Earth, inherent to the framework of relativistic theories ofEphemeris motion, Time has been replaced by Ellipsoid Ellipsoidal Height Elongation Empirical CODE Orbit Model (ECOM) Elevation Elevation Mask Ephemeris Equator Ephemeris Time (ET) frame at (approximately polar motion ) and its is a measure of how I ce acting on a satellites due nutation). flattening I I and International Terrestrial Reference Frame Earth-centered Earth-fixed (ECEF) Celestial Intermediate Pole I I I Albedo). precession Parametry Zemli 1990 (PZ-90) I I The roughly cyclic buildup oftheir stress release and in strain earthquakes and iscycle. termed The shallow the part earthquake of(locked) most by faults friction is most stuck of together part the continues time, to while the creep deeper atcauses a an nearly increase steady in rate. thezone This stress and around results in the elastic lockedthe strain fault crust. energy being When stored the in drivingfrictional stress resistance, exceeds the the fault slipsoccurs. and Earthquakes an are earthquake never perfectlyoccurrence, periodic so in this should notaperiodicprocess. be understood to be The non-gravitational for to radiation reflected/emitted by the( Earth’s surface The angle between the originsterrestrial on and the celestial intermediate equators; itthe time is proportional associated with to Earth’s rate of rotation. The imaginary great circle representingintersection of the the plane ofcelestial the sphere. Earth’s orbit with the The amount of power radiateda by particular an direction antenna as in referencedpower to fed to the an amount idealized of that lossless would isotropic produce antenna the same power density. Refers to a coordinate systemthe or Earth’s frame crust that with is a fixedwhose conventional orientation to origin and is at theof Earth’s the center of mass. The axes provide a possible choice ofsystem. an ECEF coordinate A non-accelerating, non-rotating framethe aligned with a specific instant of time.frames Various may approximate be ECI convenient forthe analysis. non-rotating For ECI example, frame origincoincide may with be the assumed ECEF to origin,because which the is ECEF approximate origin is accelerating. I The oblateness or much the Earth’s elliptical shape differs from a sphere. A set of parameters thatInertial relate coordinate an system Earth-centered to anEarth-fixed Earth-centered coordinate system and viceconsists of versa. the It small anglesthe that define the motion of Earth’s instantaneous spin axis) withterrestrial respect to reference the system ( motion relative to the celestial( reference system
Earthquake Cycle Earth Radiation Pressure Earth Rotation Angle Ecliptic Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) Earth-centered Earth-fixed (ECEF) Earth-centered Inertial (ECI) Earth Model PZ-90 Earth Oblateness Earth Orientation Parameters Glossary 1282 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1283
celestial hemispheres, and is simultaneously the semi-major and semi-minor axes of an ellipsoid to its reference plane for the equatorial system of semi-major axis. coordinates, which uses the coordinates I right Flicker Noise ascension and I declination. It defines the plane that A type of noise in electronic systems (e.g., is orthogonal to the polar axis of a global coordinate oscillators), which exhibits a power spectral density system. For the Earth it is the circle on the ellipsoid at inversely proportional to the frequency. zero latitude. Flight Management System (FMS) Equatorial Coordinates An aircraft computer system with multiple functions Coordinates referred to the I equator (I right for managing a flight. The FMS includes navigation ascension, I declination). and guidance functions and contains a database Equinox allowing flight plans and routes to be I vernal equinox. pre-programmed. Euler Angles Flight Technical Error (FTE) A set of three angles that define the orientation of The difference between the estimated position and the a rigid body. The Euler angles define a sequence of defined path. It serves as a measure of how well the three consecutive rotations that enable aligning any pilot or the avionics can follow the guidance two arbitrarily rotated orthogonal frames. information provided by the navigation system. Euler Axis and Angle Float Solution The rotation axis and rotation angle of a body in space I ambiguity float solution. relative to an initial or reference orientation. Any Footprint rotation of a rigid body in space can be described in The region beneath a satellite that can receive and terms of an axis-angle parameterization. utilize its signal. A navigational satellite footprint is European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service often depicted as a circular region directly below the (EGNOS) satellite representing a set of users whose line of sight A I satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) to the satellite is at least 5ı above their local horizon. developed by the European Space Agency, the Forecast European Commission, and EUROCONTROL to A forecast describes the future state and/or provide horizontal and vertical navigation throughout development of characteristic system parameters like Europe. It has provided safety-of-life service since the temperature in the troposphere or the electron 2011. density in the ionosphere based on the current state Expandable Slot and additional information. Glossary In the GPS constellation, one of three orbital positions Forward Error Correction (FEC) that can each be divided into a pair of positions when A technique used to minimize bit errors in data the constellation has more than the nominal number transmission which introduces redundant information (24) of satellites. into the data stream. Other than simple parity Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) checksums, FEC enables not only detection but also The I Kalman filter applied to the linearized versions correction of errors. of non-linear state space measurement and dynamic Frame Bias models. A small constant angular offset between the current kinematic ICRF pole and origin (in right ascension) F and the dynamic pole and equinox of J2000. Frame synchronization Fading Frequency The process carried out within a GNSS receiver to The phase rate-of-change (known simply as phase identify the beginning of the navigation data message. rate) of a multipath signal relative to the direct-path Free-space Loss signal. The change in signal power of an electromagnetic Fixed Solution wave emerging from an isotropic radiator when I ambiguity fixed solution propagating in free space. The free-space loss grows Fixed Failure Rate Ratio Test with the square of the distance and is inversely An ambiguity acceptance test that is computed as proportional to the square of the wavelength. a I ratio test, but that has a guaranteed failure rate. Frequency The required failure rate can be set by the user. The rate of a repetitive event, i. e., the inverse of its Flächenkorrekturparameter (FKP) repeat period. In the SI system of units the period is Original German designation of area correction expressed in seconds (s), and the frequency is parameters (horizontal gradients) of regional models expressed in Hertz (Hz). for distance-dependent biases transmitted to the users Frequency Lock Loop (FLL) as part of I network RTK corrections. A controller used to align the frequency of a carrier Flattening replica inside a GNSS receiver with that of the The geometric parameter of an oblate I ellipsoid incoming signal. It comprises a I numerically defined by the ratio of the difference between controlled oscillator (NCO), a frequency ,as sequences .Often ; also known on January 5/6, across a local satellite-based geoid I reference ellipsoid I tion system (SBAS) I of the geoid height . . I ) code. geostationary Earth orbit C/A I pseudo-random noise (PRN) I I geoid height I ellipsoidal height satellite-based augmenta I Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) I developed by the Indian Spacethe Research Airports Organization, Authority of India,General and of the Civil Directorate Aviation tovertical provide navigation horizontal throughout and India. Itsafety-of-life has service provided since 2014. The timescale used by GPS,I which began at midnight 1980 and is not adjusted by leap seconds. A with good auto and cross-correlationproposed properties by Robert Gold. Goldexample, codes employed are, for for the GPSacquisition coarse ( and A navigation system that cansolution provide anywhere a in the positioning world.used The collectively term for is GPS, currently Galileo, GLONASS,BeiDou. and (GLONASS) Global navigation satellite system ofFederation, the Russian providing global permanentnavigation positioning, and timing service forusers land, worldwide. air GLONASS and is space aproviding dual-use both system authorized and open access services. A global navigation satellite systemoperated owned by and the United States Air Force. A family of A circular orbit at approximatelyabove 36 the 000 km Earth’s equator altitude with anto orbital the period Earth’s rotational equal period. Aa geostationary satellite Earth in orbit willposition appear in to the be sky in for a terrestrial fixed observers. A satellite in a used for communication and for augmentation systems area, a region, or thegeoid globe. height May contours be on in the the form of point values, or gridded data,functions or – various the mathematical most commonspherical being harmonics. in the form of Same as Sometimes the term may alsodatasets refer themselves. to the spatial A surface on which thea Earth’s constant gravity (equipotential potential or is levelclosely surface) approximates and global that mean sea level. The as the geoid undulation. Representation of the GPS Time GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikova Sistema Global Positioning System (GPS) Gold Code Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Geostationary Satellite Geoid Undulation Geoid Geoid Height Geoid Model carrier I .Forthe ellipsoidal I . The geodetic layers ellipsoid , on the transmitter side, of which each stage is I measurements on multiple decision-making, and more. frontend that senses the instantaneous tracking I pseudorange baseband signal GLONASS I I I and . discriminator A formula named after theH.T. Friis, electrical which engineer is widelycalculate used in the communications total to noise factorradio of frequency a cascaded stage error and a loop filterestimate that of provides the a frequency smoothed errorNCO. for feedback to the A multiple access scheme thattransmitters allows to different access the channelusing simultaneously slightly but different frequencies withinspecified the overall bandwidth. For global satellite navigation systems, FDMA signals areused presently by only to the specified radio frequencythe before antenna. passing A it receiver on frontend to does the opposite. represented by a noise factor and a gain. The combination of different modulesincoming that convert the I purpose of creating special featurespatial maps, analysis, undertaking assist in L-band frequencies broadcast by severalconstellations. GNSS The current internationally defined referenceand ellipsoid associated gravitational field forapplications. geodetic A general name that referswith to the coordinates spherical associated shape of the Earth A software system that manages,spatial analyses, data displays that has been organized in Top-of-the-line GNSS receiver able to make phase height The European global navigation satellite system. As GPS and Galileo usesystems, different there reference is time a systemsystems, time the offset Galileo-GPS between time the offset.be two This several offset tens can of nanosecondsUsers or can tens correct of their meters. dataGGTO for is the broadcast offset, as since part the of the navigation messages. Coordinates referred to the center of the Earth. Coordinates of latitude, longitude,associated and with height a particular latitude is the angle ofrelative the to ellipsoid the normal Equator. for The a geodeticsame point longitude as is the the spherical longitude. See also
G
Friis Formula Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Frontend Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80) Geographic Coordinates Geographic Information System (GIS) Geodetic-grade Receiver Galileo Galileo-GPS Time Offset (GGTO) Geocentric Coordinates Geodetic Coordinates Glossary 1284 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1285
GPS Week telemetry stations for reception of satellite data on the The integer number of weeks elapsed since the start of ground, telecommand (or uplink) stations for sending I GPS time. GPS weeks start at midnight from control commends to the spacecraft, or tracking Saturday (day-of-week 6) to Sunday (day-of-week 0). stations providing range, range rate or angular In accordance with the 10-bit representation of the measurements for I orbit determination. GPS week in the legacy GPS I navigation message, Group Delay its value is often given modulo 1024, resulting in is a measure of the propagation time of the amplitude roll-overs in August 22, 1999 and April, 7 2019. envelope of an electromagnetic signal through RBL,OM) a device or medium. In the context of GNSS, it Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) describes the delay experienced by the code A 24-hour time keeping system whose hours, minutes, modulation upon signal propagation through and seconds represent the time-of-day at the Earth’s a dispersive medium such as the ionosphere or parts of prime meridian (0° longitude) located near the signal generating, transmitting, or receiving Greenwich, England. GMT was adopted as the world’s equipment. first global time standard in 1884. GMT no longer Group Velocity exists, since it was replaced by other astronomical Speed of propagation of the envelope, i. e., the code time scales many years ago, which in turn were signal of navigation signals, of a modulated subsequently replaced by the atomic time scale UTC. electromagnetic wave. It is a measure for the speed of Greenwich Hour Angle movement of the wave energy. The angle at a specified epoch between the x-axes of the I Earth-centered inertial and I coordinate H systems. Grid Ionospheric Vertical Error (GIVE) Hand-Over Word (HOW) A parameter broadcast by SBAS to indicate the The second 30-bit word within every GPS legacy possible magnitude of the vertical delay error for navigation data 300-bit sub-frame. HOW includes a specific ionospheric grid point delay estimate. GIVE a time stamp. is determined from a broadcast 4-bit number, called Harmonic the GIVE indicator or GIVEI. A look up table is used A signal whose frequency is an integer multiple of to convert the indicator to a 1-sigma overbound value some other signal’s frequency. Nonlinearity in any one (I overbound) called the GIVE. By tradition, GIVE of several stages involved in radio frequency Glossary itself is a 99:9% number or 3:29 GIVE.Arelevant transmission generates (typically undesired) power at set of GIVEs is used to interpolate the corresponding harmonics of the transmission frequency. User Ionospheric Vertical Error overbound, UIVE. Hatanaka Compression This vertical overbound is finally multiplied by the A loss less technique used to compress GNSS data obliquity factor to obtain the complete User files in I Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX) Ionospheric Range Error overbound, UIRE. format. Ground-based Augmentation System (GBAS) Helmert Transformation A local area differential GNSS augmentation system A 7-parameter similarity transformation named after using multiple airport-based reference receivers that the geodesist and mathematician F. R. Helmert. It provide corrections and integrity information to users relates two frames through a shift vector, a rotation via a very-high frequency (VHF) data link known as and a scale factor. the I VHF data broadcast (VDB). GBAS supports Higher-order Ionospheric (HOI) Terms aircraft performing precision approach and landing Contributions to the ionospheric delay of a GNSS operations as well as other operations near signal, which depend on higher than second-order GBAS-equipped airports. terms of the frequency and cannot by eliminated by Ground Plane the I ionosphere-free combinations of two An electrically conducting flat surface at the bottom of observations. an I antenna that reflects electromagnetic waves. Horizon Optimum antenna properties (such as I multipath The imaginary line of intersection between a plane resistance) are obtained if the dimension of the tangent to the surface of the Earth at the observer and ground plane is large compared to the I wavelength. the celestial sphere. The horizon is the reference plane Ground Segment for the I horizontal system with coordinates A major component of a I global navigation satellite I azimuth and I altitude. system providing satellite control and constellation Horizontal System keeping, as well as orbit and clock data calculation for A coordinate system related to the local horizon of an mission operations. observer, and where the coordinates used are Ground Station I azimuth and I elevation. A terrestrial radio station enabling communication Hot Start with a satellite. Depending on the specific application, Activation of a GNSS receiver with prior information one may distinguish between various functions: on the approximate time and user position as well as .It ,the data I integer . pilot integer I I I user segment . In contrast to I integer bootstrapping il and a military signal, on and the I integer least-squares and sequential conditional and carrier-phase ambiguities are I Z-transformations or . I spoofing, or unstructured, as in wideband signals transmitted on different frequency space segment I ), while the quadrature (Q) component (which I out of phase) carries a dataless . ı FDMA integer rounding integer rounding Gaussian noise jamming. It maydeliberate be jamming, intentional, or as unintentional, in generated as in by noise electronics surroundingreceiver. a GNSS provides a description of themodulation, signal the structure and format and contentsdata, as of well the as navigation relevantdata algorithms in for using the these positioning. Radio frequency power in onethat or degrades more a GNSS GNSS bands receiver’strack ability GNSS to signals. acquire Interference and mayin be GNSS structured, as channels. A document describing the interfacesGNSS between the A measure of the trustcorrectness that of can the be position solution. placedthe Integrity in ability includes the of a systemwarnings to (alerts) provide to timely the and user. valid Difference in code or phaseI biases of GLONASS The unknown number of wavelengthscontained (cycles) in that the is measured carrierthe phase receiver to range satellite from antenna. The procedure by which thedouble-differenced unknown estimated and validated as integers.ambiguities Once can these be considered known,corresponding the carrier-phase measurements will actvery precise as pseudorange measurements. Integer estimation that is basedI on a combination of least-squares estimation. The success ratebootstrapping of is integer never smaller thanrounding that and of never integer larger than that of least-squares Integer estimation that is basedleast-squares. on The the principle ILS of estimator hassuccess the rate largest of all integerinvariant estimators. for Its success rate is I ILS-estimation requires an integer search. Integer estimation that is basedthe on nearest scalar integer. The rounding success to rounding rate is of never integer larger than that of bootstrapping signal components. such as a civ one frequency. In the casecomponent of transmits GPS the L5, navigation the data in-phase ( (I) channel is 90 Interference Interface Control Document (ICD) Integrity Inter-channel Bias (ICB) Integer Ambiguity Integer Ambiguity Resolution Integer Bootstrapping (IB) Integer Least-squares (ILS) Integer Rounding (IR) or and the Pseudo . pseudorange 405752 MHz. I quadrature phase sidereal time I slant total delay. I I of a star. The hour angle measures geostationary satellites to transmit two orthogonal signal I that propagates into the parameter estimator; are sometimes appended to distinguish it from bias right ascension I shift keying such bias lies in theA range non-testable space bias of is the always design influential. matrix. GNSS signals frequently use is a formalized decision rulerejecting of the rejecting null or hypothesis. not Therepresenting null the hypothesis, model one believesthereby to compared be to true, one is orhypotheses. more alternative A form of surveying inengineering support (such of as offshore associated withundersea pipelines, cables, breakwaters, harbor works,etc.) dredging, and sea floor charting. The dry component of the I the sidereal time that hasculmination. passed since the last A signal generator based onthe the neutral hyperfine hydrogen transition atom of at 1420: the broadcast ephemeris of thespeed GNSS up satellites the to signal searchenable and an acquisition immediate and computation to ofsolution after the collection navigation of valid measurements. Difference between the local quasi the original Newtonian concept ofhaving a only constant frame rectilinear at motion. rest or A A simulator that generates intermediatesamples of frequency GNSS (IF) signals similarthe to output those of expected the at receivers’can front be end. processed These directly samples bya the receiver, digital or, processor with of aup-converter, digital-to-analog can converter be and converted an toconductive RF or signals rebroadcast for testing. An orbit synchronous with theof Earth’S about rotation 24 h period butequator. inclined IGSO with satellites respect are commonly toregional used the navigation for Earth’s satellite systems asto a strictly complement An electronic measurement device combining accelerometers and gyros to measureand the angular specific rate force of theattached. body to which the sensor is A non-rotating system or framerespect in to free the fall ambient with gravitational field.
I
In-phase (I) Component Hypothesis Testing Hydrographic Surveying Hydrostatic Delay Hydrogen Maser Hour Angle Influential Bias IF-level Simulator Inclined Geosynchronous Orbit (IGSO) Inertial Measurement Unit Inertial System/Frame Glossary 1286 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1287
Inter-frequency Bias (IFB) Inter-satellite Type Bias (ISTB) Difference in code or phase hardware biases of signals Difference in receiver hardware biases between with different frequencies. signals transmitted by different satellite types within Intermediate Frequency (IF) a constellation. In the case of BDS, the existence of A frequency lower than the carrier frequency to which inter-satellite type biases has been demonstrated for the modulated GNSS signal is shifted to facilitate signals of geostationary satellites that are combined processing in the signal generation or processing with those of other (IGSO, MEO) satellites. chain. Inter-Signal Correction (ISC) International Atomic Time (TAI) Correction values in the GPS modernized navigation A time scale realized by a weighted average of the message to enable a consistent processing of different time kept by over 400 atomic clocks worldwide. navigation signals using a single set of clock offset It is the basis for I Coordinated Universal Time values. ISCs represent a specific form of (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the I differential code biases. Earth’s surface. TAI is computed monthly by the Ionosphere International Bureau of Weights and Measurements The ionized part of the upper atmosphere from 50 km (BIPM). up to about 1000 km height. The ionospheric plasma International Celestial Reference System (ICRS) is primarily produced by electromagnetic and particle A system of coordinates and conventions that define radiation transmitted from the Sun. Consequently, the coordinates of objects in inertial space. It is defined ionization level depends strongly on geographic and maintained by the International Earth Rotation location, season and local time. Spatial structure and and Reference Systems Service (IERS). dynamics of the ionospheric plasma are strongly International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF) coupled with other geospheres such as thermosphere A reference frame that realizes the I International and magnetosphere causing a high variability of the Celestial Reference System by means of coordinates of plasma density. objects accessible directly by radio-astronomical Ionosphere-free Combination observations. A linear combination of two GNSS observations, International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) which eliminates the dominant contributions of A system of coordinates and conventions that define ionospheric path delays that vary with the inverse coordinates of points tied to the Earth. It is defined square of the signal frequency. and maintained by the International Earth Rotation Ionospheric Correction Models and Reference Systems Service (IERS). In a first-order approach the ionospheric delay or Glossary International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) range error is proportional to the I total electron A reference frame that realizes the I International content (TEC) along the ray path. Therefore, to reduce Terrestrial Reference System at a particular epoch by ionospheric range errors in single frequency GNSS means of coordinates of definite points that are applications, ionospheric electron density models accessible directly by occupation or by observation. (I NeQuick for Galileo) or simple TEC models (e.g., The IERS is responsible for computing the I Klobuchar model for GPS or NTCM) can be coordinates of this global network in order to realize used. the ITRF. Ionospheric Gradient Interoperability Steep variations in time and space of the ionosphere The ability of jointly using two independent electron content, which cause large delays in the navigation systems for with a resulting benefit over GNSS differential observations even for small the use of each individual system. I Compatibility of baselines. their signals is a prerequisite for the interoperability of Ionospheric Grid Point (IGP) two systems. A specific reference location on an imaginary thin Interplex shell above the Earth’s surface. In I satellite-based A special case of a phase-shift-keyed/phase- augmentation systems (SBAS) a set of IGPs is used to modulated (PSK/PM) multichannel system that is describe the ionosphere by transmitting ionospheric characterized by high power efficiency for a number delay values for a fixed set of locations over the region of components. of interest. Inter-seismic Ionospheric Perturbations Between earthquakes. The inter-seismic period is the There exist several types of I space weather driven time period between major earthquakes on a given temporal and spatial electron density perturbations in fault. In most models of the earthquake cycle, the rate the ionosphere and plasma sphere that may impact of deformation is expected to be constant or varying GNSS in different ways. Besides radio only slowly for most of the inter-seismic period. I scintillations caused by small scale electron density Inter-system Bias (ISB) irregularities also medium scale and large scale Difference in receiver hardware biases between I traveling ionospheric disturbances (MSTIDs, signals of two GNSS constellations plus the offset LSTIDs) or solar flare induced sudden ionospheric between the time scales of the two systems. disturbances (SIDs) may degrade the GNSS corrections in order to to speed up the with onboard tion system (SBAS) ce receiver or the network differential GNSS I Z-transformation on the satellite. I satellite laser ranging I satellite-based augmenta Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) I being developed by the MinistryInfrastructure, of and Land, Transport to provideand horizontal vertical navigation throughout thepeninsula. Korean are generated by the referen and the time they arriveAlso: and delay are in applied the by provisionproducts the of relative user. precise to orbit the and epochobservations clock of used the in GNSS their generation. The band of the radioof spectrum 1−2 GHz. covering frequencies An intentional time step ofI one second used to adjust ensure approximate agreement with UT1.second An is inserted called a positivesecond leap is second, called and a an negative omitted leap second. (LAMBDA) Method for the efficient computationleast-squares of ambiguity the estimator. integer It makesa use decorrelating of A technique for synchronization ofclocks space through and the ground exchange ofcombines laser pulses. It Delay in time after measurements of the arrival timea using photo-detector integer search and to computebootstrapping an estimator improved as integer first approximation. An estimation principle for solvingsystem an of overdetermined equation by minimizingof its squared (weighted) residuals sum (the differencesdata between and input their estimated values). The rotational period of thevelocity of solid the Earth. solid The Earth, angular and hence its period of An empirical model used totime describe delay the in ionospheric single-frequency GNSSThe measurements. Klobuchar ionospheric model wasby first the adopted Global Positioning Systemby but various is other also GNSSs used inmodified the form. same It or comprises slightly eightbroadcast parameters by the that GNSS are satellitesupdates. with at least daily Estimation of epoch-wise coordinates fornon-moving a GNSS moving receiver from or observations covering a given data arc. A L L-band Leap Second Least-squares Ambiguity Decorrelation Adjustment Laser Time Transfer (LTT) Latency Least-squares Estimation Length-of-day Klobuchar Model Kinematic Positioning Korean Augmentation Satellite System (KASS) of 36525 = ellipsoid I minimum mean I of the state vector of . It is exactly 1 World Geodetic System I dynamic time . I orbital plane the 1984 release of the (WGS-84) The signal propagation delay andinduced signal by path free bending electrons inatmosphere. the Besides upper the part plasma of densitypath, the along ionospheric the refraction ray depends onwave frequency the (dispersion) radio and thefield geomagnetic vector along the ray path (anisotropy). of a Julian century. An integer day number obtainedfrom by the counting starting days point of(Julian noon Day on zero). January 1, 4713 BC performance in precision and safetyapplications. of live A location, often specified bybetween the latitude user and and longitude, abetween satellite the where two the intersects line an ofabove imaginary sight the thin Earth’s shell surface, aelectrons shell are in assumed which to all becommonly concentrated. the Most thin shell isheight specified of to 350 km have a above constant the reference A recursive algorithm to obtain a A standard epoch representing midday2000 on (2000 January Jan. 1, 1.5 = JD 2451545.0). A time unit of a linear dynamic system basedand on current a observations. time Each series cycleconsists of of of past the a recursion time-update andIn a the measurement time-update update. the dynamicpredict model the is state used vector to fromin the the previous measurement-update epoch, the while measurementscurrent of epoch the are used toof improve the upon predicted the state estimate vector. A set of six orbitalshape elements and used spatial to orientation describe of the comprising the the orbit, semi-major typically axis, eccentricity, inclination, longitude of the ascendingof perigee, node, and argument mean anomaly. The trajectory of a satellitemass, around for a the central special point caseproportional of to an the attracting inverse force squareBound of Keplerian the orbits distance. are ellipsesI confined to a fixed squared error (MMSE) estimate
K J
Ionospheric Refraction Julian Day (JD) Number Ionospheric Pierce Point (IPP) Kalman Filter J2000 Julian Day Keplerian Elements Keplerian Orbit Glossary 1288 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1289
rotation, changes in response to the torques acting on M it. Light-time Mapping Function The time that it takes an electromagnetic signal to pass The ratio between the propagation delay through the the distance between the transmitter and receiver. atmosphere at a specified elevation angle and the Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSR) propagation delay in the I zenith direction. A shift register whose input binary state (0 or 1) is Maser a linear function of its previous states. An n-stage shift A device producing coherent electromagnetic waves register consists of n consecutive two-state stages through Microwave Amplification by Simulated (flip-flops) driven by a clock. At each pulse of the Emission of Radiation (MASER). Hydrogen Masers clock the state of each stage is shifted to the next stage are used as atomic clocks, characterized by a very in line to the right of the register. In order to convert good short-term stability. the n-stage shift register into a sequence generator Master-auxiliary Concept (MAC) a feedback loop is incorporated, which calculates Method of providing I Network RTK corrections to a new term for the left-most stage, based on the states the rover, where absolute corrections from one of the of the n previous states. At the right-most stage of the reference stations of the network (i. e., the master) and register the generated sequence is output. differential corrections from other (auxiliary) Line-of-sight (LOS) reference stations are transmitted to the rover. Typically refers to the straight line between a GNSS Master Clock satellite and the antenna of a GNSS receiver. The LOS A precision clock that provides timing signals to signal is also referred to as the direct-path signal. synchronize slave clocks as part of a clock network. Line-of-sight Vector Master Station Vector of unit length pointing from the receiver A processing facility that collects measurements from position to the satellite position. multiple I reference stations and makes Line Quality Factor determinations on the performance of the GNSS The ratio of the frequency of an atomic transition and satellites (and perhaps the I ionosphere). A master the width of the resonance line. The I Allan station may calculate orbits, satellite clock states, Deviation of an atomic clock is inversely proportional differential corrections, confidence bounds, and/or to the line quality factor, i. e., the clock stability integrity evaluations. improves with increasing quality factor. Matched Filter Link budget A technique to reveal a weak signal of known Glossary A budget of gains and losses in a telecommunication structure by I correlation with a replica. system. GNSS link budgets typically comprise the Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE) transmit power, the transmit and receive I antenna A parameter estimator of which the outcome gains, the I free-space loss as well as atmospheric maximizes the respective likelihood function. and cable losses. A likelihood function is a parameter function that Loading gives the probability or probability density for the The surface forces acting on the Earth from the occurrence of a corresponding observation or sample. movement of mass, and the deformation of the solid M-code Earth in response to changing loading forces. Loading The modernized GPS military signals that are most commonly refers to water and atmospheric broadcast at center frequencies of 1575:42 MHz and loading, but erosion and sedimentation can also 1227:6 MHz on Block IIR-M and subsequent GPS produce measurable deformation where they are satellites. concentrated enough and involve a sufficiently large Meaconing movement of mass. A specialized spoofing attack in which an entire Local Coordinates segment of radio frequency spectrum is captured and Cartesian coordinates, often in a left-handed system, replayed. The term meacon is a portmanteau of with the third axis along the local vertical. masking beacon. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Mean Solar Time A satellite orbit with a representative altitude of about An astronomical time scale that is based on the 300−1400 km that is commonly used for remote average length of the day, called the mean solar day. sensing missions. The length of an average day is different from a true Low-noise amplifier (LNA) or apparent solar day, due to daily variations, over the An electronic device to amplify electromagnetic span of a year, in the Sun’s apparent angular speed signals, which is specifically designed to add only across the sky when viewed by an observer on Earth. little noise and can thus be used for very weak Thus, the length of an average or mean solar day is signals. used for a more uniform system of timekeeping. Mean Tide System A system (such as for coordinates) in which all and the method. Galileo time I . tion system (SBAS) Global Positioning ). The addition of the Least-squares Ambiguity I I modulation, in which two er component aims at an . BOC zenith I I to alert users of non-nominal situations satellite-based augmenta Quasi-Zenith Satellite System reference station I Decorrelation Adjustment (LAMBDA) sub-carriers of different frequency andamplitude different are used concurrently (compositeCBOC) BOC or or in which theamplitude two but alternate sub-carriers times have slots equal multiplexed (I BOC or TMBOC high-frequency sub-carri improved multipath resistance without aincrease notable of the spectral width. Decorrelation Adjustment (MC-LAMBDA) A method for the computationleast-squares ambiguity of estimator the subject integer toconstraints, nonlinear based on the developed by the Japanese Civilprovide Aviation horizontal Bureau navigation to throughout theairspace. Japanese It has provided safety-of-life2007. service since The phenomenon whereby a transmittedis GNSS received signal at the receiverreflection via and multiple diffraction paths in due addition to signal. to The the received direct-path superposition ofnon-direct-path direct signals and (also known asnon-line-of-sight the signals) results intracking. errors in the signal The amplitude of a multipathdirect-path signal signal. relative to the Modulation A variant of the An empirical relation named afterCo., a who founder observed of that Intel theintegrated number circuits of was transistors almost in doubled every 2 years. (MSAS) A A linear combination of carrier-phasetwo observations frequencies on that is formedindividual as phase the values sum expressed of in the cycles. It exhibits I System (GPS) such as signal outages orresult special in operations service interruptions. that Similar may (NAGUs, notifications NAQUs) are provided by amplitude, phase, or frequency ofbe the transmitted. carrier signal to I The direction towards the centeropposite of the to Earth, the i. e., Notifications issued by the N Multivariate Constrained-least-squares Ambiguity Multipath Multipath-to-direct (M/D) Ratio Multiplexed Binary Offset Carrier (MBOC) Moore’s Law Multi-function Satellite Augmentation System Narrow-lane Observable Monitoring Station Nadir Notice Advisory to Navstar Users (NANU) and information to . low Earth orbits an aircraft must not I . GNSS medium altitude procedure. Unlike a power baseband minus 2400000.5. The I I geostationary orbits Julian day number I I Non-precision Approach Decision Altitude or Height a high-frequency carrier for thetransmission. purpose This of takes place by either varying The lowest altitude or heightauthorized to when which a an descent aircraft is performsI a Modified Julian Date (MJD) hasmidnight a on starting November point 17, of 1858. The process of mapping Earth orbits are usually located20 at 000 km. altitudes of about An imaginary great circle ondefines the the celestial plane sphere that is that contains parallel a to local the polar vertical axis vector.meridian and The plane astronomic contains the tangentline, to and the the local geodetic plumb meridiannormal plane to the contain ellipsoid. the local The smallest bias that alevel test of can significance detect and for a given I descend below the MDA/H. Thethis pilot height may and descend maintain to itapproach until point, reaching where the the missed missedinitiated if approach the must required be visualavailable. references are not This ambiguity acceptance test penalizesambiguity outcomes. certain The penalties (e.g.,chosen costs) by are the user andapplication can at be hand. It made is dependentminimizes optimal on the in the average the of sense the that assigned it penalties. The estimator that has theof smallest all mean-square-error estimators from aclass particular is class. restricted Often to the themean class of of the linear squared functions. errorexpectation The is of the the mathematical squared error. A document describing the necessaryan requirements object for to be awardedFederal an advisory airworthiness committees, certificate. operateddevelop by and RTCA Inc., document these requirementsMOPS and form the the basis forAdministration Federal (FAA) Aviation regulatory requirements. The below temporal tidal effects except thebeen mean removed. tidal effect have A simulator that generates pseudorange,and/or carrier-phase, Doppler measurements for computingposition and the other relevant parameters inTypically used software. for testing thea ability third-party of software a to receiver compute or a correct solution. An orbit with altitudes above
Minimum Descent Altitude or Height (MDA/H) Modulation Meridian Minimal Detectable Bias (MDB) Minimum Mean Penalty (MMP) Test Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) Estimator Minimum Operating Performance Standards (MOPS) Modified Julian Day Number Measurement-level Simulator Medium Altitude Earth Orbit (MEO) Glossary 1290 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1291
a small effective wavelength, e.g., 10:7cmforGPSL1 in all directions. I Automatic Direction Finding and L2. (ADF) equipment on board aircraft uses bearings from Navigation NDBs for navigation purposes. The estimation process for determining the system No-net-rotation I pose as it maneuvers. Also, the process of The conventional requirement that subsequent determining and implementing a trajectory for an realizations of a reference system are parallel. autonomous system. Non-precision Approach (NPA) Navigation Message An aircraft approach procedure using lateral guidance The set of auxiliary parameters such as satellite orbit to bring the aircraft to a point where the runway is in and clock information, ionospheric correction data, view and a visual landing can be performed. NPA and time offset parameters, which are transmitted by procedures do not include vertical guidance and a GNSS satellite to enable computation of a position include a I Minimum Descent Altitude/Height. fix from the I pseudorange measurements. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) Navigation Message Authentication A notice containing information concerning the A GNSS signal authentication technique whereby establishment, condition, or change in any unpredictable (to the public) but verifiable data are aeronautical facility, service, procedure, or hazard, the inserted into a GNSS signal’s navigation data stream. timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel The properties of unpredictability and verifiability can concerned with flight operations. be achieved by means of a digital signature, which is Null Hypothesis generated by a secret (private) key but can be verified I Hypothesis testing by a public key. Besides injecting verifiable Numerically Controlled Oscillator (NCO) randomness into the navigation data stream, the digital A digital signal generator used to generate a harmonic signature serves to authenticate all data in the stream wave of desired frequency, and, optionally, phase. It is as originating with the holder of the private key (e.g., used inside a I phase lock loop or I frequency lock the control segment for a particular GNSS loop to track the incoming carrier signal and to constellation). measure its phase and I Doppler shift. Navigation System Error (NSE) Nutation The difference between the true position and the An oscillation of the Earth’s axis about its mean estimated position. This error is linked to the position, which is superimposed on precession and navigation system providing the position estimation. driven by the luni-solar gravitational torque. The NeQuick nutation movement is the resultant of oscillations with Glossary An empirical model used to describe the ionospheric different periods of which the more important is 18.6 electron density. A specific version known as years, corresponding to one rotation of the Moon’s NeQuick-G has been adopted by the Galileo system. ascending node. Here, the modeled electron density is integrated along the signal path and used to correct single-frequency O code measurements. The NeQuick-G model parameters are broadcast by the Galileo satellites with Obliquity at least a daily update interval. The angle between the equatorial and orbital planes of Networked Transport of RTCM via Internet Protocol some body. For the Earth, the angle between the plane (NTRIP) of the Earth’s equator and the plane of the Earth’s Protocol for the streaming of I differential GNSS orbit about the Sun. The mean obliquity of the ecliptic corrections in I RTCM format via the Internet. is about 23:4ı. Network RTK (NRTK) Obliquity Factor A I differential GNSS positioning technique that The ratio between a slant path passing through a thin extends the operational distance of the I real-time slab above the Earth to a vertical path passing through kinematic (RTK) positioning technique from 10 km to the same location in the slab. The obliquity factor (or about 100 km from the reference receiver. This is I mapping function) is used to convert a vertical realized by employing a network of reference ionospheric delay estimate into a slant delay estimate receivers that produces precise correction models of corresponding to the elevation angle of the path. For the distance-dependent biases (atmosphere, orbit). the thin shell model that assumes an I ionosphere Neuman-Hofman (NH) Code 350 km above the Earth, the obliquity factor ranges A specific type of I secondary code used in I pilot from 1 (for a satellite directly over head) to just over 3 signals of the modern GNSS navigation signals. (for a satellite close to the horizon). Noise Observation Session Random fluctuations in a measured signal. The length of time a non-moving receiver makes Non-directional Beacon (NDB) sufficient observations (adequate change in A radio beacon operating in the medium or satellite–receiver geometry) for reliable I static low-frequency bandwidths used for aircraft positioning. It may be many hours in length for a long navigation. NDBs transmit a signal of equal strength I baseline and/or an I ambiguity float solution,toas , . integrity I antenna single-point I I , accuracy cial satellite’s orbit around antenna phase center techniques to obtain I illion (ppb) is obtained as length scaled by one million. I GLONASS . I based on performance for and the baseline , and functionality needed for the I datum 1000. For example, 10 ppb is 1 cm accuracy I continuity semi-codeless tracking Area navigation Z-transformation I proposed operation in the contextairspace of concept. a Within particular the airspaceavailability of concept, GNSS the signal-in-space (SIS) orsome that other of applicable navigation infrastructurebe has considered to in order toapplication. enable the navigation Position of a celestial bodyand relative the to line its of orbital apsides. plane The closest point of anthe artifi Earth. The signal hardware delay atside receiver associated and with transmitter the carriergeneration. phase signal The separation vector between the reference point between two GNSS receivers separated1000 by km. The precision (P) ranging codeL1 modulated and onto L2 both carriers inP-code GPS is and referred GLONASS. to The asthe GPS the case Y-code of if GPS, it only isof authorized directly encrypted. receivers tracking In are the capable Y-code.I Civilian receivers use P(Y)-code pseudorange measurements. I requirements for aircraft operating alongservice an route, air on traffic an instrumentin approach a procedure designated airspace. or Airbornerequirements performance are expressed in navigation specifications in terms of positioning. Ambiguity resolution when only aambiguities are part resolved of as the integers.applied PAR can in be case the GNSSto model enable is successful ambiguity not resolution strongambiguities. of enough PAR all is usually applied afterambiguities the have been re-parameterized withI a proper A relative accuracy measure definedaccuracy as to the ratio of For example, 1 ppm isGNSS 1 receivers cm separated accuracy by between 10 two 100 km, km, or etc. 10 Parts-per-b cm over ppm gravity field parameters, as wellreference as system, the which geocentric is definedcommon in conventions accordance of with the InternationalRotation Earth and Reference Systems ServiceBureau (IERS) International and de l’Heure (BIH).as PZ-90 the serves Perifocal Coordinates Perigee Phase Bias Phase Center Offset (PCO) P-code Performance-based Navigation (PBN) Partial Ambiguity Resolution (PAR) Parts-per-million (ppm) . is defined radiation hypothesis I I Keplerian orbit orbit plane I I hose likelihood of having l motion of a satellite around rough a corresponding osculating I . ) against the most relaxed alternative. This test Radio Occultation Secondary code short as a few secondsbeen if resolved. the ambiguities have already I The trajectory of a naturala or central artificial body satellite – around thesolar Sun system, in or the the Earth caseEarth-orbiting in of satellites. the planets case in of the artificial The plane to which theconfined motion in of a a central satellite is gravityperturbations field. an In the presence of An Earth model maintained byTopography the Agency Military of the GeneralForces Staff of of the the Russian Armed Federation.PZ-90 The comprises definition of fundamental geodeticparameters constants, of the Earth’s ellipsoid, and the Earth’s by the instantaneous position and velocity vector. The process of estimating a(including set the of initial parameters position andvarious velocity force as mode well parameters) as describingmotion the of future a satellite th dynamical trajectory model. Deviations of the orbita a central body from an idealized pressure A device providing a periodicalfrequency. signal with a given A measurement that, relative tomeasurement the noise assumed probability distribution, isthat so its rare validity is questionable. A probability distribution w an error magnitude greater thanas some large value as is the at likelihoodis least that greater the than true that error value.commonly magnitude The specified overbound as is a most 1-sigmaa value zero-mean for Gaussian distribution. Theused overbound to is conservatively describe adistribution. true error A test that tests the null hypothesis ( testing is used for detecting unspecifiedthe modeling null errors in hypothesis. I Such perturbations are, e.g., causedgravity by field the of aspherical the Earth,attraction, the atmospheric luni-solar drag, gravitational and solar
P
Occultation Orbit Orbital Plane Parametry Zemli 1990 (PZ-90) Orbit Determination Orbit Perturbations Oscillator Outlier Overbound Overall Model Test Overlay Code Glossary 1292 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1293
Phase Center Variation motions are steady with time, changing only over long Deviations of the antenna radiation pattern from a timescales, like hundreds of thousands of years. Plate perfect sphere about the I antenna phase center. motions are described in terms of rotations on the Phased-array Antenna surface of a sphere about a geocentric axis. An array of antennas in which the relative phases of Polarization the signals coming to the antennas are combined in The direction of the oscillation of the electromagnetic such a way that the effective radiation pattern of the field as a function of time. GNSS signals are circularly array is reinforced in a desired direction and polarized, i. e., the field vector rotates along the suppressed in undesired directions. propagation direction. Phase-range Corrections Polar Motion Corrections determined at a (network of) reference The motion of the I celestial intermediate pole with receiver(s) that are transmitted to a rover receiver in respect to the crust and mantle of the Earth. Can also order to enable carrier-phase-based I differential refer to the motion of some other pole, such as the GNSS or I real-time kinematic positioning. rotation pole, with respect to the crust and mantle of Phase Lock Loop (PLL) the Earth. A controller used to align the phase of a carrier replica Pose inside a GNSS receiver with that of the incoming The position and attitude of an entity. signal. It comprises a I numerically controlled Positioning oscillator, a phase I discriminator that senses the Determination of the position coordinates of instantaneous tracking error, and a loop filter that a location (in a reference frame) by means of provides a smoothed estimate of the phase error for measurement techniques in which the instrument is feedback to the NCO. either placed on the position to be determined, or Phase Unlock where the instrument measures the location of which Failure to maintain phase tracking lock in a carrier the position has to be determined. phase tracking loop, resulting in a single I cycle slip Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP) or a succession of cycle slips. I Dilution of Precision Phase Velocity Postseismic The speed of propagation of the carrier signal of an Immediately after an earthquake. Transient electromagnetic wave at a single frequency. It deformation processes are observed to occur describes the velocity of movement of the phase front. immediately after large earthquakes. These processes Phase Wind-up may cause very rapid deformation for a short time Glossary The change in the received signal phase due to after the earthquake, and the rate of deformation rotational changes in the relative orientation between decays with time back to a background, interseismic receiver and transmitter antenna in the direction of rate. signal propagation. Power (statistical) Pilot Signal One minus the I probability of missed detection. A GNSS signal component that does not contain data Preamble and is only modulated with a ranging code. Pilot A well-defined bit sequence used to identify the start signals allow for extended integration times for of data frames in the GNSS navigation message. improved tracking sensitivity and robustness. Often, Precession a I tiered code is used for pilot signals in which The slow variations in the directions of the Earth’s a medium length primary ranging code is combined instantaneous spin axis and of the I vernal equinox with a short I secondary code. relative to the celestial sphere due to the gravitational Pivot Receiver/Satellite actions of the Sun, Moon, and planets on the Earth’s Receiver or satellite that is selected as reference for orbit and its non-spherical shape and forming I between-receiver or I between-satellite non-homogeneous constitution. differences, respectively. Precise Orbit Determination (POD) Plate Boundary Zone A technique that combines methods and strategies to The boundaries between tectonic plates are observed derive precise (typically of sub-decimeter accuracy) to be diffuse and often involve deformation spread out satellite positions using either a dynamic (relying on over regions hundreds to even 1000 km wide. Within accurate modeling of forces acting on a satellite) or a plate boundary zone, several active faults may take kinematic (trajectory through epoch-wide up the relative plate motion between the major plates, representation) approach. sometimes with large undeforming regions inside the Precise Point Positioning (PPP) plate boundary zone. A technique that makes use of pseudorange and Plate Motion carrier phase observations of only a single receiver The surface of the Earth is broken up into a set of along with precise orbit and clock information of the tectonic plates, which are rigid except near their edges GNSS satellites for determining the position of the and which are all moving relative to each other. Plate receiver antenna. is shift phase shift ı ı not reject binary phase or of a compound I pseudorange. reject differential GNSS drature channel) are each I 6 MHz. The precision decision to in-phase component . I positioning. . In common usage, P(Y)-code refers to the 42 MHz and 1227: 23 MHz chipping rate, spread-spectrum signal : 23 MHz chipping rate GPS signals whether they Y-code hypothesis testing Pseudo-random noise (P)-code is unencrypted. For manyhas years, been the encrypted P-code into whatI is referred to as the 10: are being broadcasted encrypted or unencrypted. broadcast by the GPS satellites1575: on two frequencies, made. Given the data, itlevel is at the which smallest the significance test rejects the null hypothesis. A10 Region in which every floatto ambiguity the vector same is integer pulled vector.translational Pull-in invariant regions regions are that coverspace the without ambiguity gaps and overlap.pull-in The region shape is of defined the byestimator the chosen. type of integer A measure of strength-of-evidence onI which the (DGNSS) A quasi-random bit sequence ofgood limited cross length and autocorrelation with properties.sequences PRN are commonly used asGNSS ranging systems. codes in A distance-like measurement obtained fromdifference the between time transmission and receptiona of radio signal and thetime known offsets speed-of-light. between Due the to localtwo clocks times, measuring the the measurement differsdistance from and the includes true a contributionclock related offsets. to It these is hence called a Corrections determined at a (networkreceiver(s) of) that reference are transmitted toorder a to rover enable receiver in code-based shift keying. (BPSK) (known as in-phase and qua modulated with a binary signal using A signal component transmitted with a 90 I relative to the navigation signal. A modulation scheme for radiowhich navigation two signals, superimposed in carriers with a 90 A device that transmits GNSS-likefrom ranging a signals known location tosignals augment broadcast or by replace GNSS the satellites.a The contracted word is form of thepseudo-satellite composite term Q P(Y)-code Pull-in Region P-value Pseudo-random Noise (PRN) Pseudorange Pseudorange Corrections Quadrature (Q) Component Pseudo-random (PR) Binary Sequence Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Pseudolite . ˛ to gets C/A-code decision I alert limit ardous I I of measured or . gets larger. bias-to-noise ratio I egion. This probability signals on two frequencies, oducibility ilityprobab of haz ) while it is false. It is usually ) while it is true. It is also known precise point positioning (PPP) I ilityprobab of missed detection I I . This probability gets smaller as the P(Y)-code and ˇ bias-to-noise ratio I I hypothesis testing hypothesis testing pseudo-random noise sequence I I larger. The chance of not rejecting( the null hypothesis Probability of having the outcomeparameter of estimator the GNSS lie outside anon-hazardous pre-defined, parameter r increases as the influential occurrence . altitude/height Estimation of the outcome orvariable realization or vector. of An a observable random used random to vector guess is the outcomerandom of vector.The another non-observable non-observed vector may comprise model parameters to bein predicted space, in but time also or signal and/or noise parameters. The chance of rejecting the( null hypothesis denoted by The time scale associated witha an local observer frame. at rest in The maximum possible positioning errorpresent that for a may be navigation systema at specified the probability level. current Usually, time, thelevel for protection is compared to a corresponding The product of the testable as the significance level and it is usually denoted by (PPP-RTK) Extension of the estimated quantity when measurement orrepeated estimation under is similar circumstances. an instrument approach procedure usinglateral precise and vertical guidance flown to a GPS L1 and L2. A measure for the repr technique by including satellite phasesuch bias that corrections the single-station carrier-phasecan ambiguities be resolved to integersprecision and, can consequently, be the improved PPP to centimeter level. One of two services providedfor by authorized GPS (e.g., military) that users isupon only intended the and based determine whether the navigation systemoperational meets the requirements at that time. A number used to identifytransmitted a signal. GPS More satellite specifically, based the on PRNdenotes the number the serial number assigned to the I
Probability of Missed Detection Probability of Hazardous Occurrence Prediction (statistical) Probability of False Alarm Proper Time Protection Level Probability of Hazardous Missed Detection Precise Point Positioning Real-time Kinematic Precision Approach Precision Precise Positioning Service (PPS) PRN Number Glossary 1294 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1295
Quadrifilar Helix retrieve vertical profiles of the electron and neutral gas A GNSS antenna made up of four wires arranged in densities of the ionosphere and troposphere, a fractional-turn helix configuration and fed with respectively. progressive quadrature phase shifts. Radome Quantization A dome that covers, e.g., a I choke-ring antenna,as The process of converting a signal defined on typically used for geodetic surveying applications or a continuous range of values to one on a finite range at a I reference station. of discrete values. The analog radio frequency signal Ranging Code received by a GNSS signal may be quantized to two, A binary sequence modulated on a carrier wave to three, four, or more discrete quantization levels. enable I (pseudo)range measurements. GNSS uses Higher quantization resolution resulting from a larger I pseudo-random noise (PRN) sequences as ranging number of quantization levels reduces signal code. distortion due to quantization. Ratio Test Quartz Crystal Oscillator An ambiguity test to decide whether or not to accept A harmonic signal generator comprised of an the estimated I integer ambiguity vector. The test is specially cut quartz crystal device in a tuned circuit based on the ratio of two quadratic forms, measuring designed to produce a specific frequency signal. the closeness of the float ambiguity vector to the Design variations are employed to compensate for estimated integer vector and the next nearest integer environmental effects on the crystal device that may vector. cause frequency changes. Ray Tracing Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) The reconstruction of the signal path through different A regional Japanese navigation system, which uses media. slightly eccentric I inclined geosynchronous orbits to Real-time Kinematic (RTK) Positioning ensure that at least one satellite is always visible at I Differential GNSS positioning technique that is high elevations for users in the service area. driven by carrier-phase data based on a baseline set up Quaternion between a reference and rover receiver. Essential to A real-valued, four-component entity that extends the high-precision RTK positioning is carrier-phase space of complex numbers by defining integer ambiguity resolution. Code (pseudorange) data a hypercomplex mathematical object. A subset of the are used in addition to the phase data to strengthen the space of quaternions (quaternion with unit norm) can RTK positioning model. For sufficiently short be used to parameterize a rotation. baselines (e.g., less than 10 km) the differential Glossary atmospheric biases can be neglected and very fast R integer ambiguity resolution is feasible. Rebroadcast Test Radiation Pressure Testing a receiver by broadcasting GNSS signals The pressure caused by the absorption or reflection of (usually simulated) toward the device under test from photons impinging on the surface of a satellite. For one or more transmitter positions. Typically GNSS satellites with large solar panels, radiation conducted when the antenna is integrated into the pressure is a dominant source of I orbital device under test, or when it is necessary to include perturbations. Aside from the direct solar radiation the antenna in the test chain. pressure, reflected solar radiation of the Earth Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) (I albedo) or the Earth’s infrared radiation contribute A testing procedure whereby the redundant to the total acceleration. observations available at the GNSS receiver are Radio-determination Satellite Service (RDSS) autonomously processed to monitor the integrity of A service defined by the International the GNSS signals with the purpose of providing Telecommunications Union (ITU) for location relevant warnings. determination and reporting of mobile users using Receiver Independent Exchange Format (RINEX) radio signals in the L-band (uplink) and S-band The receiver independet exchange format is an (downlink). ASCII-based format for GNSS observation and Radio Occultation navigation data, as well as meteorological data. A radio technique that measures the change of radio Record-and-playback System wave parameters such as signal strength and phase at A system capable of recording received GNSS signals grazing incidence when the radio wave continuously as intermediate frequency samples and, at a later time, approaches the surface of a planet until the radio up-converting the replayed signals for input to wave finally disappears. The technique has been a GNSS receiver. widely used to explore planetary atmospheres such as Redundancy Venus and Mars. The GNSS radio occultation The total number of available observations minus the technique uses the changing refraction of GNSS number of observations that are strictly needed to signals while approaching the Earth’s atmosphere to solve the system of equations. For a linear system of , European geostationary I derived from the Wide Area GPS Aided GEO system. I I I ,the llites and a ground station . ference frame, to properly 15 dB) associated with loss > 834682611 GHz, where the : quaternion Multi-function Satellite Augmentation , and the Indian attitude parameters I I I . Examples include the US The two points, the northrotation rotation pole, pole defined and by the therotation south intersection axis with of the the surface Earth’s of the Earth. Standardized format for the exchangeobservations, of ephemerides, GNSS and correction datadefined as and published by theCommission Radio for Maritime Technical Services Special Committee 104 (RTCM SC-104). A signal generator that produceson a optically stable pumping signal the based hyperfineRubidium frequency 87 of at 6 Rubidium is suspended in a gas cell. elements of a A vector of A part of the spectrumcarrier of frequencies electromagnetic in waves the with range of 2−4 GHz. In the context of GNSS,correction the denotes Sagnac a or (non-relativistic) Earth-rotation correction ofsatellite the positions that must becomputation applied of in the the navigation solutionin a when rotating, working Earth-fixed re account for the Earth’s rotationpropagation during time. the signal The frequency at which a signal is measured. A wide area differential GNSSusing augmentation a system regional monitoring networkfrom to core collect constellations data and providingmessage to a users navigation via satellites in orbit Augmentation System (WAAS) Geostationary Navigation Overlay Servicethe (EGNOS) Japanese System (MSAS) of lock and extremely enhanced phase noise. A secondary mission for somewhich GNSS involves the constellations, detection ofstandardized internationally distress signals from emergency beacons A geodetic technique that providesmeasurements distance between sate based on the signal turn-around time of laser pulses. Temporal fluctuations in phase andby intensity electron caused density irregularities along a transionospheric signal’s propagation path. Scintillation effects may lead to(e.g., severe signal deep fading power fades Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) S Rotation Poles RTCM Message Format Rubidium Atomic Frequency Standard Rodrigues Vector S-band Sagnac Correction Sample Rate Satellite-based Augmentation System (SBAS) Search and Rescue (SAR) Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) Scintillation )andthe Precise system. by means of I with the , such as the . International n the equatorial plane, or ground marks that vernal equinox I I internationally recognized reference system reference frame differential positioning celestial coordinate ), whose measurements are used I I I I control points adopted for a particular national or or real-time kinematic (RTK) I Geodetic Reference System 1980 Area Navigation (RNAV) I I I or datum ellipsoid is an ellipsoid I I reference frame Differential GNSS Receiver independent exchange format I (GRS80) reference ellipsoid. The realization of a ITRF. The are accessible directly by occupationobservation; or for by example, the coordinates of global (DGNSS) positioning. A set of prescriptions andthe conventions modeling together required to with defineCartesian at coordinate any time axes. a triad of Method to establish properties ofby a comparing reflecting surface the properties ofand incident reflected (or electromagnetic a signals. replica) The deflection of GNSS signalsatmosphere. in the Earth’s The provision of additional parametersregional derived GNSS from observations to support to monitor, and possibly correct,satellite any signal observable errors. The referencethe station coordinate can act fixed as point forrelative positioning baseline determination solutions with or GNSS techniques such as Point Positioning (PPP) I Aformof A GNSS receiver at alocation precisely (i. surveyed e., antenna with knowna coordinates expressed in Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) addition of an on-board performancealerting monitoring capability. and A simulator that generates radio-frequencysignals (RF) similar to those expectedantenna. at Typically the used input for of conductiverebroadcast an testing, testing but is also possible. The longitude in a Right ascension is the angledirection between (at the or reference close to the projection of a bodies positionmeasured o in an eastern direction. I observation equations it equals thethe difference number between of observations andmatrix. the rank of the system That
Reference Frame Reference System Reflectometry Refraction Regional Argumentation Relative Positioning Required Navigation Performance (RNP) Reference Station RF-level Simulation Right Ascension RINEX Reference Ellipsoid Glossary 1296 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1297
and relaying of this information to government I meridian. The mean sidereal day is 86 164:09054 s authorities. long and is a measure of the rotation of the Earth with Second respect to the stars. The duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation Sidereal Time corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine The time associated with Earth’s rotation relative to levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom. The the celestial sphere, where 15ı of rotation equals 1 h definition was added to the International System (SI) of sidereal time. of units in 1967. Signal-in-space Range Error (SISRE) Secondary Code The user range error contributed by both the A short binary pattern that is applied to subsequent I space segment and I ground segment,but repetitions of a fast, medium-length, primary excluding ionosphere, troposphere, multipath errors, spreading code to form a long I tiered code that and receiver noise contributions. Usually applied to enables long integration times. Also referred to as an define the navigation service quality of the system overlay or synchronization code. itself. Selective Availability (SA) Signal-to-noise Ratio (SNR) An intentional degradation of the clock phase to limit A signal power to noise power ratio. It compares the the accuracy of the I standard positioning service of level of a desired signal to the level of background the I Global Positioning System (GPS) for civil users noise. to approximately 150 m. Selective availability was Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) finally abandoned by presidential order in May 2000. A signal power to noise-plus-interference power ratio. Semi-codeless Tracking Significance Level A special technique to track the encrypted I Y-code The I probability of false alarm. signal of the GPS satellites without full knowledge of SINEX the signal. It is based on the assumption that the I Solution independent exchange format Y-code results from the known I P-code by Single-difference multiplication with an unknown low rate ( 500 kHz) I Between-receiver difference or I between-satellite W-code. difference of GNSS observations and parameters. Semi-kinematic Positioning Single Point Positioning (SPP) I Differential GNSS positioning technique in which An absolute GNSS positioning technique that is based carrier-phase (and pseudorange) data are collected for on pseudorange measurements of at least four a rover receiver that is moving with respect to satellites with known positions and clocks offsets. Glossary a stationary reference receiver. The rover receiver Slant Total Delay collects data during a short time (a few minutes) and The extra time needed for a signal propagating then moves to the next point, continuously tracking the through the neutral atmosphere in a given (slant) signals. To avoid a long observation time span during direction compared to the propagation time in which the rover cannot move (as with conventional vacuum. It is often expressed in units of length, using static positioning), special measurement procedures the speed of light in vacuum for the conversion. For have been developed (i. e., revisiting of stations, practical reasons, the slant total delay (STD) is starting from a known baseline, with antenna swap). divided into a slant hydrostatic delay (SHD) and Semi-major Axis a slant wet delay (SWD). A special case is the delay in Half the large diameter of an ellipse, i. e., the radius of the zenith direction. This zenith total delay (ZTD) is an encompassing circle. For an elliptic satellite orbit, also divided into a zenith hydrostatic delay (ZHD) and the semi-major axis denotes the mean value of the a zenith wet delay (ZWD). The ZHD is approximately minimum and maximum orbital distance from the 2:3 m at sea level and proportional to the ground central body. pressure. The ZWD can be anything between Shapiro Effect 0−40 cm, depending on the climate zone and the The gravitational time delay experienced by an specific weather conditions. electromagnetic signal due to the presence of Software Defined Radio (SDR) a massive body close to the signal transmission path. A radio communication system implemented by Shielding Chamber means of software running on a processing system A chamber or cabinet designed to contain instead of typical implementation in hardware. radio-frequency signals. Typically used for broadcast Solar Day testing of radio-frequency equipment when the device The interval of time between two consecutive transits under test must be shielded from external signals of the Sun across some I meridian. The nominal and/or when the broadcast signals are in a protected or solar day is 86 400 s long and is a measure of the restricted band. rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. The Sidereal Day length of the solar day differs from that of the The interval of time between two consecutive upper I sidereal day by about 4 min because of the orbital transits of the I vernal equinox across some motion of the Earth about the Sun. 184 s : Dynamical TAI + 32 I D as the time reference tion system (SBAS) . It starts in about 8−13 km, but the Ephemeris Time (ET) I satellite-based augmenta ). For practical purposes both time scales may troposphere I being developed by the Russianhorizontal Federation and to vertical provide navigation throughout Russia. Time be considered to be equivalent.by Its the origin following relation is to defined TAI: TT on January 1, 1977, 0ideal, h which TAI. real TT clocks is canrealization a only is theoretical approximate; TT(BIPM) its provided best onthe a BIPM from yearly a basis set of by atomic clocks also used for TAI. Bias that propagates into thelies test in statistic; the such orthogonal bias complementmatrix of range. the A design non-influential bias is always testable. A function of the observableshypotheses. that is used to test Broadband noise originating in andue electrical to the conductor random thermala motion radio of system electrons. such In asoriginates a primarily GNSS in receiver, the thermal firstwhich noise amplifiers received signals through pass. Itmodeled can as be spectrally accurately flat withproportional an to intensity temperature and havingamplitude a distribution. Gaussian Earth deformations induced by thegravitational attraction luni-solar and resulting inground periodic motions (body tides) ofcentimeters, several inducing tens periodic of displacementliquids of the at the surface of the Earth (ocean tides). the equation of motion ofthe a orbit satellite determination and process adjusted to in imperfections compensate of for the employed force model. is the layer in theI Earth’s atmosphere above the actual value depends on thevaries weather systematically with conditions the and latitudeThe and top the season. is at a height around 50 km. A bandpass filter for radioan frequency electromechanical signals device based that on convertssignals electrical to a mechanical waveelectrical and signals. then back to An extra satellite in aoperational GNSS (e.g., constellation that because is it not isand older suffers than some its performance design degradation),be life but reactivated could if needed. (SDCM) A for apparent geocentric ephemerides ( Terrestrial Time is the relativistic timescalereplaced that T Testable Bias Test statistic Thermal Noise Tides Stratosphere Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Filter Surplus Satellite System of Differential Correction and Monitoring Terrestrial Time (TT) ). , poofing is of the C/A-code ellite. S I atellite system radiation pressure I International Terrestrial observation session I t by a GNSS sat I global navigation s . I comprising the constellation of satellitesorbital with geometry proper which transmits thesignals. navigation A consecutive number assigned toof different satellites the Global Positioning Systemthe (GPS). pseudo-random Other noise than (PRN) numberunique the for SVN a is given spacecraftthroughout and its does lifetime. not change characterizes the energy, intensity, and compositionthe of electromagnetic and corpuscular solargalactic radiation, cosmic rays, and thecoupling associated processes state of and the magnetosphere, ionosphere/plasmasphere, and thermosphere. The non-gravitational force per unit of mass. The act of generating aclosely signal enough whose to structure a adheres GNSScan signal be specification misconstrued that by it aauthentically GNSS broadcas receiver as order of a few tens of minutes. Empirical parameters such as accelerationsimpulsive velocity or increments that are introduced into A key part of a Reference Frame An intense outburst of radiowith emissions spectral from power ranging the from Sun, L-band. 3 A MHz burst to is above typically the flares, associated which with are solar caused byelectrons the in acceleration the of solar atmosphereoccurrence and follows whose the rate 11-year of sunspot cycle. An ASCII-based format for normalvariance/covariance equation matrices or and related information. SINEX files computed by different analysis/combination centers are, e.g.,the the input computation for of the The non-gravitational force acting onthe a direct satellite radiation due of to the Sun ( can be intentional, as inmanipulate a the deliberate position, attempt to velocity, ora time target readout GNSS of receiver, orerrant unintentional, GNSS as simulator in or an repeatermisinterpreted as signal originating that from could a be GNSS satellite. One of two services providedfor by civilian GPS use that and is is intended based upon the signal on one frequency, GPS L1 (1575.42 MHz). Estimation of a single seta of non-moving coordinates receiver from for observationsextended covering observation data an collection session1 (typically or more hours). Referredpositioning to when as the rapid static
Space Vehicle Number (SVN) Space Weather Specific Force Spoofing Stochastic Orbit Parameter Space Segment Solar Radio Burst Solution Independent Exchange Format (SINEX) Solar Radiation Pressure Standard Positioning Service (SPS) Static Positioning Glossary 1298 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1299
Besides changing the position of points on the surface must be specified by both ends of the ray path and the of the Earth, tides also cause small variations of the elevation angle. In ground-based GNSS applications it Earth’s gravity field. is convenient for distinguishing between the slant Tide-free System TEC (STEC) along the entire ray path and the A system (such as for coordinates) in which all tidal geometry free vertical TEC (VTEC) that describes the effects have been removed. vertical electron content from the bottom of the Tiered Code ionosphere up to GNSS orbit heights and is commonly A combination of a primary ranging code and a short used as reference. TEC is usually measured in units of I secondary code commonly used in I pilot 1016 electrons per m2 that is equivalent to 1 TEC unit channels of modern GNSS signals. (TECU). Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Total Station A multiple access scheme, where channel users A survey instrument set up on a tripod over a ground (satellites) occupy the complete available bandwidth mark that electronically measures the horizontal and but at different times, i. e., transmitting in turn in vertical angles of the telescope when pointed at assigned time slots. a target, as well as the distance to a reflecting prism Time Multiplexed Binary Offset Carrier (TMBOC) (or reflective surface) using an infrared laser. Used to Modulation transfer geodetic coordinates from the ground mark to A modulation in which different I binary offset atarget. carrier modulations pulse shapes are used for Tracking different chips of the pseudo-random binary sequence. The continuous alignment of a replica signal For example, a mixture of BOC(1,1) and BOC(6,1) generated inside a GNSS receiver to the received modulations is used for the I pilot component of the signal. Based on the tracking process, which is GPS L1 civil (L1C) signal. initiated after the initial signal I acquisition, Time Scale measurements of code delay, carrier phase, and carrier A continuous realization of a (conventional) reference can be obtained by the receiver. frequency Tracking Loop Time-to-first-fix (TTFF) A controller used to align a replica of the carrier or The time between activation of a GNSS receiver and ranging code in a GNSS receiver with the incoming the first computation of a navigation solution. It is signal. A I phase lock loop (PLL) or I frequency determined by the time required to search and for lock loop (FLL) for carrier tracking is combined with a sufficient number of satellites, to reliably track them a I delay lock loop (DLL) to track the ranging Glossary and to decode the relevant parts of the navigation signal. message. TTFF may vary from a few seconds for Traveling Ionospheric Disturbance a I hot start, to tens of seconds for a I warm start,or Ionospheric perturbation of electron density even up to a few minutes for a receiver I cold start. characterized by a horizontal scale length of a few Time-to-alert (TTA) hundred kilometers that travel at velocities in the order A maximum time allowed when a system that was of a few hundred meters per second. TIDs are often previously declared safe for use can no longer assure generated by I space weather events, in particular at that it meets all its integrity requirements for a given high latitudes due to the interaction of solar wind with operation. the Earth’s magnetosphere, causing enhanced Time Transfer ionization and heating. Here the enhanced solar The transfer of a precise reference time needed for energy input causes perturbation-related remote synchronization. In scientific metrology, the thermospheric winds and electromagnetic forces from time transfer is also used for remote comparisons of the magnetosphere, which may move plasma atomic clocks. perturbations, e.g., towards lower latitudes. Timing Group Delay (TGD) Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA) Scaled value of a satellite I differential code bias as A traveling wave tube integrated with a regulated transmitted in the satellite’s navigation message. power supply and protection circuits used to produce Tomography high-power radio frequency signals. Tomography refers to imaging of an object by Triple-difference penetrating waves whose modifications are measured The time difference of I double-difference GNSS after leaving the target. As an example, ground and observations. space-based GNSS signals can be used to image the Troposphere electron density distribution in the ionosphere and the is the lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, where water vapor distribution in the troposphere by the temperature on the average decreases with height. measuring code and/or carrier phase changes. It ends at the tropopause, which is located in the range Total Electron Content (TEC) from 8 km to 13 km, depending on the weather Integral of the electron density along a given ray path conditions, and varies systematically with latitude and through the ionized atmosphere. Since each ray path season. The troposphere contains the weather, e.g., has a specific geometry in concrete applications, TEC clouds and precipitation. . and . dilution of and the I ecliptic I User Equipment Error, I Universal Time UT1 celestial coordinate system I Ground-based Augmentation I I Signal-in-space Range Error, I differential corrections and integrity parameters, and is used to realize the , at which the Sun crosses the Equator from yields the statistical positioning error. . tracking architecture, but by the state estimate ) as well as contributions related to the user ). Multiplication of UERE with the ICD nutation International Celestial Reference System equator An aircraft navigation system operatingvery-high in frequency the (VHF) band. VORsa broadcast VHF radio composite signalreceiving that equipment allows to airborne derive the magnetic bearing System (GBAS) information using the ILS localizer’sband VHF frequency (108−118 MHz) and aaccess time (TDMA) division data multiple format definedI in the GBAS The transmission of A space geodetic technique utilizingsignals microwave from extragalactic radio sourcesBasically, the (quasars). signal travel time differencetwo between radio telescopes is measured.technique VLBI to is determine the only I I south to north, during itsecliptic. yearly This passage currently along occurs the onyear. Historically, about the March vernal 21 equinox each of served the as measurement origin of eclipticright longitude ascension as well in as the The user equipment for trackingdetermining position, GNSS velocity, signals and and time. for I A GNSS signal tracking architecturelocal in code which and the carrier replicaby generators single-channel are local driven feedback, not asscalar in a traditional of a consolidated position, velocity, andestimator timing that takes in dataA from vector all architecture active benefits channels. frominformation the in mutual code phase, carriermeasurements phase, between and channels Doppler and canmore thus accurate provide and robust trackingarchitecture. than a scalar The point of intersection of the such as residual tropospheric andnot ionospheric taken delays into account bya models dual-frequency combination or are eliminated also in attributed commonly to the UEE. The statistical error of theobserved difference and between modeled pseudoranges thatcomputing a are GNSS used position for solution.commonly UERE split is into contributions ofcontrol the segment space ( and equipment and atmosphere ( SISRE UEE precision V VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) VHF Data Broadcast (VDB) Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) User Segment Vector Tracking Architecture Vernal Equinox User Equivalent Range Error (UERE) . power I UDRE wet delay I Keplerian . By tradition, 29 I 9 s. The difference : UDRE satellite-based components are to indicate the possible ound the Earth, where all I 9% number or 3: called the : slant total delay). The I hydrostatic (dry) delay . I overbound value typically separately modeled or accountedGNSS measurement for in processing. The task of calculating thethe motion influence of of two their bodies mutualThe under gravitational two-body attraction. problem is aof simplified the representation motion of a satellite ar perturbations are neglected. The solutiontwo-body of problem the is also termed a and orbit between UTC and TAI is,number therefore, of always seconds. an integral A parameter broadcast by a augmentation system (SBAS) magnitude of the signal-in-space errorsatellite after for applying a the specific SBASis corrections. UDRE determined from a broadcastthe 4-bit UDRE number, indicator called or UDREI.used A to look convert the up indicator tableI to is a 1-sigma UDRE itself is a 99 (TWSTFT) A high-precision long distance timetransfer and mechanism frequency used for clockdetermination offset or time synchronization betweenstations. two Statistic A test statistic that has uniformly the largest Describes the signal propagation delayinduced and by bending the electromagnetic neutralatmosphere part ( of the of all invariant statistics An irregular time scale basedthe upon Earth. the UT0 rotation is of aobservations local taken time at scale a determined singleis from observing UT0 station. corrected UT1 for theobserving change station in caused longitude by of polarUT1 the motion. corrected UT2 for seasonal is variations.proportional UT1 to is the angle throughrotated in which space. the The Earth angular has proportional velocity to of the the time Earth rate-of-change is of UT1. Coordinated Universal Time is anon atomic the time long-term aligned on theEarth’s Universal rotation. Time, It i. is e., constructedwhen the by needed, adding a to leap the secondbetween TAI, to UTC keep and the UT difference less than 0 Contributions to the pseudorange measurementmodeling errors and that relate toas the multipath user and equipment (such receiver noise). Atmospheric errors
U
Two-body Problem User Differential Range Error (UDRE) Two-way Satellite Time and Frequency Transfer Uniformly Most Powerful Invariant (UMPI) Test Tropospheric Refraction Universal Time (UT) Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) User Equipment Error (UEE) Glossary 1300 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1301
from the station to the aircraft. This line of position is carrier-phase observations expressed in cycles. For called a radial. GPS L1 and L2 the wide-lane combination yields Virtual Clock a wavelength of about 86 cm. A technique used by I Chinese Area Positioning Wind-up System to implement satellite navigation. With the I Phase wind-up satellite virtual atomic clocks, the time at which the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) signals are transmitted from the ground can be A conventional terrestrial I reference frame defined delayed into the time that the signals are transmitted and maintained by the US Department of Defense. from the satellites, and the pseudorange measuring Nominally the I datum for GPS I single point can be fulfilled as in GPS. positioning. Virtual Reference Station (VRS) Approach w-test Statistic An approach that presents the data of a network of A I uniformly most powerful invariant (UMPI) test multiple reference stations to the user or rover as if statistic to test for the presence of one-dimensional coming from a single reference station, referred to as biases. A special form of the w-test statistic is used in the virtual reference station. I data snooping for the identification of observations Viterbi Decoder contaminated with gross errors. A device or software for decoding a navigation message encoded with a convolutional code for Y I forward error correction. It builds on algorithms for optimal decoding first published by A.J. Viterbi in Yaw-steering 1967. The continuous control of a GNSS satellite’s attitude around the Earth-pointing (yaw) axis to keep the solar W panel axis perpendicular to the satellite–Sun direction. Wavelength Y-code The spatial separation between consecutive maxima or An encrypted version of the precise ranging code minima of an electromagnetic wave at a given instant (P-code) transmitted by the GPS satellites on the L1 of time. and L2 frequencies. Walker Constellation A specific arrangement of multiple satellites in Z circular orbits around the Earth that enables good Glossary coverage and visibility conditions. Following Zenith J. G. Walker, the constellation geometry is described An imaginary point on the celestial sphere that is the by the total number of satellites, the number of orbital projection of a local vertical direction. The astronomic planes, and the along-track shift of corresponding zenith is the projection of the tangent to the local satellites in neighboring planes. All satellites within plumb line; the geodetic zenith is the projection of the a plane exhibit identical spacing and the same applies local ellipsoid normal. for the I ascending nodes of the individual orbital Zenith Total Delay planes. I Slant Total Delay Warm Start Zero-baseline Activation of a GNSS receiver with prior information A setup of two or more GNSS receivers sharing on the approximate time and user position, as well as a single antenna through a signal splitter. the coarse orbit of GNSS satellites to speed up the Zero-tide System signal search and acquisition. A system specifically for the gravitational potential, in W-Code which all tidal effects except that of the permanent A low rate code used to encrypt the I P-code of the (mean) tidal deformation have been removed. GPS L1 and L2 signal. The product of the W- and Z-tracking P-codes yields the so-called I Y-code. An advanced technique for I semi-codeless tracking Wet Delay of the GPS P(Y)-code on the L1 and L2 frequencies. The wet component of the I slant total delay. The encryption signal bit is estimated separately in Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) each frequency and fed to the other frequency to A I satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) remove the encryption code from the signal. In this developed by the US Federal Aviation Administration way, the code ranges and full wavelength L1 and L2 (FAA) to provide horizontal and vertical navigation carrier phases are obtained. However, this method throughout North America. It has provided results in a signal-to-noise ratio degradation in safety-of-life service since 2003. comparison to the direct code correlation Wide-lane Observable method. A linear combination of carrier-phase observations on Z-transformation two frequencies that exhibits a large effective An integer preserving ambiguity transformation. wavelength. It is formed as the difference of the two A matrix is integer preserving if and only if all its method, to re-parameterize ambiguities socan that be they estimated with highercorrelation. precision and less least-squares I
entries and those of itstransformations inverse are are integer. used, Such e.g., in the ambiguity decorrelation adjustment (LAMBDA)
Detailed Cont. 1302 Glossary of Defining Terms 1303
Subject Index
3 dB beam width 507 aeronautical alternative positioning navigation and 3-D choke ring ground plane 521 – information publication (AIP) timing (A-PNT) 900 321 Euler angle sequence 785 885 altimeter 942, 946 3CAT-2 1183 – information regulation and control ambiguity 1168, 1275 –-monitor 917 (AIRAC) 885 – decorrelation 674 – information services (AIS) 885 – decorrelation number 671 A – radio incorporated (ARINC) 884 – dilution of precision (ADOP) – radionavigation service (ARNS) 668, 1275 Abel inversion 1144 96, 470 – double-differenced 627 Abel transform 1123 AFB 203 – estimable PPP-RTK 628 absolute calibration 1200 afterslip 1086 – fixing 15, 778, 1196 absolute pseudorange 429 air force satellite control network – float solution 1275 absorption 167 (AFSCN) 204 – function 1167 ACC 2.0 1006 air navigation service provider –integer 15, 1286 acceleration 940 (ANSP) 887 – spectrum 675 –drag 69 air traffic control (ATC) 899 – success rate 662, 678, 1275 – earth gravity 60 air traffic services (ATS) 878 ambiguity resolution 665, 679, 771, – empirical 942, 948 aircraft 955, 996, 1012, 1275, 1286 –full(FAR) 662, 678 – gravitational 67 – autonomous integrity monitoring – partial (PAR) 662, 677, 1292 – line-of-sight 935 (AAIM) 882 ambiguity-fixed solution 1018, – nongravitational 941 – based augmentation system 1275 – radiation pressure 69 (ABAS) 340, 882 AMCS 204 – third-body 68 – operator (AO) 896 – tidal 941 amplitude modulation (AM) 122 airport pseudolite (APL) 929, 1275 accelerometer 816 analog receiver architecture 366 airworthiness certification 897 – pendulous 816 analog-to-digital conversion 380 airy 33 – vibrating beam 816 analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
albedo 71, 991, 1275 Index Subject accumulation 472 365, 402, 551 alert 1275 accuracy 841, 888, 910, 1013, 1275 analysis center (AC) 730, 968, 970, – limitation 1066 – limit 889, 919, 1275 983, 1044 acquisition 936, 1275 algebraic reconstruction technique – coordinator (ACC) 1002 – module architecture 408 (ART) 1147 anechoic chamber 1275 – performance 411 ALGOS 156 angular – verification 409 aliasing 380 –momentum 1055 Adams–Bashforth–Moulton method Allan deviation (ADEV) 121, 126, – momentum vector 60 940 243, 267, 291, 321, 1190, 1195, – random walk (ARW) 817 adaptation 705 1275 – rate vector 815 – recursive 714 – GNSS satellite 148 – velocity 61 additive white Gaussian noise Allan variance (AVAR) 124, 385, anomaly (AWGN) 382, 404 813, 1275 – eccentric 61 adjustment quality control 725 – modified 126 – mean 62 ADS contract (ADS-C) 899 – overlapping 126 –true 61 advanced Bayesian estimation 837 all-in-view (AV) 1193 antenna 1275 advanced GPS/GLONASS ASIC almanac 80, 229, 1275 – anti-jamming 517 (AGGA) 937 alternative BOC (AltBOC) 112, – array for radio occultation 519 advanced RNP 887 116, 250, 403, 579, 592, 736, – bow-tie 513 advisory circular (AC) 898 1203, 1275 – calibration 574 887 863, 150 295 383, 1276 878, 26, 1296 1277 26 372, 857 890, 1301 1236 406, 486 1276 402 1277 1277 231 899 841, 293 94, 99, 887 507, 898 953, 1016 894 689 1014, 892, 812, 785 98, 508 507 1016 1276 237 1276 1276 884 951, 1301 274 625, 1276 491 B 955 148 (ADS-B) 1276 892, 480, 869 Baikonur bandwidth – antenna – signal modulation bank angle Barker code (BC) Baro/VNAV barycentric – celestial reference system (BCRS) – coordinate time (TCB) – dynamic time (TDB) –system base station – satellite-based (SBAS) – wide area (WAAS) AUSPOS authentication code autocorrelation – direction finding (ADF) – processing – zero- BDS-1 BDS-2 – positioning performance – service region beam steering – error baseline baseband baseband signal – dependent surveillance broadcast – flight control system (AFCS) – gain control (AGC) automated transfer vehicle (ATV) automatic – dependent surveillance (ADS) – identification system (AIS) – train control (ATC) autopilot (AP) availability avionics axial ratio Azimuth 951, 128, 565 847 1275 72, 565 493 957 63, 62, 728 493 1276 784 493 85 1276 1276 1276 135 787, 62, 938 565 1121 1072 68 1014 375 819, 990 1276 974 1276 1276 128 1187, 1156 167 136, 1276 878 1094 941 202 445 781, 27, 27 monitoring 314 1276 0 17 N = University of Bern (AIUB) 1000 (ACES) C 266, 235, 1277 content analysis – secular drift asthenosphere Astronomical Institute of the astronomical unit atmosphere – signal delays – signature atom clock ensemble in space assisted GNSS (A-GNSS) atmospheric – density – loading – parameter – propagation delay atomic –clock – excess phase – fountain clock – frequency standard (AFS) – fountain – control – determination – GNSS satellites – parameter – parameterization – spacecraft augmentation – – time – time scale – transition ATS route attenuation – factor attitude – and orbit control system (AOCS) array antenna AS ascending node argument of latitude argument of perigee augmentation system – aircraft based (ABAS) – BeiDou satellite-based (BDSBAS) – distortion monitoring – information – precorrelation structural power 517 573, 168 1276 1276 1227, 1276 898 1112 1275 416 529, 1276 879, 202, 572 937 1004, 517 989, 1124, 527 511 953 898 426, 727, 509, 1170 1275 689 524 1278 523 1276 509 513 1276 205, 367, 575, 1177 1276 527 991, 512 509 61, 766 893 510 934 798 507 892 572,
204 (AMC) (ASIC) 889, (APV) 455 1276 529, 1275
Aquarius architecture evolution plan (AEP) arctangent discriminator area – correction parameters – navigation (RNAV) appropriate means of compliance – with vertical guidance (APV) approach –chart – procedure with vertical guidance – kick motor (AKM) Appleton–Hartree equation application specific integrated circuit APEX apogee AO-40 – phase-center offset – reference point (ARP) – phase center variations – phase pattern – pinwheel – placement multipath mitigation – quadrifilar helix – height error – helix – helix array – microstrip – patch – patch array – patch excited cup – phase center –gain – gain pattern – choke-ring – controlled reception pattern – exchange (format) (ANTEX) –swap – temperature – testing – thrust – under test (AUT) –spiral anti-jamming technology anti-spoofing (A/S)
Subject Index 1304 Subject Index Subject Index 1305
beam width 507 bias-to-noise ratio (BNR) 691, 701, – ephemeris model 81 beam-forming array antenna 519 1277 – group delay (BGD) 254, 261, BeiDou 139, 274, 881, 901, 1189, – influential 691, 701 1277 1203, 1277 –testable 693, 701 buffer-gas-cooled ion standards 138 – (Regional) Navigation Satellite big endian 1217 bulk acoustic wave (BAW) 127 System (BDS-2) 279 binary exchange (format) (BINEX) Bureau International de l’Heure – D1 navigation message 284 1217 (BIH) 27, 37, 155, 221, 290, – D2 navigation message 285 binary offset carrier (BOC) 18, 1048 – ephemeris parameters 285 109, 208, 252, 324, 394, 401, 451, Bureau International des Poids et – ionospheric correction grid 285 476, 579, 937 Mesures (BIPM) 27, 135, 223, – navigation principle 277 – modulation 1277 264, 292, 1041, 1188 – Navigation Satellite System (BDS) – multiplexed 1290 186, 273, 297, 506, 760, 978 binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) C – operational control system 288 18, 107, 227, 251, 324, 369, 403, – orbit determination 278 448, 579, 937, 1277 C/A 16, 205 –RAFS 140 – modulation 1277 C/A-code 1278 – receiver 371 – signal 448 – generator 228 – satellite 286 bistatic – power spectrum 477 – satellite-based augmentation – radar 1172 C=N0 monitoring 491 system (BDSBAS) 289, 358 – scattering coefficient 1168 cable delay 1199 – signals and services 281 – scattering differential coefficient cadastral survey 1028 – system architecture 275 1169 calibration 1197 – time (BDT) 31, 159, 278, 291 bit error correction 427, 1277 – antenna 989 BeiDou/Compass receiver 395 bit synchronization 1277 California earthquake 1069 bending angle profile 1122 bit/symbol synchronization 425 California real time network 1070 Bernese GNSS Software 940, 1000 blanking 499 campaign GPS network 1067 best linear unbiased estimation Block 1277 Canadian Meteorological Centre (BLUE) 641, 1148, 1277 block control 858 (CMC) 176 best linear unbiased prediction Block I satellite 199 cannonball model 942 (BLUP) 651, 1277 Block II/IIA satellite 200 canonical interference model 476 between-receiver difference 1277 Block IIA 934 carrier 5, 1278 between-receiver single difference Block IIF satellite 201 – pseudorange 432 594 Block IIR 934 – tracking Kalman filter 437
between-satellite difference 1277 Index Subject carrier phase 6, 431, 1278 between-satellite single difference Block IIR satellite 201 (BSSD) 596 Block IIR satellite time keeping – ambiguity 1278 bias 690, 817, 1277 system 143 –bias 578 – characteristic 453 blunder 1277 – correction 908 – DGNSS 754 body frame 819 – differential GNSS (CDGNSS) – differential code 996, 1213, 1280 Boltzmann constant 1169 479, 908 – differential ionospheric 755 bootstrapped PMF 668 – error 450 – differential tropospheric 757 bootstrapping 955, 1286 – measurement 563 – frame 46, 1283 boresight angle 1277 – multipath error envelope 452 – influential 690, 1286 Bortz orientation vector 820 – multipath measurement 463 – inter-channel 1286 Bose–Chaudhuri–Hocquenghem – noise variance 433 – inter-frequency 997, 1287 (code) (BCH) 284 – observation 724 – inter-satellite type (ISTB) 1287 boundary layer 1277 – tracking 145 – inter-system 997, 1287 bow-tie turnstile antenna 513 – wind-up 569 – minimal detectable (MDB) 698, box-wing model 69, 73, 942, 1277 carrier-Doppler aided code tracking 1290 bps 215 421 – phase 1292 Brewster angle 1180 carrier-power to – pivot receiver 755 broadcast interference-and-thermal-noise – satellite position 755 – ephemeris 83, 1213, 1277 ratio (CINR) 473 –testable 690, 1298 – ephemeris data 214 carrier-range 1019 95, 130, 577, 1279 460 403, 419 379, 146 436 312, 409 1202, 1291 870 1279 1287 329, 1279 136 428 1047 1099, 1279 586 431 409 406 1297 424 267, 586 367, 410 113 1165 1301 430 914 1295 754, 1292 936, 1301 1294 1279 1299 226, 342, 1279 1289 369, 913, 187 606, 1301 1292 208 97, 602, Radiocommunications (CCIR) 155, 17, 588, 1279 (CASM) 136 –M- – Neuman-Hofman – overlay –P- – P(Y)- – phase – pseudorange – ranging – secondary – shift keying (CSK) – steering – virtual clock offsets example CM code – ambiguity –bias –C/A – correlation – direction – division multiple access (CDMA) – tiered –W- –Y- code/carrier generator code-carrier divergence (CCD) code-minus-carrier (CMC) coherence coherent – adaptive sub-carrier modulation – integration – integration method – integration time – population trapping (CPT) cold atom clock cold start collision avoidance colocation site colored noise combination – ionosphere-free – narrow-lane – wide-lane combined processing Comité Consultatif International des 50, 489 997 641 997 996 425, 691 298 1278 299 1164 1128 148 310, , 92 1221 386 520, 1278 520 1191 1000 258, 300 206 145 1118 1276 30 145 1165 996 996 1279 1004 148 143 456, 1118 298, 926 122 1279 157, 573 298 27, 232, 1119 1279 122 485 386 973, 215, 208 (CAPS) 137, 356 81, 847, (CMCU) – composite – constraint – densification – difference – ensemble – monitoring and comparison unit – monitoring –offset – parameter – reference signals GPS – relativistic effect – RINEX format – spectrum – stability – reference – reference signals BDS – reference signals Galileo – research clock –atomic chip technology chipping rate chirp chi-square distribution choke ring Chinese Area Positioning System – system architecture chip scale atomic clock (CSAC) – antenna – ground plane – signal frequencies Cholesky decomposition Christian Doppler circular error probable (CEP) – positioning – concept CL clean-replica – GNSS-R receiver clear zone climate – model – monitoring –waveform Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) civil navigation message (CNAV) circular T 54 389, 850 28, 491, 745, 987 1057 44 1057, 1182 998 1278 44 947 178 0 N 188, 85, 786 = 608 850 988, 1278 987, C 1144, 72, 1278 52, 26 1278 1278 507 37, 226 1278 464 1278 734 959, 1278 141 378 34, 897, 286 1001 895 941, 26, 1278 141 405 1058 1278 457
Europe (CODE) 990, 1192 130, (CNES) 407, (CGCS) 2000 (CGCS2000) 1278 578
carrier-to-noise – density ratio – power-density ratio – reference frame (CRF) – reference system (CRS) – sphere cell-of-origin (COO) cellular network positioning Center for Orbit Determination in center frequency center-of-gravity (COG) center-of-mass (CoM) Chandler wobble – ratio category I Cayley representation C-Band celestial – coordinates – ephemeris pole – intermediate origin (CIO) – intermediate pole (CIP) cesium clock –GLONASS –GPS CGGTTS time transfer standard CHAMP ceramic filter certification cesium beam frequency standard central synchronizer Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales cesium 133 atom channel number Chapman layer function Chapman profile China Geodetic Coordinate System China Geodetic Coordinate System Chandler period center-of-network (CoN) central processing unit (CPU) central bureau
Subject Index 1306 Subject Index Subject Index 1307
commensurability 74 control coseismic 1280 –GPS 75 – point 1279 – displacement 1076, 1088 commercial channel navigation –segment(CS) 197, 203, 278, 983, COSMIC 959 (C/NAV) message 256 1279 COSMIC/Formosat-3 1144 commercial service 250 – surveys 1027 Cosmicheskaya Sistema Poiska commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) control segment (CS) 16 Avariynyh Sudo (space system for 938 controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) search of distress vessels and common clock model 626 893, 1279 airplanes) (COSPAS) 871 common clocks positioning model controlled radiation pattern antenna –SARSAT 236, 250, 267, 871, – estimable parameter function 627 (CRPA) 367, 517 1280 common view (CV) 1192 controller pilot data-link Costas communications-based train control communications (CPDLC) 899 – loop 474, 475, 1280 (CBTC) 857 conventional navigation 878 –PLL 416, 432 compact RINEX 1213 conventional terrestrial pole (CTP) coupling comparator 414 290 – deep 826 compatibility 1279 convergence time 635 course deviation indicator (CDI) complementary metal oxide conversion gain 481 888 semiconductor (CMOS) 367, 936 convex impedance ground plane covariance 1280 composite binary offset carrier 521 –matrix 944 (CBOC) 112, 251, 252, 407, 451 convolution 472 Cramer Rao lower bound (CRLB) – generation block diagram 253 cooperative intelligent transport 104, 1280 composite clock 30 systems (C-ITS) 853 CRCS-PPP 1016 compression cooperative positioning (CP) 856 CRISTA-SPAS 798, 957 – Hatanaka 1211, 1285 coordinate critical inclination 68 conductive test 540, 545, 1279 – celestial 33 cross plate reflector ground plane confidence – time 149, 1279 522 –level 643 coordinate system cross-correlation 1164, 1280 –region 643 – Earth-centered inertial (ECI) 610 – protection 408 coning 813 – Earth-centered-Earth-fixed (ECEF) Crustal Dynamics Data Information constant envelope signal 113 610 System (CDDIS) 971 constellation – local 611 cryogenically cooled sapphire-loaded – Galileo 248 – local topocentric 64 ruby oscillator 137 constrained maximum success-rate Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) cryosphere 1177
(CMS) 681 29, 121, 198, 223, 251, 278, 319, Index Subject cryptographic spoofing detection –test 1279 352, 398, 755, 927, 971, 1117, 495 construction machinery automation 1188, 1279 1031 coordinates crystal oscillator 376, 384 construction survey 1030 – Cartesian 31 cut-off angle 995 Consultative Committee for Time – celestial 1278 cut-off elevation angle 772 and Frequency (CCTF) 1198 – equatorial 1283 cycle slip 433, 475, 484, 764, 1280 Consultative Committee of Time and – geocentric 1284 – carrier-phase 689, 716 Frequency (CCTF) 1192 – geodetic 32, 1284 – influential 691 conterminous United States – geographic 1284 cyclic redundancy check (CRC) (CONUS) 341, 909, 1279 – local 33, 1289 215, 232, 257, 311, 352, 392, 427, – threat model 924 – perifocal 1292 895, 918, 1215 continental – spherical 31 CYGNSS 1183 – drift 1279 Coriolis acceleration 821 – hydrology loading 1094 coronal mass ejection 922 D – US (CONUS) 878 correction models 985 continuity 812, 841, 890, 910, 1279 correlation 472, 1165, 1279 data 117, 885 continuous GNSS network 1068 – cross- 1280 – assimilation 1141 continuously operating reference correlator 415, 1280 –bit 1280 station (CORS) 35, 311, 461, – model 404 – bit transition 412, 416 650, 741, 761, 922, 1020 – spacing 1280 – bit/symbol demodulation 426 259, 541, 878, 241, , 509 448 9 945 378, 1281 484, 1293 184, 1281 388 1281 , 458 9 618 618 1222 832 626 1281 392, 835, 566, 417 618 414, 1281 819 433 1281 d radiopositioning 563, 882 1281 341, 618, 1040, 707 1122, 691 564 1281 103, 1281 409 138 1281 1275 1281 136 411 1281 618, 252, 333, 968, , 687, 935, 6 , 93, 1281 5 709 322, 293, 950, 709 710 710 - - - 1281 495 (DME) determination (DIODE) 299, t F 263, integrated by satellite (DORIS) 945, 578 – normal – –beta – chi-squared – – correlation – delay map – direction – effect DLL discriminator DLL discriminator function do-not-use flag Doppler – measurement – navigation – noise variance – observation – orbitography an distinct clock model distribution – diode laser direct conversion direction cosine –matrix(DCM) discrete Fourier transform (DFT) discriminator dispersive medium displacement disposal orbit distance measuring equipment – vertical (VDOP) – range –shift Doppler/delay alignment DORIS immediate orbit on-board – ambiguity – geometric (GDOP) – horizontal (HDOP) – positioning (PDOP) double-delta correlator – signal processor (DSP) – signal processing unit – video broadcasting (DVB) dilution of precision (DOP) 952, 227, 14, 576, 1001 956 509 1213, 951, 187, 762 910 956, 167 21, 762 975, 907, 1277 624 708 1277 631 148 745, 286 14, 705 734, 980 855, 147, 14 176, 444 760 1163 141 446 712 514 616 733, 515, 753, 613 614 1281 632 21, 1297 631 1299 633 760 712 613, 370, 623, 589, 1280 Raumfahrt (DLR) antenna 325, 466, 1281 (GFZ) 367 (DCFBS) difference – between-receiver – double differencing – between-receiver – double differential – correction – between-satellite – single –triple – between-satellite – single –triple – correction generation – GPS (DGPS) – elevation model (DEM) –P1-C/A – receiver differential GNSS (DGNSS) – satellite Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und DFH-3 platform DIA procedure dielectric coefficient dielectric loaded quadrifilar helical – positioning differential code bias (DCB) – local – wide-area diffuse – reflection – scattering – correction latency – correction update rate digital – all-in-view receiver architecture – audio broadcast (DAB) – cesium beam frequency standard detrending – polynomial – local – recursive Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum 740 671 913 448, 1166 832 1280 413, 1081 1177 1167 883 1280 970 1196 368, 788 1280 424, 855 804 79, 1280 1280 1297 968, 167 1286 -transformation 1176 1280 998 Z 706 826 33, 28, 853, 34 884 1280 936, 1280 705 992 428 1004 1027 69 713 26 1285 1195 25, 1297 1297 1280 1301 826,
368 (DSRC) 561,
day boundary – discontinuity – quality monitoring (DQM) – snooping – symbol datum – definition – geodetic Davenport matrix day – Julian –solar – editing – extract –format – integrity – channel – demodulation – center (DC) –jump de Sitter dead reckoning Debye length decision altitude decision height (DH) declination decorrelating – hydrostatic – lock loop (DLL) decoupled clock model (DCM) deep coupling – ultratight Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) deflection of the vertical – Doppler coordinates – Doppler-map (DDM) – group dedicated short range communication deformation –survey delay – and phase compensation Denali fault earthquake detection – global delta range measurement –map(DM) –slant –total –wet
Subject Index 1308 Subject Index Subject Index 1309
double-difference (DD) 596, 670, Earth’s center of mass (CoM) 733 equator 27, 1282 689, 723, 790, 952, 1000, 1281 East-North-Up (ENU) 787 – celestial 44 – observation 464 east–north-up system 611 –radius 33 downconversion 376, 1166, 1281 EC 17 equatorial plasma bubble (EPB) draconitic period 72, 1281 eccentric anomaly 61, 564 184 draconitic year 1046, 1281 eccentricity 60, 564 equator-S 934 drag 941 Echelle atomique libre (free atomic equinox 44, 1283 dry refractivity 170 scale) (EAL) 156 –vernal 27, 28 DSSS 206 eclipse 1004 error dual chip design on PCB 390 –transit 86 – component 891 dual-frequency 1281 ecliptic 44, 1282 – systematic 1003 – GNSS pseudorange 724 – obliquity 46 – variance matrix 653 dynamic effective isotropic radiated power eruption cycle 1090 – displacement 1082 (EIRP) 209, 1168, 1282 estimation – time 26, 1281 Efratom 139 –geometryof 690 – yaw steering 572 EGM 205 –integer 661 dynamo region 1156 eikonal 180 – least-squares 639, 947, 1288 elastic block modeling 1077 – recursive 644 E elastic rebound hypothesis 1064 – unbiased 641 electric path length 171 estimator electromagnetic – best linear unbiased 1277 early-minus-late correlator 1281 – band gap substrate 522 – minimum mean square error early-power minus late-power code – roughness 446 1290 discriminator 417 – wave propagation 166 Etalon 233 Earth element, Keplerian 1288 Euler –albedo 71 elementary charge 1233 – angle 785, 819, 1283 – gravitational potential 67 elevation 1282 –axis 820 – oblateness 565, 1282 – angle 785 – rotation theorem 820 – observation (EO) 942 –mask 995, 1282 – theorem 784 – orientation parameter (EOP) 46, ellipsoid 32, 1282 EUMETNET GNSS Water Vapour 54, 973, 987, 996, 1054, 1282 elliptic orbit 59 Programme (E-GVAP) 1116 – Parameter and Orbit System elongation 1282 European Centre for Medium-Range (EPOS) 1001 Empirical CODE Orbit Model Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) – radiation pressure 1282
(ECOM) 72, 995, 1282 176, 729, 988, 1094, 1113, 1123 Index Subject – rotation 25, 28, 1054 end-fire mode 511 European Geostationary Navigation – rotation angle 1282 energy level 128 Overlay Service (EGNOS) 19, – rotation correction 155 engineering surveying real-time 185, 248, 354, 762, 846, 883, – rotation parameter (ERP) 1004 operation 1029 1141, 1283 Earth model enhanced 911 (E911) directive 849 – data access service (EDAS) 356 – fundamental parameter 222 enhanced LORAN (eLORAN) 869 European Railway Traffic –PZ-90 221 enhanced odometry 859 Management System (ERTMS) Earth-centered Earth-fixed (ECEF) en-route navigation 891 860 6, 148, 290, 352, 571, 787, 818, envelope signal 94 European Satellite Services Provider 985, 1282 EOPP 205 (ESSP) 357 – coordinate system 152 ephemeris 229, 1282 European Space Agency (ESA) 17, Earth-centered inertial (ECI) 148, – broadcast 1213, 1277 243, 247, 370, 525, 541, 738, 205, 985, 1282 –data 80 1000, 1132 – coordinate system 150 – JPL development 45 European Train Control System earthquake – solar system 941 (ETCS) 858 –cycle 1073, 1282 – time (ET) 26, 1282 European TSO (ETSO) 897 – cycle deformation 1075 equation evolved expendable launch vehicles – magnitude 1078 –Kepler’s 151 (EELV) 202 – signature 1158 – of motion 939 EWS 17 – warning 1083 – of origins 28 Excelitas 139 45 1177, 1203, 423 736, 935 145 270 1283 1174, 250, 1189, 606, 524, 1284 252 1283 1284 269 979 1174 1284 413, 104, 901, 688 577, 526 247, 900 123 258 523, 1202, 404, 731, 524 509 123 509 379, 881, 379, 523 507, 446 123 238, 122 1283 997, 475 369, 183 510 123 138 247, 226, 183, 123 201 847, 248, 97, G 256 1284 677 17, 416 17, 754, (GIOVE) 1180 – drift – fractional – instantaneous – lock loop (FLL) – lock loop (FLL) discriminator – normalized –offset – standard – unlock Fresnel – law of reflection –radius – reflection coefficient frequency –comb – division multiple access (FDMA) free navigation (F/NAV) message free-space loss – GPS IIR-M – M-shaped Galileo – Control Centre (GCC) – FEC Encoder – Ground Segment – In-Orbit Validation Element gain pattern – modulation details – passive hydrogen maser GaAs Gabor bandwidth Friis formula – zone functional model Fundamental Katalog 5 (FK5) future evolution fringing front end (FE) – ratio (FBR) full ambiguity resolution (FAR) full operational capability (FOC) front-to-back 507 427, 883 124 891, 793, 425, 893 1283 124 870 1283 679, 887 392, 679, 416 427, 862 124 1169 663, 951 416 517 124 311, 663, 1283 15, 895 914 1296 884 367, 1283 1283 258, 1283 32, 1286 1283 86 1283 1283 46, 229 1283 884, 770, 215, 15 879 456 776, 879, (FRPA) 680, 1283 117, discriminator 1283 1283 1287 1287 fixed solution flattening fixed-beam phased-array antenna Flächenkorrekturparameter (FKP) flight technical error (FTE) Flight Director (FD) flight deck flight management system (FMS) fleet management flicker – drift (FLDR) – frequency (noise) (FLFR) – noise – phase (noise) (FLPH) fixed radiation pattern antenna – data block final approach fix (FAF) final approach segment (FAS) first-null beam width (FNBW) fishing fleet monitoring fix fixed failure rate ratio test (FFRT) FLL discriminator float solution forward error correction (FEC) four-quadrant arctangent – inertial – international celestial reference – international terrestrial reference – orbital – reference – synchronization floor noise model FM FOH-YETE footprint forecast formation flying Fourier transform frame –bias 177, 331, 710, 389, 815 849 331, 12, 655, 453 1283 1088 470, 915 707 1283 669 541 653, 1283 954, 655 701 306 713 938 713 890 655 693, 198, 587, 518, 459, 954, 1288 943, 911 1121 934 1298 998 943 447 882, 680 421 373, 436, 856, 650 566 994, 856, 414 700 1145 1149 378, 1283 824, 378, 856, 824,
F (FPGA) tracking 656, 758 408 Commission (FCC) 1152 824, 656, 882
–SAW – unscented – variance form – fading-memory – finite-memory – information form –Kalman filter Figure-8 satellites feedback fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) fiducial free field programmable gate array – extended Kalman (EKF) extra wide-lane external Doppler-aided carrier external reliability extreme atmospheric conditions extreme ultraviolet (EUV) F2 layer F2 region fading –depth – frequency Falcon Gold false alarm – probability of executive monitoring expandable slot excess phase fault – detection – detection and exclusion (FDE) – monitoring Federal Communications exponential relaxation export regulation extended Kalman filter (EKF) –region fast fading consideration fast Fourier transform (FFT)
Subject Index 1310 Subject Index Subject Index 1311
–RAFS 140 GEONET 1070 – Inferred Positioning System and – receiver 394 geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) Orbit Analysis Simulation – spreading codes 254 16, 61, 275, 305, 342, 398, 572, Software (GIPSY) 1000 – System Time (GST) 31, 159, 251, 770, 847, 934, 968, 1041, 1284 – mixed-integer model 662 263 geostationary satellite 347 – performance requirements 888 – Terrestrial Reference Frame GEROS-ISS 1183 – R model 1167 (GTRF) 261, 608 GHOST 940, 947 – R receiver 1163 – Time Service Provider (GTSP) Gibbs vector 786 – radio occultation 1144 263 GINS/DYNAMO 1001 – receiver for atmospheric sounding Galileo-GPS Time Offset 1284 GIOVE-A 935 519, 1125 GAMIT-GLOBK 1001 glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) – record and replay device 486 GANE 799 1064, 1069, 1095 – reflectometry (GNSS-R) 1163 GAS 17 glistening zone 1173 – satellite attitude modeling 570 Gaussian distribution 1176 Global – satellite clock relativistic offset Gauss–Jackson method 940 – Climate Observing System 154 Gauss–Newton iteration 612, 649 (GCOS) 1118 – signal diffraction 183 GBAS 340, 457, 515, 556, 761, – Ionospheric Scintillation Model – signal scattering 183 854, 882, 890, 905, 1285 (GISM) 184 – simulator 485, 1200 – Approach Service Type (GAST) global – specific reference frame 1050 919 – assimilation ionospheric model – system time 606 – error 926 (GAIM) 1147 – time transfer technique 1191 – protection level 926 – differential GPS (GDGPS) 854, – timescale 158 GCOS Reference Upper Air Network 951 – tracking algorithms 1163 (GRUAN) 1118 – geodetic observing system (GGOS) Global Positioning System (GPS) GDOP 9 967, 1039, 1041 3, 30, 61, 96, 122, 181, 197, 219, general aviation 885 – ionosphere map (GIM) 1141, 247, 281, 305, 340, 365, 401, 456, generic 1222 473, 505, 536, 564, 586, 655, 661, – clock system 122 – ionospheric map (GIM) 568, 615, 698, 723, 754, 782, 812, 843, 877, – data/pilot multiplexing approach 728, 988 905, 933, 934, 967, 983, 1011, 435 – mapping function (GMF) 177, 1039, 1064, 1110, 1140, 1164, – GNSS signal 403 569, 729, 986 1188, 1284 geocenter motion 1045 – navigation satellite system (GNSS) – Block IIR rubidium clock 145 Geocentric 339, 639 – C/A code L1 receiver 373
– Celestial Reference System – pressure and temperature (model) – complementary service 309 Index Subject (GCRS) 44, 148 (GPT) 173, 569, 730, 761 – constellation design 197 – Coordinate Time (TCG) 26, 150, – pressure and temperature model – control segment 203 1048 (GPT2) 730 – error source 343 – Terrestrial Reference System – temperature trends 1129 – III satellite 201 (GTRS) 148 global navigation satellite system – Klobuchar model 186 geodesy 1039 (GIPSY) – maneuver 75 geodetic – Inferred Positioning System and – P(Y) tracking 434 – positioning 1064 Orbit Analysis Simulation – receiver application module 367 – survey applications 1023 Software (OASIS) 940 – satellite 199 GEODYN 940, 947 global navigation satellite system – signal 207 geodynamic 1063 (GNSS) 3, 25, 59, 91, 121, 165, – signal legacy 205 geographic information system (GIS) 197, 220, 250, 278, 305, 365, 401, – signal overview 207 514, 861, 1026, 1284 443, 469, 505, 535, 561, 583, 661, – solar pressure model 73 geohazard monitoring 1043 687, 723, 753, 781, 811, 841, 905, – Time (GPST) 30, 159, 319 geoid 35, 1284 933, 967, 983, 1011, 1039, 1063, – Week 1285 geometric dilution of precision 1109, 1139, 1163, 1187, 1284 Global’naya Navigatsionnaya (GDOP) 9 – accuracy 1064 Sputnikova Sistema (Russian geometry screening 926 – antenna 508 Global Navigation Satellite geometry-free 585 – based reference frame 1050 System) (GLONASS) 5, 39, 61, geometry-preserving 585 – disciplined oscillator 1189 139, 219, 232, 267, 305, 356, 369, , 9 998, 398, 378 688 889 222, 758 755 458 1286 176 132 40, 847 888 107 37, 1282 1194, 647 510 1211 141 691 728 991 511 35, 602 1284 1286 484 46 885 465 374, 825 1285 1285 134 1043 1285 869 700 1285 785 133 1285 35, 510 296, correction 934 Astrophysics (CfA) 1285 antenna 249, – resolution correlator – sensitivity GNSS higher-order ionospheric delay highly elliptical orbit (HEO) –geoid –system helicopter helix – antenna – quadrifilar Helmert – block method – transformation high – impedance ground plane (HIGP) Hipparcos homodyne down-conversion horizon horizontal – alert limit (HAL) – dilution of precision (HDOP) harmonic harmonics Harvard–Smithsonian Center of Hatanaka – compression Hatch filter hazardous – missed detection (HMD) – probability –region heading –sensor health status Heaviside function height – above threshold (HAT) – ellipsoidal – ionospheric gradient –system – tropospheric gradient hot start hour angle hydrogen maser – frequency standard – passive – Q-enhanced – active 882, 1285 347 1024 147 854, 210, 1285 432 1198 1285 735 761, 517, 1277 1285 1285 412 229 1199 815 1233 343, 1299 37 590, 556, 1285 1285 1285 509, 1110 63 520 424 525, 1213, 379 1284 28, 987 126 908 804, 289, 95, 515, 905, 521 1213, 74 33, 27 370 457, 890, 269 H 507 (GIVE) 17, 356 269, (GRAPHIC) 340, 883, (GRAS) GRS80 group delay – broadcast g-sensitivity gyroscope – distortion – timing Hadamard – GPS satellite deviation –variance hardware delay half-bit method half-cycle ambiguity half-power beam width (HPBW) Hamming code HARDISP hardware calibration hand-over word (HOW) – meridian grid ionospheric vertical error – noon Ground Control Segment (GCS) ground monitoring station (GMS) ground plane ground deformation surveys ground mission segment (GMS) group – and phase ionospheric calibration ground track ground-based – augmentation system (GBAS) –convex – corrugated ground segment ground station – repeat – repeat period ground uplink station (GUS) – velocity – regional augmentation system – monitoring 753, 354, 767 223 1176 221 1284 766 723, 984, 1173, 19, 1092 31, 1091 767 224 239 1285 1284 945 1144 477, 588, 968, 767 , 141 1147, 1284 997 956, 940 226 237 735, 264 226 799 228, 249 145 394 564, 933, 1141, 67, 1287 941, 1285 735 1233 1125, 1202, 590, 35, 519, 101, 160 369, 536, 901, 883, 1208 923 517, 225 1130 941 1143 940 31, 1099, 1201, 394 505, 881, 847, 232 232 263, 426, 846, 1048, 1188, Navigation (GAGAN) 762, 28 Greenwich – apparent sidereal time (GAST) – hour angle Gravity Probe One Green’s equivalent layer – Mean Time (GMT) gravity –field –wave – ambiguity resolution –K – launch vehicle – receiver – adjacent channel numbers – central synchronizer – cesium clock – FDMA signal – ground segment site – interchannel phase bias –M – signal – System Time (GLST) – channel number – clock estimation – constellation parameter – inter-channel bias – time GOCE Gold code GRACE – dissemination gravitational – coefficient – wedge Gram–Charlier distribution GRAPHIC – based PPP graveyard orbit – potential GPS-to-Galileo time offset (GGTO) gradient – ionospheric – TEC GPS/MET GPGGA GPS-aided GEO Augmented
1312 Subject Index Subject Index Subject Index 1313
hydrographic surveying 1033 inclined geo-synchronous orbit – least-squares (ILS) mixed 673 hydrostatic troposphere delay 757 (IGSO) 16, 61, 275, 305, 531, – least-squares (ILS) optimality hydroxyl (OH) emission 227 564, 770, 979, 1286 674 hyperfine level 26 Indian master control center – mapping 663 – cesium 130 (INMCC) 357 – recovery clock (IRC) 740 – hydrogen 132 Indian navigation land uplink station – rounding (IR) 662, 666, 669, – rubidium 129 (INLUS) 357 1286 hypothesis Indian reference stations (INRES) integrated water vapor (IWV) 1110 – alternative 689 356 – annual components 1119 – null 689 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite – diurnal components 1119 System (IRNSS) 17, 31, 61, 140, – signal acquisition 406 – uncertainty 1115 279, 305, 506, 731, 881, 978 integrity 812, 841, 877, 881, 882, – testing 692, 1286 – constellation 322 888, 910, 1286 –RAFS 140 – beacon landing system (IBLS) I – SPS code generator 326 928 inertia tensor 1055 – message 762 ice sheet 1098 inertial 1286 – monitor testbed (IMT) 911 ICG 104 – measurement unit (IMU) 497, – navigation (I/NAV) message 256 ICS 204 552, 799, 812, 852, 959, 1286 intelligent transport system (ITS) ID 210 –sensor 815 842, 853 identification 705 inertial navigation system (INS) intensity 507 – global 714 799, 812, 858, 959 – optical pumping (IOP) 130 – local 713 – computation 813 intentional interference 485 – recursive 713 – error state 814 interchannel bias (ICB) 606, 754 IERS reference meridian (IRM) – vertical channel instability 823 interface control document (ICD) 290 influential bias 688 80, 220, 252, 279, 311, 371, 428, IERS2010 convention 732 infrastructure data collection 861 578, 613, 881, 908, 1286 IGb08 998 initial approach fix (IAF) 893 interference 469, 900, 1286 IGEX 220 initialization 654 – detection 491 IGLOS 220 in-orbit test (IOT) 260 – mitigation 498 IGS 13 in-orbit validation (IOV) 17, 74, – pattern 1182 – antenna model 530 187, 247, 370, 524, 572, 731, 979 – rejection spread spectrum signal – Central Bureau 969 in-phase (I) 1286 98
– clock combination 1003 – component 94, 405 – spectrally 498, 499 Index Subject – final products 1002 in-phase/quadrature (I/Q) 959 – temporally dense 499 – multi-GNSS experiment (MGEX) instantaneous impact point (IIP) – temporally sparse 498 734 958 interferometric – orbit accuracy 78 Institute of Electrical and Electronics – GNSS-R 1165 Engineers (IEEE) 123 – orbit combination 1002 – GNSS-R receiver 1164, 1166 Institute of Space Device – GNSS-R waveform 1165 – organization 968 Engineering (ISDE) 369 – noise factor 1170 – products 972 instrument landing system (ILS) – synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) – radiation pressure model 72 340, 883, 906 661, 1088 – Real-Time Service (RTS) 976 instrumental delay 1195, 1199 interfrequency bias (IFB) 613, 754 – reference frame 1050 integer interfrequency-channel bias (IFCB) – spacecraft axes convention 85 – ambiguity 1286 736 – structure 969 – ambiguity resolution 766 interleaving 427 – working group 971 – ambiguity search 674 intermediate fix (IF) 893 IGS08 998 – aperture (IA) 679 intermediate frequency (IF) 366, IIR 103 – bootstrapping (IB) 662, 667, 402, 535, 536, 1287 – M satellite 201 1286 intermediate origin, terrestrial 53 image theory 445 – cycle ambiguity 432 intermediate-lane combination 586 impedance 508 – least-squares (ILS) 662, 673, intermodulation product 114, 115 inclination 62 793, 1286 internal reliability 701 1288 926 653, 824, 898 990, 1145 567, 953 459, 1287 656, 937, 922 212 1287 27 1045 343, 262 436, 1147 347, 331, 231 742, 1167 213 524 994 1152 1153, 565 1167 205, 1124, 944 837 306, 356 1288 856, 1288 1283 517 944 184 137, 1288 1084, 1288 950 824, 954, 205 73, K J 880 Landing System (JPALS) 608 45, 1000, (JAXA) (JCAB) 655, -correction 856, 2 – pierce point (IPP) – radio occultation (IRO) – spatial decorrelation – threat model isodelay line iso-Doppler lines isostatic adjustment issue-of-data (IOD) – clock (IODC) – ephemeris (IODE) – gradient monitoring (IGM) – grid point (IGP) – model – path delay – path delay, differential – perturbation JPL Julian day/date (JD) – number Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) Joint Precision Approach and Japanese Geodetic System (JGS) Jason Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) J2000 J Kalman filter (KF) Jacobian jamming Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Japanese Civil Aviation Bureau – unscented Kasami sequence Keplerian –element –orbit – extended (EKF) 728, 577, 583, 148, 235 929 514 1192 36, 577, 1287 1287 1287 613, 1287 261 618 988 988 1287 585 104, 1213, 1226 188 589 590, 988 1153, 1287 1222 629 768 460 761 616 628, 627, 189 1287 1288 761 177, 1222 689 936 996, 617 629 155, 1226 1283 113, 1225, 1076 1111 566, 566, 1220, 1220 1220 735, 608, 777, 1192, communication system 770 614, 606, 1040 (URSI) Geophysics (IUGG) 776, 968, – Flächenkorrekturparameter (FKP) inter-satellite laser navigation and – ionospheric –orbit – SP3 – VTEC – Kriging inter-satellite-type bias, differential interseismic –period intersignal correction (ISC) intersystem bias (ISB) – differential – ionosphere-free inverted-F antenna (IFA) ionization ionosphere – combination – delay – exchange (format) (IONEX) intrack airport pseudolite – correction – correction model – higher order – perturbation – effect –gradient ionospheric – delay – disturbance flag – divergence ionosphere model – Klobuchar – NeQuick ionosphere-free – refraction – coefficient – combination interplex interpolation – bilinear –clock interoperability International Union of Radio Science International Union of Geodesy and 216, 967, 358, 227, 529, 724, 63, 222, 1287 1287 951, 1188, 1048, 984, 219, 1287 1064, , 981 37, 155, 313, 290, 1034 867 45, 148, 1048 973, 868 506 973, 35, 96, 1172, 1044, , 37, 37, 261, 1192, 221, 1041, 1287 45, 6 strial Reference strial Reference 1183 148, 29, 754, 470, 968, 222, 332, 172, 1143, 1148 1039, 1287 1040 47, 1041 1015, 1048, 724, 909 1132, 323, 732, 1218 863 36, 26, 188 188, 148, 157, 187, 1119, 1022, 1220, 647, 889, 1024, 1012, 938, 274, 261, 1039, 73, 27, 37, 290
13, 573, Frame (ICRF) 26, System (ICRS) Reference Systems Service (IERS) 29, Organization (ICAO) 880, 970, Assessment (IGMA) 983, 1071, 1207 Organization (IHO) 37, 36 (IMO) (IRI) 799, Union (ITU) 259, 1064, (IAU) Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) Frame (ITRF) 223, 1015, System (ITRS) 290, (IAG)
International GNSS Service (IGS) International Celestial Reference International Atomic Time (TAI) International Celestial Reference International Earth Rotation and International Civil Aviation International GNSS Monitoring and –formats International Hydrographic International Terre – model international reference pole (IRP) International Latitude Service (ILS) International Maritime Organization international reference ionosphere International Space Station (ISS) International Telecommunication International Terre International Astronomical Union International Association of Marine International Association of Geodesy
Subject Index 1314 Subject Index Subject Index 1315
Kepler’s – constrained 647 local – equation 62, 151 – estimation 8, 1288 – area augmentation system (LAAS) –law 59 –geometryof 640 906 kinematic –integer 1286 – area differential GNSS – GNSS positioning 1017 – nonlinear 648 (LADGNSS) 906, 907 – PPP solution 743 – principle 639 – area differential GPS (LDGPS) kinematics 1014 – rank-defect 647 898 Klobuchar model 12, 945, 1288 – recursive 645 – coordinates 1289 – RINEX navigation file 1213 – weighted 640 – oscillator 128 Korean Augmentation Satellite left-hand circular polarized (LHCP) – tie 1047 System (KASS) 358 373, 508, 1171 localizer precision with vertical Kriging interpolation 629 Legacy Accuracy Improvement guidance (LPV) 341, 893 Initiative (L-AII) 204 LocataNet 930 L legacy navigation (LNAV) 893 location based services (LBS) 842, – message 81, 210, 320 845 L1 205 – subframe 1 211 LOD 985, 996 – -SAIF signal 310 – subframe 2–3 212 logarithmic relaxation 1088 L2C signal generation 208 – subframe 4–5 215 London-moment 804 LAGEOS 941 legacy navigation message (LNAV) long code (CL) 208, 392 Lagrange – error detection 211 long range navigation (LORAN) – interpolation 1220 Legendre polynomial 941 869 – polynomial 1220 length-of-day 28, 973, 1055, 1288 longitude 821 land based applications 842 – variations 1056 long-term secular reference frame land surveying operations 1024 lense-thirring effect 69 1045 land transport applications 843 level crossing protection 861 loop 1299 lane level accuracy 843 lever arm 805, 831 – bandwidth 454 Laplace LEX signal 311 – delay lock 1280 –plane 75 light detection and ranging (LIDAR) – filter 414 – vector 61 838, 942 – frequency lock 1283 laser light-time 1289 – phase lock 1293 – cooling 136 line quality factor 128, 1289 – transient error 429 – residual 79 line replaceable unit (LRU) 884 loose (position domain) coupling – retro reflector (LRR) 266 linear 825 Index Subject – retro-reflector array (LRA) 235, loss 287 – feedback shift register (LFSR) 100, 228, 1289 – time transfer (LTT) 288, 1288 – free-space 507 laser-cooled microwave standards – ion trap standard (LITS) 142 –return 508 138 – quadratic Gaussian (LQG) 436 Love number 43, 987, 1092 last glacial maximum 1073 – velocity vector 1073 Love’s loading theory 1091 latency 624, 805, 1288 line-of-sight (LOS) 106, 180, 443, low Earth orbit (LEO) 237, 576, latitude 821 519, 538, 1289 725, 799, 871, 934, 1109, 1144, launch and early orbit phase (LEOP) – vector 609, 1289 1176, 1289 238, 266 link budget 1289 – satellite 726, 1109 launch vehicle 237 lithosphere 1072 low visibility procedure 883 L-band 1288 little endian 1217 low-noise amplifier (LNA) 366, leap second 29, 157, 1213, 1288 little ice age 1095 431, 481, 515, 577, 1289 Lear model 945 Lloyd’s mirror 1164 LSB 212 least-squares LNAV/VNAV 893 – adjustment 993 loading 39, 1289 M – ambiguity decorrelation adjustment – displacement 1091 (LAMBDA) 15, 587, 628, 676, – model 1093 M/D ratio 450 766, 793, 868, 955, 1288 – tidal atmospheric 988 MA 97 – batch 644 – tidal ocean 987 magneto-optical trap (MOT) 135 1277 676, 1141 208, 1277 317 478 666, 883, 625 479 757 390 710 1290 1078 901 625 846, 625 1290 997 941 687 790 615, 710 626 653, 107, 1201 762, 47, 387, 978, 615 1088 356 100 627 94, 710 615 980 654, 42, 1290 354, 1299 689 1088 689 28, 309, Augmentation System (MSAS) 1290 (MTSAT) 755 Augmentation System (MSAS) 19, 707 392 156 1290 carrier Multi-function Satellite Multifunction Transport Satellite multifunctional chip multi-GNSS – products – time transfer – binary offset carrier (BOC) – binary phase shift keying – multiplexed binary offset carrier – time multiplexed binary offset Mogi model moment magnitude monitoring station (MS) Monte Carlo simulation moving reference station DGNSS m-sequence multiaccess interference multibit quantization multi-constellation Multi-Function Satellite Moon Moore’s law – distinct clock – dynamic – errors – GNSS attitude – ionosphere-fixed – ionosphere-float – ionosphere-weighted – Klobuchar – measurement – Mogi – NeQuick – PPP-RTK – Saastamoinen model validation – batch – recursive moderate-length code (CM) modified Julian day/date (MJD) – number modulation 852 61, 893 520 1290 564, 1290 895 16, 1032 812, 1290 526, 509 1290 1052 1157 681, 804, 707 306, 1110, 880, 817 917 998, 351 351 1290 626 979 500, 693, 320 274, 979, 351, 86 817 587 37 1290 884 700 959 127, 11, 871 914 833 307, 268, 934, 28, 993 519, 925 934 698 928 221, 871, 955 1032 (MEMS) 688, 340, (MQM) 587 disturbance (MSTID) 197, 770, (MOPS) missed approach point (MAPt) mining survey applications Mir misalignment misalignment error missed detection – hazardous – probability of mixed mode mobile mapping system (MMS) model – common clock – Greenwich message – field range check – type 28 (MT28) MET metallic reflector ground plane Metop MGEX Network – type 27 (MT27) Michibiki micro-electromechanical system minimum – constraints (MC) – descent altitude – mean penalty (MMP) – mean square error estimator – obstacle clearance (MOC) – operational performance standards midnight turn MIEV minimal detectable bias (MDB) microstrip patch antenna microwave landing system (MLS) –dataage – model measurements quality monitoring medium Earth orbit (MEO) Melbourne–Wübbena combination MEOSAR meridian medium-lane medium-scale traveling ionospheric 484 478 102, 1176 1289 776, 203, 475, 824 17, 166 1172, 1111, 488, 1001 176 867 91, 1289 1289 227 175, 647 1289 1028 36 1289 653 1289 1290 63 620 35 409, 291, 43, 1289 654 487, 1126 62 33, 935 356 1066, 640 1289 1289 109 1072 227 1289 714 310, 642,
(MMS) Technology (MIT) 176 275, 1170 1289 417,
– station matched filter – control station (MCS) matched-spectrum interference matrix – error variance – normal – reduced normal –test – transition maximum – a posteriori (MAP) – coherence averaging interval – likelihood estimation (MLE) –clock(MC) Maxwell’s equation MC-LAMBDA M-code meaconing mean – anomaly – Earth ellipsoid –sealevel – sidereal time – solar time – squared slope (MSS) – tide system – time between cycle slips meander sequence measurement – accuracy master – -auxiliary concept (MAC) Manchester – code – pulse mantle mapping function Magnetosphere Multiscale Mission Maser Massachusetts Institute of Mapping Temperature Test (MTT) maritime navigation – tropospheric mapping surveys – NWP model result
Subject Index 1316 Subject Index Subject Index 1317
multi-instrument data analysis National Geospatial-Intelligence Niell software (MIDAS) 1147 Agency (NGA) 146, 204, 1051 – mapping function (NMF) 176, multilateration (MLAT) 899 National Institute of Standards and 569, 1111 multimodal PDF 665 Technology (NIST) 27, 135 – –Saastamoinen model 205 multipath 430, 443, 519, 759, 1163, National Marine Electronics noise 123, 1291 1194, 1290 Association (NMEA) 397, 556, –flicker 1283 – combination 591 776, 1207 – temperatures 1169 – combination, triple-frequency – 0183 format 1207 –term 1170 593 nautical mile (nmi) 879 –thermal 1298 noiseless – envelope 430 Naval Research Lab (NRL) 138 – GNSS-R waveform model 1169 – environment 444 navigation 1291 – waveform model 1169 – error average 454 – application 886 – error envelope 106, 450 noncentrality parameter 691 – correction 833 – errors 579 noncoherent integration 407 –datachain 885 – impact, Doppler measurement noncut-off corrugated ground plane – data, RINEX 1213 466 521 – limiting antenna (MLA) 926 – frame 819 nondirectional beacon (NDB) 878, – measurement 459 – land Earth station (NLES) 356 1291 – mitigation 455, 519 – message 5, 117, 613, 1291 no-net-rotation 37, 1291 – ratio 509 – message authentication (NMA) non-LOS signal 443 – rejection ratio (MPR) 509 486, 1291 nonorthogonality 817 – relative delay 447 – message correction table (NMCT) nonprecision approach (NPA) 879, 889, 892, 1291 – repeatability 462 215 nonrotating origin 28, 51 – suppression 375 – message structure 228 nontidal ocean loading 1094 multiple receiver consistency check – system error (NSE) 891, 911 nonzero-delay attack 488 916 Navigation Package For Earth noon turn 86 multiplexed binary offset carrier Orbiting Satellites (NAPEOS) normal equation stacking 1000 (MBOC) 112, 209, 451, 1290 940, 947, 1000 North American Datum (NAD) 14 multiplicative algebraic Navigation with Indian Constellation North celestial pole (NCP) 44 reconstruction technique (MART) (NavIC) 18, 61, 140, 305, 321, North ecliptic pole (NEP) 44, 112 1147 881 North, East, Down (NED) 819 multisignal message (MSM) 1215 near-field effect 1195 notch filtering 499, 501 multistatic radar 1163 near-real-time reconstruction 1148
notice Index Subject multistep method 940 NeQuick 1291 – advisory 991 mutual coherence 1164 NeQuick model 13, 187 – advisory to NAVSTAR users – RINEX navigation file 1213 (NANU) 205, 914, 991, 1290 N NeQuickG 261 – advisory to QZSS users (NAQU) network 760 320, 991 nadir 1290 –RTK 1216, 1291 –toairmen(NOTAM) 897, 1291 NAGU 991 –size 984, 985 NTCM model 187 narrow correlator 368, 450, 451 – time protocol (NTP) 1191 nuclear detection (payload) narrowband (NUDET) 201, 226 networked transport of RTCM via – interference 476 null hypothesis 1291 Internet protocol (NTRIP) 15, – radar ambiguity function 1168 nulling attack 490 762, 1215, 1291 narrow-lane 1290 numerical Neuman-Hofman (NH) code 232, – combination 586, 1196 – integration 939 282, 392, 1291 National Aeronautics and Space – weather model (NWM) 172, 729 Administration (NASA) 3, 21, neutral atmosphere 1110 – weather prediction (NWP) 176, 141, 317, 742, 937, 1047, 1132 Newcomb 26, 47 1128 National Centers for Environmental Newton’s law of gravity 60 numerically controlled oscillator Prediction (NCEP) 176 next generation operational control (NCO) 402, 419, 563, 1291 National Geodetic Survey (NGS) segment of GPS (OCX) 204 nutation 46, 985, 1054, 1058, 1291 530, 1001 NiCd 200 – transformation 49 891 877, 816 1291 488 889 950 524 66 837 1292 1292 994 716 384, 877, 1292 62 68 1293 381 1292 993 691 1281 706, 127, 1292 1292 1294 427 60 948 122, 618, , 61, 1078 1292 424 689, 198 1292 9 113 4 260 1292 608 1292 206 P 863 142, 677, 221, (OCXO) 886, pendulous accelerometer performance – based navigation (PBN) patch antenna array path definition error (PDE) P-code PCV map PDOP parts-per-million Parus passenger information systems (PIS) passive hydrogen maser (PHM) particle filter (PF) parity bits partial ambiguity resolution (PAR) P Pwave P(Y)-code PAPR parameter – estimation –GPS parameterization Parametry Zemli 1990 (PZ-90) overall model test overbound overlap comparison overlay code oversampling – influential oven controlled crystal oscillator oscillator – jitter – numerically controlled osculating element outlier – code – requirements pericenter perigee – argument of – secular drift period – draconitic 622 262 934, 63, 619, 62, 1284 28 995 77 75 74 81 972 1288 934, 938 1292 934 51 1289 1292 151, 64, 86 66, 784 74 28, 83 1233 1233 61 66 993 78 77 61, 63 61 934, 79 1292 1003 781 1003 80 366 952 1293 59 61 60, 625 mality 1292 processing facility (OSPF) (OEM) 1286 1290 – arc length – error – geostationary orbit – accuracy – accuracy assessment – and clock products – correction maneuver – determination – elliptic – Keplerian – long-term-evolution –lowEarth – medium altitude Earth orbitography and synchronization orbital element – Keplerian – osculating – graveyard – highly elliptical – inclined geosynchronous original equipment manufacturer orthonor orbits and clocks, precise orientation origin – celestial intermediate – nonrotating – perturbations – parameter estimation – parameters – normal mode – precision – repeat cycle – repeat rate – validation orbit determination – precise – reduced dynamic – relative orbit model – almanac – broadcast –GLONASS – Keplerian – perturbed Keplerian orbital – parameters –plane –period 681 282, 145 561 1127 887 250, 1044 1176 1197 763 428, 898 479 18, 1123, 896 733, 924 321 1291 606 606 607 67 39, 814 753 124 609 146, 381 1295 135 1282 912 1124 1125 859 46 1014, 1291 606 115 1291 138 138 1016 1209 204 288,
O (OWCP) and alerting (OPMA) 204, 943
one-bit quantization one-way carrier-phase technique Open Service (OS) obliquity oblateness – perturbation – ecliptic – factor observability observation –data – model, clock monitoring Nyquist – frequency – sampling – session – molasses optimal integer ambiguity test OPUS OQPSK optical –clock –comb – frequency standard ocean wave spectrum OCX odometry on-board performance monitoring observation equation – carrier-phase – differential – double-differenced – GNSS – linearized – multi-GNSS – pseudorange obstacle clearance – surface (OCS) occultation – mission – number ocean loading operational approval operational control system (OCS) open-loop tracking
Subject Index 1318 Subject Index Subject Index 1319
periodogram 148 pilot position dilution of precision (PDOP) permanent GPS geodynamic array – channel 117 9, 184, 241, 263, 293, 333, 618, 1068 – signal 1293 835, 1293 permeability of vacuum 1233 pincer defense 493 position error differential equation permittivity 510 pinwheel antenna 456, 513 829 – of vacuum 1233 pitch angle 785 position, velocity and time (PVT) personal pivot 1293 256, 403, 470, 536 – digital assistant (PDA) 386 – receiver 626 – accuracy 471 – navigation 841 – satellite 621, 763 positioning 1293 – privacy device (PPD) 470, 921 planar antenna 374 – accuracy 635 perturbation planetary boundary layer (PBL) – carrier-phase based 624, 764 1131 – atmospheric drag 69 – DGNSS 624 planetary wave (PW) 1156 – long periodic 66 – global 633 plasma bubble 1150 – radiation pressure 69 – kinematic 766, 938, 1288 plasmasphere reconstruction 1145 – relativistic 69 – local 634 plate – multi-GNSS RTK 768 – resonant 74 – boundary deformation 1073 – secular 66, 68 – PPP-RTK 625 – boundary observatory (PBO) – precise point (PPP) 613, 619 – short periodic 66 1070, 1178 – real-time kinematic 624, 763, – third-body 68, 941 – boundary zone 1072–1074, 1293 1295 phase – motion 1071, 1293 – regional 634 – ambiguity 627 – tectonic theory 1071 – relative 1296 – center 1275 – tectonics 1045 – semikinematic 764, 1297 – center variation (PCV) 376, 509, Plesetsk 237 – single point (SPP) 612, 615, 1297 574, 730, 948, 1050, 1112, 1227 PLL discriminator 416 – static 1298 – error variance 474, 483 Poincare sphere 374 – technologies 846 – I receiver 366 point-in-space (PinS) 886 positioning model –integral 180 polar motion 36, 973, 985, 1054, – BeiDou (BDS), GLONASS 614 – lock loop (PLL) 207, 372, 413, 1293 – double-differenced 631, 763 474, 563, 579, 826, 936, 1083, polarimetric – GPS, Galileo, QZSS and IRNSS 1127, 1190, 1293 – phase interferometry (POPI) 613 1177 – modulation (PM) 113, 122 – point 612 – ratio 1177 – of flight 891 – relative 623
polarization 96, 508, 1171, 1293 Index Subject – response 376 – single point (SPP) 615 – unlock 475, 484, 1293 – linear 92 – right hand circular 92 – triple-differenced 633 – velocity 92, 1293 – undifferenced 626 – wind-up 85, 731, 989, 1293 – state 374 pole positioning solution phase center 1275 – celestial ephemeris 50, 54, 1278 –fixed 770 – calibration 528 – celestial intermediate 51, 54, –float 770 –offset(PCO) 509, 529, 573, 730, 1278 positioning static 764 947, 989, 1227, 1292 – north celestial 44 positioning, navigation and timing – offset (PCO), antenna effect 730 – north ecliptic 44 (PNT) 3, 293, 305, 517, 863, – stability 509 – rotation 1296 967, 1148 – variation 509, 515, 574, 947, 989, – terrestrial 44 postcorrelation FFT 409 1293 – tide 733 post-processed PPP service 742 phase-center Pole, International Reference 37 postseismic 1293 – variation 575 POLENET 1098 – deformation 1085 phased-array antenna 1293 polynomial potential, tidal 42 phase-range correction (PRC) 624, – Lagrange 1220 power 1293 – Legendre 941 – minimum received 1236 phasor diagram 449 pose 1293 –ofthetest 693 physical constants parameters 1233 Position and Navigation Data – spectral density (PSD) 98, 404, piercing point 1141, 1142, 1288 Analysis (PANDA) 1001 813 846, 114, 141 1295 1295 223 314 279, 762, 1295 127, 1188, 1294 108 789 140, 72 1295 458 731, 676 545 990, 128 317 61, 511 1294 405, 1127, 1295 820, 957 132 586, 673, 307 942, 31, 393 127, 94, 707, 1295 666 382 786, 393 134 72, 798, 393 17, 1292 565, 1051, 788 416 1294 308 507 105 479 693, 39, 380, 94 523, 970, 403, R Q 1045 (QZSS) 305, 945, 298, -value – phase-shift keying (QPSK) – estimator (QUEST) QZS-1 satellite parameters quadrifilar helix – antenna (QHA) quality factor – cesium clock – H-maser quantization – effect –loss quartz crystal oscillator quasi-instantaneous reference frame Quasi-Zenith Satellite System – constellation – control segment – signals quaternion RADCAL radiation – pattern – pressure QAM Q-enhanced hydrogen maser q-method quadrature – component – pressure, empirical – rounding pulse – aperture correlator – blanking – clipping – per second (PPS) – shape – shape, band-limited – suppression pure PLL p PZ-90 – transformation parameters – least-squares 642, 408, , 907, 5 797 1294 1294 707, 1001 1294 102, 348, 496 763, 250 664, 680 693, 1187, 707, 1294 1294 832 1294 1294 309, 880 624, 1294 645 645 431 668 693, 918, 149, 561, 928, 450, 280, 1181, , 664, 416 6 601 680 26, 680 905, 679 601 227, 912, 539 1169 789 477 325 1111 788 237 576 206, 699, 112 692, 1294 18 EphemerideS (PAGES) Services (PANS) 1294 (PRN) 146, 461, 1294 664, 1294 917, probability – density function (PDF) proper time – delay propagation – channel Procrustes –OPP –WOPP Program for the Adjustment of GPS protection level – of success Procedures and Air Navigation – of successful fixing proton PRS pseudolite pseudo-random (PR) binary sequence pseudo-random noise (PRN) – of failure – of missed detection – mass function (PMF) – of false alarm – of hazardous missed detection – of hazardous occurrence PSK public regulated service public-key cryptography pull-in region – smoothing pull-in range – noise variance – phase-adjusted – phase-smoothed – filtering – measurement – aperture – bootstrapping – codes pseudo-random number sequence pseudorange –bias – correction (PRC) 13, 726 1277 688, 320, 736 386, 17, 727 621 741 739 971, 1293 1013 1114 621 48 254 619, 474 1293 622 1294 1293 742 938, 742 630 1294 1054 620 613, 1194, 985, 620, 892, 1294 726 620 948 1294 854, 629, 854, 992, 1293 46, 992 622 479, 631 1082, 47 625, 47 98 47 28, 69 650, 778, 507, 983, 432, 956 1294 726 397, 15, 1021, 761, 367, 946, 313, 97
485 1013, 55, 723, 512 differenced 216, 936,
– single-frequency – single-frequency model – undifferenced – approach (PA) precision – dual-frequency model – editing – -model, between-satellite – post-processed solution – real-time solution – redundancy –-RTK – phase ambiguity fixing – positioning service – -RTK model predetection bandwidth prediction predictor, best linear unbiased pre-elimination preprocessing primary spreading code printed circuit board (PCB) – data screening – dual-frequency powerful near-band transmission PR – sequence preamble precession – positioning techniques precise point positioning (PPP) – positioning correction model – positioning service (PPS) – geodesic – geodetic – luni-solar – planetary – transformation matrix precipitable water (PW) precise – orbit determination – orbit determination (POD) – a priori correction model – consideration, GLONASS PRISMA
Subject Index 1320 Subject Index Subject Index 1321
radio – front-to-back 509 – phase delay 627 –burst 1298 –test 679, 1295 – single chip integration 390 – determination satellite service rationalisation of infrastructure 900 receiver autonomous integrity (RDSS) 274, 323, 1295 ray tracing 1295 monitoring (RAIM) 897 – hologram 1181 Rayleigh-Taylor instability (RTI) receiver independent exchange – navigation satellite service (RNSS) 184 (format) (RINEX) 556, 577, 731, 274, 470, 506 read only memory (ROM) 372 776, 971, 1015, 1052, 1198, 1209, – occultation (RO) 519, 946, 947, real-time 1213, 1295 959, 1109, 1145, 1182, 1295 – data stream 977 –clock 1221 – occultation (RO) measurements – differential GNSS positioning – description 1209 1120 1019 receiver-satellite – ranging 878 – navigation 942 –geometry 764 – regulation 158 – nonlinear Bayesian estimation – range 609 – science 959 838 record-and-playback system 536, – software defined (SDR) 1297 – service (RTS) 951, 971, 976, 549, 1295 radio frequency (RF) 127, 206, 1022 reduced dynamic 938, 948, 995 251, 309, 365, 402, 456, 471, 506, Real-Time Analysis Center (RTAC) redundancy 639, 689, 1295 535, 908, 1165 976 – differenced models 633 – chip technology 388 real-time kinematic (RTK) 15, 372, – number, local 698 – front-end 376 573, 688, 741, 753, 774, 778, 854, reference – identification (RFID) 852 863, 908, 955, 1019, 1116, 1157, – ellipsoid 1296 – interference (RFI) 484, 913, 921 1216, 1291, 1295 – frame 34, 608, 1296 – -processing 376 –GLONASS 766 – frame station 974 Radio Technical Commission for – long-baseline 625 – frame, celestial 44 Aeronautics (RTCA) 11, 393, – network (NRTK) 625, 774, 778 – station 1014, 1296 516, 880, 909 – precise point positioning – station network 760 Radio Technical Commission for (PPP-RTK) 774, 778 – station, continuously operating Maritime Services (RTCM) 15, – short-baseline 624, 770 (CORS) 35, 1279 313, 397, 742, 762, 868, 971, real-time kinematic (RTK) – station, virtual 1301 1020, 1207 positioning –system 34, 1296 radome 515, 1295 – convergence time 771, 773 – system, celestial 44 rail applications 856 – epoch-by-epoch 772 – system, geodetic 1284 Ramsey – long-baseline 772 – time scale 1188
– cavity 130 – multi-GNSS 773 Reference Frame Index Subject – pattern 131 – precision 771, 773 – International Celestial 45, 973, random rebroadcasting test 541, 544 1287 – access memory (RAM) 372 received – International Terrestrial 6, 37, 63, – walk drift (RWDR) 124 – power monitoring (RPM) 491 216, 223, 261, 732, 968, 973, 984, – walk frequency (noise) (RWFR) – power monitoring (RPM), 1015, 1022, 1039, 1044, 1048, 124 augmented 493 1064, 1220, 1287 – walk phase (noise) (RWPH) 124 – signal model 471 Reference System range-rate correction (RRC) 624, – signal strength (RSS) 850 – International Celestial 37, 45, 763, 915 receiver 1164 1287 ranging and integrity monitoring – antenna calibration 530 – International Terrestrial 37, 148, station (RIMS) 356 – architecture 365, 403, 457 222, 290, 1039, 1048, 1287 ranging code 1295 – autonomous integrity monitoring reflection coefficient 445 rank deficiency 763 (RAIM) 341, 397, 882, 890, 897, reflectometry 518, 959, 1296 rapid-static positioning 1016 928, 1295 reflector-backed monofilar antenna rate-of-TEC (RoT) 1150 – building block 372 526 –map 1143 –clock 627, 1198 refraction 1296 ratio – clock jump 429 refractive index 565 –axial 508 – code delay 627 regional argumentation 1296 – bias-to-noise 1277 – geodetic-grade 1284 regional navigation satellite system – carrier-to-noise density 1278 – noise 578, 759 (RNSS) 16, 305 761, 938, 256, 216, 794 795 69 1296 14, 1297 556, 1141 905, 201, 1053 , 1151 1173 1175 912, 1177 412 66 1173 1296 515, 970, 898, 1173 823 959, 1052, 425 817 1180 482, 817 351 254, 352 947, 506, 908, 880, 675 345 518, 486 1082 1148 497 448 1082 410 424, 1078 1297 349 487 1149 871, 427, 890, 754, 458 4 487, 813 103, 483 1296 26, 1297 1179 870, 339, 882, 395, 525, 311, 846, 899 (SCER) 486 225, 1121, Schwarzschild perturbation scintillation Schuler oscillation search halting search space search-and-expand algorithm search-and-shrink algorithm second – monitoring – receiver sculling S-curve – shaping sea –ice – ice permittivity – level monitoring – surface altimetry – surface permittivity – surface roughness – surface scatterometry search and rescue (SAR) – index – measurement network – architecture – integrity – message type – user algorithm S-band scalar factor error scale factor (SF) scatterometry secondary code – synchronization secondary surveillance radar (SSR) SECOR secular perturbation security code security code estimation and replay security-enhanced GNSS signal seismic wave seismology seismometer selective availability (SA) – attack 74, 863 315, 744, 104, 648 1003, 918 38, 282, 287, 418, 77, 37, 1207, 1215 967, 696, , 216, 3 1176 530 261, 320, 61 1286 950, 1296 185, 754 804 1296 1296 1284 140, 819 259, 61, 669, 976 627 613 381 1148 939 942, 627 155, 627 562, 1222, 1296 1296 1178 666 762 238 129, 11, 222, 666 666, 173 689 424, 315, 152, 623, 1078 776, 1064, 1083, 209, 233, 19 index S model 946, 188, (SBAS) 1296 (RFSA) (RAFS) 1215 1040, 78, 4 satellite – antenna calibration – code delay – laser ranging (SLR) sample rate sampling rate –clock – clock offset – clock, dithering – failure – geostationary – effect Sagnac – correction Saastamoinen hydrostatic delay Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) S Swave S(ingularity)-transformation root mean square (RMS) RTCM (format) – message – multisignal messages RTCM SC-104 (format) root-sum-square (RSS) rotation matrix roughness parameters rounding –integer – vectorial RS RTCM – phase delay satellite-based augmentation system Runge–Kutta Russian Federal Space Agency Runge–Lenz vector rubidium atomic frequency standard RTS Network 887, 893 62, 886 815 1221 887, 1191 1171 1064 843 1296 1071 786 1087 414 894 711 33, 696 731, 429 989 886 990 710 697 1296 1078 1200 957 286 154 951 644, 62 508 154 897 74 569, 841 785 307 900 148, 864, 564 786, 799, 92 507, 248,
(RNP) special operational requirements study group (RNPSORSG) (RAAN) 373, 895 198,
– normalized – predicted residuals – least-squares – studentized resonance return loss reversion REX-II RHCP Richter scale right ascension – of ascending node (RAAN) regulation relative – calibration – position accuracy – pseuodrange relativistic – correction – effects relativistic clock correction – periodic –rateoffset relativity relaxation model reliability remote clock comparison rendezvous replica generator required navigation performance – approach (RNP APCH) – approval required (RNP AR) required navigation performance and rigid plate motion ring laser gyroscope (RLG) RNAV approach road level accuracy ROCK model Rodrigues – modified vector – vector roll angle right ascension of ascending node right-hand circular polarized (RHCP)
Subject Index 1322 Subject Index Subject Index 1323
selective availability anti-spoofing – measurement-level 541, 552, software defined radio (SDR) 366, module (SAASM) 367 1290 518, 1297 semi-codeless tracking 1297 – record and playback system 542, soil moisture 1179, 1181 semi-major axis 32, 59, 564, 1297 549 solar semi-minor axis 59 –RF-level 540, 543, 1296 –maximum 482 sensor fusion 855 – types 540 – radiation pressure (SRP) 942, sensor-inherent noise 817 simultaneous location and mapping 1298 service, standard positioning (SPS) (SLAM) 838 – radio burst (SRB) 481 1298 single event solar radiation pressure (SRP) 990 S-function 448 – latch-up (SEL) 936 solid earth tide 732 SGLS 203 – update (SEU) 936 solution shadowing 444 single photon avalanche diode –fixed 1283 Shapiro effect 564, 1297 (SPAD) 288 –float 1283 Shida number 43, 732, 987 single point positioning (SPP) 13, – separation 695 shielding chamber 1297 612, 754, 938, 1297 solution independent exchange shipboard relative GPS (SRGPS) – between-satellite differenced model (format) (SINEX) 974, 1002, 898 631 1048, 1222, 1298 shipping container tracking 872 – dual-frequency 616, 617 –bias 1222 short-delay multipath 461 – multiconstellation 617 – troposphere 1222 SI second 26, 1191 – redundancy 616 sounding rocket 958 sidelobe 934 – single-constellation 615 Soviet Geodetic System 221 – single-frequency 615, 617 sidereal Soyuz 238 single-difference (SD) 596, 740, Space –day 1297 790, 952, 1297 – Integrated GPS/Inertial navigation – filtering 459 single-element antenna 456 system (SIGI) 958 – time 27, 1297 single-frequency 735 – Service Volume 935 signal – point positioning (PP) 735 – Shuttle/SIR-C 1182 – deformation monitoring (SDM) single-input-single-output (SISO) space 912 421 – based augmentation systems 850 – model 404 site – environment 517 – model, multipath 448 – coordinates 973 – hydrogen maser (SHM) 142 – multipath 1112 – displacement 985 – rubidium atomic clock 139 –power 434 – displacement effect 732 –segment 16, 197, 1298 – search-acquisition 406
–log 1228 – vehicle (SV) 199 Index Subject – structure 1235 skew representation 786 – vehicle number (SVN) 77, 146, – tracking 413 skyplot 65 199, 912, 1227, 1298 – travel time 561 slant total – weather 1152, 1298 signal-in-space (SIS) 216, 880 – delay 1297 space-qualified signal-in-space range error (SISRE) – electron content (STEC) 178, – cesium beam clock 140 9, 10, 84, 241, 282, 333, 945, 567, 728, 1140 – hydrogen maser clock 141 1051, 1297 slot number 221 space-time signal-in-space receive and decode small atomic clock technology 136 –curvature 69, 562 (SISRAD) 911 Smithsonian Astrophysical –interval 149 signals of opportunity (SOO) 838 Observatory (SAO) 141 – reference system 148 signal-to-interference-plus-noise smooth spectrum approximation spatial incoherence 1164 ratio (SINR) 98, 1297 476 specific force 816 signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) 98, smoothing 601, 657 speckle noise 1165, 1171 129, 408, 464, 471, 848, 1065, – fixed-interval 657 spectral 1121, 1164, 1170, 1297 –fixed-lag 657 –analysis 494 significance level 1297 – fixed-point 657 – density 124 similarity transformation 37 SMOS 1177 – lines 476 simulator 535 SMS 17 spectrum 93 –IF-level 541, 546, 1286 Snell’s law 444, 446 specular reflection 446 – key requirements 541 snow depth 1181 speed of light 1233 411, 713 998, 326 712 1283 567 681 53 384, 525 1047 985, 210, 453 679 680, 26 1195 128, 314, 959 471 286, 1292 150 1279 929 1295 711 892 1279 517, 1286 922 688 679 1094 705 26, 1298 1295 711 679 262, 587 1298 693 1290 681, 695, 711 711 679, 26, 1047, 697 682, 696 - q oscillator (TCXO) 488 (TT&C) (TCAR) approximation 1040, 681, (CMS) (UMPI) T w temperature compensated crystal temperature variation temporal error variation terminal area Terralite XPS TerraSAR-X telemetry (word) (TLM) telemetry, tracking, and commanding terrestrial – dynamic time (TDT) – intermediate origin (TIO) – reference frame (TRF) – difference – fixed failure rate ratio – global overall model (GOM) – hypothesis – local overall model (LOM) – minimum mean penalty (MMP) – reference system (TRS) – time – time (TT) test – ambiguity acceptance – conductive – constrained maximum success-rate – overall model – projector – ratio – rebroadcast – uniformly most powerful invariant – optimal integer ambiguity test statistic – thin-shell ionospheric model threat model three-carrier ambiguity resolution –UMPI – testable bias testing – global – local – procedure – recursive thermal-noise-equivalent 897 943, 378, 496 372, 19, 372 127, 1091 484 941 1298 379 945 39 392, 72 1157 763 198, 1289 1286 941 1296 677 883 37, 1279 1075 1299 1276 607 341, 484 899 956 43, 159, 47, 34, 229 666 1278 43, 847, 1011 1286 34 42, 788 1043 354, 28, T 378 (TACAN) (TACAN) satellites (TASS) 946, and Monitoring (SDCM) 240, 1298 430 rank-deficient surplus satellite – deformation – loading deformation surface-to-mass ratio – rounding Sun – least-squares – elevation angle superframe superheterodyne down-conversion surface – acoustic wave (SAW) surveillance surveying SVD symmetric-key cryptography synthetic aperture radar (SAR) – cadastral – construction – hydrographic technical standard order (TSO) tectonic plates – reference – acoustic wave (SAW) filter – tide-free tactical air navigation (system) tactical air navigation system TDRSS augmentation service for TanDEM-X system – barycentric – frame – inertial – mean tide – noise temperature – of observation equations, system-on-a-chip (SoC) – time (ST) – time offset System for Differential Corrections 15, 994 881, 940 111 909 1298 940 1019 880, 97 474 67, 678 745 880, 818 35, 818 1298 846, 944 435, 824 1218 664, 1298 457 668 668 1079 94 676 743 628 512 517, 507, 1014 939 408, 812, 662, 168, 123 666 1216 1022, 666 55 1298 1122 616, 32 485, 311, 813, 123 1004, 943, 216,
476 (SOFA) (SLTA) 727, 16, 915, practices (SARPS) 977 messages
state – estimation – space representation (SSR) – space representation (SSR) square root information filter squaring loss spread-spectrum processing gain spread-spectrum signal spreading code standards of fundamental astronomy – transition matrix – vector static – displacement – positioning – PPP solution station clock solution straight line tangent point altitude stochastic orbit parameter stop-&-go GNSS survey Stoermer–Cowell method stratosphere strobe correlator strapdown – algorithm (SDA) – inertial navigation success rate – ambiguity – bootstrapping – least-squares – rounding success-rate bounds – bootstrapping spherical harmonic Standard Product 3 (format) (SP3) stability –clock – frequency standard positioning service (SPS) S-system standards and recommended spheroid spiral antenna split-spectrum modulation spoofing
Subject Index 1324 Subject Index Subject Index 1325
tide 942, 1044, 1298 time-of-arrival (TOA) 850 traveling – body 42 timescale atomic standard 135 – ionospheric disturbance (TID) – direct 68 timescale, IGS 1004 1157, 1299 – ocean 42, 68 time-to-alert (TTA) 340, 888, 1299 – wave tube amplifier (TWTA) – ocean pole 988 time-to-first-fix (TTFF) 386, 412, 287, 324, 1299 – pole 987 849, 1299 triangular decomposition 668, 675 – solid Earth 39, 68, 987 timing group delay (TGD) 286, triple-difference 598, 1299 tide-free 987 614, 735, 996, 1299 tropopause 168, 1129 –system 43, 1299 tolerable error limit (TEL) 924 troposphere 168, 568, 1299 tiered code 102, 255, 1299 tomography 1299 – characteristic 168 tight (observable domain) coupling TOPEX/Poseidon 934 – delay estimation 174 826 topographical surveys 1028 – empirical model 172 tightly combined processing 768 TopSat 958 –gradients 995 TIMATION (Time Navigation) 139 total – hydrostatic delay 988 Time – ionization dose (TID) 936 – mapping function 988 – Coordinated Universal (UTC) 29, – station 1299 – modeling 988 1279, 1300 – system error (TSE) 891 – parameters 995 – International Atomic (TAI) 27, total electron content (TEC) 12, – wave propagation 166 1287 178, 519, 566, 584, 746, 756, 971, tropospheric – Universal (UT) 28, 1300 988, 1139, 1140, 1222, 1299 – delay 566 time 25 – change index (ROTI) 1150 – delay modeling 728 –atomic 27 –gradient 1143 – mapping function 758 – barycentric coordinate 26 –map 1141 – refraction 170, 1300 –BeiDou 31 – measurement 1140 – zenith path delay 745 – coordinate 149, 1279 tracking 1299 true anomaly 61, 565 – division multiple access (TDMA) – and data relay satellite system 97, 1299 Tsikada 4, 219 (TDRSS) 945 – dynamic 26 TSO C-129 897 – jitter 422 – dynamical 1281 tsunami warning 1083 – loop 6, 414, 936, 1299 – ephemeris 26, 1282 Tsyclon 219 – loop error 423 – Galileo 31 TT&C 201 – loop model 414 – geocentric coordinate 26 Tundra 306 –network 984 –GLONASS 31, 160 two way time transfer 1204 – performance 422 two-body problem 60, 1300
– GNSS 158 Index Subject –GPS 30, 216, 1284 traditional navigational 341 two-way satellite time and frequency – interval counter (TIC) 1198 train control 857 transfer (TWSTFT) 159, 291, – keeping system (TKS) 143 trajectory model 939 315, 1300 – laboratory 1188 transformation – multiplexed binary offset carrier – celestial/terrestrial 46 U (TMBOC) 112, 1299 – CIO method 54 – multiplexed binary offset carrier – decorrelating 670 U-D 205 (TMBOC) modulation 1299 – equinox method 54 UK Disaster Monitoring – proper 26, 149, 1294 –Helmert 37, 40 Constellation (UK-DMC) 519, – receiver 1197 – nutation 49 1172, 1182 – scale 1299 – precession 48 UK TechDemoSat-1 (UK-TDS1) – sidereal 27, 1297 – reference frame 985 1182 – synchronization 424 – similarity 37 ULS 204 – terrestrial 26, 1298 transient ultra stable oscillator (USO) 1121 – transfer 1299 – error 431 ultra-high frequency (UHF) 15, time offset – slip 1085 201, 483, 523, 909, 1021 – GPS-to-Galileo (GGTO) 607 transionospheric radio wave 179 ultra-wideband (UWB) 851 –system 607, 608 Transit (satellite) 4, 1033 uncalibrated phase delay (UPD) time system differences transit system 138 740 – RINEX navigation file 1213 transport rate 820 under sampling 381 184 640, 343, 281, 124 843 513 353 1301 340, 220, 353 995 671 16, 1141, 216, 757 1123 899 788 165 101 922, 185, 173 8 476 999 1115 170 878, 1128 1301 215 14, 1301 1165 883, 879 1301 17 435 846, 634 759 W 14, 14, 835 (WAAS) (WAGE) 1301 762, 1189 508 wide-area DGNSS (WADGNSS) wide-area DGPS service (WADGPS) wideband – bow-tie turnstile antenna – interference WideBandMODel (WBMOD) WADS Walker constellation weighting – code/phase – elevation-dependent Welch’s bound wet – delay – delay model – refractivity – troposphere delay Whaba’s problem where-in-lane level accuracy white phase (noise) (WHPH) Wide Area Augmentation System – master station (WMS) – reference station (WRS) wide area GPS enhancement warm start water vapor profile wave propagation waveform wavelength wavelength, widelane waypoint W-bit weather – forecasting – prediction weight matrix weighted least-squares (WLS) voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) vulnerability , 9 776, 853 920 1142, 906, 941 829 1040, 15, 527, 1300 775, 853 1300 1021 353, 974, 883, 889 817 1181 500 44, 967, 1086 8 1088 1301 939 906, 755 953, 888, 28, 1222, 661, 1164 1179, 709 427, 1300 27, 878, 756, 1121 46, 1301 1164, 1301 438, 986 35, 869, 728, 1300 300, 1110, 1222 729, 762, 567, 928 878, 1021, 856 816 815 818 176, (VLBI) 1064, 341, 1200 1216, 178, 835, 1300 341, 778, – of position solution – of unit weight variational equation vector – network analyzer (VNA) – tracking – tracking architecture vegetation cover vehicle ad hoc network (VANET) vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) velocity – error differential equation – random walk (VRW) – relative to the atmosphere vernal equinox vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) – dilution of precision (VDOP) vertical – alert limit (VAL) – atmospheric very high frequency (VHF) – ionospheric delay – protection level (VPL) – total electron content (VTEC) virtual –clock – coherent image – reference station (VRS) vibrating beam accelerometer (VBA) vibrating structure gyroscope (VSG) vibration rectification error (VRE) Vienna mapping function (VMF) – omnidirectional range (VOR) very long baseline interferometry viscoelastic relaxation Viterbi decoder – data broadcast (VDB) volcano deformation 837 398, , 922, 1165, 295 9 880, 655, 1188, 28, 319, 1074 213, 710 397, 198, 26, 205, 264 1024, 654, 341, 126 1300 759 1072 1300 121, 21, 9 16, 216, 1300 126 1300 27, 368, 693, 353 1300 14, 124 333, 958 1300 799 343, 909 729 1049, 985 259, ,
V 353 (UIVE) 1300 9 909 289, 710 (FAA) (UNAVCO) 804 800, 176, 1170 973, (UMPI) (USGS) (USNO) 1188 1279,
UTC dissemination UT1 user ionospheric range error (UIRE) user ionospheric vertical error user segment user range error (URE) user equivalent range error (UERE) user equipment error (UEE) user differential range error (UDRE) update, time (TU) urban canyon US Federal Aviation Administration University Consortium NAVSTAR UoSat –-12 update, measurement (MU) unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) unmodeled bias unscented Kalman filter (UKF) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) University of New Brunswick (UNB) variance – Allan – Hadamard – modified Allan – Coordinated (UTC) van Cittert–Zernike theorem uniformly most powerful invariant United States Geological Survey United States Naval Observatory Universal Time (UT)
Subject Index 1326 Subject Index Subject Index 1327
wide-lane 1301 WSCS 98 zenith 1301 – combination 586 w-test statistic 1301 – hydrostatic delay (ZHD) 171, –extra 669 1111 – wavelength 671 Y – total delay 1301 – troposphere delay (ZTD) 568, wifi positioning 851 yaw angle 86, 571, 785 620, 724, 763, 975 window of acceptance 488 – observability 834 –wetdelay(ZWD) 171, 1111 wireless local area network (WLAN) yaw rate 996 zero mean constraint 996 851 yaw steering 85, 570, 1301 zero-baseline 1301 wireless sensor network (WSN) Y-code 1301 – single difference 599 856 year zero-delay attack 488 wobble 52 – Julian 27 zero-tide system 1301 World Geodetic System (WGS) 6, – tropical 26 ZHD 214, 326, 398 – uncertainty 1115 World Geodetic System 1984 Z Z-invariance 668 (WGS84) 6, 39, 608, 821, 881, Z-tracking 435, 1301 1301 Z-count 424 Z-transformation 669, 1301 ujc Index Subject Recently Published Springer Handbooks
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