Volume 6, Issue 8(3), August 2017 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 48-12-3/7, Flat No: 302, Alekya Residency Srinagar, Visakhapatnam – 530 016 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Founder and President Research Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Mumbai Lima Peru
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Prof. Igor Kondrashin Vice Chancellor, Patna University The Member of The Russian Philosophical Former Director Society Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Studies, New Delhi & The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Vizianagaram Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Department of Mechanical Engineering Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education GITAM University University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Department of Computer Science Coordinator University of Pune,Pune A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering Dr.S.Kannan University of Novi Sad, Serbia Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of English Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Hyderabad Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics Dr. Bipasha Sinha University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Prof. N Kanakaratnam Kalasalingam University Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi
Dr. K. John Babu Assistant Professor Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Department of Sahitya Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
Dr.T.V.Ramana Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Department of Economics, Andhra University Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Campus, Kakinada Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
Volume 6 C O NIssue T E N8 (T3) S August 2017
S. Pg.
No No 1. Education and Ideas of Unemployability among 1 YOUTH K. Lokeswararao
2. Health Strategies –Sanitation and Swacha Bharat 11 Education in India K. Kavitha
3. A Study on Human Resource Management Practices in 19 Singareni Collieries Company Limited in Bhupalapally Azmeera Rajendar Naik
4. NitiMutyalu- Nindu Sandesham 35 N.Venkata Krishna Rao
5. Indian Folk Life in the Writings of Sarojini Naidu 38 P.Babu
6. Effect of Socio-Economic Status on Self Confidence of 52 Sports Players K. Parameshwar
7. Locke an Political Philosophy and its Implications for 60 Nigerian Politics Adefarasin V.O.
8. Behaviour Designs Destiny – A Values Education 68 Approach Madhavi Ravi and Shivani
9. Effect of Yoga Asana on The Psychological Variables of 80 The High School Students Mastan Bijalikhan and A.Mahaboobjan
10. Understanding Indian Society: Ambedkar's Perspective 90 Mathangi Murali
11. The Meaning of Penyelaman for Hindus and Moslems in 103 Bali, Indonesia Nengah Bawa Atmadja 12. The Manifestation of Women in Ghashiram Kotwal by 121 Vijay Tendulkar Nusrat Chowdhary
13. Politics of Violence and Quest for Human Security in 137 Bodoland Pankaj Kumar Sarmah and Kumar Bhaskar Varma
14. Partition of the Punjab 1947 A.D. – A Historical 152 Perspective Prakash Chandra Badwaya
15. Soico -Demographic Issues Relating to Tribal Women: A 159 Study in Visakhapatnam District of A.P Rajana Balayya
16. Appropriate Technology and Development 174 R.Ratheesh
17. A Corporate Initiative in the Rehabilitation of Hearing 187 and Speech Impaired- A Case Study Sangeetha Nair.A and Sonny Jose
18. Role of Cooperative Banks in Micro Finance 201 S.Naga Padma and G.Syamala Rao
19. Role of Microfinance Institutions in the Growth of Small 218 and Medium Enterprises in Illu Ababora Zone, Oromia Region of Ethiopia Saddam Mohammedamin Seid, Teshome Dejene and Yeshitla Gebre
20. Field Observation and Internship of Pre-Service Teacher 238 Education Curriculum: Points for Reflection Sailaja Chennat
21. Dipavali Panduga Vaisistyamu 252 G. Venkata Lal
ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Dr. K. VICTOR BABU Impact Factor :4.527(2016) M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect. The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action. The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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EDUCATION AND IDEAS OF UNEMPLOYABILITY AMONG YOUTH
Dr.K. Lokeswararao Principal SRI GCSR College of Education GMR Nagar, Rajam Srikakulam-Dist. A.P. Abstract The present study focuses on Education and Ideas of unemployability among youth, As the emerging issues of the society, this is the most burning problem in Education and ideas of unemployability among youth, the present society and most neglected aspect of quality education and employment sources also. The focus is on the quality education and employment sources in the world in general and in the country in particular. The report of social reforms says , quality education and its survival of employability influenced the people of the country who are lying below the poverty line. The common man faced many problems in employability and quality education also. Why because follows many uncultured customs and traditions based on uncivilized life leading. Most of the cultures fall into the primary occupations such as hunting, gathering and agriculture. It is most helpful to the society. The people suffered a lot with quality education and employment by the improving Indian Government, entire country. Day by day many changes are taking place in Globalization. But there is no change in the mindset of the weaker sections. As a result, the education and employment problems continue in common man’s life. So, many issues arise in the common man’s life. Mainly common men are not aware of quality education and employment issues and life leading. Even today the central government and state government estabilished and amended many reforms for quality education and employment sources. But they do not reach the actual aim. Indian society is highly stratified, with many glaring inequalities among different cultures and civilizations. The worst positioned among them are the individual values culture and civilization status. The quality education and employment has segregated in government policy from the society. In the way of quality education and
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employability to such an extent that they were denied even the basic human rights that one must enjoy in order to ensure one’s bare assistance the negative influence of quality education and employability. The central government to take has created and sustained quality education and employment conditions in our country. This influenced an unequal opportunity structure, which is mandatory for the quality education and employability principles, which are the basis of a modern democratic culture and civilization society. What is worse, it intensifies and perpetuates the sufferings and servitude of disadvantage people. Even after the five decades of planned quality education and employability, still the unaccounted the employability and educational values is continuing and all the rhetoric of the socialistic pattern of society, the quality education and employability status of these communities is pathetic. In the ultimate control, the quality education and employment survival sectorial impact of the Indian Culture and civilization is getting influenced by the system of quality education. The analysis of resources, wealth, power, position, privileges, higher status, authority, education, employment, services, land and labor got rich communities. For the developing countries like India, quality education and employment are very useful reforms but we never expect the fruits in short time; it gives its useful results in long time. Introduction: Quality education and employability focused on individual stable and life leading, particularly in general shown to the personnel attitude and values , behaviour simultaneously impact of our education and employment. Mainly impact of youth generation. In the present era quality education and employment has gained an enormous importance especially in the last 15 years. In the basic sense, the word quality education refers to the adoption of liberalization for Indian society restrictions, open and unfettered society for Indian education. As a result the world is considered as a global village. Being a complex phenomenon, it has several dimensions like political, technological, human, environmental, cultural etc. it meant for improving society activities across the globe through the process of socialization of the people. In a forms of non- territorial social activity.
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The current paper entitled “Education and ideas of unemployability among youth” Indian urban and rural life focuses on the phenomena of deculturalization which has brought cheers in the lives of the people. It has opened new vistas of employment. The cultural heritage of India is connected through networks. These networks lead to the international of cultures along with food habits, dress habits, life styles, quality education etc.. Cultural identity: "Civilization" can also refer to the culture of a complex society, not just the society itself. Every society, civilization or not, has a specific set of ideas and customs, and a certain set of manufactures and arts that make it unique. Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state -based decision making apparatus, a literature , professional art, architecture , organized religion and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with maintaining the elite.
A world map of major civilizations according to the political hypothesis Clash of Civilizations by Samuel P.Huntington. The intricate culture associated with civilization has a tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, Many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity. Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as discrete units. Early twentieth-century
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philosopher Oswald Spengler, uses the German word Kultur, "culture", for what many call a "civilization". Spengler believes a civilization's coherence is based on a single primary cultural symbol. Cultures experience cycles of birth, life, decline and death, often supplanted by a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol. Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as "the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable".This "unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian Arnold J.Toynbee in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume A Study of History, which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations". Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a "creative minority", through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes. Samuel P.Huntington defines civilization as "the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species". Huntington's theories about civilizations are discussed. Definition: Education is the only wealth which cannot be robbed. It builds both internal and outer personality and character and strengthens our mind and augments our pool of knowledge. The word ‘Education’ stands for a number of meanings that are synonyms and also covers a wide range: such as ‘to educate’ means to teach, to learn, to instruct, to inform,etc. and various other processes associated with learning. One can say that learning is a part of education. And more precisely it is the consequence of education. So learning is the end-product of the processes called ‘education’. In other words, education is the processes by which an individual is encouraged and armed to develop his or her potential. The processes of education aims at the all round development of individuals, dispelling ignorance and enhancing the moral values in the society, thusworking towards a collective well being. “Education without values, as useful as it is, seems rather to make man a morecleverdevil”.------C.S.Lewis.
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Objectives:
To study the attitude of teenagers and youth. Enumerate the usage patterns and arrive at particularities gender wise if any. Examine the young people relate the functionality of practicability. Understand the perceptions for issues like unemploybility implications. To study and understanding the present society education conditions of Indian urban and rural life in the path of education/ under the shadow of youth Ideas of unemploybility views. To study the concept of global village through the impact of education and unemploybility. To study Education as an empowering entity. To study new potential for development of education and unemploybility wealth creation. Methodology: While this subject may also be fruitfully studied from a historical, sociological, economical, demographical or political view point, here the adopted methodology will be only Deculturalization with particular attention devoted the applied approaches.
Geographical segregation. Forbidding education to the dominated group. Forceful replacing of language. Superior culture’s curriculam in schools. Instructors are from the dominant group. Distinctions below culture and climate. Education concerns beliefs and values exemplified by how org behave and the myths/ stories that perpetuate it. India is currently struggling with large unemployment amongst the youth. The National Development plan has idendentified a number of policy interventions to improve youth employment. In your view, what are the causes of youth unemployment and what should government do to improve the levels of youth employment?. Identify the pros and cons of each your proposals. Young people today live in a world characterized by dramatic cultural, economic, social and educational differences: Individual circumstances depend largely on where a person is born and raised. This complex cultural situation-in
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which young people are struggling to find direction in their lives or simply to survive, to improve their living conditions, and to develop their identities has been given various names. Educational globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations. This process is marked by the common consumption of education that have been diffused by the Internet, popular education, media, and international travel. This has added to processes of commodity exchange and colonization which have a longer history of carrying educational meaning around the globe. The circulation of education enables individuals to partake in extended social relations that cross national and regional borders. The creation and expansion of such social relations is not merely observed on a material level. Educational globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people associate their individual and collective educational identities.. Educational diffusion is the spread of educational items—such as ideas,styles, religions, technologies, languages etc... education has increased the interdependency of political, personal, cultural, and economic factors.The Indian experience particularly reveals the plurality of the impact of educational globalization. Notwithstanding the immense diversity in living environments, an un precedence and unifying global media culture has developed that challenges and often surpasses such traditional forms of socialization as family and school. Some call it in the information or informational age, while other prefer the term techno culture, or technocapitalisam, global media culture, or simply globalization. The idea behind all these terms is that across the globe. ICT are playing a central role in young people’s lives and in society at large. Education is universally acknowledged to benefit individuals and promote national development. Educating females and males produces similar increases in their subsequent earnings and expands future opportunities and choices for both boys and girls. However , educating girls produces many additional socio-economic gains the benefit entire societies. These benefits include increased economic productivity, higher family incomes, delayed marriages, reduced fertility rates, and improved health and survival rates for infects and children.
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The paper presents a framework that has been designed to address the inequality, described above. A tool for education programmers, the framework helps ensure that education project meet the needs of all learners. Using an approach that takes into account the relations and nitration between males and females. Gender equality of framework addresses four dimensions of equality in education. These are:
Equality of access. Equality in the learning process. Equality of educational outcomes. Equality of external results. Achieving gender equality in education means that boys and girls will have equal opportunities to realizes their full human rights and contribute to and benefit from economic, social, cultural, and political development. Quality, retention, and achievement are essential elements of an education strategy designed to ensure that boys and girls maximize their full potential. As the Gender Equality in Education Framework indicates, addressing issues of access is insufficient to ensure that boys and girls receive the maximum benefit from their education. High quality education for all learners. Findings:
1. Inadequacy of standards and real Education which helps to human to servive naturally. 2. Technical Education and knowledge in present mostly unutilized. 3. The policies of government are not safe and live available for people sustain and developments. 4. Crises of scientific perspectives among people and government determs. 5. The Education is not properly adopting by the learner which helps to know thy self. 6. Not prior to developing the active based learning and developing in life skills of man. 7. The Education is not calibered in point of self problem solving and common man settlements in his regular life.
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8. Even through long decades human kind struggle with casteisem, religions, groupisem, rich, poor, area felling etc. bonding still now even the people and government Educate equalism and equality, but it has been not implemented in practical. When the above huddles reduced in human life that is real education. 9. An inequality differences in opportunities the major inefficiencies in point of gender, male and female. 10. Braindrine is major cause of nation sickness. Most of the knowledge migrate to other countries cause of misunderstanding and improper recognition. 11. A real Education is which helps to common man to lead his life freely, fruitfully and acquire the skills, knowledge for sustain. 12. The knowledge thoughts of a man are not accessible to the society present days. 13. Decreasing gradually self-realization, scientific attitude in common man, on part of values crising. 14. Human relations are not pretty enough to develop and sustain for mankind and values. 15. Only Education help of the unemploybility youth. 16. Lack of elders guidance, past experience utilizationand past culture are ruined the human life’s. 17. Lack of high society spoil the youth to modern culture. 18. Modern culture takes generations for to truth and fair culture. 19. Generations are travelling in trances of anti-developing directions. 20. As part of development in culture, civilization through technology humankind path to education and unemploybility youth. Conclusion: Unemployment is most significant obstacle to poverty in India. It is clear that India faces serious problem of very high unemployment amongst young people. Structure of Indian economy, which is moving towards becoming more skills-intensive while a significant number of its participants, have little to no hard skills. It was argued that ultimately remedies for these structural difficulties and inclusive economic growth, but it was realized that these are long term solutions, and more immediately appreciable policies. The impact of Education and ideas of unemploybility among youth on India and rural life has a tremendous influence which is both positive as well as negative. The Indian urban and rural life is viewed
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as two facts of the same coin. They are mutually interdependent and both have a greater impact of unemploybility cause to suicides i.e. in Andhra Pradesh averagely 28 per month and especially in students 333 members in 2014 and 360 members in 2015, national wide 7,753 in 2014th year and we can note a recent incident most popular people involve the major Drugs case which A Dutch national involves in, most of the students in metro polity cities are erected Narcotic Drugs which are supplied openly in on line and from private individual. Some critics of globalization argue that it harms the diversity of cultures. As a dominating country’s culture is introduced into a receiving country through globalization. It can become a threat to the diversity of local culture. Some argue that globalization may ultimately lead to westernization or Americanization of culture, where the domination cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful western countries spread and cause harm to local cultures. The Indian experience particularly reveals the plurality of the impact of cultural globalization. We are feeling and dreaming our position as high society but in fact we crising ourselves than low society. Needless to say that education is very essential for eradicating poverty as it makes people productive and earn better living. Reference:
Basic Education coalition-2004. Teach a child transform a nation. Washington, DC: Basic Education coalition. Dejaeghere,J 2004,”Background paper for workshop 1:quality education and gender equality. Paper presented at the international, conference on education: Forty seventh session, Geneva”. Kend all, N.2006. “strengthening Gender and education programming in the 21 1st century. ”EQUI P2 working paper. Washington, DC:AED. world Bank. 2005 world development report 2006:Equity and development. Washington, DC: World Bank. 2005.”Education strategy: Improving lives through learning”. Washington,DC:USAID. 2007.” president’s international education initiative: Expanded education for the world’s poorest children: Mali fact sheet. “press release. September 24. Washington, DC:USAID.
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Sibbuns,M,D. swam field, H. Paulsen, A.Giggard, A.Norton, and A.Seel 2000 Mainstreaming gender through sector wide approaches in education: synthesis report. London: Overseas Development Institute/Cambridge Education consultants. United Nations Educational, scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO). 2003 Gender and Education for all: The leap to equality: paris:UNESCO. Aliber, M.2003. Chronic poverty in south Africa Incidence, causes and policies. World Development, 31(3),p473. Davies,R, and J. Thurlow.2010. Formal – Informal economy linkages and unemployment in south Africa. South Africa journal of economics 78(4),p,437. Democratic Alliance 2012. Youth wage subsidy Document, Democratic Alliance. National planning commission-2012. National development plan 2030: Our future- make it work. Pretoria: National planning commission. K.Robins and K.Webster, Times of Techno culture ( New york) London,Routledge,1999. M.Castells. The Interne Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and society. (oxford, oxford university press,2001) p2. Y. Minoura,Children and media. In the Bright and Dark sides of the information Revolution: A cultural Ecological perspective, N.Kobayashi,ed. ( Tokyo, Hoso Bunka Foundation-2001. P.91. Paperback,168 pages by McGraw-Hill Humanities/social sciences/Languages –1994 Albrow,Martin and Elizabeth king(ends) Globalization, Knowledge and society. London: sage ISBN 9780803983236. “school Desegregation and Equal Educational opportunity”. Improvement of the situation of women in rural area’s General Assembly, United Nations-2005. Inter Net references also. Social media.
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HEALTH STRATEGIES –SANITATION AND SWACHA BHARAT EDUCATION IN INDIA
Dr. K. Kavitha Lecturer in M.Ed Dept. of Education Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati
Abstract
Delhi, 9th April, 2015: Vedanta, the diversified natural resources group of companies, today celebrated World Health Day as a significant partner of India government’s ‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ vision. Mega health camps, sensitization drives and distribution of medicines across its operations in India was the agenda of the Vedanta initiatives, committed to promote awareness in health and sanitation.“Vedanta’s community development programmes are integrated with the specific need of the community. We have pledged our support to local governments for ensuring access toHealth & Sanitation facilities in remote locations, as a part of our integrated ruraldevelopment programmes,” said Ms. Roma Balwani, President, Sustainability& CSR In Odisha, Vedanta’s Lanjigarh business unit conducted a Mega Health camp, providing free health check-ups and distributing medicines, to create awareness among over 300residents of the local villages on the preventive and curative measures of diseases prevalentin the area. Tamil Nadu, which conducted an interactive session called ‘Clean Hands’ on World Health Day. Awareness on the ill-effects of oral tobacco and maintaining personal hygiene, as well as a school health awareness on ‘De-worming and Importance of Vitamins’ was followed by providing students with de-worming and vitamin tablets, benefiting over 150 people.
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Introduction
Every school in the country must have a set of essential interventions that relate to both technical andhu man development aspects of a good Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Programme. Following is a set of these essential elements:
Sanitation:
Separate toilets for boys and girls, with one unit generally having one toilet (WC) plus 3 urinals. The ratio to be maintained is preferably one unit for every 40 students. Menstrual hygiene management facilities including soap, adequate and private space for changing, adequate water for cloth washing and disposal facilities for menstrual waste, including an incinerator and dust bins.
Daily hand washing with soap before mid day meal:
Sufficient group hand washing facilities allowing groups of 10-12 students to wash hands at the same time. The hand washing station should be simple, scalable and sustainable, relying on usage of minimum water. These hand washing facilities can be developed using local materials. Group hand washing with soap sessions are conducted before the mid day meals are served, and are supervised by teachers, who emphasise good hand washing techniques. The hand washing sessions are used as an opportunity for delivering hygiene messages, especially the message that hands should be washed at two critical times: before eating and after using the toilet. The sessions can also be used to deliver messages on sanitation and drinking-water safety. Adequate time allocation (preferably 10-12 mins) before the mid day meal time, to ensure that every child and teacher can wash hands with soap, conveniently.
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Drinking Water:
Daily provision of child-friendly and sustainable safe drinking water and adequate water for handwashing. In addition water for school cleaning and also food preparation and cooking. Safe handling and storage of drinking water should be practised throughout the school. Operation and maintenance (O&M) All water, sanitation and hand washing facilities need to be clean, functional and well maintained to ensure that the intended results are achieved and capital investments made in installing these systems are not lost. Annual Maintenance Contracts can be issued, which will include regular maintenance of facilities, regular supply of cleaning materials, consumables like soap, disinfectants, brooms, brushes, buckets etc. The AMC may include identification of repair tasks and arrangement for repair facilities. Alternatively some local arrangements can be made, which can include appointment of local sweepers/cleaners, appointed by the school/district, who are provided with a regular supply of consumables.
Regular/daily inspection of water and sanitation facilities by an appropriate group of persons as appointed by the SMC. Behavior change activities
Water, sanitation and hygiene behavior change communication activities should be part of the daily routine of all children. Hygiene messages may be integrated into the textbook curriculum or may be imparted through supplementary reading materials, activity based learning methodologies or even during the morning assembly sessions.
Girls must be taught menstrual hygiene management by female teachers in a sensitive and supportive manner and also take steps to encourage and support girls during menstruation so they do not miss school. This involves menstrual hygiene education sessions at school,
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along with steps to ensure that girls have a private place to wash and change their clothes. Existing facilities will be used in some cases; in other situations, a new facility will need to be constructed. Other steps that can be taken to support girls include stockpiling extra sanitary pads and clothes (such as school uniforms) for emergencies, along with enhanced training programmes for teachers.
Enhanced capacities:
It is essential that capacities are improved at various levels within the sector, to develop the right mix of skills, knowledge and experience to facilitate, finance, manage and monitor water, sanitation and hygiene programmes in schools effectively. For example teachers and SMCs need to understand ways of ensuring equitable use and maintenance of facilities, making sure hygiene is adequately promoted and that monitoring of these elements take place regularly at the school level. Furthermore, new learnings need to be infused in the sector, along with newer ways of programming and implementing a water, sanitation and hygiene programme in schools.
Seasonal/quarterly maintenance (before monsoon):
Check the water tank thoroughly for leakage etc. Seal it with water proof cement or sealant and clean it at regular intervals. In case of an underground tank, check if the cover and the brim of the tank is intact and sufficiently raised from the surrounding ground level. Thorough cleaning of the roof, water outlets, checking for cracks, broken gola, coping, chhajja etc. Checking and repairing of leaky roofs Levelling and cleaning of open school ground. Thorough checking of electrical lines and earthing (if applicable). Clean all dust from the fans, tube lights and bulbs.
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Clean coolers (if any), water tank, change pads, check all electrical systems and earthing. Thorough cleaning of water storage tanks as described above. Check the functioning of hinges, bolts and other hardware of all doors and windows. Annual maintenance General repair and maintenance work during the vacation. Structural repair and plaster work. Associated painting work. Thorough cleaning of sewage and waste water lines. Thorough cleaning of inspection and junction chambers. Repair of leaks, if any. Thorough cleaning of septic tanks and leach pits, if being used on any site. Major repair of any electrical lines and earthing. Repair of blackboards. Maintenance works for school infrastructure under SSA are to be undertaken through SMC/community of parents, children, teachers and others. SMC may thoroughly inspect the school infrastructure, assess the quantum of repairfor each and every components such as school building, toilets drinking water facilities, storage tank, hand pump, ramps railing, child friendly elements etc., and with the help of local masonry carpenter and other skilled worker, assess the tentative cost after verifying the value in the local market. The SMC may also assess the resources available from SSA, through convergence such as from education department through MP and MLA funds and any other scheme such as MNREGA and pool all such financial resource. As ownership lies with the community the annual maintenance is carried out effectively to sustain the school infrastructure as long as possible. Shortage of funds, if any, should be contributed through community
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contribution. It may be understood that the member of school infrastructure is ultimately to be sustained by SMC/ local community.
Behavior Change for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: EnsuringSustainability of Interventions:
Effective behavior change is vital to the success and sustainability of all water, sanitation and hygiene interventions. Specific to the school setting, behavior change must include improvements in hand washing practices, better maintenance and use of toilet facilities and the use of safe drinking water, and improved menstrual hygiene amongst adolescent girls. Behavior change is often reflected under the term ‘hygiene promotion’, and the focus of many hygiene promotion strategies is improving knowledge on issues related to sanitation and hygiene practices. The rapid educational and cognitive development of school-aged children can require multiple behavior change approaches within a single school. Also, the fact that children are an essential link between the school and home environments, presents unique opportunities for school-based behavior change programmes. Children have the potential to bring health education messages and practices to the home environment, expanding the potential impact of school-based interventions to parents, communities and non-school going children. Schools are a natural learning environment, making schoolchildren potentially more receptive to behavior change and behavior change education. It is theorized that many personal hygiene practices are largely learned and acquired during childhood, suggesting that changes among schoolchildren can lead to a lifetime of improved practices. Another important factor is implementing hygiene education that promotes life skills.
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Main Components of School-based Behavior Change:
Changing hygiene behavior is not easy, and often, too much emphasis is given to promoting knowledge, without that knowledge being translated into appropriate skills and attitudes towards hygiene. Life skills-based hygiene education focuses on all three aspects: knowledge, skills and attitudes. Childto- child approaches are often a fundamental component of behavior change strategies in schools. Child- to-child strategies involves leveraging peer pressure and norms to encourage behavior change. Unlike the traditional behavior change approach that relied on providing knowledge and building information, life skills-based hygiene education helps children develop and practice proper hygiene. Life skills-based learning is accomplished through interactive sessions that promote sharing between students and encourage group behaviors.
Daily supervised handwashing with soap before mid day meals session is a concrete example of a life skill based behavior change approach, where all students as a group wash their hands with soap at least once a day, before meals. This group activity in school is designed to reinforce the habit of good hygiene behavior, and uses the positive power of social norms and peer encouragement to strengthen healthy actions. Behavior change around toilet use is also centered on group activities on a daily basis, where the focus is on keeping existing toilets clean through a daily routine of maintenance.
A curriculum for behavior change is also a considered option and has proven to be very useful. Many states in India have incorporated behavior change components of water, sanitation and hygiene, into school textbooks and as supplementary reading materials. These are regularly taught in schools as a part of the academic sessions, and during special classes of the week. In addition, one of the most effective channels of disseminating hygiene messages is during morning
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assembly. Prayer time is often used by schools to check cleanliness amongst students, spread the message of hygiene through songs and skits etc.
CONCLUSION:
Water, sanitation and hygiene education in schools provides safe drinking water, improves access to clean sanitation facilities and promotes lifelong health. Good hygiene practices in schools enhances the well-being of children and their families, and paves the way for new generations of healthy children. Proper sanitation and drinking water facilities in schools signicantly reduce hygiene-related disease; increase student attendance and learning achievements; and contributes to dignity, inclusion and equity. These attributes serve as a base for ongoing development and economic growth.
REFERENCES:
1. Handbook on Technical Options for On Site Sanitation 2. Technical options for Solid and Liquid Waste Management in rural areas 3. Handbook on Scaling up Solid and Liquid Waste Management in Rural Areas 4. Sanitation and Hygiene Communication Strategy 2012 5. Gram Panchayat Handbook 6. Establishment and Management of Community Sanitary Complexes in Rural Areas 7. SwachhataDoot guidelines 2011 8. Framework for Solid and Liquid Waste Management 9. Guidelines on Solid and Liquid Waste Management (SLWM) in Rural Areas 2014
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A STUDY ON HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN SINGARENI COLLIERIES COMPANY LIMITED IN BHUPALAPALLY
Azmeera Rajendar Naik Research Scholar Dept of MHRM Kakatiya University, Warangal Abstract
The public sector has emerged as an important level of economic growth in India. It has changed the industrial face of the country and has been instrumental in bringing socio-economic revolution. But the performance and profitability of most public companies is not that satisfactory. The actual result is much behind the target and they are operating much below the installed capacity. Employees being the main source of production, the success or failure of an organization depends to a considerable extent on its employees. HRM acquires special meaning in coal industry due to variety of factors. This article presents the HRM practices in company specially concentrating on performance, promotion, training methods and identification of employee, welfare measures, medical facilities, compensation and union involvement in the organization on the practice.
Keywords: HRM, Practices, Performance
INTRODUCTION
Human resources are the mighty pillars that form the business colonnade in the world economy. They, therefore, deserve all the care and attention, the very art of managing human resources is based on thoughtful policies and bouquet of helpful practices aimed at creating motivation and commitment in the workforce. While human resources policies form the framework for effective functioning of HR management, HR practices form the culture in business management.
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The best practices in Human Resource Management (HRM) would result in benefits to all stakeholders like the shareholders, creditors, suppliers, consumers and employees. The organization as a whole will then reap the benefits. Such useful practices invariably create, in the workforce, an awareness of the need to achieve the business goals in the best possible and ethical manner. They are also aimed at creating a sense of togetherness in the organization. These best HRM practices weave into the business strategy, providing support to the organization in all its endeavors to achieve its business targets and to overcome business hazards like competition and change in consumer patterns. Good HR practices also help to overcome economic forces such as recession, inflation, etc
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Human resources management is an important factor for production. Human resources are the only active factor of production which only can employ other factors in the best possible manner. Every organisation operates by combining resources both materials and non material. While the plant, equipment, financial assets (generally described as material resources), are considered as vital resources, the one that is most important is the non - material resource, namely the “human resources” or the employee resources. Human Resource Management is concerned with the people’s dimension in managements. Every organisation is made up of people, acquiring their services, developing their skills, motivating them to high levels of performance and ensuring that they continue to maintain their commitment to the organisation, which is essential for achieving organisation objectives. Recently, a number of developments have combined to make the effective management of human resource even more important. These developments include the drastic changes occurring in the nature ofwork performed, changes in the attitudes of workers available, and workers’ expectations. Today, workers have
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higher expectations about the work they are willing to perform, a desire for share in the financial gains achieved by the organisation. The assessment of human resource conditions involves external conditions, organizational conditions and employee conditions. External conditions include: (a) the societal, cultural, political and economic factors relevant to organisation and its employees. In more specific terms, these include economic conditions, government regulations (referred to as human resource laws) of central, state and local governments, including the court interpretations and directions regarding these laws and finally the trade union expectations. At the principle level the objective of each human resource function, is same across the organisation. However, the practices and approaches these organisations follow do differ. Human resource as vital for the organization is success and survival leading organizations have revolutionized all their major Human resources policies and procedures with overall business plans. For this, aligning strategic choices of planning, staffing, appraising, compensating and training and development are essential. Organizations need high performance systems with high skills and high adoptability in human resources. Constant upgrading of knowledge and broadened skill base of employees is becoming imperative to prevent human resource obsolescence. Information sharing is also critical if people at workplace are to contribute creatively than just physically.
Development is never ending process. Human Resource Development is an area of modern scientific management system, which underlies various techniques relating to improve the efficiency of human resource and reduce the wastage of all types, which would ultimately go to control costs and improves the working results of an organization. Through proper selection and placement, morale boosting and motivation, improved industrial relation and labour productivity becomes positively. Human resource management has a key position in
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public enterprises. There are some universal goals towards which all human resource development efforts should aim to achieve. At the individual level and at the organizational level the goal of HRM is normally to have competent and motivated employees to ensure higher level of productivity, profitability and growth of the organization. Organization uses many mechanisms to achieve HRM goals, without competent and committed employees [6], organization can achieve very little even if they have excellent technical and other resource base. In India, state intervention in economic matters becomes a necessity. It is the duty of the state to erect and maintain certain public works. The role of government which was originally limited to the maintenance of law and order has been considerably expanded in recent years. The state is responsible for the socio-economic welfare of the people and has emerged as an active participation in economic and industrial field. Sate participation in economic activity is a worldwide phenomenon of the twentieth century. The economic needs of nation, political ideology, social philosophy [13] and the state of economic development determine the extent of the state intervention in industrial and commercial field.
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
Human resource management as a distinct and important function in industrial/business organizations is a latest development on the Indian scene, and still has a comparatively in low profile. Any way, it can be argued that even in industrially advanced countries, the importance of human resource management was not appreciated at the earlier stages. It was only after the formation of strong trade unions, the growth of collective bargaining, a wider social consciousness about labour welfare and protective legislation in many areas ofworking conditions are made possible and a climate was created for the growth ofthe concept ofHuman Resource Management. Speaking in a wider context, the two important developments that have contributed enormously to the growth of human resource management concept and
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practice refer to (i) the enormous growth of social sciences and availability of research based data on the motivation and behaviour of men at work in the industrial setting and realization that all the resources used in industry, the most important is the human factor: and (ii) conflict with organized labour, so endemic in the Indian situation, compelled captains of Indian industry to realize that the human factor (the most appreciating asset) could depreciate vary fast more than money, material and machinery, if not properly handled. The beginning of this compelling realization could be seen in the emergence of personnel management and the increasing importance being attached to the role of the personnel manager.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
S.Ravi Sankar and R..K.Mishra (1985) in their book “Management ofHuman Resources in Public Enterprises” have opined that Human Resource Management Concepts, Problems, Approaches and Strategies are important not only from the point of view ofthose responsible for formulation of personnel policies but also those who are to execute and operate the same. Effort has been made to equip the public enterprise managers in bridging the gulf between human expectations and managerial achievement at different hierarchical levels.
Narayana (1987) in his study opined that managing the human resource in a human way is the key to success of any organization. It is a continuous process. In this article the author suggested a conceptual model through team building for the development of human resources in any organization.
Shampa Ckakraberty in his study titled “Human Performance Improvement and the Role ofthe Analyst” has analyzed that Organizations oftoday need to achieve positive results in a specific time and to achieve the same human performance Improvement (HPI) can
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be used to help build intellectual capital, establish and maintain a high- performance workplace, enhance profitability, and encourage productivity.
K. Vasantha in her study titled “Unlocking Human potential through HCM” has analysed that most organizations have employed comprehensive process and rationale-driven metrics to drive performance, only a more holistic view of individual engagement in the workplace can raise organizational energy and deliver a sustained boost in individual productivity.
Mrs. Guda Ramavani in her study, “Incentive schemes in Coal Industry A case study of Singareni Collieries Company Limited” observed that the sales of SCCL in 1997 - 98 was Rs. 2320.74 crores. In 2002-03 it increased to Rs. 3141.83 crores which represents a growth of 34.2%. This high growth in sales is due to increased demand for coal. Till the year 1960, the SCCL continued as a State Government Company. The company felt the need for huge investment for developing mines. It was found that majority employees believed that incentives will help in rewarding efficient workers. The suggestions have been offered by workers and managers. Incentives bonus can be paid on weekly basis instead of fortnightly basis. Incentives should be based on shift average production.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
Employees being the main source of production, the success or failure of an organisation depends to a considerable extent on its employees. HRM acquires special meaning in coal industry due to variety of factors. Coal mine is a labor-incentive industry. So, the quality of coal and the objective of achieving goals are highly dependent on the employees who participate in production. Thus the task of HRM will always be central and neglect of HRM function is likely to destroy the company itself.
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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1. To study the HRM Practices in coal mining Industry.
2. To study the Profile of the Singareni Calories Company Limited (SCCL).
3. To analyze the performance of SCCL.
4. To analyze the HRM Practices in SCCL.
5. To evaluate the Perception of the employees of SCCL on the HRM Practices and their implications.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
For the purpose of present study secondary data have been used. The secondary data has been obtained from employees of the organization. Some relevant data had been collected through interviews held with employees and leaders of SCCL, Bhupalapally Area. The secondary data obtained from books, journals and websites. For this purpose the researcher had been to University Library, Kakatiya University-Warangal and University Library, Osmania University- Hyderabad.
Coal Industry in India : Coal is the primary source of energy supply in India accounting for almost 75% of the electricity generation in the Country. The world's third largest hard coal reserves of 233 billion tones in India have served as a source for secure energy supplies to meet the requirements of a growing economy, expanding population and rapid urbanization. Coal reserves are expected to last for more than 220 years at the present level of production.
India is the third largest coal producer in the World with an output of 328 million tones in 2001-02. About 80% of this output is dispatched to consumers in the power sector. Public sector coal companies contribute 95% of India's coal production, of which Coal
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India Limited account for 85% and Singareni Collieries Company Limited for 10%. Other companies like TISCO & captive mining firms make up the balance.
The Singareni Collieries Company Limited Strategic role in Coal sector:
SCCL is the only coal company in southern part of India catering to the requirements of coal consumers in power, cement and other industries in this region. The Company is engaged in mining coal in the Godavari Valley Coalfield spread over .the four districts of Andhra Pradesh viz., Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal and Khammam districts. Coal mining activities in this coalfield were commenced in 1889 in Yellandu area in Khammam District by Hyderabad Deccan Coal Company. The Company was registered as the Singareni Collieries Company Limited and its scripts were listed on London Stock Exchange in 1921. SCCL earned the distinction of being the first Government - managed Coal Company in India when the Nizam of Hyderabad purchased the shares of the Company in 1945. SCCL came under State control in 1949 and from 1960 onwards is jointly owned by Government of Andhra Pradesh and Govt, of India with equity participation in the ratio of 51:49
Growth of SCCL : SCCL has grown from a production level of 0.47 metric tonnes at the beginning of the 20"' century (1900-01) to achieve 30.81 metric tonnes at the beginning of the 21" century (2001- 02). The company contributed 10% of national coal production with only 6% of the total geological reserves. SCCL operates 12 opencast mines and 54 underground mines in Godavari Valley coalfield at present with a total manpower of around 97,053. Over the years, the Company has progressively increased its production capacity and productivity by opening up new underground/opencast mines and introducing mechanization in underground mines. The proportion of
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output from mechanized underground and opencast mines has grown by 136% over the decade enabling total coal production to increase by 71% even with 10% reduction in manpower.
Singareni in Bhupalapally
The first observation of coal in this place has been found in 1985 by the boring department of Singareni Colleries Company Limited (SCCL) in the middle of the city very near to the main road. . The first Coal mine i.e. KakatheeyaKhani 1 inclince (also known as KTK 1 Incline) was inaugurated on 15th July- 1988 by Late N. T. Ramarao. Since then, many other coal mines are started and running successfully. As per the 2010 SCCL reports, there are total xxx people are directly employed in Bhupalpally area. The workers have been transferred from various regions like Ramagundem, Godavarikhani, Mandamarri, Bellampally, Kothagudem and so on.
The coal mine industry has been shown and showing many direct and direct opportunities to more one lack people in and around Bhupalpally. The development of Bhupalpally not only has been going on by the govt. but also SCCL. SCCL is spending lacks of rupees for development of roads, facilities and also established Singareni high school for their employees. SCCL also encouraging the private local people to start the schools with all facilities for the people of Bhupalpally. It has also been found that some of the private small scale industries have been encouraged by the singareni in bhupalpally. At present the total employees working SCCL in the bhupalpally area is nearly 7593 by the end of feb 2011. Different type of coal including high quality grades like F, E, C and B type of coal is available in this area
SCCL: Strategic Role in Industrial Development
The Company plays a strategic role in the coal industry being the only coal mining company in Southern part of India. Its locational advantage enables it to service a large market in and around its areas of
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operation. SCCL serves not only major Power Houses and Cement industries located in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, but also has more than 2500 customers belonging to the medium and small-scale industries.
Regulated coal linkages & Administered pricing - Impact on SCCL performance
SCCL has coal producer in South India and the only one in this region, benefited from the Government of India's continued budgetary support to help augment its production capacity by opening new mines or introducing mechanization in existing mines. In view ofthe growing energy requirements the emphasis was more on enhancing coal production than on project viability. Coal prices were fixed by Central Government and invariably pegged down keeping in view its impact on power, railways, cement and steel sectors. The hike in input costs like wages due to periodical wage revisions under National Coal Wage Agreements (NCWA), stores and interest etc., were also not fully compensated in the annual/ bi-annual price revisions by Central Government. The above factors compounded with the inherent adverse geo-mining conditions and poor quality of coal left SCCL in the red many of the times. Other adverse factors viz., difficult law & other situation leading to production loss, skewed equity - debt ratio adding to the interest burden and capital intensity of mechanization of underground mines have resulted in the company to incur heavy losses during the years 1989-90 to 1992-93.
Boosting awareness of employees
The Company has opened Communication cells and taken up a vigorous literacy campaign for the benefit of the workmen. Posters, pamphlets and letters addressed to individual workmen by C&MD are used to highlight the issues facing the company and exhorting them to strive for improving the performance of the company. Multi
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Departmental Teams comprising of members from various disciplines visit mines/colonies to educate the workmen and their families, street plays, dial-your GM, video programmes are organized and shown on CITI cable network to spread awareness.
Future requirement from DGMS
In some of the BG panels where the depth is around 250 mtrs. SCCL has experienced strata control and spontaneous heating problems. As adequate statutory provisions are already available in the Mines Act, SCCL would expect early clearance of permissions for continuance of BG panels, while simultaneously steps are being taken to overcome the problems.
The renewal of permission for use of LW equipment based on the certification of the competent engineers of SCCL.
In introduction of continuous miners, in development of suitable roof bolting and goaf edge supports to suit to the technology, as the concentration of men in working place is now reduced.
As around 50% of OB removal in existing OC mines is off-loaded to private agencies and as all the new OC mines in X plan are planned with off-loading concept for OB removal, DGMS may advise and guide SCCL for smooth and safe management of such OB removal contracts.
DISTRIBUTION OF COAL TO SMALL & MEDIUM CONSUMERS
Supply of Coal to non core sector consumers (small and medium industry consumers) have been revisited in the new Distribution Policy. The New Coal Distribution Policy also specifically addresses the issue of supply of coal to consumers in small and medium sector since the classification of the consumers as core and non core sector has been dispensed with under the New Coal Distribution Policy. Under this policy, the State Governments are required to work out genuine
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requirement ofsuch units in small and medium sector like Smokeless fuel, brick kiln, coke oven units etc. in a transparent and scientific way and distribute coal to them accordingly. The State Governments are to take appropriate steps to evaluate the genuine consumption and monitor use of coal. The cap has also been enhanced to 4200 tonnes per annum from 500 tonnes for the targeted consumers under this category. In order to meet the enhanced cap fixed for such consumers, the quantity earmarked for distribution by State nominated agencies would be increased to 8 million tonnes annually to start with.
SAFETY IN COAL MINES
Safety of coal miners is the top priority area. As the production of coal increases, measures for producing the same with safety are implied. Coal companies as operators ofmines are primarily responsible for conducting safe mining operations and improving safety and health ofminers. Directorate General of Mines Safety under Ministry of Labour & Employment is the safety regulatory authority and enforces the safety legislation in mines. Over the years the safety performance in the coal mines of the country has improved significantly and the fatality rate in 2007 at 0.21 per thousand persons employed is the lowest so far in the country. However, there is need to further improve safety records with an aim to achieve zero harm to miners. While the coal companies take ail care in observing safety legislation, they have also a stringent safety monitoring mechanism at corporate and local levels mainly through Internal Safety Organisations. The Workmen Inspectors are also deployed in each mine as per the statutory requirement and periodic reviews are held at colliery level, area level and corporate level involving workers representatives and management. Over and above, the regulatory authority the Directorate General of Mines Safety regularly undertakes safety inspection of the mines to enforce compliance of safety legislation. At national level the safety aspects of coal mines in the country are reviewed periodically by
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a Standing Committee on Safety in Coal Mines under the Chairmanship of Minister of Coal.
HRM PRACTICES
The ‘human resource’ plays a most effective role in the success of an organization because most of the problems in an organizational settings are more ethnic, social physical, technical and economical. However, only satisfied and skilled employees can take an organization to its success and prosperity. Hence it is the sole responsibility of an organization to recognize the judicious needs of an employee and satisfy them. Thus, the human resource management department in an organization has a key role in accomplishing its success to reach organizational goals. HRM is concerned with the people at work and with their interpersonal relations within an enterprise HR Manager designs programs and plans and develops the policies to make the best use of manpower (human resources).
1. Training and Development.
2. Organization and development.
3. Organization/Job design.
4. Human Resource Planning.
5. Selection and staffing.
6. Personnel Research and information systems.
7. Compensation/benefits.
8. Employee assistance.
9. Union Labor Relations.
HUMAN RESOURCES IN SCCL:
The human resources in Singareni Collieries Company Limited consist of the following important categories namely executives,
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monthly paid employees, daily paid workers, piece rated workers, badli fillers and badli workers. The researcher, before studying the human resources practices in Singareni Collieries Company Limited, collected the category wise human resources strength in SCCL and presented in Table 3.1. As per the table up to the year 1993-94 the organizational human resources strength was increased and due to some major human resources rationalization activities taken in the organisation.
CONCLUSION
Human resources are the mighty pillars that form the business colonnade in the world economy. They, therefore, deserve all the care and attention. The very art of managing human resources is based on thoughtful policies and bouquet of helpful practices aimed at creating motivation and commitment in the workforce. While human resource policies form the framework for effective functioning of HR management, HR practices form the culture in business management. The best practices in Human Resource Management (HRM) would result in benefits to all stakeholders like the shareholders, creditors, suppliers, consumers and employees. The organization as a whole will then reap the benefits. Such useful practices invariably create, in the workforce, an awareness of the need to achieve the business goals in the best possible and ethical manner. They are also aimed at creating a sense of togetherness in the organization. These best HRM practices weave into the business strategy, providing support to the organization in all its endeavors to achieve its business targets and to overcome business hazards like competition and change in consumer patters. Good HR practices also help to overcome economic forces such as recession, inflation, etc. In the era of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG), the manager’s job is challenging and cyclical in nature, so that the job of management development is a continuing and repetitive activity. A new era in the coal industry in India has ushered in necessitating the coal to respond effectively to the continuing and
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rapid changes in the socio-economic scenario in the country. MDP is a dynamic concept which changes overtime, needs and expectations of organization, which is striving untiringly to inform MDPs into its work environment. Management development implies programme centered training for developing professional class of managers in modern techniques in making them acquire skill and insight in decision making. This paper discussion was carried on the history of coal industry and coal companies in India, evolution of SCCL, phases of the growth of coal production, operational analysis, communications strategies, working performance and organizational strengths of SCCL, welfare measures, safety and trainee and measures taken for enhancement of safety, developments, other achievements and landmarks in the history of SCCL and organization structure of SCCL at mining level, area level and corporate level. The total workforce employed in an organization at various levels, performing different types of jobs whether blue collar or white collar nature collectively complimented for the success and effectiveness of management of human resources. In the paper an attempt has been made to analyze and evaluate the performance of MDPs in SCCL with a structured questionnaire, according to age-wise, length of service, functional need, satisfaction of trading methods, annual budget for training and development, difficulties faced by the organization in implementing MDPs, identifying, selecting and improving training programmes to employees and procedures used at the end of the training programmes, etc. Training teams with diversified background having unprecedented excellence or mostly used and performance improvement was taken up based on the study. The organization is encouraging the global training programs in the fields of mining, management training and maintenance of equipments supplied to the company.
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REFERENCES:
1. K. MalliKhaijun, Best of HRM Practices, HRM Review, February 2006. 2. Government of India, Report of ‘Royal Commission’ on Labour 1931, p 24-25, New Delhi. 3. Vetter Eric. W: Human resources planning for high talent personnel. Burcon ofIndustrial Relations , university ofMaichigan ; 1967,P.K. 4. B.Narayan “Human Resource Development - An Approach through Teem Building” The Indian Journal ofCommerce, 1987, Jan-June, pp65-66. 5. S. Ravi Sankar and R.K. Mishra, Management of Human Resources in public Enterprises, Vision Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1985 6. S.N.Mehrotra,Labour problems in India, Chand & Co, New Delhi, p. 192. 7. Giri. V.V, Labour Problems in Industry, Bombay Asia Publishing, 1972., p.271. 8. Tata N.H, “Philosophies of Labour Welfare”, Indianjournal of Social Work, Vol 4, Ni.l, 1953 pp.37-41. 9. Ch.Praveen Kumar, IJMBS Vol. 5, Issue 2, April - June 2015
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INDIAN FOLK LIFE IN THE WRITINGS OF SAROJINI NAIDU Dr.P.Babu Lecturer in English Govt. College for Men (A) Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh
Naidu, the nightingale of India has achieved spectacular success both as a poetess and as a patriot. She is firmly rooted to her soil, to its faiths and festivals, folk-life, culture and their tradition. She has vividly recreated the multitudinous panorama of Indian life with its variegated pageants. She discovers a strange significance in the commonest of sights and sounds, the festivals and thelife of her people.Every aspect of Indian life attracts her, and this attraction has found expression in a kind of poetry which is unique in itself. She is a great artist, and possesses in ample measures all those qualities that have the potential to transform little airy things into objects of greatness and dignity.The pardah nashins and palanquin bearers may remind us of Kipling’s India but the weavers, the bangle sellers, the fishers and the snake chambers still form the vital part of Indian folk life. They are presented not as faded types, but as live individuals, participating in the general drama of life, with its ever changing note of joy and sorrow. Despite her literary affiliation with the English poets, her sensibility is purely Indian. For all her western garb, for all her adoption of English as her medium of poetic expression, she remains essentially daughter of her race and land. Her themes, thoughts and even the imagery she employees in her poems are typically native in spirit and character.The most striking feature of Sarojini’s poetry is its native flavour. Her poetry takes us to the voluptuous richness of an Indian landscape with its pomegranate buds and Sirisha and Neem, the lifting melody of bulbuls and Koels and the colourful noisy Indian bazaars, especially of Hyderabad. It introduces and acquaints us with the familiar characters
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of Indian folk-life with the palanquin bearers, the wavers, the corn- grinders, the snake charmers, the Bangle sellers and wandering singers. Sarojini’s engrossing delight in nature and her romantic longing for a tranquil retreat, does not blind her to the active interests of human life and the delineation of human emotions. Her poetry paints the panorama of Indian life in all its colours and moods.
The life of Indian people fascinates and inspires Sarojini the most. She loves to be among them and share their hopes and despairs, joys and sorrows, ambitions and aspiration. Her nature poems appeal to is with their delicacy of emotion and luxuriance of imagination, her love poems, with their range and depth of passion but her folk songs are miraculously powerful, for, to them, almost all the aspects of her genius contribute. She is admirably successful in setting a rural or pastoral scene. She presents in her poems “a veritable portrait gallery of Indian folk character. The picture of India these evoke is romantic, but not anachronistic?1These folk characters are still very much a part of the Indian reality. The institutionalization of the human personality is also shown in the Indian reality. Even today, in most Indian marriages, the ceremony of the palanquin marks the initiation of the bride into married life. The palanquin bearers are gentle, chivalrous in their difference, and courteous in their attention to the feeling of the bride, who leaves the familiar parental home to join her new home. The palanquin is veiled and the palanquin bearers sing songs in rhythmic harmony with their foot-steps.The rhythmic movement of the palanquin bearers footsteps corresponds beautifully with the heartbeats of the bride inside. Nostalgia, expectancy, joy and excitement are mixed with melancholy, wistfulness, anxiety and sadness in the brides feelings. She passes from one freedom to another, from that ofinnocence to experience, identity to personality, spatial unity to temporal differentiation. There is a crisis pain in her life at which here future is to be determined. The palanquin bearers, acting as
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surrogate parents, usher her into adult life. They are conscious of their own role in her psychic voyage. They must therefore sever her lightly, softly, along. The poem is divided into two parts, tracing the two movements which define total rhythm of human growth in the ebb and tide of life in the first half of the poem; the bride sways like a flower in the wind of their song. She swims like a bird on the foam of a stream. She floats like laugh from the lips of dream. The images and the verb of action indicate a lightness of touch. They suggest a quality, not of definition, or measurement, or calculation but of invitation, curiosity and expectation. The bride’s initiation is neither an encounter nor a confrontation. It is rather a passage, a ritual tour of possibilities. Hence the palanquin-bearers carry her along like a pearl on a string. The sense of connection, of continuity and solidarity, is strongly present in their action.The second part takes us from the fluid surfaces of life to its crystallized depths and intensities.The palanquin-bearers have to bear her along safely. The images and the action verbs indicated the burden, the tension and the solidity of the actual world, its opacity and reflection, its agitation and way ward movement and its complexity and ambivalence. The bride’s personality has passed a state and acquired a status. From a passive role as daughter, she has moved on to the active role as wife. The image “falling like a tear from the eyes of a bride” is beautiful and appealing and in the words of Rameshwar Gupta “an achievement”2 in itself.
The delicate theme is skillfully woven into the texture.According to “Dastoor”, the poem is “a fair specimen of the true folk song”.3 He further observes that “it recalls a common experience in the India of a century age, and the song of the palanquin bearers expresses in its movement the muffled mumblings which dictated the rhythm of their march through the streets.”4 Cousins, though, does not find any thought in the poem, is fully impressed by its lyrical grace and beauty. He comments on the poem that “There is not a thought in it; it is
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without the slightest suspicion of literature, yet its charm is instantaneous and complete”.5
“Indian Weavers” a powerful poem based on a common Indian scene, is symbolical in significance. Weavers can be seen anywhere in India weaving cloth on handlooms in different coloured patterns. Sarojini Naidu watches the weavers weaving their yarns, and is led into the mystery of life, love and death. The three stanzas of the poem beautifully suggest the three stages of men’s life. The first two lines, in each stanza, form a question, and the last two the answer. As Dustoor observes, “We are mode to realize that the web of our life is of a mingled yarn, grave and gay together.”6The question asked at three different hours of a day also symbolize the three different stages of man’s life with its associated pleasure and pain. The three stanzas describe a day in the life of the Indian weavers. The weavers enumerate the colour and texture and function of the garment woven by them. The poem opens with a flash of thought.Through the device of innocent, childlike interrogation and response, they enlist their routine professional skills to pay homage to the primal mysteries of seeing. They weave the robes of new born child.The second stanza presents the second stage of man’s life. This is the stage of youth, the stage of fulfillment and joy. It is at this stage that man craves for identify, for worldly pleasures and longs for a partner to realize the dreams of life. It seems quite appropriate that weaves should weave against the background of “Night”. Nightfall is the hour of joy which the two lovers eagerly await.At fall of Night, the weavers weave a bright garment, like the plumes of a peacock, purple and green, the colours of blood and sap, vitality and growth, power and sustenance.The plumes of the peacock represent the many-coloured splendour of life, and its perennial rhythm, the dance of being. It also suggests life’s colour and magnificence. The third and the concluding stanza set in the “moon light chill” suggests symbolically the last stage of man’s journey of life.
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The weavers “solemn and still” are weaving a dead man’s funeral shroud”.
The chill moonlight, white feather and white cloud – all suggest death, and go will with “a dead man’s funeral shroud! The chill moonlight is reminiscent of the chill night in Cole ridge’s charitable. The three stanzas of the poem describe a day in the life of the Indian weavers.The poem takes a symbolic turn. It is the fates weaving the web of human life; and the fates are almost a universal mythological belief. The weavers remind us of the three fates on sisters of Greek mythology. The weavers stand for the supreme creator who weaves the yarn of human life in mingled pattern of pleasure and pain. Even Prof. Narasimhaiah, no great admirer of Sarojini, is highly impressed by the poem. He observes: Here in twelve lines, is an elliptical, allusive, and symbolic representation of life’s journey from birth the death….. it is not merely a competent poem, but a very distinguished one for Sarojini because the poet here is in full possession of rare gifts – a profound awareness of her own tradition, admirable poise, economy, and an ear and eye for striking rhythm, image, and symbol, all used to fine advantage to make the poem most evocative.6
“Coromandel Fishers” captures beautifully the folk spirit of India. It expresses the fishermen’s sense of identify and belonging with the sea. It depicts the happy, carefree but busy life of the fishers who go out with their net to the sea early morning to collect the fish. Man and nature work together for human sustenance. There exists a perfect harmony between fishers and their environment which ensures professional success, prosperity and joy. The three stanzas of the poem set three vivid scenes from a professional day of the fishermen: sun rise, sunset and full moon. It reveals their professional pride in fusing their tools and their own purposes into effective action. It projects the tribal awareness of a sense of structure in things, which is organically linked with their fluctuating fortunes. The opening stanza depicts the
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stir of activity at sunrise before the fisherman start their daily chore of work.
Rise, brothers, rise, the wakening skies pray to the morning light,
The wind lies asleep in the arm of the dawn like a child that has cried all night.7
The sunrise stands for freshness and promise for the whole day. The mood of nature at down blends well with the fishermen’s reverential attitude their craft and tools. The attachment and faith towards the sea is described skillfully in the imagery of child sleeping quietly in the loving arms of his mother.
The second stanza describes the busy any strenuous life of the fishermen on the sea. The lines are packed with action, effort and movement. Man-nature relationship get thicker; nature becomes a vital part of fishermen’s existence in the world; “The sea is our mother, the cloud is our brother, the waves are our comrades all”.The faith that shifts the specialized function of the fisherman into the perspective of human relationships. The natural law enters into free partnership with man, at the levels of family and the tribe. The man-nature relationship is extended further to man-nature god relationships. Sea god appears to bless the sons of the sea and grant them prosperity and joy.In the third and final stanza, the fisherman return to the shore in a mood of contentment with the fruit of their day’s labour. They are back to their resort, in the shade of “Coconut glade”. They enjoy the fullness of life on the moon-lit sands with the familiar music of the waves.The poet gives a realistic picture of an Indian evening at the sea-shore.The fishermen’s joy and fulfillment after a day’s professional success is beautifully expressed in the earth’s joy and fulfillment in a full moon night. The poem is rich in suggestive overtones. The pet discovers in the call of the sea something more significant than the fishermen’s
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mere dependence on it for their livening. The call of the distant sea allures the fishermen too:“Row, brothers, row to the blue of the verge where the low sky mates with the sea”. The poem is as typically Indian in setting, tone and treatment as Masefield’s “Sea fever” in English. The poem affirms Carl Sandburg’s description of poetic inspiration:Poetry is the journal of a sea animal being on land, wanting to fly in the air. Poetry is a search for Syllables to shoot at the barriers of the unknown and unknowable. Poetry is a phantom script telling how rainbows are made and why they go away.8
Beggars are a common sight in India. One can find them anywhere in any part of the country. The poet might have seen, in her childhood, a large number of Muslim beggars with their begging bowls and tattered clothes in the Charminar area of Hyderabad. “Wandering Beggars” recalls such a common sight of India – that of Fakirs, moving from door to door singing psalms in a loud voice. Though they are deprived of all wordy comforts and joys, they wander with gay heart and Devine courage, from morning to night. Since they are “free born sons of fate” they are not envious of the wealth and glory of the great. Their sad plight evokes the poet’s sympathy and their lively portrait more evoke the same in the reader.
The beggars have neither any shelter nor cloth, neither breed nor money, yet they look always “gay and bold” unmindful of the present or the future, they fearlessly go with the “staff of freedom” in their hand, from place to place.
“The snake charmer” is a loving protract of a familiar folk personality on the Indian scene. The charmer takes something more than a professional pride in his dangerous cargo. The poet vividly recreates the romantic atmosphere of sweet and delicate perfume, which attracts a snake. The charmer treats his pet as his fiancé and bride to be wooed with love and concern. He creates a dream world and
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attributes significance and meaning, with his professional magic. His attitude reflects the folk artisan’s reverential approach to his tools and his sense of identity and partnership with his craft. By careful nurture, he persuades Nature to confer her blessings on him. He personalizes the snake’s natural habitat and domesticates in terms of his own romantic temperament.Sarojini shrouds everything that she writes with a half of mystery and romance. The poem recalls a common native experience of the charmer inviting snake on milk and honey. He tempts and flatters his pet in various ways.The concluding stanza finds the snake charmer in deep love and professional attachment with his pet. The snake emerges from its hide-out in nature or from its citadel of rushes, like a glittering bride, “a silver breasted moon beam of desire”. The charmer identifies himself with his pet. The snake becomes a bride of his. Sarojini’s folk songs are set to Indian tunes, and are meant for singing. They are remarkable in their oriental glamour, thought and eastern imagery. Amarnath Jha, in his tribute to Sarojini, says! “ She is a India, the spirit of India is in her; and although men of all nalimalities will find their questions echo and answered yet it is the Indian that will feel his own feelings reciprocated in every line”.9
“Village Song” is set is the pastoral atmosphere of Indian country side. It is a song sung by a village maiden in the tune of some dialect song: “Full are my pitchers and far to carry / love is the way and long”. The poem captures a very familiar rural sight: a lovely woman goes out with her pitcher to the river to fetch water, and perhaps, may be to meet her lover. “Panghat” is one of the most familiar haunts of village woman where gossips are exchanged and meeting with lovers are arranged. The poem presents the maiden as a beloved craving for a glimpse of her lover. She delays in the way for her love but her heart is seized with a strange fear as the night is approaching fast and she is alone.
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Suggestion after suggestion Is forwarded till the scene is completely set with phase : “Ram re Ram”. The poem catches the folk spirit with admirable sincerity . The maiden is so lost in her enough of love that she mistakes the crane for the owl, and gets nervous for the owl is an ill-omen foreboding danger.The maiden is in a strange emotional state. She is between the driving force of her individual passion and her fear concerning her social status. In a touching tone, the poem bears the lyric feel of Indian life. There is everything here : The love as well as fear, the maiden’s passionate attachment with her love and her apprehension of unseen dangers. Sarojini’s folk songs are sincere and authentic representation of true folk spirit of India. They beautifully express the abandon and gouty, buoyancy and care freeness which characterize the folk life. They deal with men’s simple joy and sorrow and adventure of day to day life.Sarojini’s folk songs depict beautifully the folk life of India. They offer a faithful vignette into rural land shapes.
“Bangle Sellers” is a lovely poem which sets a familiar folk scene with colour and transparence of glass bangles. Bangle sellers with their “Shining loads” are a common Countryside scene in India. This poem throws light on Sarojini’s conception of Indian woman hood. According to her, the lives of women should be radiant lives, the lustrous tokens of which are the delicate, bright, rainbow-tented bangles. The first duty of a woman is to be happy, since her happy, since her happiness irradiates happiness to these who come in contact with her. To be happy daughters and happy wives is the goal to which Indian womanhood ought to aspire. Marriage to an Indian woman means much more to a man, since the woman is, in a majority of cases, economically dependent upon her husband. It is a turning point in her life.Sarojini symbolizes the heart’s desire of a bride with the rich red colour of her bangles. The bride responds to the laughter of the intimate companions of her girlhood as they tease her about her coming
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marriage. She sheds tears as she leaves her father’s house for her husband’s. Hence Sarojini speaks of the bridal laughter and the bridal tear which, like the bangle she wears, are tinkling, luminous, tender, and clear.10New criticism is acute over what danger a poem a superfluous word, an archaism, an inversion. The opening lines of the poem are vulnerable to close textual scrutiny. Mokashi – panekar asks: Do we rejoice in “Shining loads” or get annoyed over the inversion “are use”? “It depends”, he answers, “On whether you are a simple reader or belong to a bandwagon.
Metrically accomplished poems go by a law of their own, and the critical theories of rigorous textual scrutiny should normally pause safer laying hands on these flour like presence whose composition itself in their best apology.11 The poet shows her feminine fascination for colour and radiance. The bangle sellers are aware of their role as the holy custodians.
“Wandering singers” is a beautiful lyric written to one of the tunes of those nature minstrels who wander free and wide, singing the songs of life, love and joy. Behind the music of the lines it is always possible to find great ideas, the ideas that may compel us to think. The songs of the ulandering singers have a timeless theme – the theme of fundamental unity of men throughout the world. Their songs and mode of life present a great thought that there is none race all over the world that is human race. The wandering singers, wandering through forests and streets, and singing endlessly, give us a great message of universal brotherhood : “All men are our kindred, the world is our home”.The wandering singers have no home, no direction, no destination, they move where the wind of time takes them to. They sing about the glories of bygone days, about “happy and simple Sorrowful things.”Though the singers are in gay and buoyant spirit, the song is pensive. The lines remind the following lines of words worth’s “The solitary Reaper”.The wandering singers are not attached to the present nor do they look to
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future with hope and aspiration. There is nothing in the world that can bind them, neither the comfort nor stability of a home nor the excitement and ecstasy of love. The contending stanza presents the philosophy of the gipsy tribe all over the world.The singers hear a call from the distant and eternal and move with the “voice of the wind”. The voice of the wind is in fact, the voice of the fate.Sarojini is miraculously successful in catching the spirit of the wandering tribe in her poem “The Indian gipsy”.
The Indian gipsy is a “daughter of a wondering race”, and represent a class which has been roaming upon the earth sine the times immemorial in the colourful pageant of diverse people which India proudly presents, the figure of gipsy-girl has unique attraction in tattered robes that yet hoard a glittering trace of bygone colours, Sarojini beholds this daughter of a wandering people. Tameles and unabashed, she is healthier in body and spirit than her sisters of a sophisticated society. She is the proud possessor of the agile grace of the bold falcon and the sinuous majesty of the lithe tiger.
Simplification of wants being the secret of happiness, she tends her simple wants with frugal skill, when avarice, jealousy and mutual bickering are the rule rather than the exception among the dwellers of the most modern of towns. The Indian gipsy-girl leads a pastoral life, a life idealized by a number of former Greek, Roman and English poets. She and her sleep must go home.Days, weeks, months, years, centuries come and go but the life of the Gipsies is immutable and eternal. The character of the Gipsies is moulded by the particular place, they live in they are born and bred in the purity of nature, far away from the contamination of sophisticated society. Being unartificial, they conform to non-cut-and-dried codes and conversions, to no rubber- stamp judgments. They have plain emotions, eternal and universal passions, rather than intricate intellects.Their demands are instinctive and natural rather than the outcome of a highly developed logic. This
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elemental nature of their emotions harmonizes with the elemental nature of their environment. Their constitution is never complex; they never have those feelings that are born only with advanced civilization: they know perfectly well that they are demanding and doing and they feel that they are right.The poet shows the gipsy to be thoroughly at ease in her world leading an unspeculating life, and never rebelling as use do against circumstances. She is a quietist without being aware of the fact. Sarojini wishes to suggest that the Gipsies may be humble and modest, but they are not trivial. They reflect through their lives the processes of nature: they move through nature, and their life is regulated by nature. There is hardly any difference between Sarojini’s gipsy girl and all Gipsies scattered all over the globe, between the present day gipsy and the gipsy of countries ago. We therefore see in them the very roots of humanity – primary emotions in a pristine state. Their loves and hates are, consequently, fiercer and deeper contrasted with the superficial produces of modern materialism, the gipsy girl appeals to the poet because:
“Corn-grinders” is a pathetic song which accords well with corn- grinders sad predicament. It is a song in which the villagers try to break the monotony of their strenuous life by songs and chants. It is a genuine folk song in form and spirit. The concluding stanza depicts the unbearable grief of a bewailing wife whose husband has just died. The little bride weeps while the whole world is happy. She breaks in intense agony. Pathos reaches its height. The bride is waiting through “The want of famished years”12 for her ultimate union in death with her lover. The sadness and sorrow that life brings the ache of parting and the pain of loneliness are revealed with transparent compassion and spontaneous feeling which characterize fold song.
Another street scene is painted in “Street cries” – the bazaar as it appears to the poet in the morning, at noon, and at the evening. The first cymbals of the down, according to the poet, bear upon the sky
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rousing the world to labour – to tend the flock, to bind the mellowing grain, to toil in diverse ways for a livelihood : people are hungry, and what they want is breakfast, and so when they hurry out of their homes. At noon the earth falters and waters soon. The Koels hush their songs in dins shelters. Thirsty throats crave “liquid succour” from the cruel hot. Then the cry of the little poem has been much praised by the GlasgowHerald : “Street cries is well worth quoting. This is the true lyric: Song picture and emotion in one”13.
Sarojini’s poetry is essentially nature in spirit, tone and treatment. She has skillfully presented the complex texture of Indian thought and life. Sarojini reveals in her poetry an amazing grasp of those minute details of Indian folk.It is totally free from the tyranny of over intellectuality and offers a clue to human experience.
References:
1. Meherally, Yusuf, “Sarojini Naidu”, the Hindustan Review, April, 1949, 209. 2. Gupta, Rameshwar, Sarojini, The Poetess, Doaba House, Delhi, 1975 p.88. 3. Dastoor, P.E., Sarojini Naidu, p.23. 4. Ibid. 5. Cousins, J.H., The Renaissance in India, pp. 259-60. 6. C.D. Narasimhaiah, The Swan and the eagle, Op. Cit., p.p.22-23. 7. Coromandel fishers from the golden Threshold. p.6 8. Carl Sandburg, in preface to early Moon, The Sandburg Range (New York : Harlourt, Brace & Co., 1957) 9. Jha, Amarnath, Sarojini Naidu, A personal Homage, Indian Press Allahabad, 1949, p.47. 10. “Village song” from Scripted flute p.103. 11. “Bangle Sellers” from the Scripted flute p.108. 12. Shankar Mokashi – Puniker : “A note on Sarojini Naidu”, Indian writing in English. Dharwar, 1968, p.190. 13. Sarojini Naidu, Speeches and writings, OP., Cit., pp. 4-5.
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Bibliography
1. Sarojini Naidu, The Golden threshold, William Heinemann, Landon, 1905 2. Sarojini Naidu, The Bird of Time, William Heinemann, Landon, 1912 3. Sarojini Naidu, The Feather of the Dawn, Asian Publishing House, Bombay, 1961 4. Sarojini Naidu, The scripted Flute, Kitabistan, Allahbad, 1948 5. Sarojini Naidu, Speeches and writings of Sarojini Naidu, G.A.Natesan and co.,Madras 1919. 6. Sarojini Naidu:The temple of Freedom, The Cambridge Press,Madras,1921.A .Pamphlet 7. V.K.Gokak, the golden treasury of indo-Anglean poetry (1828- 1965),sahitya Akademi,NewDelhi,1970 8. M.K.Naik, critical essays on indian writings in English, Karnataka university,1965 9. C.D.Narasimhaiah, ‘The swan and The Eagle’, Indian institute of advanced study,simla,1969 10. Gupta, Rameswar:Sarojini Naidu : the poetess, Doaba House, Delhi,1975 11. Jha.Amarnath: Mrs:Sarojini Naidu:A Personal Homage, Indian Press Aallahbad,1949 12. Narvane, VS: Sarojini Naidu, Orient Longman, New Delhi,1980 13. Ananad,Mulk Raj: The Golden breath: studies in five poets of the new india, JohnMurry, Landon,1933 14. Journal of Literature and Aesthetics, oct-dec-1984 15. Poet-an International Monthly, 18th Mar 1980, Vol.21,no:3, Editor:Dr.Krishna Srinivasa 16. Language Forum, A Journal of Languagew and Literature vol:xix- no.1,2,Jan-Dec 1993
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EFFECT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS ON SELF CONFIDENCE OF SPORTS PLAYERS
Karabasappa Parameshwar Ph.D. Research Scholar Dept of Physical Education Gulbarga University Kalaburagi, Karnataka
Abstract
The present study finding out the influence of socio-economic status on the self confidence of sports players In this present study the investigator had tried to identify the difference in the level of self confidence among the High socio economic status and Low socio economic status sports players of Hyderabad Karnataka region, the researcher used the SES tool to measure the economic status of the sports players to divide them into high and low economic groups, one hundred sports players both high socio economic status and low socio economic status sports players in equal number these players were taken as sample of study, the Self Confidence Scale Of M.Basavanna Was Administrated. used in this study to assess the level of self confidence in sports players due to their socio economic status factor, the scale given to sports players and instructed about the test, after the completed the test the data separated like, high socio economic status players data and low socio economic status players data, both data were compared to reveal the answer to the research hypothesis, objective of the study were to find the significance difference in self confidence among players due to their socio economic status, hypothesis of the study was there would be the significant difference in self confidence among sports players due to socio economic status factor, the investigator used the statistical techniques like mean, sd, t test in this study to prove the research hypothesis Key words: Socio Economic Status, Self Confidence Factor
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Introduction
Socio-economic status (SES) is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation. When analyzing a family's SES, the household income, earners' education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, versus with an individual, when their own attributes are assessed. Or more commonly known to depict an economic difference in society as a whole.
Socio-economic status is typically broken into three categories (high SES, middle SES, and low SES) to describe the three areas a family or an individual may fall into. When placing a family or individual into one of these categories, any or all of the three variables (income, education, and occupation) can be assessed.
Additionally, low income and education have been shown to be strong predictors of a range of physical and mental health problems, including respiratory viruses, arthritis, coronary disease, and schizophrenia. These problems may be due to environmental conditions in their workplace, or, in the case of mental illnesses, may be the entire cause of that person's social predicament to begin with. Education in higher socio-economic families is typically stressed as much more important, both within the household as well as the local community. In poorer areas, where food and safety are priority, education can take a backseat. Youth audiences are particularly at risk for many health and social problems in the United States, such as unwanted pregnancies, drug abuse, and obesity
Self confidence is an attitude, which all individuals have positive yet realistic views of themselves and their situations. Self confidence people trust their own abilities have a general sense of control in their lives and believe that, within reason, they will be able to do what they
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wish, plan, and expect. Like self esteems, self confidence refers to individual’s perceived ability to act effectively in a situation to overcome obstacles and to get things goes all right. Hence self- confidence is believed to increase one’s performance. The higher level of confidence generates enthusiasm for the given activity. It is the variation in confidence that makes differences in performance of sports activity. Therefore studying the influence of confidence assumes importance.
The Dictionary defines confidence as freedom of doubt; belief in yourself and your abilities. Many people lack the self-confidence and self-esteem needed to live a happy and healthy life. Self-esteem is a confidence and satisfaction in oneself. These two things must be present in people’s daily lives in order for them to believe that they have the ability to do anything. At this point in my life I am trying to gain the esteem I need to truly be happy. The best way to gain self- confidence is to look deep inside of yourself and believe that you have the ability to overcome all obstacles and challenges that you are faced with, on a daily bases, because our self-esteem is one of the few things that we have control over. Self-confidence is something that cannot be taught. It is up to the individual to decide how much belief that they possess inside of themselves. I am at the point where I realize that I must first believe in myself before others will believe in me. Nobody teaches us to be happy or sad. They are natural feelings that come along as we develop mentally, physically, emotionally and psychologically. When you get to the point where you allow others to dictate how you feel about life, you have to stop and take an internal survey. Ask yourself if your lack of self-confidence and self-assurance is holding you back from being the best that you can possibility be. Most often these feelings come from people allowing the negativity of other people to overcome them. You have to be willing to take control of your life and whatever is holding you back. So often we, as a people, look for
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the validation from society before we validate ourselves. I have allowed society to determine how I should look, dress and feel. It is time for me to take a stand and be in control of my own destiny.
Basavanna .M (1975) studied self-confidence in relation with self and ideal self and found that self confidence people particularly who were capable. Successful and adjusted, had significantly higher self ideal and self-congruence than those who were low in their level of self- confidence.
Hence several researchers have made significant attempts to relate motivation with sports and found significant association between the level of motivation and the* corresponding sports activity. It has been proved empirically that persons with greater amount of motivation are found to be superior to others who are less motivated. This reveals that the motivated groups improve significantly in the given sports activity more than the non-motivated group (Hansen, 1967). However, there is no single motivational technique that is superior to other techniques. This marks very clearly that each motivational technique is, by and large, important depending upon the conditions in which it is presented. Hence motivational techniques produce desirable effects to the extent that a coach or coaches present them wisely. In a similar way, the social factor like social support, SE5, personal factors like self-confidence have significant impact on the performance of persons. Thus present study makes an attempt to assess the influence of all such factors on performance of sportsman selected from the colleges of Gulbarga division. Research Questions.
Linda L.Dunlap (2004), in her paper, „What all children need: theory and application provides that sibling relationships typically are children’s first social network and form the basis for relationships with others. Siblings are usually children’s first playmates, intimate friends, protectors, enemies, competitors, confidantes and the role models. They
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are an important source of support school-age children, in particular. During this time siblings are not only companions but also help with difficult tasks and provide comfort during emotional stress. The bond formed between siblings is one of the most complex, long-lasting, and important connections in life. Typically, no other relationship lasts as long or has such a great impact. Siblings, who are close in age, often argue more but also develop closer bonds. Children who have siblings tend to work very well with peer
Socio-Economic Status and Sport Involvement in Children and Youth Researchers have only recently begun to address the relationship between socio-economic status (SES), sport involvement, and physical activity during childhood and youth (e.g., Chen, Matthews & Boyce, 2002; Humbert, Chad, Spink, Kristal, Anderson, Bruner, Girolami, Odnokon & Gryba, 2006; Yang et al., 1996; Trussel & McTeer, 2007). To our knowledge, there has been no systematic research on whether the relationship between SES and participation in sport and physical activity varies across the span of childhood and youth. Hitherto, comparisons have only been possible across findings from different studies. This is an obviously interesting research problem for sociologists of sport for whom one of the central research issues is inequality in access to sport and physical activity. For a conceptual framework, we looked to the literature on the SES–health relationship for a reasonable approach to theorizing how the relationship between SES and participation in sport and physical activity might vary at different ages of childhood and adolescence. This seemed appropriate because of the salience of physical activity as a risk factor for ill health and because there is some evidence that a traditional SES and physical activity relationship exists only in adolescence (Chen et al., 2002), but not earlier in childhood. There is evidence that the relationship of SES with sport and physical activity is not equivalent throughout all periods of childhood.
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Method of the study
Objective of the study
To find out the level of self confidence among high and low SES status sports players To find out the significance difference among high and low SES sports players in their self confidence.
Hypothesis of the study
There would be significant difference between high and low SES sports players in their self confidence. There would be the effect of SES status on the self confidence of sports players.
Sample of the study
One hundred sports players were chosen for this research study, fifty players were measure in high socio-economic status and other fifty sports players were chosen from low socio-economic status. The sample categorized high and low SES status through the measuring scale.
Tool of the study
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS SCALE The socio Economic Status (SES) scale developed by Bhardwaj Gupta and Chaushan (1984) was used in the Present study to measure the social, educational, professional and economic perspective of the participants. Scoring was done accordingly to the norms that were given in the manual.
Self Confidence Inventory (SCI). The self confidence inventory (SCI) developed by Basavanna .M (1975). The questionnaire consists of 100 items. The odd-even (split- half) reliability co-efficient calculated by spearmen brown formula is
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found to be 0.94. This scale is developed and standardized by Basavanna (1975), which consists of 100 items in all. The response categories are true of false. The score range is 0 to 100. According to manual lower the score higher would be level of self-confidence and vice versa. The reliability of the scale is 0.67. The validity of the scale is found to be satisfactory.
Data Analysis & Interpretation
Table 1- Shows the mean, SD, t values of Self confidence of High and Low Socio-economic status in sports players of Hyderabad Karnataka region.
Paired Samples Statistics Group Mean N Std. Deviation t-values High SES 39.54 50 7.783 3.207** Players Low SES 44.88 50 8.247 Players Significance at 0.05 levels.
Self Confidence level 46 44.88
44
42
40 39.54 Mean
38
36 High SES Low SES
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In the self confidence test the lower mean score indicates higher the self confidence and higher the mean score indicates lower the self confidence according to the manual.
This clearly indicates that high SES sports players sample group have scored low mean score this indicates that more self confidence, Where the Low SES players sample group have scored higher mean score in the self confidence test this showing that low socio economic status sports players having lower self confidence than the high socio economic status players The t-value is 3.207** significance at 0.05 level.
Conclusion
Conclusions of the research study.
There is a significance difference in self confidence among High and Low Socio-economic status in sports players The Socio-economic factor has the influence on the self confidence of sports players. The study shows that the self confidence of sports players effected by the socio-economic status. There is need to give the more financial assistance to sports players to improve their self confidence.
Reference
Alderman, R.B. (1974): Psychological Behavior in Sports. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. Allport (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York, Holt, Renihart and Winston.
Cattell, R. B. (1966). The Scree Test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1(2), 245-276. (8484 citations)
Sports journals, www.Outdoor sports.com
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LOCKEAN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR NIGERIAN POLITICS Dr. Adefarasin, V.O. Department of Philosophy Faculty of Arts Olabisi Onabanjo University Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria Abstract
The political ideas of John Locke have greatly influenced the modern world. His political ideas have actually given to the modern world the concepts of constitutional government, religious toleration, representatives’ institutions, the freedom of individual and private property. In addition, “his philosophical theories are embedded in the American Constitutions, and are to be seen at work whenever there is dispute between the President and the congress. The British constitution was based upon his doctrine until about fifty years ago, and so was that which the French adopted in 1871” (Russell, 1961:585). It is against this background that Lockean political philosophy and its implications for Nigerian politics are discussed in this paper. The paper concludes that Lockean Political Philosophy is of vital importance to Nigerian politics.
Keywords: Lockean, Political Philosophy, Implications, Nigerian Politics
Introduction
It is accurate to say that John Locke was the theoretical architect of democracy as it exists in the Western World today. His ideas, as expressed in his famous Second Treatise on Civil Government, were influential in forming the political philosophy of the founders of the American and French Republics. A careful study of the Declaration of independence and the American constitution reveals both documents
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to be replete with phrases such as ‘All men are created equal’, Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness, we hold these truths to be self- evident. Omoregbe (2010:86) affirms that “the influence of Locke’s Philosophy was enormous”. His political theory was adopted by those who drafted the American constitution. The British also adopted it in their constitution until about the end of nineteenth century.
Lockean Political Philosophy
He started his political philosophy with the state of nature. In the state of nature, men live on the whole peaceably. They own private property, such as land, and also have private possessions, such as cattle and sheep. In this state of nature, he states that men by nature, are not wholly selfish: one may quickly wants to ask why? According to him, “they sometimes work for the good of others and they co-operate with each other”. Popkin (1977:68) says that what property they own, they may dispose of without asking the permission of anyone. The only law which governs them is what Locke calls ‘the law of nature’. This is the provision that no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possession. Now, although, as a rule peaceful, men occasionally may transgress the law of nature; or steal his property. When this occurs, the injured party has the right to punish the transgressor. There would be no reason for men to leave the state of nature and form societies, except that difficulties arise in applying punishment to those who transgress the law. According to him, these difficulties are: each man in the state of nature is his own judge of what is right or wrong and this leads him to make biased judgments. The reason adduced for this is that, one man can claim he was injured, another may deny it. Who is to decide the merits of the dispute? Even where it is plain that someone has violated the law, we may not have adequate force to punish him. Moreover, the degree of punishment will vary for the same crime. For instance, a man who steals a loaf of bread may be hanged by one group of individuals; but, another man may merely be fined. In order to
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overcome these impairments in the state of nature, men require a judiciary which will administer the law impartially, an executive who can enforce the law when it is broken, and a legislature to lay down constituent and uniform laws. According to Locke, “society originates in the attempt to develop each institutions for the purpose of life without organized society”. Men create a society by a voluntary agreement among themselves to erect these institutions. (1977:69)
Again, according to Locke, (1977:69) law, not force, is the basis of government. A government without law will be tyrannical. This is the characteristic of monarchy. A king can issue a decree stating that so and so is under arrest, there may have been no previous regulation to cover the alleged crime, the person may not have known that he was doing something which would evoke the wrath of the monarchy. Yet, the ruler can fabricate at will regulation for the purpose of imprisoning someone whom he does not like. Such a government operates by caprice, and the society which it controls will be correspondingly unstable. In a properly conducted government, (such as democracy), such a state of affairs will be ruled out. Democracy is the government by laws which are arrived at after long deliberation by properly chosen representatives of the people, and which are promulgated so that all men may become acquainted with them. All of this is sharply at variance with government by decree.
Besides, Locke believes that there are certain areas of human conduct which are immuned from government interference. It calls these ‘rights’. The doctrine is the direct ancestor of the famous Bill of Rights in the American Constitution. The Bill of Rights maintains that the government is powerless to abridge certain types of conduct of the citizenry: such as the freedom to speak, to worship as one pleases, and so forth. The main right which he emphasizes, however, is the right to own private property. He believes that no government can justly take away a person’s private property. This is because private property is, to
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a great extent, the fruits of a person’s own labour. In a significant sense, part of the person is invested in his property.
In fact, Locke often uses the word ‘property’ to refer to a man’s life and liberty as well as to his possessions and to take it from him, is tantamount to an assault upon his physical person. In the same vein, Locke argues that all men are equal in the sense that they have rights which are anterior to those given them by society, and since they are not given to them by society, they cannot be taken away by society either. What a very sound, logical and valid argument!
Moreover, it must be noted with all seriousness it deserves that the most important democratic element in Locke’s theory is his attitude towards government. Society is created in order to eliminate the defects of the state of nature. When men leave the state of nature in order to enter society, they thereby give up the power of punishment to an executive whom they appoint. But the crucial fact which he emphasizes here is that the executive is appointed by the people, and therefore is responsible to them. As he says “the whole purpose of government is to make laws for the regulation and preservation of property and for the defense of the community against external aggression, all this only for the public good”. Locke’s theory is that the government is, so to speak, a glorified secretary. We entrust it with powers to do those things which we find inconvenient or impossible to do ourselves, just as we appoint a secretary to handle our affairs if we are busy. But if the secretary violates our trust (if he embezzles money or so) we can fire him and, if the government violates our trust by attempting to usurp our rightful authority, we can dismiss it. (Ibid: 70)The point we should note here is that the source of authority lies with the people who appoint the government. It is merely a means for carrying out their will.
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This is not all, Locke believes that in order to safeguard the people against the concentration of power, he envisages a government divided into three branches, each of which would function as a check upon the other. He calls these divisions the Executive, Legislative and Federative branches of government. He believes that for the smooth- running of government, there is need for separation of powers among the three arms of government. He believes that if those who make the laws also enforce them, self-interest will be the order of the day.
The Implications for Nigerians Politics
Now, having vividly explained Lockean political philosophy, it is imperative to discuss the implications for Nigerian politics. These implications will now be marshaled and fully discussed as adumbrated earlier. From the outset, Locke believes that the supreme power belongs to the people, it follows (for him) that whoever governs without the consent of the people is a usurper. He describes usurpation as a domestic conquest arguing that any person or group of persons who usurps power has no right to be obeyed. (Uduigwomen, 1995:158) According to Locke, men create government to secure their rights, and if government becomes destructive to life, liberty and property, it can be overthrown and replaced by a government which will respect their natural rights (Locke, 1963: 426). With all intents and purposes, this goes straight to Nigerian leaders and politicians. The onus is on them to safeguard the rights and property of all Nigerians. To this end therefore, wanton destruction of precious lives cum valuable property mostly in the North East of Nigeria must stop now. The government should do everything humanly possible to put an end to this.
Again, following Locke’s notion of sovereignty which is the bedrock of the greatest democracy of our time (that is, American democracy) which of course, Nigeria is trying to imitate, military regime is no true representative of the Nigerian people. It is an
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aberration, a destruction of political society, order and popular sovereignty, a usurpation of power, and an erosion of the people’s inalienable rights. Since it does not enjoy the consent of the people, it should not decide for or act on behalf of the people. Where it does, the people are not under obligation to obey or co-operate with it, because according to Locke, “whoever gets into the exercise of any part of the power, by other ways than what the laws of the community have prescribed has no right to be obeyed.” (Ibid: 457)I want to personally believe that this paper is timely going by the rumour in the country now that the military is making attempt to take over the reigns of the government. Without mincing words, and to declare with authoritative finality, it should not be; it must remain a rumour. On no account should the military try this. It is immoral to destroy democracy under the guise of bringing about changes in the democratic process. Civilian regimes deserve to be left to make their mistakes, correct them with passage of time so that after several test-runs, true democracy shall evolve. It must equally be borne in mind that constitutionally, military government is an aberration. Section 1, sub-section 2 of the 1979 constitution of Nigeria states thus: “The Federal Republic of Nigeria shall not be governed nor shall any group or any group of persons take control of the government of Nigeria or any part thereof, except in accordance with the provision of this constitution, this constitution shall prevail and that other law shall to the extent of the inconsistency be void”. The thrust of the argument here is that the military rule is established by decrees rather than constitution. It therefore shows that it is baseless, unconstitutional, illegal and illegitimate. My argument hinges on the fact that the use of decree by the military for the purpose of administration constitutes a great danger to the right and liberty of the people.
In addition, though, Locke is the defender of the right to own private property, he however does not advocate the unscrupulous
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amassing of excessive wealth. Man’s right to own private property is according to him limited within reasonable bounds which is dictated by needs, the same natural law gives man the right to own private property also sets limits to this right. What this boils down to is that Locke is not a defender of crude, greedy and unscrupulous ways and means of acquiring property. I want to believe that there is a need for our politicians and those at the helms of affairs should borrow a leaf from this.
Above all, the government according to him, is the servant of the people and is responsible to the people. The government derives its power from the people, a mandate to carry out the wishes of the people. If the rulers are not fulfilling the wishes of the people, then, the people reserve the right to remove them from the power and elect new rulers who will carry out their wishes. Rulers should always keep in mind that they are elected into office by the people with the mandate to carry out their wishes. This calls for serious reflection. Omoregbe (2007:133-134) adds to this when he avers that “the main function of the government in Locke’s philosophy is to enforce morality and protect the fundamental human rights of individual citizens”. Irele (1998:47) corroborates this when he says that “Locke believes that the principal function of government is just to preserve man’s natural rights and to create the condition where these rights can be secured”. Again, Appadorai (2004:26) adds to this when he says that “Locke’s concept of natural rights is of value”
Conclusion
In this paper, we have made efforts to lucidly explain Lockean political philosophy and its implications for Nigerian politics. It is obvious that Lockean political philosophy is of vital importance to Nigerian politics. For instance, his insistence on law, and not force, as the basis of government cannot be over-emphasized or relegated to the
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background. The point of Lockean idea can be excapsulated in the aphorism that “the government is, to so to speaks, a glorified secretary.” The crux of the matter is that the government is the servant of the people and is responsible to the people. The people are the sovereign and they reserve the right to remove any government that fails to perform its duty properly.
References
Appadorai, A. (2004), The Substance of Politics, New York: Oxford University Press.
Irele, Dipo (1998), Introduction to Political Philosophy, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
Locke John (1963), “The Treatises on Government Works of John Locke, Vol. 5, Germany: Scientia Verlag Aelen”
Omoregbe Joseph, (2007), Socio-Political Philosophy and International Relations, Lagos: Joja Educational Research and Publishers Ltd.
Omoregbe, Joseph (2010), Socio-Political Philosophy: A Systematic and Historical Study, Lagos: Joja Educational Research and Publishers Ltd.
Popkin Richard, Stroll Avrum and Kelly, A.V. (1977), Philosophy Made Simple, London: W.H. Allen and Company Ltd.
Russell, Bertrand (1961), History of Western Philosophy, London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1979
Uduigwomen, A. F. (ed) (1995), Footmarks on African Philosophy, Lagos: Obaroh &Ogbinaka Publishers Ltd.
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BEHAVIOUR DESIGNS DESTINY – A VALUES EDUCATION APPROACH
Madhavi Ravi Dr.Shivani Research Scholar Associate Professor CREST, Bangalore CREST, Bangalore
Introduction
There is a need for imparting Values Education with a spiritual bent of mind in educational institutions. Value Based Spiritual Education is imparted to nurture the development of active, peaceful and caring citizens.
Children and young adults get exposed to thousands of negative influences through the media and their surroundings every day. Added to this is the sad fact that parents are spending less time with their children. There is a movement from joint family system to nuclear family system. Also, there is a high degree of stress, especially in the younger generation, owing to fast paced modern day lifestyle. Today education has become commercialised and valueless as far as real education is concerned. The purpose of life according to all traditions is self-actualization. Hence, it is high time to reconfigure education on the basis of spiritual values.
Concept of Value Based Spiritual Education
• Beck defines values as those things (objects, activities, expressions, etc.) which on balance promote human well-being.
• According to Fraenkel values are both emotional commitments and ideas about worth.
• Raths, Harmin and Simon describe values as beliefs, attitudes or feelings that an individual is proud of, is willingly to publicly affirm,
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has been chosen thoughtfully from alternatives without persuasion, and is acted on repeatedly.
Through channelizing the mind in the right direction, one can live a life of harmony and peace. Therefore, the values education curriculum must be carefully prepared on moral and spiritual values. Noble qualities such as a good heart, benevolent feelings and a balanced mind can be inculcated in the hearts of our youth. They lie as the foundation of character. The heart must become capable of standing firm in the world of daily work, temptation and trial, and be able to bear the wear and tear of actual life.
The present school has been established by a non-profit, educational and spiritual service organization for the purpose of teaching children practical skills as well as the values that they need to cherish and uphold all their lives. Value Based Spiritual Education Program (VBSE) endeavours to teach children the values that they need, so that they go into the world as balanced and excellent individuals. In every child, the seed of spirituality is sown even at the time of conception. Hence the term ‘Value Based Spiritual Education’ is appropriately introduced.
It is necessary that children are educated in spiritual values by making them realise that God Almighty dwells in the hearts of every being. Always living in the thought of the Ultimate so that anything we do has a thought of divinity attached to it prevents us from doing anything wrong. Automatically, their habits, behavioural pattern, conduct and character will take a turn for the better.
VBSE program of the school has been founded on the basis of the Core Human Values outlined by UNESCO in their 2002 Sourcebook "Learning to Be – a Holistic and Integrated Approach to Values Education for Human Development".
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Literature Review
According to Kathopanishad, the root cause of all the miseries and calamities of this world is ignorance (avidya).
Shraddha is defined as an unswerving faith in the words of the teachers, in the teachings of the scriptures and in the dictates of one’s own Self. Nachiketas, a boy of nine years old who developed sufficient discrimination and daring to interpret independently was able to judge rightly the inner significance of the sacrifice his father did. He was able to quote the sastras and say that the performers of sacrifices, who became stingy and miserly in their gifts to the priests, would reach joyless worlds.
It is a blasphemy to attempt to reconcile the eternal values of truth to our convenience, with the passing demands of false temptations.
The first lesson of yoga is to use time correctly. And what is the way of using time correctly? Live correctly. How to live correctly? Think correctly. Because from thinking come all activities.
Therefore, Raja Yoga concerns solely with the mind, the regulation of the mind.
The program, Living Values Education Program (LVEP, 2001), an international values education program, of worldwide proportions inspired by the new religious movement called the Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University incorporates twelve values (unity, peace, happiness, hope, humility, simplicity, trust, freedom, co-operation, honesty, courage, love). Research findings confirm that values education has potential to engage staff and students in meaningful and enjoyable work.
Hawkes, N. undertook the challenging task of conducting a comprehensive piece of qualitative research as a doctoral student at
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Oxford University between 1995 and 2005. The research sought to establish whether, by educating children in values, schools enable children to understand themselves more clearly through an awareness of their inner world. Is it the case that, through this reflective process, each pupil gains greater autonomy, self-respect and self-esteem? The research study critically examined this notion through a rigorous analysis of data that was collected from the school, where the children had been educated through an explicit programme of values education.
The purpose of the multiple-case study by W.G. Thompson, in 2011 was to determine how character education affects the behaviour of students. The researcher attempted to determine the perceptions of teachers, students, and their parents regarding the effects of the character education program. The instrumentation used in this study included interview guides as described by Gall and Gall (1996) for interviewing teachers, students, and parents. The data were collected through observations, interviews, and the review of archival and documentary evidence as recommended by Yin (1994).
In Indian context, there is scarcity of such empirical studies, which measures the effect of values education program on the behaviour of students. Most of the researches focused on inbuilt elements of curriculum (Morning assembly, literature, etc.) in relation to values assimilation by students but there is little inclination towards studying the effect of a special program to instil values in students. Therefore, to find out effect of a specially designed VBSE program this pilot study was conducted.
Objectives
Due to the absence of any periodical testing there is no evidence to show to what extent the values education programme has been successful in bringing about the desired changes in the behaviour of students. Following are the objectives to achieve the purpose:
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To evaluate the effect of VBSE on students' behaviour. To study the difference in the perception of peer behaviour by students of consecutive classes. To give recommendations if any to the curriculum development teams.
Hypothesis
Following hypotheses were framed in conformity with objective 2 stated above.
Alternative hypothesis H1 – There is a significant difference in the perception of students of two different classes with respect to the presence of each of the behaviour traits.
Null hypothesis H0 - There is no significant difference in the perception of two different classes with respect to the presence of each of the behaviour traits.
Research design and methodology
Under the values education program content was developed by the school curriculum team based on the nine Core Human Values outlined by UNESCO in their 2002 Source book ‘Learning to Be - Holistic and Integrated approach to Values Education for Human Development’. The Values Education program follows a whole school approach in framing the objectives of curriculum delivered for classes 1 to 12.
Nine values, the 'Navaratnas' are taught by the school's facilitators, one in each month of the academic year adopting the methodology as per the guidelines of the school. At the beginning of each day, Heartfulness Relaxation is conducted for the whole school during assembly time.
Facilitators begin the lesson by asking the students to close their eyes and go into the quiet place in their hearts (preferably sitting in a
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circle somewhere quiet). Before starting this, first the facilitator is trained to centre herself/himself in the heart, holding the quiet time for up to 2 minutes.
According to the UNESCO source book, ‘Learning to be,’ the values taught in the cognitive level through an effective Values Education program, will be filtered down to the affective as well as the behavioural, thereby making them authentic persons who are true to themselves and becoming fully human.
This pilot study is basically an empirical study and presented in a descriptive form. It is without a control, hence a non-experimental design.
Data collecting procedure
The following methods were useful for the current study:
Interview method was useful to collect information through personal interviews of teachers, parents and the students themselves. Focussed interview were used to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects. We have the freedom to decide the sequence and manner in which the questions would be asked and also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The instrumentation used in this study includes general interview guide approach as described in Gall and Gall. (1996) to determine perceptions of program effect on students' behaviour. Demographic information is collected, basic information of the sample on family background like members in the family, number of siblings, occupation of parents, etc. A survey of the behavioural characteristics of students (revised) by Dr. C. R. Bulach, Elementary school version, modified as per the need of the study, is the instrument used to measure the effect of Value Based Spiritual Education on the behaviour of
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students as assessed by the peer group. This instrument consists of 30 items used to measure students’ perception of their peer behaviour on 16 dimensions as follows: Self-control /Discipline, honesty, responsibility/ dependability/accountability, kindness, cooperation, forgiveness, integrity/fairness, perseverance, diligence, humility, compassion/ empathy, patriotism/citizenship, tolerance/diversity, respect for self/others/property, courtesy/politeness and sportsmanship. It has a Likert type scale with five options to rate.
A B C D E
ALMOST NEVER A LITTLE SOMETIMES A LOT ALMOST ALWAYS
‘Almost never’ is scored as a ‘1.0’ and an ‘Almost always’ is scored as a ‘5.0,’ and a ‘sometimes’ is scored as a ‘3.0.’ Negative behaviours are reverse scored. For example, if students respond with ‘a lot’ to the item – ‘students use curse words’, a score of ‘4.0’ becomes a ‘2.0.’ Scores of 4.0 or better indicate areas where students ‘perceive’ that the behaviour is present. Scores below 4.0 indicate areas which could be improved.
Tools of Analysis
The data for both quantitative and qualitative analysis was collected in familiar and congenial surroundings to test assimilation and absorption of values. Subsequently, the data from the standardised instrument was converted into quantifiable data for analysis and finally to arrive at conclusions. Test of significance used in this study was‘t’ test as the sample size is small.
The overall perception of students of class III was compared with that of Class IV.
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A comparison was made between the two classes for each of the behaviour traits. The perception of girls and boys of both the classes was compared. Findings
Quantitative analysis
A t-test for independent groups to test for any significant difference in the perceived behaviour was carried out; p value = 0.003. Overall perception of the students of class III was higher than that of students of class IV.
A graph of the scores for all students for each of the 16 character traits is shown in analysis.
Scores approaching a “2.0" can be interpreted as weakest areas. Scores above a “3.0" and close to a “4.0" are strongest areas.
Scores of 4.0 or better indicate areas where students "perceive" that the behaviour is present. Scores below 4.0 indicate areas which could be improved.
The mean scores for kindness for both the classes are 3.74 and 3.2 respectively, so this particular behaviour trait needs improvement.
The mean scores for respect for both the classes are 3.68 and 3.38, once again indicating a need for improvement in this behaviour trait.
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Fig.1. Character trait analysis
4
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 III
character trait character 1 IV 0.5 0 Scores by Scores
Character traits
Fig.2. Character trait analysis
4 3.5
3
2.5trait 2 1.5 III character character 1 IV 0.5
Scores by Scores 0
Character traits
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A similar pattern is observed in the mean scores of all the behaviour traits.
The findings clearly indicate:
The overall perception of class III for the presence of each of the behaviour trait is higher than that of class IV, due to which we reject the Null hypothesis and accept the Alternate hypothesis that there is a significant difference in the perception of students of two different classes with respect to the presence of each of the behaviour traits.
Qualitative analysis
When parents were asked if they had observed any changes in their child’s behaviour during the year, they all responded affirmatively. Two parents of children of class 3 and two of class 4 were selected randomly for the interviews. All of them identified positive changes in their children’s behaviour and agreed that the atmosphere of the school contributed to this positive change. This included improvement in sibling relationships, understanding the situation with maturity and improvement in eating habits as they now appreciate the value of good health. Fifty percent of the parents cited ‘respect’ as a change in observed behaviour describing changes in how the children treated other people, including their peers, teachers, siblings, and parents. However, fifty percent of them felt that there is a scope for further improvement as far as ‘respect’ is concerned.
Both the teachers of class III and IV were asked what type of changes in behaviour they had observed in their student. They indicated that the students had become more interactive and found that their complaining nature has reduced. As a result of counselling and reinforcement of values through various activities, the children showed increased levels of confidence. Children enjoyed activities like poster making, assemblies and stories related to values of the month. They even showed considerable improvement in academics.
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When asked who had the most influence on their behaviour, one of the students said that her mother had trained her stressing the importance of friendly behaviour and discipline. Learning values during VBSE classes helped her concentrate better and improve her grades. Another student indicated that good behaviour makes her feel good, so she learnt to behave well. One of her friends also had influenced her. Through VBSE classes she has learnt to respect, shout less, be polite, telling others also to be polite in order to create a peaceful atmosphere, not waste food and obey teachers. One child admitted that he does distract others but cited his peer group’s influence as the reason. At the same time he expressed his desire and willingness to change for better behaviour.
Conclusion
Students of class III perceived the presence of each of the behaviour traits more in their peer group when compared to that of students of class IV. This observation could be attributed to a stronger influence of distractions in the immediate surroundings with increase in age. However, there is not a major difference in the perception of boys and girls of both the classes, ruling out gender bias.
The results and findings of the pilot study are shared with the management so that any scope of restructuring the curriculum can be explored.
Key references
1. UNESCO APNIEVE.Source book 2 for teachers, students and tertiary level instructors. Bangkok: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, 2002. 2. Bulach, C.R.Implementing a character education curriculum and assessing its impact on student behaviour.http://www.westga.edu/~cbulach/Accessed 30th November 2015.
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3. Chinmayananda. Kathopanishad a dialogue with death – commentary. Mumbai, India: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1996. 4. Hawkes, N. & Heppenstall, L.Living values - One primary school's way of encouraging a values based education.https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/PDF/nl9_five.pdf Accessed 9th September 2015. 5. LVEP Living values. http://www.brahma kumaris.org. Accessed 30th September 2015. 6. Rajagopalachari, P. Heart to Heart, Volume 3. Shahjahanpur, India: Shri Ram Chandra Mission, 1993. 7. Rajagopalachari, P. Syllabus for School Children on Value based Spiritual Education. Chennai, India: Shri Ram Chandra Mission, 1994. 8. Sekhar, S.C. & Dr. Emmaniel, R.Impart Value-Based Education: International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, January 2012, Vol. 1, No. 1 ISSN: 2226-6348. 9. Singh, A.Evaluating the Impacts of Value Education: Some Case Studies:International journal of Educational Planning & Administration, Number 1 2011, Vol.1, pp.1-8.
10. Thapliyal, G. Bisht, D. & Dhatti, H. K.Impact of value education programme among school students: An experimental study: Journal of American Research Thoughts, Issue 4, 2015, Vol.1, ISSN: 2392-876X.
11. Thompson, William G., "The Effects of Character Education on Student Behavior." (2002). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 706. http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/706. 12. Value Based Spiritual Education. VBSE.http://www.omegaschools.org/programmes/vbse. Accessed 4th January 2016.
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EFFECT OF YOGA ASANA ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Mr.Mastan Bijalikhan Dr.A.Mahaboobjan Ph.D Research Scholar Research Guide Research Development Center Prof & H.O.D Dept of Physical Bharathiar University Education Coimbatore Bharathidasan University, Tiruchinapalli Abstract
The present study revealed that the yoga asana having the positive influence on the psychological variables of the high school students of Mysore district, Karnataka state, India. The researcher conducted the pre and post tests to evaluate effect of yoga asana on the psychological variables of the high school students. group consisted both boys and girls in equal numbers. The research design made on experimental bases, after the pre test 5 weeks yoga asana practice conducted for the subject group, pre and post tests data collected by the researcher and analyzed to find out the research findings of the study. The objectives of the study – to find out the influence of the yoga asana on the psychological variables of sample. The research tool used - mental health inventory, self confidence inventory and the general well being inventory were applied to collect the research data. The research hypothesis stated that there would be significance effect of yoga asana on the psychological factors of the sample group. The sample was selected on randomly; total 30 subjects selected for the study, in 30 subjects the sample consisted both boys and girls studying in 9th standard in the government schools of Mysore district. The suitable statistical tool like mean, SD, and t test was used to find out the significance effect of independent variables on dependent variables of the study. Key words – Yoga Asana, Psychology.
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INTRODUCTION
Modern Yoga
Modern yoga is said to have begun the Parliament of Religious. In Chicago, 1893 during this meeting the young Swami Vivekananda from India made a deep impression on the American and he introduced to yoga. Vivekananda became the most popular members of the Parliament and he subsequently toured the US and gave lecturers on yoga. Many yoga masters would later cross the oceans and follow on his footsteps, spreading yoga to all corners of the continents. Yoga schools where founded and increasing numbers of people fell in love with yogic forms of exercises.
Many masters also went to Europe where the reception for some reason wasn’t quite as warm. Yoga, in the forms of ‘Hatha Yoga’, debuted in the consciousness of the American masses when Russian born Indra Devi is called “The first lady of Yoga” and she opened a yoga studio in Hollywood in 1947. She taught about yoga and made movies and started to show that in the public. Due to this Gloria Swanson, Jennifer Jones and Robert Ryan were come forward for educating hundred of yoga teachers. During the 1950s one of the foremost yoga teachers of his time, Salvarajan Yesudian, wrote the book of “Sport and Yoga” and his book has been translated into more then fourteen languages and has sold more the half a million
Yoga, in the forms of ‘Hatha Yoga’, debuted in the consciousness of the American masses when Russian born Indra Devi is called “The first lady of Yoga” and she opened a yoga studio in Hollywood in 1947. She taught about yoga and made movies and started to show that in the public. Due to this Gloria Swanson, Jennifer Jones and Robert Ryan were come forward for educating hundred of yoga teachers. During the 1950s one of the foremost yoga teachers of his time, Salvarajan Yesudian, wrote the book of “Sport and Yoga” and his book has been
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translated into more then fourteen languages and has sold more the half a million copies. Today, we can observe many an athletes and sports teams that has incorporated yoga in their injury reducing, strengthening and focus oriented training regiments. On the interesting side note, Dalai Lama is a great Tibet, representing Buddhism and Tibetan Yoga. He was awarded the Noble prize for peace and has inspired many westerners to learn more about Buddhism and yoga.
Yoga Today Yoga has gained tremendously in popularity during the last few years and today. Over 30 million people are practicing yoga on a regular basis. Yoga is the most rapidly growing health movement of today despite having existed for thousands of years already. People attitudes towards health, spirituality and way of life in our society has hanged quite dramatically as people are looking for answers for their everyday problems. In these chaotic (confused) times, our environment is fighting for survival and we humans suffer more and more from physical and psychological stress with new diseases developing while old ones, that we thought we could handle with an vengeance in the midst of our society. We can’t always control these developments, but we can learn to face them and to this end, yoga is a good invention.
In the previous descriptions/version regarding yoga of this chapter it has been cleared that yoga is most important exercising pattern in the modern society to make the healthy, physical fit, emotionally balance, mental fitness and socially soundness of the citizens. Besides this, it can not be ignored that peacefulness of the mind, spirituality and the meditation of the human being is also being developed, to releasing the mental disorder and to eradicate the evils of the society. It is pertinent to maintain here that, yoga play the vital and pivot role for the harmonious development of the human being and to make sound and strong citizens of the country. It also touches the other
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some aspects like to attain Moksha and to merging the soul in the nature which cannot be developed by other present modern educational systems of the world.
Yoga and Health: Yoga also insists on the primary need of day to day good health which is to be achieved through its own system of yogic activities and which promotes moral and mental discipline. The purity of human nature and of the mind has to be achieved through good health of the body. There is no doubt the various activities included in the present programme of physical education and education such as development exercises or athletes games and sports, Gymnastics, recreative games, mass drill, military drill, swimming etc. We should have to also of the paramount value to athlete and sportsmen. Late Prime Minister of India, Mrs. Indira Gandhi while wishing success to Indian Olympians regretted that India had still a long way to attain high standard of health and motor know that yoga system is entirely beneficial for human body system such as mind and body. Health fitness is not only essential for total effectiveness of all individuals but it is fitness.
LITERARY RESEARCH ON MEDIATION BACKGROUND AND SCOPE The word meditation is derived from the Latin word meditari, meaning "to think”, “contemplate”, “devise”, or “ponder". Today, meditation has become extremely popular all over the world. In general, most of the time it has been used to reduce stress, to promote wellness and healing. There are more than 2500 research studies available on meditation. In the last 200 years, different meditation techniques are derived from the traditional yoga texts and promoted by the Yoga masters and spiritual leaders. Although the ultimate goal of meditation is same (calming the mind) the paths are different. However, in the West, meditation is considered as a relaxation technique or technique to promote wellness and healing.
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Meditation is a distinct practice in Indian philosophy and it is mentioned in many Indian traditional texts. The first description of meditation occurs in Vedas which is one of the oldest scripture of Hindu culture. Meditation was a part of daily life and known to everyone during Vedic age. Recently, the archeologists have discovered the sculptures in meditative pose in the ancient civilization, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Specific meditation techniques have been developed for the convenience in the later period. Meditation has been expounded in Vedas, Upaniñad, Bhagavad Gétä, Pataïjali Yoga Sütra, Haöha Yoga Pradépikä, and Tantra texts. Meditation was considered as upäsanä and practiced by everyone during the vedic age. The Upaniñads emphasis on self-analysis through intellect, and establishing the mind on Self. Lord Kriñëa in Bhagavad Gétä says, ‘meditate on the Supreme Self by directing all the Literary research on meditation senses towards inside using the intellect’. Perhaps, the most profound description of meditation is found in Pataïjali Yoga Sütra. Sage Pataïjali describes añöäìga yoga (eight limbs of yoga) to realize the ultimate. The sixth and the seventh limb of añöäìga yoga are pertaining to meditation. Haöha Yoga gives the description of the practice of meditation and its benefits. Tantra presents 112 of meditation techniques to realize the ultimate.
In Pataïjali Yoga Sütra (PYS), ancient Indian yoga text (Circa 900 B.C.), there are two meditative states described (Taimini, 1986). Sage Pataïjali lays out eight stages of yoga in Yoga Sütras (aphorisms). These are (i) yamäs (social discipline) (ii) niyamäs (self-discipline) (iii) äsanas (physical postures), (iv) präëäyämas (voluntarily regulated breathing), (v) pratyähära (withdrawal, particularly from external sensations), (vi) dhäraëä (focused meditation), (vii) dhyäna (defocused meditation or effortless meditation), and (viii) samädhi (an experience of transcendence or ultimate realization). The sixth and seventh stages are pertaining to meditation. Dhäraëä (focused meditation), is defined
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as confining the mind within a limited mental area (PYS 3.1). The next stage is dhyäna (effortless meditation or defocused meditation) (PYS 3.2) which is characterized by the uninterrupted flow of the mind towards the object chosen for meditation. Dhäraëä and dhyäna may be considered as the last two of four stages, which form a continuum in the process and practice of meditation. The first two stages are described in another ancient Indian text Literary research on meditation the Bhagavad Gita (Sarasvati & Swami, 1998). The first stage is caïcalatä, which is a stage of random thinking. The second stage is ekägratä, during which the attention is directed to a series of associated thoughts.
The present compilation was aimed at collecting the authentic information about the four mental states viz., caïcalatä, ekägratä, dhäraëä and dhyäna to classify all the modern derived meditation techniques in to two meditative states (dhäraëä and dhyäna).
Psychological Benefits Regular yoga practice creates mental clarity and calmness, increases body awareness, relieves chronic stress patterns, relaxes the mind, centers attention and sharpens concentration.
Self-Awareness Yoga strives to increase self-awareness on both a physical and psychological level. Patients who study yoga learn to induce relaxation and then to use the technique whenever pain appears. Practicing yoga can provide chronic pain sufferers with useful tools to actively cope with their pain and help counter feelings of helplessness and depression.
Mental Performance
A common technique used in yoga is breathing through one nostril at a time. Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies of the electrical
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impulses of the brain have shown that breathing through one nostril results in increased activity on the opposite side of the brain. Some experts suggest that the regular practice of breathing through one nostril may help improve communication between the right and left side of the brain. Studies have also shown that this increased brain activity is associated with better performance and doctors even suggest that yoga can enhance cognitive performance.
Mood Change And Vitality
Mental health and physical energy are difficult to quantify, but virtually everyone who participates in yoga over a period of time reports a positive effect on outlook and energy level.
Yogic stretching and breathing exercises have been seen to result in an invigorating effect on both mental and physical energy and improved mood.
Spiritual Benefits
When you achieve the yogic spirit, you can begin knowing yourself at peace. The value of discovering one`s self and of enjoying one`s self as is, begins a journey into being rather than doing. Life can then be lived practicing "yoga off the mat"
METHOD OF THE STUDY The experimental study conducted on the sample group of students, total 30 samples were randomly selected, after the pre test the group provided the yoga asana practice for 5 weeks and post test data compared and analyzed and interpreted the result of the study.
Significance of the study
The study was conducted to find out the influence of the yoga on the psychological factors of the sample group of the study, the study
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was having the importance in the improvement of the psychological health of the sample group.
Objectives
To find out the influence of the yoga asana on the psychological variables of sample. To know the significant influence yoga asana on the mental health of the sample. To know the significant influence yoga asana on the self confidence of the sample. To know the significant influence yoga asana on the well being of the sample.
Hypothesis
There would be significance effect of yoga asana on the psychological factors of the sample group. There would be significance effect of yoga asana on the mental health, self confidence and well being factors of the sample group.
Tool
The standardized research tool, General well-being scale (GWBS) developed by Dr.Ashok.k.kalia & Ms.Anita Deswal, was used for data collection. Self Confidence Scale Of M.Basavanna Was Administrated to collect data. Mental Health scale developed by Dr. Jagadish and Dr. A. K. Srivastava was used in the present study. The inventory contains 54 questions. The responses are scored with the help of manual
Sample The sample was selected on simple random method total 30 subjects selected for the research study, the sample consisted both boys
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and girls studying in 9th standard in the government schools of Mysore district.
Statistical Techniques The suitable statistical tool like mean, SD, and t test was used to find out the significance effect of yoga asana on the post test data of psychological variables of the study.
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION Table No – 1 showing the Mean, SD, t values of pre and post test of yoga group players
Psychological Pre Test Post Test t – values Variables Mental Health M 118.46 102.20 5.291** SD 12.26 5.226 Self Confidence M 56.53 41.33 3.689** SD 11.40 8.13 Well being M 199.73 208.93 1.721** SD 12.46 15.04 Significant at 0.05** level
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250 199.73208.93 200
150 118.46 102.2 Pre test 100 56.53 Post test 41.33 50
0 Mental Health Self confidence Well being
The table and graph showing the significance effect of yoga on the psychological factors of sample groups.
FINDINGS The high score in the mental health indicates the lower the mental health, the higher mean score in self confidence indicates lower the self confidence, in well being scale higher mean score indicates the higher the well being among the sample group.
The pre test and post mean scores of mental health tests showing the significant difference at 0.05 level and also showing the positive influence of yoga asana practice on the mental health. The pre and post tests scores of self confidence test showing the significance influence of yoga on the self confidence. The mean score of pre and post tests in well being test showing the influence of yoga asana on the general well being
REFERENCES
Online library sources Online journals Yoga books on google.in
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UNDERSTANDING INDIAN SOCIETY: AMBEDKAR'S PERSPECTIVE
Mathangi Murali Research Scholar Dept of Political Science Kakatiya University, Warangal Abstract
B.R.Ambedkar, the chief architect of Indian Constitution, came at the appropriate moment in British ruled India to assume the natural leadership of his kinsmen and participated in social movement and got involved in founding the constitutional edifice of the country. The present study is an attempt to make an objective analysis of the strand of the ideas of Ambedkar on equality and freedom in Indian context while keeping in minds the gaps and lapses in the existing literature on Ambedkar. Indians, especially, downtrodden people of India consider him as immortal soul whose memory will even guide the nation on the path of social justice, liberty and equality. It can be said that Ambedkarism is of great relevance to Indian society even today in achieving social justice, removal of untouchability, in establishing equality and freedom and true democracy. Ambedkar was a social liberal, the towering enlightenment figure of modern India, who applied committed reason to social reconstruction. His concept of an ideal society was most suited to the needs of a modern society. His views on society fully endure an individual is mainly responsible for his own welfare, but, at the same time, he shares collective responsibility for the good of the larger society. Ambedkar's cherished goal of an ideal society was one that guaranteed to all its members" political, social and economic justice, and according to him, the attainment of this human ideal should be through the democratic process. Keywords: B. R. Ambedkar, India, Equality, Freedom, Caste
Introduction
Born in a socially backward caste, educated along the lines the western system, rational in outlook and somewhat rebellious in mentality and temperament, Ambedkar came at the appropriate moment in British ruled India to assume the natural leadership of his
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kinsmen and participated in social movement and got involved in founding the constitutional edifice of the country. As regards the emancipation of the backward classes, first he criticized the caste Hindus for their social apathy towards the depressed classes, blamed the British for their political and economic backwardness and stood as the unrivalled champion of the depressed classes, and dedicated his life to the cause of their amelioration. Early Life
Bhimrao Ramjee Ambedkar was born in December 1891 in the Mahar community, an untouchable caste of Maharashtra. After receiving his early education at Satna and Bombay, he went for higher studies for Columbia University, USA. He obtained his M.A and PhD degrees from Columbia University. Then he conducted research at India office library, London. On return to India, he took up job as a Professor of economics with Sydenham College of Commerce Bombay. As a member of the untouchable community, he had to face lot of hardships and humiliations, so he took up the cause of untouchables. Dr B.R Ambedkar was one of the very reputed and well acclaimed political thinker and social reformer that India has ever produced. He is popularly known as the ‘pioneer’ who initiated the ‘liberation movement’ of roughly sixty-five million untouchables of India. He desperately wants to create an atmosphere where lower caste people can breathe freely without being labeled as untouchables. He fought hard against the system just to secure conducive atmosphere for the downtrodden masses so that they can excel too in every field. Ambedkar was one of the pioneers of social justice in India. It was Ambedkar who provided new dimensions to the concept of justice. We regard him as the ‘Champion of Social justice.' He was himself a victim of social injustice, faced its difficulties; and he not tolerated the injustice, but boldly fought against them. Ambedkar had a liberal concept of justice. Like Gandhi, for Ambedkar, justice is simply another name of liberty, equality and fraternity.’ In this sense, the core value of Ambedkar concept of justice is human equality, equal distribution of the welfare materials and discrimination less society. Thus, the spirit of social justice, according to Ambedkar, gives a significant place to mutual sympathy and respect. Whatever he achieved, that would have been possible for his strength of character which manifested his individual charisma. As a statesman, scholar, crusader of downtrodden
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and above all a spiritual guide, Ambedkar has left an indelible impression on the Indian History. His contribution to uplift the downtrodden made him a cult figure among the depressed classes. He now lives in the heart and mind of the million of' the suffering people. They now look at him as immortal soul whose memory will even guide the nation on the path of social justice, liberty and equality. Thus, Ambedkarism is of great relevance to Indian society even today in achieving social justice, removal of untouchability, in establishing equality and freedom and true democracy. Democratic socialism is the key note of his political thought and constitutionalism is the only way to achieve it. it can be said that this research gives closer and analytical insight into the thoughts of Ambedkar on equality and freedom and provides an answer to the question of whether we achieve religious tolerance, human equality and freedom, true democracy in the society, justice and peace in the light of political philosophy of Ambedkar whose memory will ever guide the nation on the path of justice, liberty and equality. Ambedkar’s Idea on Equality and Freedom
The Hindu Social Order in India has often been accused of being an undemocratic and unjust order wherein a large section of its members are doomed to a permanent degraded life by reason of birth. Ambedkar was a bitter critic of Hinduism. The impact of the principle of inequality is quite apparent and glaring in the Hindu social order. In view of Ambedkar, the Hindu social order does not recognize equal need, equal work or equal ability as the basis of reward for labour. Its motto is that in regard to the distribution of the good things of life, those who are reckoned as the highest must get the most and the best and those who are classified as the lowest must get least and worst. The Hindu social order comprises of castes, namely, Brahmins, Khatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Ambedkar observed: “In Hindu social order, there is no room for individual merit and no consideration of individual justice. If the individual has a privilege, it is not because it is due to him personal. The privilege goes with the class, and if he is found to enjoy it, it is because he belongs to that class. Contrarily, if an individual is suffering from a wrong, it is not because he by his conduct deserves it. The disability is the disability imposed upon the class and if he is found to be labouring under it, it is because he belongs to that class.” According to Ambedkar, there are two fundamental tenets of a free
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social order. They are: (i) individual is an end in himself and the aim and object of society is the growth of the individual and the development of his personality. Society is not above the individual. But, the individual has to subordinate himself to society because such subordinate is for his betterment and (ii) the terms of associated life among members of society must be based on the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity. In view of Ambedkar, nationalism means expression of inner unity of a people and it is a process of social assimilation. Therefore, irrespective of caste, colour and creed, nationalism gets perfect harmony if social brotherhood of men prevails everywhere within a nation. To Ambedkar, nationalism is negation of caste spirit and caste spirit is nothing but deep- rooted communalism. He emphasized to fight against casteism, linguism, communalism and separatism because he was of the opinion that these social evils divide the people into small social units which are against the spirit of nationalism. In view of Ambedkar, communalism being one form of groupism is a threat to national integration which may hamper the way for equally and fraternity. In short, Ambedkar viewed nationalism as a spiritual phenomenon rooted in humanism. Ambedkar, the believer of one nationalism, advocates for religious tolerance and condemns all kinds of hypocrisy and oppression in the name of religion and nationalism. Amidst diversity of religions in Indian nation, he aspires that “religion should be the force which deepens the solidarity of human society” which can bring people together for social and emotional unity, can lead the people to military unity and political stability. To him, “the divine right of the majority to rule the minorities according to the wishes of the majority” is an example of irrationalism and such monopoly of power and prestige by majority religious or political group is not nationalism, rather anti- nationalism. Accepting different religions in Indian society having religious differences, Ambedkar believes that these religions should be binding forces behind creating national spirit and in no situation, these religions should be a symbol of inhuman treatment and ignominy. Otherwise, it will hamper the development of strong sense of national unity. Recognizing the demerits of diversity of language in a country, Ambedkar opined that different language should not obstruct the growth and spirit of nationalism and in favour of his opinion, he cited
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examples of Canada, Switzerland and South Africa which have diversified languages. Yet, Ambedkar laid stresses on the need of a common language in order to strengthen the unity and spirit of nationalism as well as to remove racial and cultural conflicts. Through one common language, Ambedkar wanted to have a strong sense of unity and a deep feeling of nationalism. He had the arguments in support of his claim that people speaking different languages might not be able to exchange thoughts and actions for development and happiness of all men irrespective of race, caste and religion. Moreover, one language could not only tighten the sense of human unity in a nation but also remove racial and cultural tension. Review of Literature
Khalil Ahmed (2015) in his study Ambedkar‘s Idea of Social Democracy and Quest for Distributive Justice‘ examined the main goal of the study is to analyze the idea of B. R. Ambedkar, the father of Indian constitution, regarding Indian democracy particularly social democracy. Analyzing the idea of democracy of Ambedkar in details, it can be found out that Ambedkar wants democracy to be social, economic and political in nature too. He also fought hard for the emancipation of lower caste from the clutches of Brahmanical society well marked by Varna system. In his conception of exploitation less society, democracy has an extra-ordinary role which he defined as ‗one person, one vote'; and 'one vote, one value'. Democracy means empowerment of any person for participating in the process of decision- making relating to her/him, democracy means liberty, equality and fraternity - Ambedkar's definition of democracy had such a tone. This research gives closer and analytical insight into the thoughts of Ambedkar and finds that, for Ambedkar, Social democracy is the means and justice is the end. Ambedkar was also of the view that, Indian freedom is not as necessary as the equilibrium in social setup is required. Finally, after trying everything, he gave a mantra in which he said, Dalit‘s needs to go for educate, organize and agitate.
Dr. Jay Lakshmi (2014) in her research work ‗Relevance Of Ambedkar's Contributions In The Upliftment Of Modern Days Dalits And Women‘ focused on Ambedkar‘ thoughts on Dalits, a modern term for untouchables in India, are underprivileged people in all social, economic, cultural and political fronts of our society which led to their misery, discrimination, exploitation and oppression by the caste
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dominated social stratification of India. The Constitution of India classifies Dalits as Scheduled Castes (SCs). They are the people who cultivate the land, mend the shoes, wash the clothes, clean the toilets, scavenge the dead animals or unknown human bodies and do all types of menial works, but share the stigmas of untouchability and are frequently denied the chance to eat, smoke and even seat with the members of upper castes. They often use separate wells and tube wells from those maintained for others. Reddy, K. (2013) analyses the Ambedkar - led Dalit movement with an anthropological perspective. He observes that the mission of Ambedkar was aimed at bringing about radical transformation in the living conditions of nlillions of his community who had been condemned for many centuries to live degraded and dehumanized lives. Datta (1993) analyses the universal elements of Ambedkar's social philosophy and its local characteristics. He remarks that while the nationalists of his time aimed at only political independence of India Ambedkar's life mission was to gain freedom for the outcastes from the clutches of the caste system. According to the writer, Ambedkar built up separate and independent organizations for the outcastes because he had realized that justice to the untouchables could only come through their organized strength and not as a gift from the upper castes. Objectives of the Study
1. To assess the understanding of Indian society. 2. To assess the society thoughts and Ambedkar perspective
3. To assess the contribution made by Ambedkar as a social reformist, in terms of the development of the down trodden classes in India and with special reference to the Ambedkar Movement. 4. To assess the services rendered by Ambedkar in his various official capacities, for the propagation and establishment of his messages. Ambedkar’s Idea on Caste and their Interrelationship
Ambedkar proceeded to offer his own concept of caste. The essence of the caste, according to Ambedkar, is endogamy; caste is not
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merely a division of labour. It is a hierarchy in which division of labourer is graded one above the other. Caste system involves an attempt to appoint tasks to individuals in advance, selected not on the basis of trained original capabilities, but on that of the social status of the parents. i.e., absence of intermarriage. In a system where intermarriage is prohibited, it tends to alienate itself from others and convert itself into an enclosed social unit having an independent identity of its own3 .According to Ambedkar, “the problem of caste, then ultimately resolves itself into one of repairing the disparity between the marriageable units of the two sexes within it. The husband may die before the wife and create a surplus woman, who must be disposed of; else through intermarriage she will violate the endogamy of the group. In like manner, the husband may survive his wife and be surplus man, whom the group, while it may sympathized with him for the sad bereavement, has to dispose of, else he will marry outside the caste will break the endogamy.4 Thus both the surplus man and surplus woman constitute a menace to the caste if not taken care of for not finding suitable partners inside their prescribed circle very likely they will transgress the boundary, marry outside and import offspring that is foreign to the caste”. Ambedkar’s Perspective of Hindu Social System
Ambedkar was against the concept of Hindu social system and did not like Hindu religion. Ambedkar believed that conversion of religion to give social justice in the name Buddha religion and he observed that Buddhism is the best way to be adopted to promote peaceful social livelihood. To quote Ambedkar ‚by discarding my ancient religion which stood for inequality and oppression today I am reborn, I have no faith in the philosophy of incarnation; and it is wrong and mischievous to say that Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu. I am no more a devotee of any Hindu god or goddess. I will not perform Shrardha. I will strictly follow the eighty-fold path of Buddha. Buddhism is a true religion and I will lead a life guided by the three principles of knowledge, right path and compassion‛ (Larbeer 2003: 82) and also he quoted that ‚the world owes much to rebels who would dare to argue in the face of the polite and insist that he is not infallible. I do not care for the credit, which every progressive society must give to its rebels. I shall be satisfied if I make the Hindus realize that they are the sick men of India and that their sickness is causing danger to the
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health and happiness of other Indians‛ (ibid: 83). Ambedkar took decision for conservation to Buddha because of given factors are:
1. The rational consciousness of assessing things for a better life of human beings 2. The freedom of choice in which man realize his individual dignity 3. The realization of the higher life by transcending the lower plane of human existence 4. The revolt against suppression and enslavement of humanity 5. The entire change of traditional pattern of society for providing physical facilities for all 6. The emancipation of ignored humanity and the revitalization of overlooked reality. Indian society is a product of long and complex historical process. The seven major events contributed to the formation of this process are Aryan `advent', the emergence of Indian Protestant religions -- Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, the entry of non-Indic religions into the sub-continent as immigrant religions, the Muslim `conquests', western colonialism, anti-colonial freedom struggle and the partition of the Indian sub-continent in 1947 on the eve of the British exit (Oommen 1998 : 229-40). The product of this long process is a four-in-one society. Like all societies Indian society too is stratified based on age, gender, rural-urban differences and class but unlike many of them Indian society is marked by considerable cultural heterogeneity too, particularly because of a large number of speech communities counting more than one thousand five hundred including some six hundred tribal communities. But India's religious plurality complicated by the uneasy co-existence of religions of Indic and non-Indic origin is a rare phenomenon in most contemporary societies. However, what is unique to India is the all pervasive caste hierarchy legitimised through the Hindu doctrine of Karma and Reincarnation. As one observes the complex creature called Indian society at the turn of the century four major trends of social transformation are in evidence (Oommen 1998 : 229-40). First, a transitional trend from cumulative to dispersed dominance. If status, wealth and power were earlier concentrated in the hands of the twice-born caste Hindus -- Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya -- accounting for a mere 15 to 20 per
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cent of the population, now there is an incipient trend towards dispersal of political power to the Other Backward Classes (OBCs), Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) together constituting the vast majority of Indian population. This is the resultant of universal adult franchise introduced in India with the arrival of independence. In addition to the dispersal of political power there is also a limited dispersal of wealth among the above categories heralding the birth of a middle class among them. But the reasons for the emergence of middle class vary across these categories. The policy of protective discrimination reserving seats in educational institutions and government service are primarily responsible for the emergence of a bourgeoisie among the SCs and STs. The Kulaks among the OBCs are a product of agrarian reforms which abolished absentee landlords and transferred land to the tenants and share croppers drawn from among them and the Green Revolution which provided subsidized inputs and assured minimum prices for agricultural products to owner cultivators. The changes in power and wealth are not marched by change in status, that is, weakening of the importance of ritual dimension. Inter- dining, inter-marriage and social interaction between the twice-born and the SCs are still rare particularly in rural areas. This results in status incongruence, that is, their upward mobility in wealth and power is not matched by status mobility. In the case of OBCs status incongruence results from their low representations in the high echelons of bureaucracy and professions even as they became politically powerful. The second major trend in social transformation manifests in the gradual movement from hierarchy to equality resulting in the decline of traditional collectivism and emergence of individualism. With the emergence of individualism the salience of traditional collectivities manifested through joint family, jati, village etc. are being relegated to the background. While there is no neat and tidy displacement of collectivism by individualism the birth of the Indian individual is clearly in evidence. I am stressing this point because conventional wisdom upheld the view that individuals do not exist in Indian society unless one becomes an ascetic (Dumont 1970). This is not true any more.
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The third important trend in social transformation in India is the simultaneous demands for equality and the assertion of collective identity. The Indian constitution unambioguously assured equality and concomitantly social justice to all individuals irrespective of caste, creed or class. Initially, most of the traditionally disadvantaged groups believed that the implementation of constitutional promise will automatically follow and the maintenance of their group identity is irrelevant. At any rate, the stigma associated with their identity prompted them to abandon it and plumb for assimilation, as the process of sanskritization implied. But gradually it dawned on them that individual equality per se will not emancipate them and they need to re-invent dignity in their collective identity. The expressions such as Dalits and Adivasis in the place of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes clearly point to this trend. While the Constitution does not clearly recognise the identities based on religion, caste, language and tribe, it does not completely overlook these identities either, if these are disadvantageous to the collectivities concerned. This ambiguity is evident both from constitutional provisions and administrative measures as exemplified in special rights conceded to religious minorities (e.g., upholding their civil codes), the policy of reservation in the case of SCs and STs, the recent steps taken to provide representation to OBCs and women in selected contexts, the special treatment extended to tribal communities and the linguistic reorganisation of Indian states as administrative units. All these steps have inevitably given fillip to the relevant collectivittes to assert their identity when it pays off. The fourth transition that I am referring to is the movement from plural society to pluralism (Oommen 1997(a) : 259-71). Plural society as initially conceptualised by J.S. Furnivall (1948) alludes to an arrangement in which different social and cultural segments uneasily co-exist interacting in the economic context but prohibiting legitimate transfusion of blood (intermarriages) or transmission of culture. This arrangement prevailed within the Hindu society through the operation of jajmani system for centuries. Latterly, the twice born castes interact with the OBCs and SCs both in the political and economic contexts but have very limited interaction in socio-cultural contexts. This description also fits in the mode of interaction which prevails between
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Hindus, particularly the upper castes, and those who profess the non- Indic religions in the rural areas. I suggest that the four trends of change that I have listed namely the movement from cumulative to dispersed dominance; from hierarchy to equality and the consequent birth of individualism; the simultaneous demand for equality and identity and the gradual transition from plural society to pluralism (the dignified co-existence of different socio-cultural segments as equals in the polity) have tremendous methodological implications for the study of Indian society. However, I do not propose to discuss all the dimensions but shall confine my attention to those, which are relevant for the present theme, namely the perspective from below. The `view from below' is an old and persisting issue in social science, particularly in Sociology and Social Anthropology. But concomitant to the emergence of the traditionally oppressed and stigmatized collecitivies, as partially emancipated and empowered ones, their conventional silence is being replaced by audible New Voices. In turn, the need for their representation in the process of knowledge production is grudgingly being recognized. That is, the very framing of the issues and terms of discourse have changed over time. The demand for a perspective from below is an indication of this massive change in society. If earlier those who occupied the bottom of society were invisible due to the cognitive blackout perpetuated by upper caste, middle class, urban, male researcher, today they are in full view and demand their legitimate share of representation in the production and representation of knowledge. Resting on Ambedkar’s thoughts, the Indian Constitution guarantees equal rights to all, based on social justice and human dignity. It is observed, however, that Ambedkar’s ideas of social justice could not be realized in a proper manner over the years. As such, his concept of justice will have to be propagated by institutions through civil society. Ambedkar was concerned about the overall development of the vulnerable sections of the Indian society and he chose to demolish existing caste discrimination by enacting the Constitution. Therefore, Ambedkar’s ideas of social justice remain relevant in contem-porary Indian society in promoting constitutional and legal methods for upholding the rights and dignity of the vulnerable sections.
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Nature of Dalit Movements At the outset it is necessary to explain the meaning of two terms used in this paper. The term Dalit has a much wider connotation. It has been used for the Scheduled Castes (ex-untouchable castes) and Scheduled Tribes (SCs and STs respectively), Buddhist converts, other backward castes or classes, minorities, women and the poor of upper castes in the Hindu society.1 As such, its characteristics are those of a class or social class though in its usage it has not succeeded in transcending the caste and communal background of those for whom it was conceived in principle. In fact, it is now used for Hindu untouchables or the Scheduled Castes and for those people of these castes who have converted to Buddhism. The term of reference of the Dalit at present is obviously caste in the Hindu caste system though it is strongly contested by the Dalits themselves. I have used this term here for the SCs of the Hindu caste system and for those SCs who have converted to Buddhism, Christianity, Sikhism and Islam in India. Conclusion:
Ambedkar’s notion of nationalism results primarily from the dichotomy between the political and the social. As it is well known, the nationalist leaders like Gandhi and more particularly the Hindu nationalists laid excessive emphasis on the political almost ignoring the social aspect of the nationalism. Ambedkar’s argument was that in the absence of any comprehensive critique of the caste system and Hinduism, the political is bound to suggest that the local/indigenous tyrants are preferable on ‘Patriotic ground’. It is true that Ambedkar’s never participated in the freedom struggle rather he opposed it. But, it is indeed a fact that his opposition helped to widen the internal scope of the freedom which made it really significant for thousands of oppressed people. Nationalism is not is a blind worship of the motherland. It is true that Ambedkar opposed the mainstream national movement, but this kind of attitude indirectly contributed much by laying the broad social foundation on which the present Indian nation state stands. Without Ambedkar’s intervention to bring about some measures of material empowerment of the former untouchables, they would have been unable to their rightful place in national life. The above mentioned interaction made it possible the proper understanding of the true significance of the scheduled caste problems. Ultimately, this influenced Gandhiji’s unhesitant decision to accept the request of the
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scheduled caste members of the constituent assembly that Ambedkar’s should be included in India’s first Government. It was Ambedkar’s political challenge which compelled congress to appreciate the national significance of the problem of the scheduled castes and to adopt certain measures which significantly contributed towards broadening and strengthening the social base of Indian nationalism. REFERENCES:
1. Ishita Aditya, American Journal of Social Sciences,Vol No 2, Feb 2014, pp 7-15 2. Khalil Ahmed, The International Journal Of Humanities & Social Studies, Vol 3 Issue 8 August, 2015 3. A.RANJITHKUMAR, International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 2, Issue 12, December-2011 4. Oommen, T.K. 1969 `Data Collection Techniques : The Case of Sociology and Social Anthropology', Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. IV (19), 809- 15. 5. Raghavendra,SAGE publications, Jun 4, 2016
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THE MEANING OF PENYELAMAN FOR HINDUS AND MOSLEMS IN BALI, INDONESIA
Nengah Bawa Atmadja Department of History Education Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha
Abstract This article is the result of qualitative research on the relationship between Hindus and Moslems in various villages in Bali island, Indonesia. The problems investigated were focused on two aspects, i.e., the way how the Hindus prepare penyelaman and its meaning for the Hindus and Moslems. The results showed that penyelaman is a nonmeat food prepared by the Hindus to serve to the Moslems in a party. Penyelaman is prepared by following the Islamic rule in order to guarantee its fit. Penyelaman is very important to the relationship between the Hindus and the Moslems in Bali. It is important since it is a symbol which contains various values, i.e., active and passive interreligion tolerances between Hinduism and Islam, social capital to form social solidarity, and ideological representation, both the local Balinese Tri Hita Karana and the Pancasila national ideology which stresses on the importance of tolerance and compassion to realize a harmonious and peaceful society.
Keywords: Penyelaman, Hindus and Moslems, tolerance, compassion, peace.
INTRODUCTION
Balinese population does not only consist of Balinese Hindus, but it also includes non-Balinese, such as Javanese, Madurese, Buginese, Makassarese, Sasak, etc. The non-Balinese ethnic groups live in towns and even many of them are non Hindus, like Moslems. They interact in daily activities and/ or in other activities such as in
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wedding and death rituals or formal meetings held by the official village government, like a village meeting. The activities such as these are often followed by eating together to develop social capital between Hindus and Moslems.
There is a problem when the Hindus and the Moslems eat together which is caused by their dichotomy. Hinduism allows the eating of pork. While Islam prohibits it. Besides, there are Moslems who think that there are other meats which are not kosher, like chicken which are not killed according to the Islamic rule. This problem is very crucial, since if one treats it wrongly there is room for violence in the name of a faith (Armstrong, 2016). This will become intensified when according to Kimball (2003) there is a charismatic leader , who is faithfully followed by his or her followers, who blindly plays with this issue. This event may develop into an inter-religious conflict. Hence this problem needs an appropriate solution to maintain the harmony between Hindus and Moslems in order they do not come into conflict because of the difference in eating behavior. In this context, it is interesting to know the solution to the contradiction in the eating behavior between the Hindus and the Moslems which make it possible for them to eat together in space and time to keep the social harmony.
This article discusses penyelaman and focuses on two aspects, firstly, to way how the Hindus prepare penyelaman. Secondly, the meaning of penyelaman for the Hindus and Moslems in Bali. In the theory used in this paper penyelaman is positioned as culinary in Balinese community. Lontar Dharma Caruban – a manuscript which contains Balinese traditional food recipes states that Balinese food consists of various forms prepared by using various foodstuffsraw such as meat. When the animal is killed Hindu prayers are read. The meat is cooked and some ingredients are mixed together with the meat and the food is served according to the customary manner (Suandra,
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1988). According to Dillistone ( 2003: 2) culinary is not associated only with food in its function of gratifying the human basic need, but it can also be positioned as a symbol. It means it contains ideals, values, or the condition idealized by the community.
A study of the two problems is very important, since , although penyelaman has become a tradition, many Balinese do not understand its full meanings. Similarly, the Moslems’ understanding of penyelaman is not yet complete so that many of them suspect it as kosher food. This study is expected to improve the understanding among the Hindus and the Moslems of penyelaman to maintain peace in Bali. Peace is not something given but it is something which is formed through a continuous process. Moreover, in the reformation era marked by identity, political strengthening which unites with religion which makes the phenomenon of intolerance unavoidable in the society (Madung, 2017). In this context the use of the strategy to make peace through the creation of penyelaman is very important to be understood, beside giving us more knowledge, it can also be practiced from time to time in Balinese community or in other communities with similar cultural patterns.
RESEARCH METHODS
This is a small part of a study on the interethnic and interreligous groups in various communities in Bali with a multi- ethnic and multi-religious population, for example, in Julah village, Buleleng (Atmadja, 1998), Melaya village, Jembrana (Maryati, Atmadja, and Ariyani, 2016), etc. The informants were appointed purposively, like Office Village and desa pakraman officials, customary and religious figures, Religious Department Office officials, etc. The data were collected by in-depth interview, observation, and document studies. The data collected were triangulated to guarraantee the validity by using data collection triangulation, data source
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triangulation, time triangulation, key informant triangulation and peer triangulation and theory triangulation.
Data analysis followed the following steps: firstly, conceptualization in the form of activity of identifying emic concepts which refer to the problem studied in this research. Secondly, the result of conceptualization in the form of interpreting to produce new meanings based on the meanings given by the informants and develop them into a tentative theory. Thirdly, proving, i.e., proving the truth of the tentative theory by collecting further data. Fourth, objectifying to strengthen findings by referring to social theoriies and/ or other fndings. The implementation of these steps can overlap or the one strenghening another (Berger in Samuel , 2012).
This series of activities need sociological awareness, i.e., firstly, debunking, i.e., the ability to overhaul falsehood or myths to get the latent functions or connotative meanings of a reality. Secondly, unrespontability, i.e., to observe carefully the backstage that influences the acts of the agents in the community. Thirdly, relativity, the awareness that every incident departs from a different context and situation. Fourthly, cosmopolitant motif , i.e., to have a broad view theoretically, spatially and timely in looking at the problem under invetigation (Samuel, 2012). By using this method, the meaning of penyelaman can be revealed in depth and holistically, both denotative and connotative, which refer to emic and etic understandings.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Bali island is a part of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia . The Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia places Pancasila as the principles of the state. Pancasila strongly stresses interreligious tolerance in Indonesia. In this context, Balinese community develops a strategy , i.e., penyelaman - labeled food.
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Migration of Moslems to Bali
Hinduism was once in its golden era in Indonesia, i.e., in the era of Majapahit Kingdom from the 8th century to the 16th century. The fall of Majapahit kingdom led to the disappearance of Hindu Kingdoms in Indonesia. However, Bali island can remain as the only island in Indonesia whose population is mostly Hindus. Even Bali is called the heir of Majapahit tradition. The reason was when the Hindu Kingdom of Majapahit fell, it was succeeded by the Islamic Kingdom of Demak and many of Hindus from Majapahit migrated to Bali to continue the Hindu tradition. This was not only due to Bali being a part of Majapahit Kingdom, but it was also due to the fact that Bali held on to Hiduism (Atmadja, 2010).
However, Islam keeps developing in Bali. According to Mashad (2014) this cannot be separated from the policies of the kings in Bali formerly who had Moslem followers who came from Javanese, Sasak, Buginese groups etc. They were provided land around palaces or in other places as permitted by the kings and had the jobs to help with religious rituals in the palace environments, or became guards, soldiers, etc. The arrival of Moslems to Bali could also be due to their occupations as merchants, government workers, laborers, farmers and fishermen.
They do not only live in villages with exclusively Moslem population, but also in villages with mixed ( Hindus and Moslems ) population. Although a village is specially populated by Moslems, they always border with villages with Hindu population (Mashad, 2014; Basyar et al, 2016). For instance, in Buleleng regency there are special villages with Moslem population, such as Desa Pegayaman, Kampung Kajanan, Kampung Buleleng, Kampung Jarat, etc. Villages in Gerokgak district have mixed population ( moslems and Hindus), for instance, Desa Banyupoh, Sumber Kima, Sumber Klampok, etc. They
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arrived in these villages as plantation laborers in the Dutch colonialization era in the 19th century . Some of them came there as merchants and fishermen.
Thus, Bali island cannot be called a monoethnic island, but a multiethnic one, since the population consists of various ethnic groups such as Balinese, Javanese, Madurese, Buginese, Makassarese, etc. Similarly, Bali island cannot be called a monoreligious island – or Bali is identical with Hindu, but it is a multireligious island. The population consists of people who are Hindus, Moslems, Catholics, Buddists, and Confucians. In short, Bali is an island with a multicultural society (Atmadja, 2010).
The Background of the Appearence of Penyelaman
Balinese call Moslems as Slam. The term probably came from the Balinese pronunciation of Islam as /‘slam’/. But it could also come from their relations with Indians from Gujarat. This idea is in line with Rush’s explanation (1996) that in the 18th century many Gujarat Indians lived in Batavia who were Moslems. They called themselves orang Slam or Isalam. The Gujarat Indians migrated to various places in Indonesia to trade and/or to spread Islam or Moslem religion. There was a possibility that they migrated to Singaraja, Bali. They sold various commodities, such as cloth and gambier which was imported from India - very important to mix with betel leaves and areca nut and limes. The relationship between the evidence of the relationship between Gujarat Indians and Balinese is a village in Singaraja town called Kampung Jarat - short form of Gujarat - with Moslem population up to the present time (Atmadja, 2014).
There are two Moslems’ patterns of settlement, i.e., firstly, they built their own village. For instance, in Buleleng regency there is Kampung Jarat, Kampung Kajanan and Kampung Buleleng – located
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in Singaraja Town and Desa Pegayaman – located in Sukasada District, Buleleng. Although the Moslems have their own villages, their neighbors are Hindus. This condition caused them to continually interact socially with Balinese Hindus. Secondly, the Hindus and the Moslems live in the same village so that their social interactions are more intensive. The villages with mixed population ( Hindus and Moslems) are found mostly in Gerokgak District, Buleleng and Melaya District, Jembarana. This condition caused an interreligious relationship of neighboring type and formal meetings held by the village government officials. Evidence shows that in the administration of the villages often involves a balance between Hindu and Moslem officials.
The Moslem farmers who live in a village work together with Hindus in a farmer’s organization, or subak (Eiseman, 1990: 76; Geertz. 1963). Subak in Bali is based on Hinduism. This is reflected by the fact that every subak in Bali has a temple called Subak Temple. The moslems are not allowed to join the agricultural ritual in Subak Temple. So they build Mushola Subak ( Mushola is a small room for performing moslem religious duties). Subak Temple and Mushola Subak in Subak Panji , for example, were built side by side. Their interactions in subak are very intensive because they are involved in various agricultural problems such as irrigation (Atmadja, 2010).
The intensive social interactions between the Hindus and the Moslems in various social forums may lead to an inter-religion marriage. This condition has caused a kinship tie between the Hindus and the Moslems in Bali, since a marriage does not only unite a man and a woman in a nuclear family, but it also unites the relatives. Hence, every marriage always has an implication, i.e., the extension of kinship tie between the Hindus and the Moslems in Bali.
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This pattern of relationship makes the Hindus and the Moslems coin the terms nyama Slam and nyama Bali or nyama Hindu. The term nyama Slam is used by the Hindus to call the Moslems, while nyama Bali or nyama Hindu by the Moslems to call Hindu Balinese. Nyama or semeton means ‘brother’ or ‘sister’ (Kersten, 1984: 425). According to Haroen (2014) the terms nyama Slam and nyama Bali or nyama Hindu can be viewed as branding to gain something from the other party in communication. The aspect which the Hindus want to gain from the Moslems is closed social distance that leads to friendship. In this way social conflict generated by religious difference can be eliminated.
Friendship between Hindus and Moslems makes them invite each other if they do a ritual, for example marriage. This tie is even stronger among the Moslems who have a kinship tie with Balinese caused by marriage. They very often visit Balinese families. This is very important to strengthen the kinship tie, not only between families but also between religions. A visit to a religious ritual is commonly followed by a feast as a symbol to respect the guests. Meals become a problem, since the Moslems are forbidden by their religion to eat pork, while the Hindus like to eat pork very much. To slaughter a pig is the mark for the conduct of a ritual by the Hindu Balinese. This shows that the meat eating pattern of the Hindus in Bali and that of the Moslems are not only different but dichotomous.
This problem needs to be solved to protect the kinship tie between the Hindus and the Moslems. In this regard, the Balinese developed a strategy to solve the problem, i.e., by preparing food called penyelaman. The characteristic of penyelaman is to use foodstuff other than pork. The foodstuff selected by the villagers, for example, are chicken, egg, tofu, fermented soybean cake, and vegetables to prepare a simple penyelaman. Bali has a traditional food called lawar. For penyelaman they prepare nonpork lawar. In short, in
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whatever form, the characteristic of penyelaman is the use of foodstuff other than pork and is prepared by orang Slam. The people who eat penyelaman are called penyelam.
In reality, some Hindu Balinese do not eat pork, for example, for a health reason. As a consequence, although they do not invite the Moslems to a feast, there is an obligation for them to serve penyelaman. The Hindu Balinese who consume penyelaman are also called penyelam. Penyelaman is usually served in a separate table or in a separate room to make it more comfortable for the penyelam. In general, the host and hostess appoint special people to serve it or there is a notice about which meal contains pork and which meal is penyelaman.
The provision of religious education for the Moslems through madrasah, pesantren ( Islamic schools), religious lecture in a mosque, a religious education group, etc.does not train people who do not only have a deeper understanding of Islam but also a more critical attitude toward the tradition. Geertz (1960) and Maarif (2003:51) call them modern strict adherents of Islam – most of them are young generation with the characteristics such as more emphasis on the return to Koran and traditional stories relating words and deeds of Mohammed, intolerance toward local traditions which do not comply with Islam. This causes them to question whether penyelaman is a kosher food or not. For example, they ask “ when the animal is slaughtered for penyelaman does it follow the procedure which among others say prayers as ordered by Islam?” “ when the food is cooked , is it free from the contamination from pork and/or other stuff which is not allowed by Islam?” In short, penyelaman is questioned by the modernist from rightfulness in relation to the foodstuff, the procedure of preparation and service.
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This criticism poses a problem for the Balinese who want to invite the Moslems to a feast. The Hindu Balinese have a way to overcome this problem, i.e., by adapting penyelaman to conform to Islamic rules. The adaptations are, first, at the time of food preparation the Hindus ask their Moslem neighbors to help. They are given a full responsibility to prepare penyelaman starting from the slaughtering of the animal to the cooking and the serving of the food. Second, the preparation of the meat, for example chicken can be done by not slaughtering the animal but by buying the chicken in the market. The sale of chicken in the market is mostly done by Moslem women thus the chicken is kosher. Third, although pork is important, but for effectiveness many Balinese, especially from the middle class and the high class, order the food from a catering when they do their ritual activities, with the condition that the non-pork food should be kosher from the Islamic teaching. Hence, there is a full penyelaman, all the food served does not contain any pork. The service like this usually is offered as a reception. In a hotel.
Improvement in the quality of religious awareness does not only occur among the Moslems, but also among the Hindus. This is marked by many Hindus who lead a vegetarian life. This also influences the menu in a reception, which is completed with vegetarian food for those who do not consume any meat. They only eat vegetables, fruits, nuts, grains and other nonmeat food. They do this for health and spiritual reasons (Wijaya, 2009:3-7).
The foodstuff for vegetarians is a nonpork food so that the vegetarians can be seen as penyelaman. The Moslems too can eat vegetarian food. The field observation result shows that the middle to high class Balinese increasingly prefer holding a party at a hotel by serving nonpork food, including vegetarian food. This is not only for effectiveness, health and spiritual reasons, but is also associated with modern life style which causes many vegetarian restaurants to
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appear. Every region in Bali has special traditional food, for example, Klungkung is famous for serombotan vegetables. Hence in a party a person can also serves a traditional food to show his or her local identity.
An effort to overcome the constraints of different eating patterns is not only made by the Hindus but also by the Moslems. An observation made in some villages with a mixed population like in Gerokgak district shows that the Moslems who are invited by their Hindu neighbors do not come on the D-day. In this way the host and hostess are allowed not to serve food and to serve drink only, for example, bottled drinks and cakes. This frees Balinese to serve penyelaman. Generally, the Moslems do not question the kosherness of the drinks and cakes offered by the host and hostess since their presence is like a usual visit. Although this way violates the rule, both of them feel comfortable because they understand that presence is more important than absence. Presence is a symbol that shows that both families are still in good terms.
Meaning of Penyelaman
By keeping the explanation above in mind, it is clear that the meat consumption patterns of the Hindus and the Moslems are dichotomous or form an antithesis. The Hindus can eat pork, while the Moslems are not allowed to do so. The appearance of penyelaman can be seen as the result of a dialectics done by Balinese to produce a thesis, i.e., penyelaman which can be accepted by the Hindus and the Moslems. Penyelaman as thesis, not only as food, but as a symbol. It means that penyelaman contains ideal values that are hold by the Hindus and the Moslems in Bali. The value referred to is the tolerance between the Hindus and the Moslems. This idea is associated with the fact that penyelaman does not only reflect that the Hindus recognize the dichotomous meat consumption patterns between them
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and the Moslems, but they also do a special practice in order the difference does not cause a conflict. The preparation of penyelaman enables them to eat together to strengthen their friendship based on the interreligious tolerance between the Hindus and the Moslems. Hence, according to Madung (2017) penyelaman does not only contain passive tolerance, but also active tolerance designed by the Hindus and the Moslems and is approved by the Moslems to strengthen frienship in social life.
Another meaning of penyelaman when it is viewed from Coleman’s idea ( Coleman, 2008) is a social capital investigation in the form of responsibility and expectation or reciprocity. This idea is related to the fact that they are invited to a feast related to a ritual, which always causes obligations for both of them to do the same in response to the invitation. In this way a social capital investment is made in the form of reciprocity. If someone does not invest a social capital, then the Hindus and the Moslems will fail to develop friendship. In this context, the hindrance, that is, the habit of consuming pork by the Hindus needs to be removed in appropriate way through the creation of penyelaman. In this way, the social capital investment works smoothly that the friendship between the Hindus and the Moslems is well maintained.
The value of tolerance and social capital investment contained in penyelaman also refers to the ideology of Balinese community, i.e., Tri Hita Karana. This ideology stresses that the welfare of human life is not only achieved when human beings have a harmonious relationship with God and Nature, but it also needs to have a harmonious relationship among themselves (Atmadja, 2010). Eating practice is the constraint for the Hindus in realizing a harmonious relationship with the Moslems. In this regard, the Hindu Balinese creatively found penyelaman as its solution. Thus, penyelaman is a necessity not only because the Moslems are part of the social
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system in Bali, but it is also required by the Tri Hita Karana ideology. This ideology makes it an obligation for the Hindus to develop a harmonious relationship with anyone in a community.
This pattern is strengthened by the Hindu teaching which stresses the importance of developing a social harmony and peace. This is reflected by the use of the Hindu greating “ Om Shanty, Shanty, Shanty Om “ which means I hope there is peace which is granted by God the Almighty (Atmadja, 2010). Thus as stated by Moreno (1977) human beings in general prefer to interact with others and this gives them peace. Peace is not something given but something one has to strive to get. In this regard, Balinese create penyelaman which is legitimate in terms of Tri Hita Karana and Hinduism. The common practice of penyelaman cannot be separated from the agreement from the Moslems as brothers and sisters of the Hindus. This idea is important since ‘... an important part in human civilization is approval or agreement.” (Moreno, 1977: 83). This is related to penyelaman served by the Hindus to the Moslems in a feast.
Indonesia is a nation that has the ideology of Pancasila. The first principle in Pancasila is Believe in God. This means that the Indonesians have the most gracious and the most compassionate God. This principle grows and develops throughout all the ethnic groups in Indonesia (Latif, 2014). Based on this idea it can be stated that the capability of the Balinese ethnic group to create penyelaman is not only associated with the local Balinese ideiology, i.e., Tri Hita Karana, but it is also a reflection and at the same time something that suppports the coming of Pancasila into force as the ideology of the state. Thus, the position of penyelaman is very important, since it is not only a representation of the local Balinese ideology or Tri Hita Karana, but is also related to the national ideology or Pancasila
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which gives the most emphasis on tolerance among religious groups based on compassion (Latif, 2014).
Penyelaman as Food to Show Respect
Penyelaman is not only used torefer to the nonpork food served to the Moslems, but it is also used to call meat offered to God or the Personafiications of God. The cooked meat including penyelaman or daging Slam which means holy meat like duck meat. The reason why duck meat is called daging Slam is the fact that ducks are special. First, they are wise since they can choose good feed in silt or dirty water. Second, they live on land and water. Third, they live in harmony. In short, the three reasons make duck meat daging Slam so that it can be offered to God. Hindu priests who have the status of holy men are given meat ducks by their disciples when the disciples want to offer them food. This is not only because the holy men have to eat holy food to protect them from impurity, but also because it is the symbol of respect paid by the subordinates or clients to their patrons (Atmadja, 2010).
Based on this explanation, the use of penyelaman in the Balinese community is not only for branding the nonpork food, but also holy meat offered to God. This idea implies that the branding of penyelaman can also be seen from the other side, that is symbolization of respect from the Hindus to the Moslems. This refers to the social ethics in Balinese community, that is, the host and hostess should respect his or her guests – moreover, if the guests are intentionally invited to a ritual. The respect to guests is shown by offering them food. This obligation is constrained by the fact that the Moslems are not allowed to eat pork so that they need special food or penyelaman to overcome it. Thus, penyelaman means food prepared by the Hindus to respect the Moslems as guests for their presence in a feast which is held as part of a Hindu ritual.
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The status of penyelaman as the symbol to show respect by the Hindus to the Moslems can also be traced back to the arrival of Moslems at Bali. Meilink – Roelofsz (2016) shows that the arrival of Moslems to Bali since the 16th century. The purposes were to trade and to spread Islam. They were not on the moslems from Gujarat, India – as evidenced by the presence of Kampung Jarat in Singaraja town, but were also Arabic people from Mecca. This was evidenced with the presence of a shrine or pelinggih in Kerta Negara Gambur Anglayang called pelinggih Ratu Mekah – located in Desa Pakraman Kubutambahan, Buleleng, Bali. This temple is situated in an old harbor called Tebanding (Atmadja, 2010).
Although the Arabs from Mecca are moslems, the Hindu Balinese respected them since they brought fortune, that is, they bought commodities produced by Balinese such as salted fish, and rough cloth (Meilink-Roelofsz,2016). The Balinese thanked them for the fortune given by the Arabs. The fortune that they got was related to the role of a god who directs the Arabs to be willing to trade in Tebanding Harbor. This god was worshiped by the Balinese at Pelinggih Ratu Mekah. Therefore, Pelinggih Ratu Mekah was not of worshiping the Arab merchants from Mecca, but to worship the god that gave the fortune through the medium of the Arab merchants from Mecca. They routinely traded in Tebanding Harbor and to make it easier for them to call the Arabs, they used the term Ratu Mekah - the name of this god is not familiar in Hinduism since the god is the local god of Balinese (Atmadja, 2009).
The arrival of the Gujarat Moslems and the Mecca Arabs – also Malays and Javanese, made it neccessary the presence of Islamic food. In this regard, the Hindu Balinese served nonpork food called penyelaman to cater for the people who were served or the Moslems or Slam, the term used by the Gujarat Indians to call themselves orang Slam. This idea strengthened the meanings of penyelamann , which
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does not only mean nonpork food, but a form of food to show respect to the moslem traders who brought fortune for the Balinese all the time. Through a trade in various harbors. The Moslems migrated to Bali in an increasingly greater number they mingled with Hindu Balinese. This led to the development of penyelaman which began as food to respect moslem traders in an harbor and extended to become a food to respect Moslem guests who attended a feast held by the Balinese in the framework of a Hindu ritual.
Conclusion
Based on the explanations above it can be concluded that the migration of Moslems to Bali has occurred since a long time, i.e., since the i6th century. This has made Bali society a pluralistic society, admitting various religions, such as Hinduism and Islam. The settlement of Moslems can be isolated so that it forms an only Moslem community and can also be mixed with the Hindus in a community. This condition led them to intensive interactions as to make some of them marry each other ( Moslems marrying Hindus or vise versa)
The interaction between the Hindus and the Moslems face some constraints, especially when they hold a feast which is related to a Hindu ritual. This is because of the fact that the Hindus can eat pork, while the Moslems are prohibited to do so. To solve this problem the Hindus developed a nonpork food called penyelaman. The preparation and service of penyelaman is adapted to the social change and the fulfilment of the Islamic rules to guarantee the fit of the food. Penyelaman as a food has a very important position for the relationship between the Hindus and the Moslems since penyelaman is the symbol that contains various meanings, i.e., passive tolerance between the Hindus and the Moslems to strengthen social capital in the social solidarity context, and to represent ideologies, both the
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local Balinese Tri Hita Karana and the national ideology of Pancasila which stresses the importance of tolerance and compassion to realize a harmonious or peaceful society.
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Basyar, M.H at al. 2016. Masyarakat Muslim Bali di Klungkung, Karangasem dan Bangli. Yogyakarta: CALPULIS.
Colleman, J.S. 2008. Foundations of Sosial Theory. Jakarta: Nusa Media.
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Eiseman, Fred B. 1990. Bali: Sekala and Niskala Vol. II: Essays on Society, Tradition, and Craft. Singapore: Periplus Editions.
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Latif, Y. 2014. Mata Air Keteladanan Pancasila dalam Perbuatan. Jakarta Selatan: Mizan.
Maarif, A.S. 2003. Pasang Surut Hubungan Islam dan Negara Pancasila. Yogyakarta: PADMA.
Madung, OG. 2017. Post-Sekularisme, Toleransi, dan Demokrasi. Maumere: Ledalero.
Meilink-Roelofsz, MAP. 2016. Asian Trade and European Influence: In the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630. Depok: Komunitas Bambu.
Maryati, T., LPS Ariyani., NB Atmadja. 2016. Kerukunan Umat Beragama Dalam Jaring Kekuasaan di Desa Melaya, Melaya, Jembrana, Bali (Perspektif Teori Kubus Kekuasaan dan Konstruktivisme Interpretatif). Singaraja: Undiksha.
Mashad, D. 2014. Muslim Bali Mencari Kembali Harmoni yang Hilang. Jakarta Timur: Pustaka Al-Kautsar.
Moreno, F.J. 1985. Between Faith and Reason. Jakarta: CV. Rajawali.
Rush, JR. 2013. Java A Travelers’ Anthology. Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu.
Samuel, H.. 2012. Peter Berger Sebuah Pengantar Ringkas. Jakarta: Kepik.
Suandra, I Md., 1972. Dharma Caruban (Tuntunan Ngebat). Denpasar: CV Kayumas.
Wijaya, A.A.N.P.S. 2009. Makanan Satwik da Kesehatan Konsep Hidup Masa Lalu untuk Solusi Kesehatan dan Pengembangan Spiritual di Jaman Modern. Surabaya: Paramita.
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THE MANIFESTATION OF WOMEN IN GHASHIRAM KOTWAL BY VIJAY TENDULKAR
Ms. Nusrat Chowdhary Assistant Professor Department of English Govt College for Women Udhampur (J&K) Abstract:
A patriarchal social set up based on oppression, not on mutual cooperation, is largely anti-women. Power structure within patriarchal societies have determined gender stereotype. Chastity, devotion, fidelity, patience, tolerance and other such attributes have been sought from women down the ages. But under the egalitarian and democratic, social-economic and political order, gender relation should be on equal footing, and should have an equal access to resource and equal opportunity to exercise control over issue affection their destinies. The present paper would focus on Vijay Tendulkar’s play Ghasiram Kotwal. In this play, Tendulkar has examined the very modern issue of man- woman relationship in a patriarchal society in a historical setting with historically recognizable characters.
Key words: Gender Stereotype, Oppression, Anti-Women, Fidelity, Patriarchal Society.
The manifestation of woman involves the act of disregarding the personal and intellectual abilities and capabilities of a female, and her reduction to an instrument of sexual pleasure in the mind of another person, generally assumed to be a man. Women have often been valued mainly for their physical attributes and their intelligence and competence are not acknowledged by society. Since the dawn of time women have been perceived as objects meant to serve the supposed superior sex- man. While these beliefs are gradually being
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erased from the memory plane of the modernized society, but in some cultures such assumptions are still, more or less, constitute a way of life. While men are free-willed members of society, but women’s free will comes to the second place when compared to the ideals and urges of the patriarchal society that we live in. Images of women are forever synonymous with the idea of sex due to new emphasis on the female body in advertisement campaigns, thought up mostly by males. Our culture trains woman in such a way that their role is not be a human being but to be a mirror to reflect back to man his ideal and fantasy. It seems that woman is at the receiving end of the emotional stick representing the insecurities from her husband. She is not sure of her own choices, so the needs someone else to instruct her and to take control. This is an example of women, in most cases, putting themselves in a situation which involves them being objectified. They are not considered as intelligent human beings with emotions and feelings. Woman is the other in all cultures, not only to man – who should logically be the other in regard to woman—but to woman herself, who has accepted her objectification and plays the role of other as defined by man. Women are objectified to always be seen as the “Other” in society, never the equal. Philosophized about the The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir, the females in society, be it in a relationship or not, are always referred to as the opposite sex. Marriage is an institution which adds to this notion; women simply are not women once they are under wedlock--- they are now seen as wives.
A woman who is presented passively, and who demonstrates no other attributes asides from her physical or sexual being that is objectification. Women portrayed as commodities or inanimate objects do not have feelings and can be treated in any way by the persons owing them.
In our country, man –woman relation, especially in the middle stratum of society, are more or less governed by out molded and clichéd
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patriarchal order. It is only often assumed but also claim that the provision of universal education and
various culture changes have substantially improved the position in India but the reality is otherwise. The educated is still largely relied on man for important decision and function of her life .Still she is considered no more than a wooden block without wishes and desires .Women is chiefly shaped for satisfying male carnal desires and bearing and rearing children. In a male dominated society where paradigms of traditional behavior to be felled by women are strongly entrenched and where male dominated thinking processes phallocentrism abound ,women are marginalized ,oppressed ,subjugated and treated unjustly.
A close study of Tendulkar’s plays reveals the fact that almost all the women characters at the receiving end of male persecution emerge as marginalized ones, and hence they have no gender equity, no chance and choice for self-development and very little control over decisions affecting their lives. Almost all the plays of Tendulkar large set in the contemporary Indian social Milieu. Except Ghashiram Kotwal. Though this play is set in the eighteenth century, it deals with the themes which transcend all climes and times. In the dramatic world of the playwright, a majority of women characters have been portrayed as undergoing harrowing pains and privations at the hands of males under the patriarchal social order. Lalita Gauri in Ghashiram Kotwal and Jyoti in Kanyadaan are striking example of the women who undergo traumatic experiences of life in one way or the other.
The play, Ghashiram Kotwal is almost often considered as a historical play, as it deals with the socio-political situation of the eighteenth century peshwa regime. Most of the critical studies on this play deal with either use of politics in power game or deteriorating socio-moral conditions of the times. None of the critics has looked at
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this play from feminist perspective. In the words of Shanta Gokhale, Ghashiram Kotwal is a political comment about the creation, by political parties in power, of monsters for temporary gains, leading to inequity, brutality and ultimate destruction,” . Vena Noble Dass is of the view that the play acts as “an indictment of any tyrannical order, whose morality has been subverted by a position of authority held without any adequate justification” . Smita Mishra. Observes that Tendulkar, in Ghashiram Kotwal, ”has used, “ female sexuality to represent the loss and destruction caused by the struggle for power” . Though critic has made a good attempt to study the play along with the feminist lines, she has failed to project the real cause of women’s sufferings. Brati Biswas’s observes that in Ghashiram Kotwal, Tendulkar exposes, “the power politics of marginalization and subjugation on the basis of caste, class and gender”. It is obvious the critic has studied the play from Marxian point of view. Though the background of the play is historical, it is no history as such but an aesthetic production of history. Tendulkar himself observe:
This is not a historical play. It is a story, in prose , verse, music and dance set in a historical era. Ghashirams are creations of socio-political forces which know no barriers of time and place. Although based on a historical legend, I have no intention of commentary on the morals, or lack of them, of the Peshwa, Nana Phadnavis or Ghashiram. The moral of this story, if there is any, may be looked for else where.
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The play significantly deals with history with some indispensable distortions so as to make it an artistic creation. Though the play, Ghashiram Kotwal is, “musical based on a historical incident, these has a universal and timeless quality.” The play, set in a historical frame of context, deals with the life of country class and urban middle class in the eighteenth century. However, the playwright makes the play rise above the status of a historical play by raising questions of the politics of power so relevant to the contemporary Indian society and by challenging contemporary values. That is why the play, “indicates a particular social situation which is neither old no new. It is beyond time and space.” The most prominent aspect of the all time relevance of the play is its disturbing capacity to expose the bestiality in human nature. Man has always been proud of his civilization and culture. Thousands of years of human civilization make us believe that ultimately man has risen above the level of animal instincts and has differentiated himself from the rest of the living world, acquiring a position of superiority. It is presumed that the human values such as compassion, fraternity, kindness, love, sacrifice and service have totally nullified the inhuman animal instincts of man. Artists and predominantly writers have nurtured this suppositions through their artistic creations in a way that we being to look at these assumptions are realities.
In this play, Lalita Gauri, a delicate young girl, is not only sandwiched between two males one is the power-hungry father Ghashiram, and the other is power-drunk and luscious ruler, Nana Phadanvis. The father uses his “innocent daughter” to gain power to avenge his humiliation at the hands of Brahmans of Poona. Sandhya Saxena rightly observes “To earn the repute and terror of the Kotwal he turns a perfidious father, surrendering his innocent daughter to the malignant Nana a deed worse than that signed by Faustus”. On the other hand, the kind wields political powers to have the girl in his bedroom to satiate his perverted lust. The play suggests, “how gender
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and power are inevitably linked together in a society driven by the need to dominate and control others.” For them, Gauri is merely a commodity to be bargained and bartered to satisfy their prevented nature and selfish ends. In the game of power, both the males are so drunk, so egocentric, so insensitive, so biased and so morally bankrupt that they do not even think once before outraging her chastity, crushing her will and effacing her individuality.
The marginalized position of the girl is reflect in the way she is given a little space in the form of dialogues in the source of the play .It is always the male character who dominate the action and female character has restricted role in the play, Gauri hardly gets a chance to speak just about two and a half sentence on the stage .
In the particular social order, man thinks that it is birth right to treat woman and her sexuality the way he likes. In the play, the father does not display any hesitation and while mortgaging the chastity of his only daughter for the satisfaction of his political ambition. He literary puts “the child of his heart for sale” (381) to provide food for the old politician. Nana is totally bestowed with Gauri forgetting his, status, age and shame : “lust knowa no age, no shame” (382). for Nana the “ wealth and power” (368) women is an object of sexual gratification only . When Gauri “runs like a frightened deer” (378) and escape from Nana’ rapist paws, he is terribly dismissed and says that the “ pray” has “fled”. His reaction vividly reflects the erotic mood and lusty temperament: “erect young ! tender! We have so many, handled so many, but not like that one. None her equally….. What a bosom!... we are squeeze
like this” (379-80). The way Nana looks at Gauri indicates that for the man of power woman is merely an object of sexual gratification.
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Ashok Kumar Sharma keeps the opinion that the play deals with twin themes of “ sex and violence.” In a patriarchal system, males almost keeps hypocritical character and nature in every quarter of life in respect of women. In this play, Nana, the ruler, can be cited as an excellent example of male hypocrisy. His two faced character is reflected in the contract between his public and private self. On the one hand, he calls Gauri Daughter, but on the other, he desperately tries to make her food of his degraded lust. When the girl runs away, he asks her father. “Can we find her? How beautifully formed! What a lovely figure! Ah! Ho, HO!” (379). Nana’s obsession with power and sex is revealed on the stage when Gauri succeeds in escaping his lusty paws. Nana tells Ghashiram: Our grandeur’s gone, if she’s not had. We tell you, “if she is found, then this Nine Court Nana will conquer Hindustan” (380) . The way he looks at her and thinks about indicates that she is no more than a “thing” (379). B.Wadikar observes that the play Ghashiram Kotwal, exposes “ the close nexus between sexuality and power”
The patriarchal system continues to operate by manipulating and misusing religious rituals and myths. Moreover, religion seems to help patriarchy preserve its status-quo. In Ghashiram Kotwal, the playwright uses religious rituals and images to expose the hideous face of man’s hypocrisy, hollowness and moral bankruptcy. In the temple of Ganpati, during the Puja ceremony. Nana is extremely infatuated with the young girl, Gauri. On the other hand, on the stage we view the worship ceremony of Ganesha going on and nothing is audible to the audience amidst the sound of musical instruments like drum and sehnai. On the other hand, Nana holding a flower in his hand is sitting on a high seat. He does not pay any attention to the “kirtan” which goes on unabated. He is in a lavani state of mind and looks,” unblinkingly at a pretty girl” (377) . Smitten with the bodily charm of
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girl he is trying to pounce on her. Salivating with lust, he asks her to come to him, but she protests. The dialogue between Nana and Gauri reveals how the former interprets the image of Ganesha to have his ways:-
Nana:- ( voice of lust) Child. What do you want? All your dreams, this Nana will fulfil. ( He puts a hand on her shoulder. She pulls back. ) Oh, don’t be shy. This is our house. This is a private hall. No one will see. No one in poona today has the audacity to watch the great Nana Phandnavis! Girl:- He will see. Nana:- He will see? Who? Girls:-( points to Ganpati) He. Nana: That idol of holiness? That all holy Ganpati? The maker of Good? Look, he has two wives. One on this side, one on that side. If you sit on our lap, He won’t say anything about that Nana Ganesha just an idol and nothing else. (378)
When the girl is reluctant and averse to his amorous advances, he tries to convince her by citing the example of Ganpati having two wives. In his opinion, gods can be easily bribed and hence asks Sutradhar ,”to do a special puja. Pray to the Gods. Make a deal with the Gods” (378) . It is conspicuously clear that man uses religion to preserve his audacity and authority. The mean sitting at the helm of affairs use it as device to do away with their indirections. In this play,
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as the curtain rises, a chorus of twelve. Brahmans is seen on the stage invoking Lord Ganesha to bless the play. Ganesha is the remover of all obstacles and traditionally all religious ceremonies, all serious compositions in writing are begun by pious Hindus with an invocation of Ganesha. In the very beginning of the performance, the Sutradhar stops a Brahman going furtively to Bavannakhani. The dubious nexus between power and sexuality is distinctly reflected character of the ruler who of course has supreme and total rights over whatever he surveys and rules. In the patriarchal system, males manipulate power in their own way to have realized their selfish and immoral ends by crushing gamines sensibility and sensitivity. In the context, V.N. Rai comments that “Ghashiram Kotwal presents, “ a picture of the ruthless suppression of feminine consciousness”14 at the hands of males. The way Ghashiram and Nana manipulate their powers signifies that both are patriarchal to the core of their hearts, not only in speech but also in action.
“ Let’s go to the wedding. Peshwa’s chief minister Still young enough to marry!.... got six wives. - that;s not enough! So he’s got a new one .”15 (401) .
The crafty and unscrupulous men manipulate religion to dominate women in the name of sanctity and social security. They have no qualms in using religion too for their own evil purposes. In this play, religious subversion takes place when Nana uses religion for manipulation, Nana, the epitome of evil, in a confrontation scene later with Ghashiram blames God for everything” “ He is the doer- the God up there-I am only an agent” (380) when Ghashiram accuses him of
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killing Gauri. Nana calls himself holy man, “ are you mad, you fool! Ghasya, child These hands have never killed even an insect… in these hands is only the flute of Lord Krishna which made the Goppis forget hunger and thrust”(405) . To justify his hideous act Nana becomes philosophical about the temporality and illusionary nature of this life while cooling down Ghashiram’s anger over Gauris murder:
It is misapprehension to think she is here. IT is illusion. The body will born. It is misapprehension to think that she is no longer here. Death is without meaning Ghasya. Life too is without meaning. No one belongs to any one. No one is anyone’s daughter. No one is any one’s father. In the end one belongs to one self. Life is like a dance of four day’s dream. One must do one’s duty (405) .
The play dramatizes how two males Ghashiram and Nana join hands to use and abuse the innocent girl, Guari. The way her voice is muffled, her choice is disregarded, her chastity is outraged and Her individuality is encroached upon by the duo establishes the fact that women in a male-dominated society is acting upon rather than acting. Obviously, they are neither ashamed nor afraid of religion, law, traditions and other societal and legal injunctions against the
injustice to women. In the patriarchal scheme of things, women do not have a voice and choice but yield to man’s inherent tendencies of oppression and suppression. He exposes such vicious tendencies of the human nature as excessive sexual desire, violence, and lust for power. The patriarchal mindset is protected and preserved with the help of the
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constituents of patriarchy such as power, religion, marriage, family, law and morality. These segments of patriarchy are still operative and contributing to the process of marginalization of women at the bands of the men in the dramatic world of the playwright in particular patriarchal society in general. The playwright highlights the vulnerable condition of middle class Indian women in the second half of twentieth century.“A symbol of secrecy that conceals the various faces of human beings: their hypocrisy, doubt, double standards and tendencies to violence and oppression.”
In this play, the playwright not only exposes the male hypocrisy, especially of priestly class in a patriarchal order but also ridicules them. In Indian society, women outside wedlock are considered to be violators of the societal norms, and her sexuality is not only suspected but also abused. In our country, an unmarried women is considered as pariah, but the same woman is exploited by perverted males in myriad ways. In Ghashram Kotwal, still another paradigm of patriarchy’s inherent ills.
“Night comes Poona Brahamans go To Bavvanakhani They go to the cementry They go to the kirtan” . (366-67)
The play looked at form a feminist perspective makes, undoubtedly, clear that many men in Indian society are not only indifferent to gender-sensitivities, but also unconscious of how much violence is inflicted on women. They have no choice and voice of their own and exist merely as sex symbols in a male-dominated society. “Women in “Ghashram Kotwal” literally and figuratively occupy a
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marginal space.” Women have always been slaves to their male counter parts irrespective of class ,creed background an d time. In other words of Gayle Greene and Kopeplia Kahn:
“ Women are the gift which men exchange between each other …. .they are the gifts not givers.” Tendulkar comes out more seathing in the portrayal of the marginalization or objectification of the weaker sex. In this play, Gauri is denied both choice and voice even in the matters of her personal concerns. There simply could not be any scope of equality for women in the social system where they are traditionally considered commodities. Life takes a complete circle and play conclude where it begins….. a song juxtaposing the godliness and the profanity .now Gulabi comes dancing .Nana’s wives came dancing Nana join dancing
“ All together ,Ganpati dances ,the Ganpati Dances……… Brahmins of Poona bow and rance Now sound the drum beat Now let the dram beat…. Conplete !shri Ganarya”. (66)
The playwright uses irony satire, myth and pathos and employs symbols and images in order to bring out the hollowness of the middle-class moralities. V.N. Rai rightly observes that Tendulkar in “Ghashiram Kotwal” reveals “ the inner human weakness for sensuality and selfishness, violence and wickedness,” in the social system like ours, myths and religious images are not only
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misinterpreted but also manipulated to justify man’s indiscretions and indirections. In the temple in the company of Gauri Nana refers to the idol of Ganpati “ That idol of holiness? That all holy Ganpati? The maker of good? Look, he has two wives. One on this side, one on that side. If you sit on our lap, he won’t say anything” (378) . This version of Nana implies that if man goes for polygamy, it will not be an irreligious and ungodly act on his part. This view of the idol establishes the fact that even religion is used as shield-cover to hide and protect the amorous and polygamous nature of man. The playwright uses the myth of Ganpati to expose the polygamous face of males under patriarchal order. He shows how religion and myths support man and prejudice against woman for the same act. The young women are often tempted by man with the help or sugar-coated words if they resist the amorous advances of man. In an attempt to seduce Gauri, Nana tells her: “Don’t lose any more time. Youth will not come again; the bloom will not last” (378) under patriarchy, woman is considered to be “prey” and man to be “hunter”. This is beautifully exemplified through the roles of Gauri and Nana. “ In Ghashiram Kotwal”, power is defined ‘horizontally’ in terms of individuals against individuals; from humiliation to revenge in assertion to eventual victimization…..”
In this play, Tendulkar has examined the very modern issue of man-woman relationship in a patriarchal society in a historical setting with historically recognizable characters. By contextualizing the narrative in the past and by associating it with a much admired and revered national figure, the playwright has underlined both the dark ambiguity of the cardboard figures of power which the male dominated society holds in high esteem and the dangers of this struggle for power in which gender has always played an important part. Meaning of gender in patriarchy is not just a biological difference but it is division, oppression, inequity and inferiority for women and thus for all those without access to power. The playwright suggests that the social
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construction of gender is effectively a useful tool in the hands of the powerful and will lead inevitably to dehumanization of both the powerful and the powerless alike, the Nana’s and the Ghashiram’s as much as the Gauri’s, and also to be destruction of meaningful human relations and social and moral values.
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Sharma,Ashok Kumar. Ghashiram Kotwal: A Study in the Politics of Power and Revenge : New Delhi: Atlantic, 2007.
Styan, J.L. The Elements of Drama. Cambridge University Press, 1960.
Wadikar, Shailaja B. Vijay Tendulkar A Pioneer Playwright. New Delhi : Atlantic Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd, 2000.
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Dharan, N.S. The Plays of Vijay Tendulkar: New Delhi: Creative Books:1999.
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POLITICS OF VIOLENCE AND QUEST FOR HUMAN SECURITY IN BODOLAND
Pankaj Kumar Sarmah Assistant Professor Department of Political Science Kumar Bhaskar Varma Sanskrit & Ancient Studies University, Nalbari, Assam
Abstract:
Right from the time of independence the North East region of India has been confronting serious problems and most of these problems are centred on growing assertion by various ethnic groups. This ethnic assertion by these various ethnic groups has a very complicated impact on the politics of the region. Infact we can say that the issue of ethnic identity has been a very crucial issue in the socio- politico and economic aspects of the all north eastern states which has led to the emergence of many tribal movements in the region. The state of Assam is also not an exception in this regard. In Assam a number of ethnic groups have launched their movement to protect and preserve the identity and interest of their respective communities. One of such movement is launched by the Bodo people.The present situation in the BTAD has become very complex. The armed conflict in the BTAD has resulted in greater insecurity for the common people. The inter-ethnic clashes between the Bodos and Muslims and between Bodos and Adivasis have resulted in the death and displacement of a large number of people. In BTAD basic norms of human security have been clearly violated. Concerted action to enhance the protection of all civilians living in such conflict prone area is urgently required. Under this background the proposed paper would like to analyze the impact of violence and quest for Human Security in Bodoland.
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Introduction:
Conflict has adverse impact on various aspects of the society and lives of the people. Security and rights of the people are seriously endangered by prolonged period of conflict situation. Both men and women are adversely affected by violent conflict and suffer multiple troubles from all sides. Mapping of Human Security in Northeast India invites multidimensional approaches and strategies due to the complex nature of conflict and insecurity in the region (Mahanta, 2010). In North East India, insurgent movement has created a culture of violence (Dasgupta, 2004). The straight forward conflict between the insurgent groups and the state armed forces have affected the way of life of ordinary people. The nature of conflict in this region is multi- dimensional. Infect, the working of Indian democracy in North-East India needs to be rigorously re-examined in the environment of violence when all forms of oppression whether social, inter-personal, economic, political and institutional are structured. It also reveals unspoken truths in the way how human dignity has been undermined.
India’s North East region is predominantly a tribal inhabited area. A significant number of tribal groups among these have been agitating for a long time to protect their identity, status, culture and rights. The state of Assam is also confronting with a major threat to its integrity ever since post independent period from various autonomy and secessionist movements launched by various groups. One of such major threat has come from the movement launched by the Bodos. The Bodos belong to the Tibeto-Mongoloid ethnic group and are the most numerous among the plains tribes of Assam. Bodos are scattered across the north bank of the Brahmaputra river.
Violence and Quest for Human Security: The Rationale
Assam is arguably a land of multi-cultural, multi-lingual and multi-religious society with varied characters. Quest for space and
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identity and the politics of peace-making is an ongoing phenomenon in the context of Bodoland while analyzing the issue of violence in the disturbed areas of BTAD. The Bodoland Territorial Autonomous District (BTAD) of Assam has also been severely affected by armed conflicts. It has been experiencing armed conflicts between various groups such as between Bodos and Muslims, Bodos and Adivasis and even between two groups of the Bodo people having different sets of ideologies. Because of all these conflicts BTAD is marked by gross human insecurity.
The NE India which has also been witnessing protracted conflicts for last four- five decades (Mahanta, 2010). These types of conflicts are particularly belonging to identity related needs of ethno- religious and ethno-national groups. An identity-group feeling insecure in a polity may construct their identity as a nation and develop a doctrine of separatism. As a result armed conflict becomes the flagrant reality due to ideological mooring. The state of Assam is also being affected by armed conflicts led by various groups. One of such major armed conflict which is posing serious threat to the security of common people is led by Bodo group. The nature of Bodo conflict is multi- dimensional. Infect the Bodo conflict has given rise to an urgent need to rigorously re-examine the nature and working of Indian democracy where violence and oppression of all forms whether social, inter- personal, economic, political and institutional are structures. It also reveals bitter and unspoken truth how human dignity has been undermined.
In 2012 BTAD violence, more than 100 people have been killed and 4,85,921 numbers of people displaced – primarily in the districts of Kokrajhar, Chirang, Baksa, Dhubri and Bongaigaon in western Assam, mostly immigrant Muslims and indigenous Bodos. History shows lots of violent activities in the land of Bodoland experiencing with certain unending chimera. Since 1993 to present day circumstances BTAD has
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been continuously experiencing with saga of violence and wanton killing. But from 2008 onwards, the violence turns itself into a different way with religious dogma and bigotism. In 2008, clashes in the two northern districts of Darrang and Udalguri claimed nearly 70 lives and displaced over two lakh people (Mahanta, 2013). The clashes that held during that period were not entirely considered as Muslim-Bodo conflict. Because the other kinds of homeland discourses among the other indigenous tribes like the Garos, Rabhas and other Assamese- speaking people also evaporated.
But the violent activities in 2012 and 2014 were entirely revolved around between Muslims and Bodos. The sporadic killings from both sides especially in 2012 heightened the saga of violence and the degree of destruction of human mind. Degree of intolerance and the kind of retaliation on the part of both communities inject differences in a spiral manner which has lots of connotations in the process of quest for human security. Security of the ordinary people has been severely undermining in a conflict prone area of different character and BTAD is also not an exception. Historical experiences, colonial administration, land pressure, influx of foreigner, alienation of the indigenous people, implementation of certain partial policies by the successive national and state government etc are basically considered as the prime causes of increasing violence and other forms of deregulation in BTAD. It is also considered to be the main reason for increase numbers of ethnic chauvinism and religious intolerance in the entire Bodoland area.
The alienation of the Bodos and construction of a separate Bodo identity can be attributed to three factors – domination by the Assamese caste Hindus; the unending influx of immigrants from East Bengal and systematic and gradual encroachment of their land and habitats by the non-tribals, primarily Muslim immigrants (Mahanta, 2013). Alienation from their land increases their vulnerability day by day and in the long run encroachment of their land by the outsiders
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make them frustrated again. Koch Rajbanshis and the Adivasis which are the major indigenous groups centering in BTAD also have lots of contradiction with the Bodo imbroglio. But in the present day circumstances, the saga of violence between Bodos and Muslims has raise certain inflicting elements and contradictory issues which needs to be solved by developing the feeling of emotionalism, sense of tolerance and other pro-human initiatives.
Violence Vis-à-vis Insecurity: The Argument
The issue of insecurity of human being due to armed conflict situation can be looked into through the conceptual tool of human security. Dr. Mahbub Ul Haq first drew the global attention to the concept of human security in the United Nations Development Program’s (UNDP) 1994 Human Development Report. The UNDP Human Development Report 1994 defined human security as providing safety for the people from hunger, diseases, oppression and other chronic threats as well as protecting them from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the pattern of daily life (Wikepedia). It has identified seven dimensions of human security – economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security and political security. The Commission on Human Security which was formed in 2000 UN Millennium Summit also defined human security as “protecting fundamental freedoms- freedoms that are the essence of life. It means protecting people from critical (severe) and pervasive (widespread) threats and situation. It means using processes that build on people’s strengths and aspirations. It means creating political, social, environmental, economic, military and cultural systems that together give people the building blocks of survival, livelihood and dignity.” So, human security is a very comprehensive concept which includes security of all individuals and groups against every kind of threats. It emphasizes on security of people in their daily lives. Sanctity of human life is paramount in human security domain. It stresses on
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protection of entire mankind from threats, oppression and violence. Human security does place a premium on human dignity (Acharya, 2001). In short we can say that human security is all about security and welfare of people. It is all about how common people feel safe and free in their daily lives. Human security emphasizes on an environment in which people can lead live with the freedom from want, fear and humiliation.
The agenda of human security can be practiced through two approaches- freedom from fear and freedom from want which are derived from the Atlantic Charter of 1941 (Four Freedom Speech by Roosevelt, 1941). The whole issue of human security in the context of armed conflict can be looked into through the approach of freedom from fear. This approach stresses on protection of common people caught in war zones. It also advocates ending the use of weapons that contributes in making war more deadly and brutal. It emphasizes on safety of people from both violent and non-violent threats. Freedom from fear approach firmly advocates that people should lead life in an environment which is free from fear of any kind. Canada has adopted the freedom from fear approach as an integral part of its foreign policy to fulfill the basic norms of human security paradigm. Canada has adopted the view that human security means freedom from pervasive threats to people’s rights, safety and life. The Canadian Foreign Ministry developed a human security agenda with the following five themes – protection of civilians, peace support operations, governance and accountability, public safety and conflict prevention. This agenda emphasizes building a world where universal humanitarian standards and rule of law effectively protect all people; where those who violate these standard and laws are held accountable; and where global, regional and bilateral institutions are equipped to defend and enforce these standards (Shiro, 2007). Freedom from fear approach to human security emphasizes on protecting individuals from violent conflicts
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while recognizing that these violent threats are strongly associated with poverty, lack of state capacity and other forms of inequities.
Human security of common people has been greatly undermined in societies and states which are affected by armed conflict. Civilians are severely affected and become the prime victims of armed conflict. It is they who are paying the highest price as they suffer disproportionately from the armed conflict. In armed conflict situation innocent civilians lose their lives without any crime of their own. People living in conflict zones have to cope-up with an environment of fear as widespread fear usually accompanies armed conflict. People in conflict prone areas witness fear for life and physical well-being as well as fear to freely exercise religious, cultural, political, economic rights and entitlements. They have to live in an atmosphere of fear, anxiety, suspicion and insecurity. People in conflict areas are seen to be in constant anticipation of trouble, be it threats from the militants or harassment by security forces. They have the fear of being caught in the crossfire. Fear of being targeted or becoming incidental victims of armed violence is very much prevalent among the people living in conflict zones (Banerjee & Muggah, 2002). The insecurity perpetrated by prolonged period of violent conflicts leaves adverse effect on the psychology of the people. They have to often suffer from deep psychological trauma. This psychological trauma causes serious health problems and disturbs mental peace. In conflict situation displacement is triggered by armed violence and ensuing heightened insecurity. Displacement from one’s home and habitat is very pathetic because when the displaced move from their original habitats, they incur immense losses in life sustaining resources including social networks, neighbors and access to common property resources (Hussain & Phanajoubam, 2007). Displacement leads to specific vulnerabilities to women and children. Because of displacement normal social life and productive activities come to a halt. Displacement stigmatizes people as
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camp dwellers. It leads people to a situation where they have lost their land- which was not only their source of income but also their cultural attachment to heritage, lost the status associated with land ownership and become labourers on others’ land and have shifted from being self- sufficient to dependency on government’s welfare assistance (Banerjee & Muggah, 2002). In this way conflict affects the social and financial status of the people living in conflict prone areas. The displaced people who stay at the camps often express their unwillingness to return to their homes for the fear of further violence. Education of child is also affected because of armed conflict. As in conflict zones schools are often converted into relief camps, education of children gets adversely affected. Again a significant numbers of parents in conflict areas hesitate to send their children to school because of insecurity associated with travelling long distances to attend schools. Thus education which is assumed as a key component of human efficiency and human development has been denied to the children of the societies which are prone to armed conflict. Health care facilities are also negatively affected by armed conflicts. Many a time due to the fear of armed groups, medical personnel don’t want to go and do their jobs in conflict prone rural areas. Because of such lack of medical staff common people have to suffer severely. Children, women and girls have to face particular difficulties in such situation. More particularly absence of reproductive health care facilities results in negative consequences for women and their children. In conflict areas people themselves impose restrictions on their mobility due to the fear of violence both from the state security force and armed groups. Restriction on mobility has adverse effect on financial condition of people. Development activities are also severely hampered in such situation as the state invests more and more fund to counter the armed groups.
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Security Scenario in BTAD:
BTAD of Assam is one of the most vulnerable regions of Assam in terms of ethnic armed conflict. There is overwhelming presence of armed/insurgent groups like NDFB, MPTFA, ANNLA, ACMF, BCF etc in this part of Assam. The area has suffered the brunt of ethnic clashes, group clashes, militant’s violence etc. All these have resulted in an environment of violence and fear in this area and that’s why BTAD has been selected as the study area of the research work.
BTAD is composed of 4 districts, such as Kokrajhar, Chirang, Baksa and Udalguri. An extensive field study was conducted in oxiguri No 1 and No2 and Maktai Gaon No 1 and No 2 villages of Gosaigaon Mohkoma under Kokrajhar District. These four villages are selected for the survey as through this research study the nature of human security in armed conflict situation is desired to examine. In the last armed conflict in 2012, these villages were severely got affected. The population of Oxiguri No 1 is a mixture of Bodo, Muslim and Bengali people and Oxiguri No2 is a mixture of Bodo and Muslims while Maktaigaon No 1 is a mixture of Muslim and Adivasis and Maktaigaon No 2 is predominantly a Muslim inhebited area. Eighty( 80) people were interviewed which included both men and women. The reason for choosing both men and women is that it will help in comparative analysis of which section male or female suffer more insecurity due to ethnic armed conflict. From the survey it is found that people feel insecure more and more with the passage of time because of increasing number of armed conflict. There are certain allegations arise against the BTC government regarding the process of rehabilitation.The discriminatory attitudes of the institutional devices are also responsible for the increasing plight of the common people. People see the death of their family member in front of their eyes, someone become widow, somebody lost their child etc. In some villages of Gosaingaon Mohkuma under Kokrajhar district shows devastating fear psychosis among the
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minds of the minority people basically belong to muslims and Santhal community. In Oxiguri No1 and Maktaigaon No 1 Villages of Gosaingaon Mohkuma, a large amount of people belonging to Santhal community used to stay these two villages along with muslims since 1996 conflict in BTAD. They still feel traumatic stress and fear psychosis to go back to their original place due to dominance of majority over minority. In four villages of our field survey, almost 100 houses were burnt among 186 houses along with the other damages in the last conflict in 2012. The issue of security has been seriously undermined by the BTC government. Inspite of being a BSF camp in Maktaingaon No 1 village, the surrounding area has been witnessing a lot of devastating experiences in the last conflict in BTAD. In Ballamguri area of Gosaingaon Mohkuma, approximately 3,500 people won’t get rehabilitated for last ten years. The villagers blamed in front of us that the police personnel joint hand with rebel group. The role of the civil servant also remains questionable as the villagers faced a troublesome period for getting assistance from government through circle office. During the course of field study efforts were also made to gather data through memory reading. The old villagers memorize and explain different pathetic incidence of their family members and others. They explain different incidence related to 1994, 1996, 1998, 2008, 2012 etc in BTAD. How they lost their son, wife, husband, daughter etc in the riots has been explained pathetically. Our research is based on both qualitative and quantitative data and since memory reading is a part of qualitative data, so through this method we can able understand the peculiar psyche of human being and how these fear psychosis can be minimised. Besides violent activities, armed groups sometime demand money and shelter which increases financial burden on the people. In the north part of Gosaingaon Mohkuma, there were large numbers of reserved forest, but the Bodo rebel group cut and damaged these recognized forest villages for making money. During the course of study
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we met some intellectuals of the study area. They memorise and explain some crucial point which needs to keep in mind while analysing the issue of insecurity in BTAD. If we study the demographic composition of Gosaingaon Mohkuma under Kokrajhar district, we find that approximately 80% erosion effected people came from neighbouring Goalpara and Bongaigaon district. Noted academician, Samsul Haque of Gosaingaon College, department of Economics provides concern about Minimum Needs Programme which is not implemented equally in all the areas of BTAD. Government of India provides Rs 100 Crores each year for BTAD, but BTC government fail to do justice with the people in allocating the minimum facilities. Rs 53 Crore has been allocated to Kokrajhar district for the session 2012-13 for the construction of Girls Hostel, but still the process yet to start. Ironically, the paper works shows the completion of half of the work. The institutional devices mainly indulge in corruption and nepotism which causes more vulnerability for the common people. The non- traditional security dimension has been greatly undermined in the BTAD area. The Grid and Grievances model which has been put forwarded by Prof. Nani Gopal Mahanta can be utilize in BTAD for mitigating conflict and tension. The political stakeholders can use these methods in minimizing conflict situation in BTAD. Through the theory of social justice, the socio-economic condition of the people of BTAD can be developed. In our research study, we experimented the plight of the civilian from Freedom From Fear approach. For proper human development, individual can feel freedom from fear of any kind. Prof. Amitabh Acharya expressed Freedom From Fear approach to a great extent while analyzing the issues of Human Security.
This concept of security is related to environmental rights, livelihood rights, rights of the peasantry and forest dwellers over land and resources, rights of the development and conflict induced displaced
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persons for appropriate and adequate resettlement and rehabilitation, gender security, health security, educational security and many others.
Concluding Remarks:
Since, the human society is diverse and the interests are divergent, conflict is bound to occur, but yet it may be possible to reduce its destructive propensity if there is world consensus on peaceful resolution of all conflicts. In the geo-politics of today’s world, even characteristically internal conflicts of a state have not remained within the state and many outside elements have played parts causing complications in resolving such conflicts. The Human Development Report 2005 of the UNDP links violent conflict to low human development countries and provides figures which are reliable. It says that 9 out of 10 lowest human development index(HDI) countries have experienced conflict at some point since 1990.
In micro-level Assam’s security scenario, we can see that Assamese nationalistic aspirations do not coverage with the ethno- nationalistic aspirations of Assam’s smaller tribes. Each ethnic population is an identity group searching for socio-political recognition in the background of their constricted economic space. With the sub- nationalist and ethno-nationalist centrifugal tendencies disturbing the Pan-Indian nationalist fabric, many armed groups appear to have used the climate in an opportunistic way to build-up a terror industry.
After the formation of BTAD, lots of violent conflicts are going on in Bodoland area and the entire state of Assam. The failure of the political stakeholders in articulating an inclusive agenda, which stems from their utter insensitivity to the multicultural differences among various ethnic populations in the state, is to be blamed for the recurring incidence of violence.
Thus, the whole Bodoland is besieged by a number of internal and external problems. The following remedial measures may be
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considered carefully for any long term solution of the ethno-political problems of the region.
(1) Since the different ethnic and social groups of the region are passionately urging for security of life, revolt against age-old bondage and a thirst for rapid development, an answer to this dilemma should be evolved at the earliest possible timeframe.
(2) The process of ethnic cleansing must be stopped and proper security of life and property must be ensured.
(3) Along with the Bodos, the rights of the other people residing in the Bodoland area must be protected.
(4) The institutional devices must not demarcate between majority and minority while providing facilities to the people.
(5) The concern of the initial militant group i.e. NDFB must be taken into account.
(6) To allay the fear of isolation, the government should expand the infrastructure facilities. Moreover, to check inflow of immigrants from the neighbouring countries, fencing work along with the international border should be geared up expediously. By bringing stability to economic infrastructure, the people of Bodoland can be integrated emotionally.
(7) The genuine fear of the indigenous people of being swamped by the continuous influx of immigrants is to be repulsed at any cost.
(8) The loopholes of Bodo Accord must be corrected and better security arrangement should be provided to all section of the people residing within Bodoland area.
Thus, the conclusions drawn and suggestions made are some of the major thrust for bringing normalcy and lasting peace and security in the turbulent BTAD. Timely measures, earnest efforts to infuse
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confidence through mutually honored transaction will perhaps bring radical change in Bodoland.
References:
1. Acharya, A. (Summer, 2001). Human Security: East Versus West. International Journal, Vol. 56, No.3 Canadian International Council. 2. Ahmed, A. N. S.(ed) (2007) National Security Issues : North East India Perspective,New Delhi: Omeo Kumar Das Institute Of Social Change And Development and Akansha Publishing House 3. Banerjee, D., & Muggah, R. (2002). Small Arms and Human Insecurity (Reviewing Participatory Research in South Asia). Regional Centre for Strategic Studies, Colombo. 4. Baruah, Sanjib.(2009) Beyond Counter Insurgency: Breaking the Impasses in North East India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press Publication 5. Baruah, Sanjib .(2005). Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press Publication 6. Baruah, Sanjib.(1999). India Against Itself: Assam And The Politics Of Nationality. New Delhi: Oxford University Press Publication 7. Dasgupta, A. (2004). Civilians and Localisation of Conflict in Assam. Economic and Political Weekly, Oct 2-8. 8. Hussain, M., & Phanjoubam, p. (2007). A Status Report on displacement in Assam and Manipur. Mahanirban Calcutta Research Group, Kolkata. 9. Mahanta, N.G. (2010). State Vis-à-vis Human Security: Accomodating People’s Voice in Conflict-Zones. Journal of OKD Institute of Social Change and Development, Vol VII
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10. Shiro, O. (2007). Freedom From Fear and Want and the Right to live in Peace and Human Security. International Affairs, Institute of International Relations and Area Studies, Japan, Vol. 5 11. The idea and concept was first referred as “four freedom” in Franklin D. Roosevelt annual address to congress on January 6, 1941. He announced that the united states was fighting for the universal freedoms that all people possessed, which were ‘four freedom’: the freedom of speech, freedom of worship, the freedom from want and the freedom from fear 12. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Human_S ecu rity, extracting on 01.08.17, 11.45 pm
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PARTITION OF THE PUNJAB 1947 A.D. – A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Dr. Prakash Chandra Badwaya Associate Professor Department of History P.G. Govt. College for Girls Sector - 11, Chandigarh
INTRODUCTION
"It would be an over - simplification to trace the cause of partition to any one factor. Partition, in fact, resulted from action and reaction for the different factors involved in the history of the period."1
On 15 August, 1947 India got her freedom but unfortunately the country was divided into two parts - India and Pakistan. Worst affected by this division were the provinces of the Punjab and Bengal. Western part of the erstwhile Punjab and Eastern part of Bengal were merged with Pakistan while the Eastern areas of Punjab and Western areas of Bengal remained with India. In the background of Partition of the Punjab, there a long tragic story. Lakhs of Hindus, Sikhs and the Muslims were rendered homeless; Lakhs of them became the victims of communal Frenzy, Thousand of Women were widowed and lakhs of children became orphans. Such a big migration of population was unprecedented in the History of Mankind.2 According to Dr. Ganda Singh, "The upheaval that the country saw immediately and after its division in 1947 is unparalled in its history."3
1 Dr. Satya M. Rai - Partition of the Punjab, 1992, P. 1 2 S.P. Sabharwal - History of the Punjab, 2005, P. 366 3 Dr. Ganda Singh - A Brief Account of the Freedom Movement in Punjab (Patiala : 1990) P. 25
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Causes of the Partition of the Punjab -
(1) Change in the British Attitude - During the period of Great Rising of 1857, the Hindus fought shoulder to shoulder with the Muslims against the British Company, who held the Muslim nobles responsible for fomenting this trouble therefore treated them most severely and brutally. Thereafter a gradual change is seen in the British Policy towards the Muslims. The ground for this change was prepared chiefly by "William Hunter", who pleaded their cause in his book, "The Indian Mussalmans." He contended, "It was expedient now to take them (Muslims) into alliance rather than continue to antagonize them, because he left the Muslims had been badly mauled in 1857 A.D."
(2) Rise of Muslim Communalism - The Muslim League was established in 1906 A.D. From the very beginning Muslims League adopted the policy of opposition towards the congress and Support to the British Govt. It favored separate electorates and by putting forwards the "Two Nation Theory" and thus paved the way for the partition of country. According to the Bipan Chander, "Muslims were asked to choose between mosque and temple. The Quarn was widely used as League's Symbols, and League's fight with the congress was portrayed as a fight between Islam and Kufr (Infidelity)."4
(3) Divide and Rule Policy of the British - The English resorted to different methods to divide the Indian History. So that the Hindus and Muslim could never come together. In 1905 A.D. Lord Curzon declared the partition of Bengal. According to G.N. Singh, "The Partition of Bengal was to drive a wedge between the two communities." The creation of the Muslim League in 1906 A. D. was an attempt to create a strong wedge between the two communities.
4 Bipan Chandra - India's Struggle For Independence 2005, P. 436
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The Minto-Marley Reforms of 1909 A.D. also incorporated the Principles of Communal representation in the Legislatures. In 1919 A.D. separate electorate regions were created for the Muslims and Sikhs. This led to Permanent Cleavage between these two communities.
"The Montagu - Chelmsford Reforms brought in its wake not only countrywide agitation and intensified struggle for freedom by all the sections communities and classes but they also introduced a permanent cleavage between the different communities."5
(4)Two Nation Theory - One basic reason for the Partition of the Punjab was that Muhammad Ali Jinnah and other league leaders vehemently propagated the "Two-nation Theory." Jinnah had declared, "Indian Muslims are not merely a religious community but formed a distinct nation. The Hindus and the Muslims were not could not be welded into a Single Indian nation."6 This opposing attitude paved the way for the Partition of the Punjab.
(5) Simon Commission's Report 1930 A.D. - To review the Act of 1919 A.D., the British Govt. sent the Simon Commission to India in 1927 A.D. This Commission presented its report on 7th June 1930 A.D. The Commission was of the view that the Majority of Muslims in the province could not cease to exist and neither could 30% seats be reserved for the Sikhs in the Punjab Legislative. "Sardar Ujjal Singh " who was of Moderate views said that "The report is from all points of view entirely unacceptable. The sooner it is buried and forgotten the better for India and the British Government."7
(6) Distribution of Population in the Punjab - The Sikhs was in a peculiar position in the Hindu Muslim Conflict. According to
5 Ibid, P. 33 6 A.R. Desai - Social Background of Indian Nationalism 2006 P- 415 - 16 7 Sardar Ujjal Singh, Cited in THE TRIBUNE, July 8, 1930
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census report of 1941 in Punjab the Population of Muslims was 57% Hindus 30% and Sikhs 13%. The Mutual tension between communities excited the Muslims to demand a separate nation. According to Dr. K.L. Tuteja, "The Communal Award was strongly condemned by the Sikhs. It was decried as a scrap of paper which should be buried along with the Nehru and Simon reports.8
(7) Act of 1935 - According to the Act of 1935 A.D., it was decided to establish a Federal and Unionist Government in India. According to Kushwant Sing, "For all practical purposes the Government of India Act of 1935 was still a born child."9
(8) Sikandar - Jinnah Pact 1937 A.D. - On 15th Oct. 1937 A.D. Sikandar-Jinnah Pact was signed. According to it all the members of the Unionist Party would join the Muslim League and would follow the rules and regulations of the Muslim League at the provincial and central level. This change led to decline of Unionist Party and domination of Muslim politics by Muslim League in the Punjab. It paved the way for the creation of Pakistan. According to Dr. S.M. Rai, "The Sikandar - Jinnah Pact caused considerable confusion in the politics of Punjab."10
(9) Muslim League's Demand for Pakistan, 1940 A.D. - On 23rd March 1940 A.D. the Muslim League proposed the formation of an independent Pakistan in Lahore. On this occasion the Muslim League raised the slogan "we will kill and die but we will form Pakistan." The demand for Pakistan acquired the role of a great communal problem. According to Dr. Fauja Singh, "The Pakistan
8 Dr. K.L. Tuteja - "Sikh Politics (Kurukshetra : 1984) P. 157 9 Khushwant Singh - A History of the Sikhs (New Delhi : 1989) P. 234 10 Dr. S.M. Rai - Legislative Politics and the Freedom Movement in the Punjab 1897- 1947 (New Delhi : 1984) P- 242
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Proposed Posed Shattering blow to the Unity of India.11 According to Dr. Satya M. Rai, "The Lahore Resolution was indefinite and vague, but the demand for a separate Islamic State was quite clear."12
(10) The Cripps Mission 1942 A.d. - It was proposed in the "Cripps Proposals" of 1942 that the British Govt. would agree to the draft constitution prepared by the Constituent Assembly on the condition that any province or India State which did not like that would be free to frame its own constitution and that the British Govt. would recognise that constitution. It was a pointed signal towards the partition of the Punjab. According to Kailash Chandra Gulati, "Cripps returned but he left behind a bitter trial of discontent."13
(11) Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 A.D. - Cabinet Mission Plan (Cabinet Commission Consisted of Pethic Lawrence, Strafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander) rejected the demand for Pakistan. It suggested the formation of Constituent Assembly and Interim Govt. This plan made no provision about the safety of the interests of Sikh minority of the Punjab. So this community was not prepared to accept this plan. In a press conference as 6th July 1946 in Calcutta, Pt. Nehru went to the extent of saying that "he would not have any objection to have a separate state in the north of India from where the Sikhs should get the warmth of freedom."14 The League and the congress too accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan.
11 Dr. Fauja Singh - A Brief Account of the Freedom Movement of the Punjab (Patiala : 1972 - 73) P. 73 12 Dr. Satya M. Rai - Partition of Punjabi, P - 16 13 K.C. Gulati, - The Akalis Past and Present (New Delhi : 1977) P. 212 14 Quoted by Satya M. Rai : Punjab Heroic Tradition, P- 168-69
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(12) Direct Action of Muslim League 1946 A.D. - Muslim League decided for the "Direct Action" on 16th August 1946. On that day, several Hindus were killed in Calcutta and thousand injured. In fact Mr. Jinnah was all out to create such a situation to assure the division of the country and the creation of Pakistan. On the other hand, the Punjab was raged by communal riots. According to Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Writers, "The 16th of August 1946 was a black day not only for Calcutta but for the whole of India."15
(13) Declaration of Mr. Atlee - On 22nd Feb. 1947 the British Prime Minister Mr. Atlee declared that by all means the British would offer Indian Govt. to responsible Indians. It was also declared that if there was no tangible solution to the problems, some of the provinces of India be taken out and given over to the provincial Govt. This proposed fomented the demand for a separate state of Pakistan.16
(14) Pakistan Day by the League - In order to worsen the situation of the Muslim League celebrated the "Pakistan Day" on March 27, 1947, there broke out communal riots in Rawalpindi, Multan and Attock in which thousands of Hindus and Sikhs were massacred. The situation was out of control and full of tension. On 8th April 1947 the congress passed the resolution for the partition of the country.
(17) Mountbatten plan of Partition 1947 A.D. - By getting sanction for the Govt. of England, viceroy Mountbatten made the declaration for the partition of India on June 3, 1947. In July 1947 Indian Independence Act was passed by which two independent nations - India and Pakistan were created on 15th August 1947. Thus with the partition of the country, Punjab too was partitioned. There is no precedence of such transfer of population across borders in the world History. According to Dr. Preamvati Ghai, "In a land which,
15 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad - India Wins Freedom (Bombay : 1989) P. 165 16 H.N. Mukherjee - Indian Struggle For Freedom 2005, P - 242
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under Gandhiji had adopted as a national religion the cult of Ahimsa took place murder, looting, burning and raping such as the world has not seen since the days of Halaku Khan and Changez Khan."17
Bibliography
1. Dr. Satya M. Rai - Partition of the Punjab, 1992
2. S.P. Sabharwal - History of the Punjab, 2005
3. Dr. Ganda Singh - A Brief Account of the Freedom Movement in Punjab (Patiala: 1990)
4. Bipan Chandra - India's Struggle for Independence 2005
5. Ibid,
6. A.R. Desai - Social Background of Indian Nationalism 2006
7. Sardar Ujjal Singh, Cited in The Tribune, July 8, 1930
8. Dr. K.L. Tuteja - "Sikh Politics (Kurukshetra : 1984)
9. Khushwant Singh - A History of the Sikhs (New Delhi: 1989)
10. Dr. S.M. Rai - Legislative Politics and the Freedom Movement in the Punjab 1897-1947 (New Delhi: 1984)
11. Dr. Fauja Singh - A Brief Account of the Freedom Movement of the Punjab (Patiala: 1972 - 73) P. 73
12. K.C. Gulati, - The Akalis Past and Present (New Delhi: 1977)
13. Quoted by Satya M. Rai : Punjab Heroic Tradition
14. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad - India Wins Freedom (Bombay: 1989)
15. H.N. Mukherjee - Indian Struggle for Freedom 2005
17 Dr. Premvati Ghai - The Partition of the Punjab (New Delhi : 1986) P - 150
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SOICO-DEMOGRAPHIC ISSUES RELATING TO TRIBAL WOMEN: A STUDY IN VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT OF A.P Rajana Balayya Lecturer in Economics Pithapuram East Godavari District Andhra Pradesh & Research Scholar (Part time) School of Economics, Andhra University, AP
Abstract
Customary laws in their ways of life largely govern the tribal societies. All the tribal communities in Andhra Pradesh are patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. The property is distributed equally among the male members. The girls in the family may get ornaments of mother, few cattle etc. But in case of absence of male child, the daughter gets the property and husband generally lives in the house of his wife. After the death of the husband his wife gets the property and she can enjoy and control over the property if she does not marry another person. She is not entitled to any property of the deceased husband if she marries another person. Regarding the opportunities to the tribal women for public activity, it is not a taboo for a tribal woman to participate in public life and religious activities of the community except during the period of her menstruation. Woman in tribal communities freely participate in all kinds of village and community festivals and fairs. They play dominant role in traditional colorful dances. Irrespective of age, all females spontaneously participate in the ethnic dances, which are performed on festive and marriage occasions. It is significant to note that women in certain tribal groups occupy a very important position as priestesses. It is believed that these priestesses are endowed with supernatural powers to heal the sick or to exorcise the evil spirits. They often act as priestesses to the goddesses in tribal areas. But they neither indulge in witchcraft nor do any harm to individuals. This institution definitely indicates superior status of women in tribal areas
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when compared to the social status enjoyed by their counter parts in rural areas. Key Words: Sub-Plan Area, Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR), Primary Health Centers (PHCs), Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) INTRODUCTION:
The principles of gender equality and protection of women’s rights have been the prime concerns in India from the days of Independence. However, more than half a century of independence and over a century of striving for a better status for women has still not produced results. Data by various agencies clearly indicates that empowerment of women is still a far away for the average Indian women, as they have not gained gender equality in development indices on par with men. The objective of empowerment policy is to empower women as the agents of social change and development. This process creates an enabling environment for women to exercise their rights both within and outside home, as equal partners along with men. In this direction, the state of Andhra Pradesh has initiated a ‘strategy paper on women empowerment’ in 2001. In order to achieve the objective of Swarna Andhra Pradesh and vision 2020, a cabinet sub- committee was set up to give recommendations on the women empowerment policy. The main thrust of the policy is the convergent of all activities pertaining to the women in order to improve education, health, nutrition and overall development of the social and economic indicators for women and children in the state. The objectives of the policy are: reducing gender discrimination, addressing to gender inequalities in education and employment, Increasing gender sensitivity to health, welfare programmes and preventing atrocities against women. Andhra Pradesh is famous for its Anti-arrack Movement in 1990s and recent Self-help group movement. The government has realized the potential of women power and encouraged their participation in developmental programmes. If women are to be empowered, it is necessary to provide an expending network of support services so that they are feed from some of their gender shackles. However, the variables live sex- ratio, literacy rate, work participation rate, health and nutrition and violence against women indicate low
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status of women in Andhra Pradesh. The government of Andhra Pradesh has initiated the political reservation policy of three-tire system. The objective of the policy is the implementation of 33.13 per cent reservation for women in employment by government departments, corporations and public sector undertakings by monitoring of reservations in all departments and institutions by regional deputy director and project director of WD & CW department by inspections, The Government of Andhra Pradesh has announced ‘A Strategy paper on women empowerment ‘during the period January 2001. However it is very shortest period to evaluate the role of state in the process of women’s empowerment. One must appreciate the approaches advanced by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. But still some criticism is there that the wide income disparities and gender gaps stay in the face of all societies. Hence moving towards women’s empowerment is not a technocratic goal it is a political process. It requires a new way of thinking. Methodology and Collection of Data: Multi stage stratified random sampling method is used in the present study. The selection process is carried out in four stages, they are relating to district, mandal, villages and households. The Visakhapatnam district is selected for the study as it is having relatively larger extent of it’s Sub-Plan area. The Paderu mandal is selected for the study because it is one of the tribal mandals that is having a high proportion of ) tribal population and also the ITDA is placed at Paderu. The villages are selected depending upon the higher concentration of specific tribes. With a stratification procedure based on the specific tribe population concentration, the panchayats are classified into three categories. From the Kondh tribe concentrated panchayats two villages are selected from very interior hill areas, and from Porja tribe concentrated panchayats another two villages are selected. The Kondh and Porja tribes are equally proportioned in the Paderu mandal. To examine the inter tribe variations in the socio economic conditions of tribal women 60 households are selected from each tribe from their concentrated selected villages based on the random sampling procedure. The eldest female member was treated as
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a unit of study. In this way we had 120 households who are equally proportioned from Kondh and Porja. Information relating to the selected households is collected while canvassing a pre- designed and structured household schedule in the selected villages during April 1998 to March 1999 in different visits. The secondary data has been obtained from Annual Reports and Action Plans of ITDA Paderu, District hand book of statistics of different years published by the Chief Planning Officer, Visakhapatnam, MRO and MDO offices of Paderu Mandal. STATUS OF WOMEN IN TRIBAL SOCIETY:
Generally, sex ratio, treatment of women, legal status, opportunities for public activity, taboos and traditional beliefs and practices and eligibility for equal share in family and ancestral property are followed as criteria for determination of the status of the women in any society. Researchers to determine the status of women have also used sex ratio. It is generally believed that discriminatory practices against women, as well as a low age at first child birth result into high female mortality leading to a lower female sex ratio. The sex ratio of STs is almost equal in the districts of Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, East and West Godavari. In this study it has been found that there were 927 females per 1000 males in the study area. However, the number of females were low in case of Porja tribe which indicate that women in Porja tribe were better placed as compared with their counterparts of Kondh tribe. Regarding treatment of women in tribal society, most of the tribal communities treat their sons and daughters equally and they rejoice at the birth of female child. The tribal communities usually do not face any problem in up – bringing the female child and for the marriage at later stage. Unlike in the non-tribal caste groups there is no dowry system in the tribal communities and on the contrary the bridegroom has to pay bride price to the parents of the girl. The parents of girl never face any kind of difficulties in getting their daughters married. In all types of marriages including levirate type of marriage the will of women prevails over all other considerations. The woman as daughter – in – law or wife is treated well and she is not put to any kind of hardships. In case of bad treatment by husband or parents – in – law in her family of procreation, she deserts her husband and goes to her parents, divorce is granted by the tribal society at that
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moment the second husband pays compensation to the aggrieved husband. The woman is not put to many restrictions in tribal communities and she is treated well. Customary laws in their ways of life largely govern the tribal societies. All the tribal communities in Andhra Pradesh are patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. The property is distributed equally among the male members. The girls in the family may get ornaments of mother, few cattle etc. But in case of absence of male child, the daughter gets the property and husband generally lives in the house of his wife. After the death of the husband his wife gets the property and she can enjoy and control over the property if she does not marry another person. She is not entitled to any property of the deceased husband if she marries another person. Regarding the opportunities to the tribal women for public activity, it is not a taboo for a tribal woman to participate in public life and religious activities of the community except during the period of her menstruation. Woman in tribal communities freely participate in all kinds of village and community festivals and fairs. They play dominant role in traditional colorful dances. Irrespective of age, all females spontaneously participate in the ethnic dances, which are performed on festive and marriage occasions. It is significant to note that women in certain tribal groups occupy a very important position as priestesses. It is believed that these priestesses are endowed with supernatural powers to heal the sick or to exorcise the evil spirits. They often act as priestesses to the goddesses in tribal areas. But they neither indulge in witchcraft nor do any harm to individuals. This institution definitely indicates superior status of women in tribal areas when compared to the social status enjoyed by their counter parts in rural areas. The tribal women folk suffer a number of disabilities like their counter – parts in rural areas. Generally men impose more restrictions on their women folk. The parents do not take much care of their daughters and they do not send their girls to schools. The Grand woman is not expected to go before elders with chappals and she is not allowed to sit on a cot before her elder brother – in – law and her elder sisters – in – law by names. She should not also call the children of her husband’s elder sister by name. She can only mention them by her
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relationship. Parents settle the marriage of their daughters without least consideration for the preference or wishes of their daughters.
I. DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS: With the help of certain demographic indicators, an attempt has been made to find out the presence or absence of discrimination against women as well as to find out the extent of change that has taken place in the status of women of the younger generation in the tribal economy. The demographic analysis pertaining to age composition of the selected households and their family members indicate that nearly 60 percent are within the working age of 15 to 59 years. The household average family size is 4.49, it is relatively higher among Kondh tribes. Age at marriage has been taken as one of the indicators of the status of women. It was assumed that if women is married at a younger age and there is wide age gap between the husband and the wife, she would have a lower status. In this study, it has been found that the average age at marriage for the respondents came out 13 – 25 and 14 – 17 years in Kondh and Porja tribes respectively. On the other hand, average age of the husbands came out 19.7 years in Kondh tribe and 20.15 years in Porja tribe indicating a big age gap. The results clearly indicate that though the average age at marriage of the respondents of Porja tribe was relatively higher than that of Kondh tribe, nevertheless, the age at marriage of both the tribes was quite low in contrast with the national average. Secondly, the age gap between the husband and the wife has also been quite considerable, indicating the low status of women in both the tribes. In order to find out the extent of change that has taken place with regard to age at marriage of women, the children of the respondents were taken into account and the average age at marriage has been worked out. It has been noticed that the mean age at marriage for daughters of Kondh tribe was 13.05 years and in Porja tribe it was 14.88 years indicating a slight increase in age at marriage. Nevertheless, the age at marriage of the younger generation still remains below the national average indicating that their status has not yet improved with regard to this variable. However, no marked difference has been found in the age at marriage of the younger generation of both the tribes. In addition to work out the mean age at marriage of the daughters of the respondents, the average age at
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marriage of their sons has also been worked out which came to 20 – 44 years of Kondh tribe, and 21 – 32 years in Porja tribe. It is clear from the analysis that so far as the male members of both the generations are concerned, their age at marriage is quite high in contrast with their spouses and the average age at marriage for the husbands and the sons is higher than the national average. It can be concluded that with regard to age at marriage, the women have lower status in both the tribes. Fertility dynamics of the respondents of both the tribes was another indicator taken to gauge the status of women by taking into account the mean age at first child birth. It has been found that the mean age at first child birth for the respondents of Kondh tribe was 15.3 years, whereas it was 16.2 years in case of Porja tribe. Fertility dynamics for the younger generation were also considered to find out the trend of change. The mean age at the time of first child birth for the daughters of the respondents of Kondh tribe has been worked out 16.8 years, whereas in case of Porja tribe it was 17.9 years. The younger generation of Porja tribe had a higher mean age at first child birth in contrast with the younger generation of Kondh tribe, indicating a slight improvement in the status of younger women of Porja tribe. The fertility performance of the respondents has also seen with reference to the number of conceptions, miscarriages and live births. On all the three counts no major difference came out among the respondents of both the tribes. When the fertility performance of the respondents was compared with that of their daughters, it was noted that the daughters had a lower fertility performance than their mothers, which was attributed to their higher mean age at first child birth. As the younger generation (daughters of the respondents) has not completed their fertility span, it is difficult to draw any conclusions. Nevertheless, it was noted that in case of Porja tribe the mean age at first child birth was higher. Even though the mean age at marriage of the younger generation of both the tribes was almost constant, indicating a slight improvement in the status of the younger generation of Porja women. To find out the extent of discrimination against the women, infant and child mortality has been worked out for both the tribes. Some of the studies have indicated that due to discriminatory social
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practices, mortality is higher for the female children as compared to the male children. Data of the present study however, reveal the opposite trend. In both the generations, the male infant and child mortality was higher than that for the females in both the tribes. Further, the percentage of households experiencing infant and child mortality came out higher in Kondh tribe when compared with Porja. The results do not support the common contention that female child mortality is higher as compared with male child because of discriminatory social practices.
II. Health Indicators: In spite of good personal hygienic conditions among tribal female population health conditions found to be deteriorating due to inaccessibility of medical and health facilities. In modern times the traditional herbal medicines are being discouraged by agents of change and allopathic medicines and services are not available to them as these primary health centers are not catering to the needs of tribals living in interior hilly tracts. The maternity mortality rate (MMR) among ST females was around 8 per 1000 as per the studies conducted by TCR & TI in 1992. Among general population MMR during that period was 4 per 1000 live births. The tribal women scantily dressed up because of their grinding poverty. Some of the women belonging to primitive tribal groups do not possess second sari for change. As they are not able to change their clothes regularly they are likely to be afflicted with skin diseases. In view of scarcity of water, the women folk are not able to take bath regularly. They sleep on the floor without any kind of mats during nights, sometimes sharing the space with goats, sheep which are considered as immovable property to them. A few studies have indicated the existence of discriminatory practices with regard to providing health facilities to the women. In the present study, immunization and breast feeding have been taken as two health indicators to find out the presence or absence of sex discrimination. With regard to immunization, no discrimination has been established. More than four – fifths children of the first and second generation were immunized irrespective of sex in both the areas. Further, non – immunization was attributed to ignorance and non – availability of the facilities rather than sex discrimination. Hence, on this variable also we did not find the practice of sex discrimination in the tribal areas. Prior to advent of development in
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tribal areas, tribal societies were having their own herbal pharmacopoeia. The women folk were able to maintain reasonable health standards with administration of herbal medicines and by following certain productive and prohibitive taboos. A woman breast feeds the child till the baby begins to walk and till that time sexual relations are tabooed. Because of this taboo pre – natal and post – natal diseases among women folk are rare and this restriction automatically limits family size. These rigid traditions are disappearing due to contacts with non – tribals. Large scale immigration of non tribals into tribal areas are also resulting in transmission of venereal diseases (VD) to innocent females. As the tribal settlements are found in the interior places, modern medical facilities are not accessible to them and women folk are the worst, sufferers. The healthy delivery system is paralyzed in the study area and most of the posts of doctors, nurses, compounders are vacant. In case doctors and other medical staff are available the required medicines and transport which are essential are not available. The survey conducted about the existing health facilities in the tribal area indicate that the governmental and non-governmental agencies have been trying to intensify health facilities in the tribal areas during last few decades. In spite of the facilities the native doctor and medicine are still playing an important role in the health care of tribal people. Particularly tribals are prone to a variety of diseases due to their unhygienic living conditions. Drinking water is a serious problem in all-tribal villages. They have to drink highly contaminated water, which is with calcium deficiency and causes anemia and other chronic diseases. Many tribals in the hill tracts reported that they use herbs and leaves for their diseases. The Primary Health Centers (PHCs) in these areas are underutilized due to its distance from villages and also due to non-availability of medicines in the centers. However 35 percent of the households in plains reported that they are taking medical care from government PHCs and at their village health camps. The village health camps are creating awareness about the medical care among the tribal. Similarly immunization of children against TB, BCG and small pox diseases is also not following by the tribals in the hill tracts only (22 percent) responded positively for the immunizations care in these areas. The numbers of children vaccinated are found high in plain
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areas (43 percent) rather than hill areas. These ANMs are performing excellent job in immunization of children. ANMs and other medical staff are propagating about medical care for children and pregnant women in the tribal villages. The presented data on adoption of family planning by heads of households show that family planning has not become more popular in the traditional and remote hilly tribal areas. It is noticed that all most all the tribes in plains use some kind of native medicine, which is derived from herbs to control their size of families. However there is good feeling in the tribal plains regarding family planning. There are midwives and health workers posted in the villages who were trained to propagate the family planning programmes in the tribal areas. Though the family planning programmes are intensively campaigned in the tribal areas by ANMs and others, the tribal women are not showing interest in the family planning. It is indicated that though 90 percent of the family members are aware of family planning only 42.77 percent adopted it, 77 per cent of the tribal women in the hill tracts are still using a native medicine as a preventive alternative. The adoption is very limited among the Kondh tribe and marginal farms. However nearly 40 percent of Porja women responded positively to the family planning programmes. There is need to strengthen the public health and family planning system particularly in the remote hill areas. Breast feeding is another health indicator taken for the present study. it was assumed that a female child was likely to be breast fed for a lesser duration than a male child. In the present study, we noticed that on an average the respondents breast fed for 2.2 years for male children whereas their female children were breast fed on an average of 1.8 years in Kondh tribe. In case of Porja tribe, the duration of breast feeding was comparatively low. The respondents on an average breast fed their male children for a period of 1.5 years, whereas their female children were breast fed on an average for 1.1 years. However, in both the tribes either with regard to the respondents themselves or their children, no discrimination based on sex was practiced. Hence, both at the inter – tribe and inter – generation levels, we found that the female children were not discriminated against. Need for Promoting Health Conditions: In view of high incidence of maternity and infant mortality in tribal areas full-fledged maternity hospitals with a minimum 30 beds
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have to be started. The local traditional mid – wives have to be trained in safe delivery practices and they should be provided with safe delivery kits. Basic knowledge of health and hygiene have to be imparted to women through women’s organizations in every village. As the tribal people including children and women suffer with a number of nutritional deficiency diseases, ICDS schemes have to be introduced in interior tribal villages/hamlets. The criteria and rules have to be relaxed in extending special nutrition programme to tribal children, pregnant and lactating mothers. Dietary pattern of all tribal communities has to be properly studied. Local dietary patterns, availability of low cost food items have to be taken into consideration while recommending nutritious diets to tribal clients.
III. INDICATORS RELATING TO EDUCATION AND LITERACY:
The tribal women folk are steeped in ignorance and illiteracy. The ST female literacy rate in Andhra Pradesh is only 8.68 per cent which is less than half when compared to their counter parts at national level (18.19 per cent) as per 1991 census reports. The ST female literacy is less than one third of the ST male literacy in Andhra Pradesh (25.25 per cent) and further it is less than one fourth when compared to general female literacy (32.72 per cent) in Andhra Pradesh as per 1991 census. Differential literacy rate, enrolment for higher education and dropout rates among males and females can help to find out the extent of sex discrimination that prevails in tribal society. The presence and absence of discrimination against women has been worked out in the present study based on education by sex and generation, dropout rate by sex and generation and studies outside the village by sex and generation. Education has been recognized as a key factor in tribal development to bring in economic and social transformation among the tribals. The government of Andhra Pradesh spends approximately 50 percent of tribal sub-plan allocation on education. The ITDAs right from their inception has been putting tremendous effort in the provision and spread of both formal and non-formal education among tribal people. The tribe wise distribution of head of the households literacy level reveal that only 32.22 per cent households are completed primary
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education and 6.11 per cent completed secondary education and 61.67 percent are illiterates. Though majority of the households are illiterate (61.67 percent) in the study area they care more for their word of promises than for any written document. It is clear that majority of the educated heads of households are having education up to primary level only. Further there is considerable variation of the education status of the heads of households among the tribes. However, the literacy level of the heads of households partially reflects the status of tribal women. To have a complete picture, one has to examine the literacy levels among all the members of the family. The details of literacy levels of all members of the family are examined. Out of total family members only 40.72 percent are literates. The adult literacy rates are very low it is 36.12 percent in cease of male and only 6.27 percent in case of women. However the children literacy rates are very encouraging in the tribal areas. In the total male children 70.07 percent are literates and it is very interesting that in the total female children 60.74 percent of female children are literates. The difference between the adult female literacy and female children literacy levels indicate the changing position in the tribal areas. The female literacy level is extremely low, particularly among the adults because in olden days in villages female members are not sent to school, due to social inhabitation. A comparison of sex-wise literacy levels of children population shows a different picture that, the levels of literacy among the children are very high in both males and females. This reflects the change in the attitude of the elders towards education, which is the main reason for increasing the incidence of literacy among children. Increasing educational facilities particularly, separate Ashram schools for girls students scholarships to girl students coupled with favorable change in parental attitude has resulted in more and more girls attending schools. Normally in the villages, the number of dropout children is expected to be more. Hence an attempt is made to study the pattern of dropouts and data are presented in It can be noticed from the table that among school drop-out children the proportion of female children is more than that of male children. Most of the children are dropouts at the primary education level. The number of dropout children is more in the remote hilly tracts rather than in plains. The dropouts are high among the children of Kondh and very less among the children of Porja. The positive change on education is very high in the plain tribes. Generally in the tribal economy children are used as wage earners. But in the
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present period, children are being sent to schools by foregoing the present income for their future prosperity. This is one important change in the value system of tribal economy that parents are accepting the importance of education of their children for the future prosperity of the children by diverting them from the traditional rural activity to other urban activities. Measures to improve the levels of Literacy: Functional literacy has to be carefully formulated to suit changing scenario in tribal areas. The main objective of functional literacy in tribal areas is to empower local tribal communities and traditional institutions. Greater awareness has to be created in tribals about sustainable exploitation of forest resources and economic resources. In spite of comprehensive protective regulation available for the benefit of tribals they are not properly implemented as tribals are ignorant and illiterates. The men and women have to be enlightened about various protective legislation through functional literacy programmes. Adult literacy centers separately for males and females have to be started. At present literacy levels among ST females is extremely low and girls residential schools, Ashram Schools and hostels are only less than one third of boys educational institutions. This gap has to be filled up by establishing more number of residential schools, junior and degree colleges to promote education among girls.
IV. CONCLUSION: Empowerment of tribal woman is sine – quo – non for not only improving their quality of life styles but also improving the conditions of tribal families and tribal villages. Empowerment is the process of revitalization of local people by giving more powers and responsibilities so that they can utilize the opportunities, resources available for sustainable development. This process encompasses social, cultural, financial, skill and knowledge empowerment. Unless all these vital aspects are integrated and greater vision is developed in local female population the sustainable development among tribals cannot ensured. The important areas to be considered for empowerment of tribal women in this study are identified as: functional literacy and education, health and nutrition, development of skills to take up new income generating schemes, social and cultural development and organization of thrift, credit and processing societies.
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The tribal women should be allowed to use their full potential. Through adequate measures of health, education, skills and intellectual as well as moral capabilities, they should be equipped to raise the quality of life. Social change through equal treatment for the girl child and reducing son preference, schooling for both boys and girls, empowering women and providing them new skills for income generation is need of the hour. In view of fast changing scenario in tribal areas, a vision for self reliance and urge for development has to be inculcated in tribal societies especially in the women folk. These vital changes can be accomplished by establishing thrift and credit societies, grain banks, M.F.P. processing societies. Adult literacy centers, DWACRA groups have to be established in the interior tribal areas. These local organizations have to be empowered and guided properly in functioning and maintenance by women liaison workers and community coordinators. References
1. Agarwal. B (1998). Patriarchy and the modernizing state: An introduction; in Bina Agarwal (ed) structures of patriarchy: State Community and house hold in Modernizing Asia, New Delhi, Kalifor women, PP 1-28.
2. Batliwala Srilatha (1997) “ Empowerment women”, Seminor No:449, New Delhi, P-89.
3. GOI (1974) towards equality New Delhi. 4. GOI (1989) National Perspective Plan for women, New Delhi. 5. GOI (1999) 9Th Five Year Plan Document, New Delhi. 6. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2001 ‘Strategy paper on Women’s Empowerment’, Department of Women Development and Child welfare, Hyderabad.
7. Kate young (1993) Planning Development with women: Making a world of Difference, Mac Millian, P-157.
8. Kosambi Meera (1997). “Gender Reform and Competing state controls over women: The Rakhmabai lax (1884 – 1988) in Social Reform, Sexuality and the state (ed by) Patricia Uberoi, New Delhi, Sage Publications.
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9. Marilee Karl (1995) Women and Empowerment: Participation and Decision Making, London, Zed Books Ltd.
10. Maithreyi Krishna Raj (2000) Public Policy: An Agenda, IAWS, Hyderabad.
11. Stephen.F. (1997) Women’s Empowerment: A Process of Restricting Power Relations, “ Search Bulletin, XII PP4-13., Quoted by B.V.Jaya Lakshmi (2001) Women’s Empowerment Published by IDPS, Visakhapatnam.
12. Uma Chakravarthy (1999) whatever happened to the Vedic Dasi? Orientalism, Nationalism and a script for the past “ in KunKum Snayasi and Sudesu vaid (eds) Recasting women, PP.302.
13. Vidyarthi & Roy, “Tribal Culture of India”, concept publishing Company, New Delhi, 1977.
14. Nag, D.S., “Tribal Economy – An Economic study of the Baiga”, Bharatiya Adimajati Sevak Sangh, Kingsway Camp, New Delhi, 1958.
15. Sexena, R.P., “Tribal Economy in Central India”, Calcutta. 16. Ramaiah, P., “Tribal Economy of India”: Light Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1981.
17. Chinnalabudu, “A Socio – Economic Survey of a Multi – tribal Village in Araku Valley Visakhapatnam Districts”, AER Centre, Andhra University, 1970.
18. Gopala Rao, Ram Gopal, N., “Chinnababudu Resurveyed”, AER Centre, Andhra University, 1983.
19. Patnaik, N., “Tribals and their Development” National Institute of Community Development, Hyderabad, 1972.
20. Singh, S.K., “Economics of the Tribals and their Transformation”, New Delhi, 1982.
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APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
Ratheesh R Research Scholar Centre for Studies in Science Technology and Innovation Policy (CSSTIP) School of Social Sciences (SSS) Central University of Gujarat Gandhinagar, Gujarat
Abstract The country India is a combination of rural and urban community within the distinction of social, economic, political and technological dimensions. Technologies are socially constructed (Social Construction of Technology, SCOT) and the society has a vital role in the construction of the technology. The two communities in India, broadly differs in their social nature and at the same time in the application of technology. This paper focuses on the appropriate technology as a catalyst that enables the rural people to develop both socially and economically within the contest of SCOT and ANT. A descriptive study on the basis of the secondary data, from the different sates of the country will be carried out to furnish the paper. Key words: Appropriate Technology, Development, SCOT and ANT
I. INTRODUCTION Socio- economic, cultural and environmental facet broadly influences a country to generate and adopt new technology time to time. Country’s civilization has a vital role in developing technology and applying the same for making their livelihood. Each and every country is unique on the basis of the civilization and civilization provides a basic platform to function a country in their own ways. This is one among the factors that affect the development of a country. Developing an appropriate technology within the socio economic, cultural and environmental aspects leads the country to be self reliant and self sufficient and its open the door to exploit the other technologies developed or shaped in other countries with a different civilization.
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Science, technology and innovation have been practiced broadly in developed, developing and underdeveloped countries. But sill those countries are labeled/ differentiated in the same label. First of all each and every country has to develop their own appropriate technology and then to absorb and adopt the technologies by crossing the boarder. The poor and underprivileged population of the world, especially vast majority in most of the nations of Asia, Africa, America and Caribbean were almost left out from the benefits achieved out of the scientific and technological development. 1 Rather than point out the problems, it should be appreciable if we could move head with an approach – solution oriented. Every country is different on the basis of their civilization (which includes social, economic, political and cultural factors.). Civilization has a vital role in developing and commercializing scientific knowledge and technology respectively. Indian civilization starts from the forest especially on the banks of rivers and this culture of livelihood directly and indirectly flows to the modern world or simply the present world. Adopting the western technology, they are entirely developed in another country shaped within their own civilization may not enhance the poor people (majority of the country, India) for a long period in India. This paper focus on the appropriate technology as a catalyst for development in Indian context. The objectives of the paper are as follows;
1) To make an understanding on Appropriate Technology (AT) 2) To analysis the definition of Appropriate Technology (AT) 3) To understand the need of Appropriate Technology (AT) in India 4) To develop a model and understand Appropriate Technology (AT) within the context of Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) and Actor Network Theory (ANT) – SCOT AT ANT – MODEL The methodology adopted for making the paper is the analysis of secondary data relevant to the concern paper in a descriptive manner.
1 Zachariah, Mathew, Sonyamoorthy, R Science for Social Revolution? Achievements and Dilemmas of a Development Movement, Vistaar Publications. New Delhi. (1994)
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I. APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY – DEFINITION The term 'Appropriate technology' represents a number of things at a time. It can be a technique or a package of techniques or a process and a product. Appropriate technology may be sometimes "considered a social movement and a collection of hardware (such as machines, products, infrastructures-roads, water distribution system) and design alternatives presumably responsive to the ideology of that movement2. Jaquier (1976) has of the view that it goes beyond the hardware and includes such immaterial things as knowledge, know-how, experience, education and organizational forms.3 According to Jequier and Gerard (1993),"Appropriate Technology (AT) is now recognized as the generic term for a wide range of technologies characterized by any one or several of the following features: (i) low investment cost per work place; (ii) low capital investment per unit of output; (iii) organizational simplicity; (iv) high adaptability to a particular social cultural environment, (v) sparing use of natural resources; (vi) low cost of final product or high potential for employment. An analysis on the aforesaid definition reveals that the product or services developed through appropriate technology are adaptable in the contest of social, economic and political environment of a country. Generally it varies country to country. The low capital investment and high organizational simplicity as a characteristics of appropriate provide us a message indirectly the uplift of the informal sector, especially the poor. What are Appropriate Technologies The characteristics of Appropriate technologies are as given below; – are low in capital costs; – use local materials whenever possible: – create jobs, employing local skills and labour;
2 Marylin Carr, The A.T. Reader: Theory and Practice in Appropriate Technology, Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG),1985 3 Jequier, Nicholas (ed.), Appropriate Technology - Problems and Promises. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Ltd. New Delhi (1976)
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– are small enough in scale to be affordable by a small group of farmers; – can be understood, controlled and maintained by villagers – wherever possible without a high level of Western-style education; – can be produced out of a small metal-working shop, if – not in a village itself: – suppose that people can and will work together to collectively bring improvements to their communities, recognizing that in most of the world important decisions are made by groups rather than by individuals: – involve decentralized renewable energy sources. Such as wind power. Solar energy, water power. Methane gas. animal power and pedal-power (such as in that highly efficient machine, the bicycle etc……. – make technology understandable to the people who are using it and thus suggest ideas that could be used in further innovations – are flexible so that they can continue to be used or adapted to fit changing circumstances. – do not involve patents. royalties. import duties, shopping charges, or financial wizards: practical plans can be obtained free or at low cost and no further payment is involved. Categories of Appropriate Technology According to Diwan and Dennis (1979), there are two subcategories of appropriate technology. They are (i) family-employing technology and (ii) community-defined technologies imply different economic, moral, philosophical, political, social, and welfare conditions. Family-employing technologies are consistent with societies, even if they lack communities. Community-defined technologies on the other hand presume the existence and preservation of communities. (i) Family-Employing technologies Family-employing technologies are those that encourage a family and family friends to employ themselves in production of goods and services needed by the larger majority of the poor people. These technologies satisfy at least three criteria from among the following: (i) they improve the productivity of labour without replacing it; (ii) the
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control of operation of these technologies in hands of those who operate it; (iii) they are labour intensive or capital-saving and encourage self reliance and innovation; (iv) they are relatively cheap technologies and easy to operate and maintain so that majority of people can obtain and use them, (v) they must use local resources in terms of inputs and energy. (ii)Community-Defined Technology Community-defined technology is one that is ideal for production at the community level. It presupposes the existence of a community and its preservation as a development objective. A community is judged by at least two criteria, (i) people living together in a geographical area thereby sharing the pleasures and problems of the same natural phenomena; (ii) a genuine human interaction between people in an area on a day to day basis so that people not only know each other, but shares each others grieves, sorrows and rejoicings.
II. RELEVANCE OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA As per the census report 2011, the country India has a population of 121 million approximately. The Indian society has been divided into formal and informal sectors among the rural – urban communities. The fact, majority of the population belong to the informal sectors generally occupied in the rural community. The Indian informal sector is deprived from formal education, opportunities for employment, proper health facilities and so on. These deprived factors characterize the informal sector from a log time. the centralized planning and its implementation of different development projects are a lot in number but the reality is an arguable one. The developing country, India is the victim of unemployment, poverty and health problems still in the twenty first centaury. In rural areas the enrollment ratio of students in the schools are unsatisfactory in number, and achieving universal primary education is far away from the goal. The crude literacy rate in
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Table No. 1 source: Census Report 2011 India by sex during the last six decades reveals the status of literacy (See Table No. 1). There is a need of a system that enhances the informal sector to compete with the so called formal sector in education, employment, improvement in health, gender equality and sustainability. Hence, the importance of appropriate technology is significant in the present context especially for enhancing the informal sector and to ensure their participation in national development. "Appropriate technology is the system of technology, science, and management that is evolved, excepted, and practiced by any cultural community of people, for increasing their vitality, productivity, and sustainability through education, training, and minimal external resources to ensure self-reliance of the community in their own environment” 4
III. GANDHIAN AND NEHRUVIAN MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru had different thoughts on development. Both Gandhian and Nehruvian model of development are essential for the development of a country
4 Marylin Carr, The A.T. Reader: Theory and Practice in Appropriate Technology, Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG),1985
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like India having heterogeneity in nature. According to M K Gandhi, the strength and potentiality of the country in the cultural heritage is the major ingredient of development plan. M K Gandhi was against modern science and technology and industrialization and proposed a model of economic and social planning from the below – Panchayati systems. The Swadeshi Movement explicit the idea of the usage of indigenous and local resource and technique in the productive process of the society. Jawaharlal Nehru had a vision on development that entirely different from the father of the nation. Nehru adopted western system of production and consumption, moreover centralized planning for the development of the country. The model for development adopted by Nehru was criticized by Shiva. According to Shiva (1997), criticizes the Nehruvian model, "This has led to the destruction of nature and people's economy and massive uprooting of people to clear the way for development. It has caused the replacement of self-sufficient individuals and communities and made them dependent in a centralized state for their everyday needs produced usefully through a resource-hungry production system."5 It is difficult to determine which model is capable for the developing country like India and both of them are complementary. Practically, we can consider the Gandhian model first for exploring the indigenous knowledge within the context of appropriate technology. Once the informal sector is enhanced by acquire basis knowledge then it is the time for diffusing and absorbing the scientific and technological knowledge within the science technology and innovation policy. Appropriate technology emphasis more importance on the indigenous knowledge by exploiting the natural resources optimally in a sustainable manner. Hence in shortly, appropriate technology provides a platform creating basic knowledge and then to scientific knowledge, which leads to the diffusion and absorption of technology in the informal sector. Appropriate Technology enhance the rural population (within the context of this paper), scientifically to adopt the technology shaped out of the Indian civilization.
5 Marylin Carr, The A.T. Reader: Theory and Practice in Appropriate Technology, Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG),1985
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IV. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY (SCOT) AND APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY (AT) Interpreting the technology in the sociological aspects leads to Social Construction of Technology. Trevor J Pinch and Wiebe E Bijker (1984) proposed Social Construction of Technology6. According to Social Construction of Technology, Bijker argued that technology is being developed by the society with respect to the need and requirement of different social groups. The social groups have a vital role in molding technology on the basis of their needs problems (may be social, economical, cultural and safety so on.). Different social groups have their interpretation/problems regarding an artifact that is the first stage interpretative flexibility. Once flexibility of interpretation over it is the next stage, scientific controversies and then lead to the last stage closure mechanism. A new artifact/product developed after the third stage, closure mechanism and then stabilization. Advanced technologies and the technologies adopted from the western civilization are not a medium for the enhancement of the poor people in India unless they are became self reliant. The technology should be need based and solution oriented to the particular social groups. Appropriate technologies are those technologies, developed within the social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects a country.
V. ACTOR NETWORK THEORY (ANT) AND APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY(AT) Actor Network Theory (ANT) evolved from the work of Michel Callow and Bruno Labour at the Cole des Mines in Paris. According to them the progressive constitution of a network in which both human and non human actors assume identities according to prevailing strategies of interaction. Actors identities and qualities are defined during negotiations between representatives of human and non human actants. In ANT, translation is the most important negotiations, which undergoes the following process; problematization, interassmant and enrollment. An Actor Network is a heterogeneous network with actors and actants. Translation is the process consists of three major stages. They are;
6 Pinch, Trevor &Bijker, Wiebe “The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts: Or How the Sociology of Science and Technology Might Benefit Each Others’ Social Studies of Science, 1984
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1. Problematization: it is the first moment of translation during which a focal actor defines identities and interests of others that they are consistent with its own interests and establish an obligatory passage point (OPP), thus “rendering itself indispensable”7 Obligatory passage point renders to a situation that has to occur in order for all the actors to satisfy the interests that have been attributed to them by the focal actor. OPP is defined by the focal actor through which the other actors pass through and the focal actor becomes indispensable.
2. Interassment: This is the second moment of translation which involves a process of convincing others to accept definition of focal actor.
3. Enrollment: The acceptance of the interests of the actors, defined by the focal actors – enrollment. Inscription is the process of creating technical artifacts that would ensure the protection of an actor’s interest (Latour, 1992) and Irreversibility is the degree to which it is subsequently impossible to return to a point where alternative possibilities exist (Walsham, 1997) A number of professionals and scientists, interdisciplinary encompass the heterogeneous network of Actor Network Theory. They include scientists, environmentalists, researchers, sociologists, economist, politician, technologists, planners, labours, teachers, students and so on as human actants and documents, literature, natural energy, land, vegetative, indigenous knowledge, ICT and so on as non human actants. The problematization of the actants occur on the basis of the social economic, cultural and environmental aspects of the technology. And the focal actor depends upon the nature of the technology to be developed.
VI. A MODEL OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY(SCOT), APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY(AT) AND ACTOR NETWORK THEORY (ANT) – SCOT AT ANT MODEL The tentative model explicit the combination of Social Construction of Technology and Actor Network Theory in Appropriate Technology. The model is the clubbing of SCOT and ANT in the production of Appropriate Technology in a cyclic way. No technology
7 Callon, Michal “The Sociology of an Actor Network: The Case of Electric Vehicle.” Mac Millan Press 1986
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has been a permanent solution for a particular problem. The society is dynamic and its nature changes each and every moment. Hence, following the same technology for a long time without understanding the needs and requirements of the community and society timely will leads to negative development. The unique civilization encoded by cultural hegemony of each and every country has a pervasive role in creating a technology. The ultimate aim of every technology is the socio economic development of the country. The heterogeneity within the country forces for appropriate technology that suitable for the each and every individual, group and community in a society. The model has been developed in such a way, providing importance to the society (heterogeneous in nature), that is the pervasive role of the society in crating a technology within the social cultural, economic and environmental aspects of the particular society. The model starts from the existing technology or the so called technology that the common man/women not able to equipped with. The interpretative flexibility with the context of social, economic, cultural and environment has been analyzed in the SCOT perspective and after the scientific controversies reach to the closure mechanism. Once the first part of the model finishes it is the application of Actor Network Theory producing the new technology or even an artifact appropriately (Appropriate Technology, See Figure No.1). Both the human and non human actants undergo the ANT process in the different stages like Problematization, Interessmant and enrolment. The outcome of the process is the socio economic development through creating basic and scientific knowledge and commercialization of the same or the technology. The development of an appropriate technology enhances the community technologically for the time being and then the enable the community to think about the next technology, the appropriate technology. The model starts with the thoughts of M K Gandhi, Gandhian model of development which leads to the society self reliant and self sufficient through the creation of basic and scientific knowledge and then to adoption of technology from the outside of the boarder of the country. The philosophy of SCOT AT ANT Model is to check the appropriateness of the technology within the dynamic nature of the society. For example, if a society applying a particular technology
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within the social groups there is a chance of updating or replacing the technology in accordance with the changing nature of the society. Karl Popper argued that the theory is for falsification, and once the falsification happens there the birth of a new theory and the process go on. In same manner there is no a single technology universally for the solution of a problem. When a technology falsified by the social groups via interpretive flexibility in SCOT and the problematization in the Actor Network Theory, there comes a new technology. This makes the SCOT AT ANT Model to operate in a cyclic manner.
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SCOT AT ANT MODEL
Employment generation, women empowerment, Less Migration, Improvement in health, pollution control, OUTPUT Less waste production etc….. OUTCOME
Teachers Artisans SOCIO Students Environmentalists ECONOMIC Farmers DEVELOPMENT Labours Natural Energy Machines Meteorologists Human Non Human Problematization ICT ANT Researchers Vegetative Interessmant Technologists Appropriate technology Land Economist Enrolment Philosophers Organization Social Scientists IK Documents Planners Advanced technology
Economic Problems Social Problems Environmental Problems
SCOT Education Low income Pollution Illiteracy Unemployment Waste Gender discrimination Labour Migration Climate change Health Figure No.1 CONCLUSION The appropriateness of a technology lies in the optimum utilization of local resources, including human resources, by gainfully employing them. It also needs to be a technology that can facilitate decentralization, help human beings to realize their self, facilitate the sustainability of ecological system, strike a chord of harmony with nature and so forth.
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There cannot be a universal appropriate technology for a particular problem, since the socio-cultural base and the resource endowment in different parts of the globe vary significantly. REFERENCE • Marylin Carr, The A.T. Reader: Theory and Practice in Appropriate Technology, Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG),1985. • Hoda, M. M. "India's Experience and the Gandhian Tradition," in: Jequier, Nicolas (ed.), Appropriate Technology - Problems and Promises, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Ltd. New Delhi.1976. • Jequir, Nocholas (ed), Appropriate Technology – Problems and Promises, Oxford &IBH Publishing Co.Ltd New Delhi, 1976. • Hsien-Ta Wang, Tsui Mu,Li-Kung Chen, Tzy-Mei Lin, Chih-Ming Chiang,Hsin-Neng Hsieh, Yu-Ting Cheng and Ben-Chang Shia, Journal of Data Science 1(2003), 337-360. • Raphael Kaplinsky, Schumacher meets Schumpeter: Appropriate technology below the radar, Development Policy and Practice, The Open University, Chambers Building, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, United Kingdom. • Anil Date, UNDERSTANDING APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay. • Reddy A.K.N. Appropriate Technology. Proceedings of the A.T.Workshop organised by Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology for Teachers from Engineering Colleges, 1978. • PETER F. DRUCKER, India and 'Appropriate' Technology, Wall Street Journal (1889-Current file); Mar 1, 1979; ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Wall Street Journal • Anuja Utz and Carl Dahlman, Promoting Inclusive Innovation, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank, 2007 • Pinch, Trevor &Bijker, Wiebe “The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts: Or How the Sociology of Science and Technology Might Benefit Each Others’ Social Studies of Science, 1984 • Zachariah, Mathew, Sonyamoorthy, R Science for Social Revolution? Achievements and Dilemmas of a Development Movement, Vistaar Publications. New Delhi. 1994.
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A CORPORATE INITIATIVE IN THE REHABILITATION OF HEARING AND SPEECH IMPAIRED- A CASE STUDY
Sangeetha Nair A Dr Sonny Jose Research Scholar Head Department of Social Work Department of Social Work Loyola College of Social Sciences Loyola College of Social Sciences Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Abstract
Inclusive policies and practices at workplace have a substantial role to play in creating an ambienceforpositive employment for persons with disabilities. Inclusion is more than creating accessible workspaces and adaptive structures for the differently abled employees. Inclusion should begin with the very recruitment process, and should continue to reflect in training, professional advancement opportunities, policies and practices. As a corporate social responsibility initiative, Yum! Restaurant India Pvt. Ltd has set up KFC Franchises, where persons with hearing and speech impairment are employed. The study aims toi) identify and document the inclusive practices adopted by Yum!Restaurant India Pvt. Ltd. in their KFC outlets ii) assess the challenges and learnings in employing hearing and speech impaired iii) assess the impact of an inclusive work environment on the individuals with disability as perceived by their family members.
Key words :Corporate Social Responsibility, Employment, Differently Able, Speech and Hearing Impaired, Impairment, Inclusive Culture, Inclusive Practices, Persons with Disabilities (PWD), Rehabilitation, Specially-able
Introduction
The society’s attitude towards persons with disabilities is gradually changing. The focus is now shifting from their disabilities to
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their residual capacities. Efforts are being done to tap their abilities and use them for gainful employment. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (The United Nations, 2006) recognizes ‘the right of persons with disabilities to work, on equal basis with others.’This includes the right to ‘the opportunity to gain a living by work freely chosen or accepted in a labour market and work environment that is open, inclusive and accessible to persons with disabilities’ (Art. 27). The public sector, and as of lately the private sector, has introduced inclusive policies to accommodate persons with disabilities in workplace in agreement with the disability rights. The operationalisation of such policies in the work context warrantsan exploration.
An employer can introduce a wide range of policies to promote diversity and inclusion in workplace. However, creating an inclusive working environment is more than just providing equal opportunities to everyone. It is moreabout recognizing their difference and letting them know that their contributions are valued and appreciated. Inclusion in the workplace refers to policies and practices that seek to reduce barriers to full participation in the workplace, ensuring that all employees have equal access to and enjoyment of all organizational policies and practices (Roberson, 2006). This broader focus on inclusion and greater access to policies and practices of the organization would necessarily benefit persons with disabilities.
Burton Blatt Institute at Syracuse University has been undertaking a number of projects to study corporate practices and employment of persons with disabilities. They have produced a body of literature highlighting different aspects of these issues. The present paper attempts to analyse the inclusive practices adopted by Yum! Restaurant India Pvt. Ltd. based on the core values and key elements of inclusive culture identified by the BBI researchers.
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Inclusive Culture
An inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse people into a workplace or industry.The positive outcomes of an inclusive culture are reduced expenses corresponding to reduced employee turn-over, increased commitment to work, improved productivity, improved employee health and well-being, reduced perception of discrimination and inequality, increased collaboration and co-operation between coworkers; and between employment and management.The core values (BBI Brief,2011) of an inclusive culture are:
representation – ensuring the presence of persons with disabilities across a range of employee roles and leadership positions receptivity – respecting the diverse working styles, and tailoring positions to the strengths and abilities of employees fairness – equitableaccess to resources, opportunities, network and decision making processes
An inclusive working culture benefits both the employer and the employees in the long run. If the individual employee contribution is valued, they are more likely to add value in return, by demonstrating commitment and excellence in their work, resulting in increased productivity and reduced disputes at work.
The BBI Brief(2011) identifies the key elements of an inclusive culture as:
Universal Design: Universal design means the design of products, environments,programmes and services to be usable by all people, to the greatest extentpossible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design. “Universaldesign” shall not exclude assistive devices for particular groups of personswith disabilities where this is needed (UNCPWD, 2006).
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Recruitment, Training and Advancement opportunities: Effective recruitment of people with disabilities involves two components:
a) accessible outreach and hiring practices essentially ensures that outreach materials, networking and recruitment sites, communications, and application processes all include a range of accessible options, or, are free of barriers that might inhibit people with disabilities from participating. Training recruiters in effective outreach to prospective employees who have disabilities is also critical.
b) Targeted recruitment involves specific outreach to people with disabilities. Although making general recruitment practices more accessible goes a long way towards building an inclusive hiring structure, individual employers are not always able to overcome existing barriers. For instance,externally sponsored job fairs when recruiting need not be accessible.Targeted recruitment, on the other hand enables employers to reach and interview qualified people with disabilities.
Critical components (BBI Brief, 2011) of targeted recruitment include:
advertising open positions to professional networks, community networks, and affinity groups for people with disabilities networking with student professional associations and on-campus career and disability services offices to invite applications from new graduates with disabilities, and to advertise accessible hiring practices (actively) collaborating with vocational rehabilitation resources and other relevant state agencies to provide detailed descriptions of open positions and to solicit applications from qualified people with disabilities
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developing and publicizing materials describing existing accommodations and resources for workers with disabilities demonstrating the willingness to provide reasonable accommodations and the commitment to accessible employment options
Careful planning and active participation in targeted recruitment practices are generally beneficial in developing an inclusive culture. In addition, employers who engage in targeted recruitment are likely to be more competitive and successful in attracting particularly skilled employees with disabilities, as compared to employers whose commitment to accessibility and targeted outreach is relatively weak.
Training plays a dual role in the creation of inclusive workplace culture. The first consideration involves the degree to which people with disabilities have equitable access to training sites, events, and materials. The second concern relates to the training of managers, particularly middle management, and human resources staff, to work effectively with all people, including those with disabilities.
Advancement opportunities:Targeted career advancement policies geared towards employees with disabilities are another benchmark of an inclusive workplace culture.
Work place accommodations and accessibility: policy and practice
Policies specifically addressing employees with disabilities may fall into a few areas, including areas such as non-discrimination and workers compensation. Policies related to reasonable accommodation of disabilities are particularly central in ensuring that any existing barriers to the workplace are remedied effectively and fairly. There are many components of a successful disability accommodation policy, related to both its content, and its implementation. The following are
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elements of and strategies for manifesting a successful and inclusive disability accommodations policy:
policies and easily available information on procedures for requesting accommodation minimal, transparent and written bureaucratic process involved in advancing an accommodation request
identification of point people involved in evaluating accommodations requests and transparent process of negotiating accommodations requests
internal company disability advocate to assist employer and employees in negotiating accommodation
centralized company funding source, so that any costs of accommodations are not borne by smaller units or divisions; this latter consideration decreases the likelihood of resentment by peers or middle managers, as it is perceived as being a drain on collective resources, within a unit
When assessing the effectiveness of existing accommodations policies, employee experiences can be described based on two measures of equity. The first indicator of an inclusive workplace culture involves the perception of “procedural justice”, meaning that employees with disabilities perceive the accommodations policy as fair, accessible and functional. The practice of negotiating and providing accommodations constitutes an additional opportunity for generating an experience of “interactional justice,” which refers to the experience of feeling that the managers or colleagues with whom one is interacting are behaving fairly, reasonably and respectfully.
Rehabilitation of hearing and speech impaired
The legal definition of “hearing disability” in India as per the Persons with Disability Act (PWD), 1995 is – “a hearing disabled
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person is one who has the hearing loss of 60decibels or more in the better ear for conversational range of frequencies”. Rehabilitation of hearing impaired persons remains a great challenge even today. Employers are often found skeptical in employing hearing impaired persons, owing to their inability to communicate with such persons.
It has been observed that among the people with disabilities, people with locomotor and visual impairments often succeed in presenting their cases to the authorities and in availing suitable accommodations. This is not the case with persons with hearing and speech impairment, who literally fail to communicate their needs. As a result they remain the most disadvantaged among the persons with disability.
Significance of the study
The study attempts to document some of the best practices and strategies for inclusion of hearing and speech impaired persons adopted by Yum! Restaurant India Pvt. Ltd in their KFC outlets throughout India. They have 18 special KFC stores in India where hearing and speech impaired persons account for about 65% of the total staff. Communication is very important in restaurant business, where employees must interact with customers on a daily basis. In such a scenario, the strategies adopted for inclusion of hearing and speech impaired persons in KFC outlets requires special mention.
Methodology
The present study is a qualitative inquiry into the inclusive policies and practices adopted by Yum! Restaurant India Pvt. Ltd in their KFC outlets. The qualitative data were collected through (a) in- depth interviews with managers and supervisors (b) in-depth interviews with families of employees with disability (c) collection and analysis of available administrative data on disability accommodations
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and disability-specific initiatives (d) interview with Rehabilitation officer, VRC, Thiruvananthapuram
General Objective of the study
To study the inclusiveculture in workplace
Specific Objectives of the study
1) To identify and document the inclusive practices at work place adopted by the employers, their challenges and learnings.
2) To study the impact of inclusive practices on persons with hearing and speech impairment from the perspective of the individual with disability and his/her family.
Case presentation, Analysis and Findings
Inclusive practices adopted by Yum!
As a corporate social responsibility initiative, Yum! Restaurant India Pvt. Ltd introduced the concept of special KFC outlets, where persons with hearing and speech impairment were employed. Yum! Restaurant India have 20 Special KFC outlets in India, where 65% staff are specially abled. This means that around 364 hearing and speech impaired persons are employed altogether in thevarious Yum! RestaurantKFC outlets throughout India.
An inclusive culture is beyond a token presence of people with disabilities in workplace. As mentioned earlier, the inclusive culture involves several core values (BBI Brief, 2011) which include representation, receptivity and fairness.The author applied the same framework of BBI Core Values to the practices in the Yum! KFC Restaurants. Below given is a summary of the observations.
On analyzing the nature of employment of persons with disabilities in KFC outlets, it was observed that they were placed
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“across a range of employee roles and leadership positions,” which was clearly an indicator of representation(Disability Case Study Research Consortium, 2008). The employees were recruited as team members and then after undergoing regular on-the-job training and evaluation sessions, they were promoted to the level of shift managers and then further as assistant restaurant managers. As per national statistics available, there were 364 team members, 6 shift managers and 1 assistant restaurant manager(at KFC Hyderabad Central) recruitedfrom among the specially-abled employees.
All the employees irrespective of their disability were given “equitable access to all resources, opportunities, networks and decision making processes,” an indicator of fairness(Riley, 2006). All the employees came under the purview of the labour laws of the state and were given Employees State Insurance and Provident Fund benefits. Other benefits included free accommodation and free working lunch to all the employees. The specially-able invariably were also a part of briefing sessions and staff meetings, where decisions were conveyed and day-to-day issues were resolved. The specially-able were provided free access to the HR personnel, for the purpose of grievance redressal.The same was achieved by publicizing the HR personnel’s phone number and e-mail address.
Several privileges were accorded to the specially-able in their working environment, highlighting the receptivity towards the special needs of the hearing and speech impaired employees. To begin with, the specially-abled employees were provided badges with ‘point your order’ written on them. They were also given order taking pads with the menu and price list, enabling them to take orders conveniently without any confusion. The point of sale (PoS)machine also had a customer interface, so that the customers could easily check their orders without the order being repeated by the employee. As against the usual practice of calling out the orders to the assembling/packing section, the orders
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were made to flash on a screen provided in the assembling section. The electronic machines used for frying and cooking purposes usually come with a beep sound to indicate the completion of the cooking/ frying processes. In order to adapt them for the hearing impaired employees, they were fitted with lights, which flashed along with the beep sound. The work space and structures were so inclusive that any customer would hardly notice that the persons dealing with them were actually hearing and speech impaired.
Targeted recruitment allowed specific outreach to people with disabilities having desirable qualifications. This was achieved through active collaboration with Vocational Rehabilitation Centre, Thiruvananthapuram. The recruitment process facilitated by VRC, helped the employers to identify suitable candidates. According to the Rehabilitation Officer, VRC:“…individualized pre-recruitment counselling and job orientation was mandatory for hearing and speech impaired persons, due to their specific perception levels. Communicating effectively about the job requirements was essential for job retention”.
Training is another important requirement to create an inclusive work environment. The employees undergo regular on-the-job training and continuous evaluation. They were rotated and trained in all the operational departments, viz. cash department, supply base and kitchen for a period of one month each. The training period was kept flexible and is extended as per the requirements of the persons with disability. The Yum! Restaurant India Pvt. Ltd. has also taken up the training of managers to work effectively with the persons with hearing and speech impairment. They also undergo training in sign language assisted by Vocational Rehabilitation Centre. Daily interaction with hearing and speech impaired has also helped them develop a working sign language between them, which was different from the traditional sign language. Any possibility of condescension towards the employees
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with disabilities was found to be absent among the managerial staff. They regarded the specially–abled employees as capable as any other employee. They were given as many responsibilities as that given to other employees. Workers with disabilities are comparatively more likely to be treated as if they are children, or less capable of autonomy, based on supposedly benevolent or protective assumptions (BBI Brief, 2011). In companies demonstrating inclusive practices, paternalistic treatment is less likely to be reported, with corresponding positive impact for job satisfaction (Disability Case Study Research Consortium, 2008). A reduced turnover among the specially-abled employees, as was observed at Yum!could be regarded as an indicator of a higher degree of job satisfaction.
Opportunities for professional advancement are given to all the employees without any discrimination. All the employees were required to undergo a series of evaluations, and only once they score well in these evaluations, were they certified and placed in the Internal Development Programme (IDP) Team. The IDP candidates are given self- study modules on management accompanied by tutoring, which facilitates them in career advancement. At present, there are 8 specially-abled employees in the IDP Team spread over the entire country.
Impact on the specially-abled employees
The impact of the inclusive work environment on the hearing and speech impaired employees was assessed by interviewing the employees’ family members. The family members who interacted with them on a day-to-day basis were able to comment on the changes they perceived in the overall personality of their relativewho was specially- able. All the families who participated in the study,reportedof a positive change in the personality of the persons after getting employed at Yum! They have stopped demonstrating any signs of rage towards their
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parents and were generally much happier than before. They were proud to become a productive member of the family. They have learned to take responsibilities and their autonomy has increased. Also, they have become more systematic in their daily life. All the families expressed their wish that they could stick on to this employment opportunity. They found the pay adequate and working environment conducive. This employment opportunity came as a great relief to most of the families, as they were finding it difficult to find a suitable employment for the persons with hearing and speech impairment. The families also agreed on the fact that the managers were open to any sort of complaints and took special effort in resolving them. The only occasional complaint was about the work load which the specially-abled employees were finding it hard to handle.
A majority of the specially-able employees were freshersin theaverageage of 22 years. Their minimum educational qualification was 10+2 pass. Three of the employees holding a diploma in Engineering viewed this employment opportunity as an interim arrangement until they get a better placement suiting their educational qualification. There was no report of any kind of discrimination. They also agreed to the fact that the adaptations in the work environment allowed them to take up all the jobsat par with other employees. The special KFC in Thiruvananthapuram was set up during August 2013. Of the 28 employees who joined, 24 of them were still on the job. On interviewing the employees who left the job, two of them cited distance of travel as the reason for leaving job and the other two could not handle the work load and nature of work.
Employing hearing and speech impaired: Challenges and Learnings
The challenges of employing hearing and speech impaired, as experienced by the management, were elicited through interviewing the managerial staff at the restaurant. They found working with hearing
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and speech impaired persons difficult initially, due to the problems in communication. Though they got trained in sign language, getting used to it took some time. But soon enough, they were able to evolve a mode of communication (a working sign language far simpler than the traditional one) together, that the initial problems no longer existed.
The managers opined that the hearing and speech impaired employees were physically and intellectually proficient as any other employee in the restaurant, as both of them went through the same entrance tests for getting selected for the job. They felt that the specially-abled employees expected more “sympathy” from the employers, something which they are accustomed to. They expected that they would become self-aware of these intrinsic capacitiesof theirs and soon overcome any suchneed. The management sought to achieve this by creating a non-discriminating working atmosphere, where all the employees were treated equally in terms of access to resources as well as given responsibilities.
The management also vouched that the employee turnover was less after employing specially-abled employees. This was good for the management as it saved much cost of recruitment and training. The managers were aware of the role played by the employees’ families in their job retention. The managers kept a good relationship with the employees’ families and were open to discussing any problems they faced with respect to the employment.
Conclusion
Creating an inclusive working environment is more than just providing equal opportunities to everyone. It is more about appreciatingindividual difference and affirming their contributions. The inclusive practices adopted by Yum! Restaurant India Pvt. Ltd is worth emulating by others in the restaurant industry and other corporates. Yum! was able to engage the employees at par with the
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‘normal’ employees devoid of any special privilege. Inclusiveness was also observed in the attitude of the employers towards disability and persons with disability.An absence of any air of condescension from the managerswent a long way in helping the specially-able employees develop autonomy.Operationalisation of the core values and the key elements of inclusive culture resulted in mutual respect, equality and a positive recognition of difference among the co-workers, and between the employees and management, thus creating a positive employment experience.
References
BBI Brief.(2011).Available at http:// bbi.syr.edu/projects/Demand_Side_Models/ …/ a_inclusive_culture.pdf.
Disability Case Study Research Consortium.(2008). Conducting and benchmarking inclusive employment policies, practices and culture.Available at www.dol.gov /odep research/ Corporate Culture Final Report.pdf.
Riley, C. (2006). Disability and Business: Best practices and strategies for inclusion. USA: University Press of New England.
Roberson, Q. M. (2006). Disentangling the meanings of diversity and inclusion in organizations. 31, 212-236.
The Persons with Disabilities ( Equal Opportunities, Protection of rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995. Ministry of Law, Justice and Company Affairs (1996): (No.1 of 1996), New Delhi; The Gazette of India, pg.24. Available at http:// social justice.nic.in/pwdact 1995.php.
The United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Treaty Series, 2515, 3.
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ROLE OF COOPERATIVE BANKS IN MICRO FINANCE
Mrs.S.Naga Padma Dr.G.Syamala Rao Lecturer Associate Professor Department of Commerce Department of Management Studies Dr.Lankapalli Bullayya College G.V.P College for Degree & P.G. Visakhapatnam Courses Visakhapatnam
Abstract In a country like India where 70 percent of its population lives in rural area and 60 percent depend on agriculture (according to the World Bank reports), micro-finance can play a vital role in providing financial services to the poor and low income individuals. Microfinance is the form of a broad range of financial services such as deposits, loans, payment services, money transfers, insurance, savings, micro-credit etc. to the poor and low income individuals. Formal cooperatives for meeting the credit needs of the rural households including the poor are now is existence for more than a century in India. Linking cooperatives with the phenomenon of microfinance is the latest among a series of policy measures taken in making co-operatives Pro-poor and equitable in their working. Cooperatives continue to serve this mission today- often by providing affordable and equitable access to microfinance services. It would be worthwhile examining this issue of linkage in a greater detail as the problem of indebtedness with its attendant implications for inclusion and poverty alleviation continues to be a major challenge. The present paper makes an attempt to identify and discuss relevant issues and emerging experiences and outcomes of adoption of microfinance by credit cooperatives in India.
Keywords: Micro Finance, Micro Finance Institution, Cooperative Banks
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INTRODUCTION Micro-finance refers to small savings, credit, insurance and remittance services extended to socially and economically disadvantaged segments of society. In the Indian context terms like “small and marginal farmers”, “rural artisans” and “economically weaker sections” have been used to broadly define micro-finance customers. The recent Task Force on Micro Finance has defined it as “provision of thrift, credit and other financial services and products of very small amounts to the poor in rural, semi urban or urban areas, for enabling them to raise their income levels and improve living standards”. At present, a large part of micro finance activity is confined to credit only. Women constitute a vast majority of users of micro-credit and savings services. The co-operative credit structure was to be the main pillar of this drive. The cooperatives have the widest network. It covers every state and union territory in India. 51.4% of farmer households are financially excluded from both formal/ informal sources. Overall, 73% of farmer households have no access to formal sources of credit. In such a situation cooperative banks operate as a balancing center. At present there are several cooperative banks which are performing multipurpose functions of financial, administrative, supervisory and development in nature of expansion and development of cooperative credit system.
HISTORY OF COOPERATIVE BANKS AND MICRO FINANCE History of Cooperative Banks The historical roots of the Cooperative Movement in the world days back to days of misery and distress in Europe faced by common people who had little or no access to credit to fund their basic needs, in uncertain times. The idea spread when the continent was faced with economic turmoil which led large populations to live at subsistence level without any economic security. People were forced to poverty and
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deprivation. It was the idea of Hermann Schulze (1808-83) and Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (1818-88) which took shape as cooperative banks of today across the world. They started to promote the idea of easy availability of credit to small businesses and for the poor segment of society. It was similar to the many microfinance institutions which have become highly popular in developing economies of today. Although this helped spread cooperative movement in many parts of Europe, in British Isles it is came from the revivalist Christian movement and found high acceptance with working class and lower middle class segments of society.
Cooperative Banks in India
Indian Cooperative Banks was also born out of distress prevalent in Indian society. The Cooperative Credit Societies Act, 1904 led to the formation of Cooperative Credit Societies in both rural and urban areas. The act was based on recommendations of Sir Frederick Nicholson (1899) and Sir Edward Law (1901). Their ideas in turn were based on the pattern of Raiffeisen and Schulze respectively. The Cooperative Societies Act of 1912 further gave recognition to the formation of non-credit societies and the central cooperative organizations. In independent India, with the onset of planning, the cooperative organizations gained more leverage and role with the continued governmental support. Machlagan Committee in 1915 highlighted the deficiencies of in cooperative societies which seeped-in due to lack of proper education to the masses. He also laid down the importance of Central Assistance by the Government to support the movement. The Royal Commission on Agriculture 1928 enumerated the importance of education of members/staff for effective implementation of cooperative movement. Saraiya Committee, in 1945, further recommended the setting up of a Cooperative Training College in every state and a Cooperative Training Institute of Advanced Study and
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Research at the Central level. Central Committee for Cooperative Training in 1953, constituted by RBI for establishing Regional Training Centres. Rural Credit Survey Committee, 1954 was the first committee formed till then to first delve into the problems of rural credit and other financial issues of rural society. The cooperative movement and banking structures soon spread and resonated with the unexpressed needs of the rural Indian and small scale businesses. Since, 1950s, they have come a long way to support and provide assistance in activities like credit, banking, production, processing, distribution/marketing, housing, warehousing, irrigation, transport, textiles, dairy, sugar etc. to households. Extent of Cooperative Banking Indian cooperative structures are one of the largest such networks in the world with more than 200 million members. It has about 67% penetration in villages and fund 46% of the total rural credit
History of Micro finance Over the past centuries, practical visionaries, from the Franciscan monks who founded the community oriented pawnshops of the 15th century to the founders of the European credit union movement in the 19th century (such as Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen) and the founders of the microcredit movement in the 1970s (such as Muhammad Yunus and Whittaker), have tested practices and built institutions designed to bring the kinds of opportunities and risk management tools that financial services can provide to the doorsteps of poor people. While the success of the Grameen Bank (which now serves over 7 million poor Bangladeshi women) has inspired the world, it has proved difficult to replicate this success. In nations with lower population densities, meeting the operating costs of a retail branch by serving nearby customers has proven considerably more challenging. Hans Dieter Seibel, board member of the European Microfinance Platform, is in favour of the group model. This particular model (used
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by many Microfinance institutions) makes financial sense, he says, because it reduces transaction costs. The history of micro financing can be traced back as far as the middle of the 1800s, when the theorist Lysander Spooner was writing about the benefits of small credits to entrepreneurs and farmers as a way of getting the people out of poverty. The modern use of the expression "micro financing" has roots in the 1970s when organizations, such as Grameen Bank of Bangladesh with the microfinance pioneer Muhammad Yunus, were starting and shaping the modern industry of micro financing.
Micro Finance in India There were different forms of credit and lending activities existed in different parts of the world since the development of human history. It includes individual money lending, various types of chitties, and also kurikkalyanam in Malabar area of Kerala. All these indigenous financial institutions were conducted microfinance activities in one way or the other. Loans to poor people by banks have many limitations including lack of security and high operating cost and so Microfinance was developed as an alternative to provide loans to poor people with the goal of creating financial inclusion and equality. Muhammad Yunus a Nobel Prize winner introduced the concept of Microfinance in Bangladesh in the form of the "Grameen Bank". NABARD took this idea and started concept of Micro Finance in India.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Dr.Dilip Ambarkhane (2013) studied the Cooperative banks have very good network in rural areas; moreover mostly they have local staff. Therefore they are better placed to understand and solve the problem of rural poverty by strengthening the supply side of Financial Inclusion. They can effectively contribute to improvement in demand side also. Cooperative due to their good rural network, local staff is in a
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better position to understand rural situation and the problems of poverty.
Nikhil (2011) considered that the micro credit movement has proved that it is possible to deliver financial services to poor people living in rural areas at a large scale, free from any reliance on subsidies.
Emerlson Moses (2011) has studied that micro finance has emerged as a catalyst of rural development, especially in the overpopulated country like India.
S.Sarumathi1 and Dr. K. Mohan (2011) found that microfinance brought psychological and social empowerment than economic empowerment. Impact of micro finance is appreciable in bringing confidence, courage, skill development and empowerment.
Tenaw, S. and K.Z. Islam, 2009. Rural financial services and effects of micro finance on agricultural productivity and on poverty. University of Helsinki Department of Economics and Management
Rewa Misra (2008), observed that the Andhra Pradesh (AP) occupies a special place in India’s microfinance map for this and many other reasons. With nearly 25% of the country’s 2.2 million SHGs (every village now has SHGs in AP) and most of its successful microfinance institutions, AP has long been considered the hub of a number of institutional and product innovations in microfinance.
Sen (2006) assessing the governance of cooperatives as microfinance institutions argued that cooperatives have generally played a significant role in providing financial services to the poor.
ROLE OF COOPERATIVE BANKS IN MICRO FINANCE
Banking business has done wonders for the world economy. The simple looking method of accepting money deposits from savers and then lending the same money to borrowers, banking activity
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encourages the flow of money to productive use and investments. This in turn allows the economy to grow. The government of India started the cooperative movement of India in 1904. Then the government therefore decided to develop the cooperatives as the institutional agency to tackle the problem of rural indebtedness. In such a situation cooperative banks operate as a balancing center. At present there are several cooperative banks which are performing multipurpose functions of financial, administrative, supervisory and development in nature of expansion and development of cooperative credit system. Cooperative rural credit and banking sector is a century old institutional set-up now covering almost every village in India numbering about seven hundred thousand. In number, there are about 160 thousand cooperative credit and banking outlets in rural India mostly serving the agricultural sector providing credit for seasonal operations and for investments besides retailing farm inputs like seeds, fertilizers and pesticides.
Microfinance, we mean here essentially the system and practice of providing financial services to poor / women through the use of group and other such innovative methods by formal agencies. Microfinance in this sense is identified with various group based savings and credit programmes as evolved prominently since 1970s in countries like Bangladesh, and replicated subsequently elsewhere including India. In the India context, microfinance has emerged broadly in two forms or models viz., the Self help Group (SHG)-Bank Linkage programme (SBLP) promoted by National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) since 1992, and the Non-government organisations (NGO)/Microfinance Institutions (MFI)model. Under SBLP, the formal financial institutions including cooperatives provide savings and credit services to the poor through informal groups linked to them. Cooperatives, we mean primarily here the credit cooperatives established under the conventional cooperative legislations passed
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initially by the British government in 1904/12 and repealed by various provincial acts after independence. Broadly such cooperatives fall under two structures – the three-tier short term credit structure and the single/two-tier long term structure. The co-operative also include those established under new parallel liberal acts enacted by some of the states since 1990s. Our focus here will be largely on the credit cooperatives established under the conventional acts, though the role of new generation cooperatives is not fully ignored. Between the two models of microfinance, again though the primary focus is on capturing the experience of cooperatives under SBLP model, the role of NGO/MFI model is explored to the extent relevant in understanding linkage under discussion. Poor we mean here the socially and economically backward and disadvantaged groups. Economically, these groups may include the landless laborers, tenants, share croppers, small and marginal farmers, artisans and other petty producers. Socially such groups may include households from scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, most backward castes and minorities. There may be lot of overlaps between these social and economic groups. The microfinance movement has mainly targeted such category of households in its coverage. 37 state cooperative banks and 318 District Central cooperative banks are participated in the SHG programme.
MICRO FINANCE AND PRIMARY AGRICULTURAL CREDIT SOCIETIES
Government’s initiative to reduce poverty by improving access to financial services to poor started since independence. India‘s overwhelming majority of poor is located in rural areas and this motivated the government to give special attention to rural credit. Following the report of All India Rural Credit Survey in mid 1950’s, the
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State took crucial steps in reviewing Cooperative structure including the partnership of State in cooperatives.
In terms of retail outlets, the primary agricultural credit societies are ahead of the banks and the MFIs at the all-India level, although they are observed to have greater concentration in Maharashtra and Kerala and very low in North Eastern states. The total membership of primary agricultural credit societies is reported to be 120 million. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes who generally comprise the weaker sections of the society constitute as high as 36-37 per cent or approximately 45 million primary agricultural credit societies members. This is much higher membership than under the SHG-Bank linkage programme, (currently around 30 million BPL households) and under the MFIs/LABs/NBFCs (around 1 million clients). The co-operative structure is ideally based on the norm of “one man, one vote”. The concept of ‘social collateral’ or ‘group guarantee’ holds good for the co-operatives as well. Group guarantee is supposed to be stronger in the cooperatives (of the poor) and the guiding principle is “one for all and all for one”. What appears to work best under this model is greater proximity of primary agricultural credit societies to its members and the credit history that determines the credit worthiness of the clients.
The share of primary agricultural credit societies in rural credit stood at 18.6 per cent in 1991. A good deal of this amount went to people who were relatively better-off, that is, to those who do not belong to the BPL households. Notwithstanding this, a certain percentage of the credit flow has benefited the poor. According to the World Bank NCAER study (2004) the share of PACS in micro-credit is as high as 30 per cent or one-third. PACS are, as such, yet another important channel of micro finance.
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Linking cooperatives with the phenomenon of microfinance is the latest among a series of policy measures taken in making co- operatives pro-poor and equitable in their working. The rapid growth of microfinance, not withstanding the several controversies, has evoked responses from varied quarters to tap its potential for overcoming the challenges involved in reaching out to the poor. Just as women empowerment groups have evinced interest in adopting the group based microfinance for espousing their cause, a section of the cooperative advocates have argued for internalizing microfinance methods by cooperatives to become more inclusive. Essentially, there have been two major factors making the cooperatives a success around the world viz., the extent of government control and the degree of member participation. The level of preparedness of the cooperatives to face competition also acts as a determinant in today’s globalised environment. There have been concentrated efforts by the Government of India and the Reserve Bank of India to promote financial inclusion as an important national objective. The present day India is the leading incubator of more than 6 lakh cooperative societies constituting of 250 members, covering more than 97% villages and 71% rural households. These cooperatives in totality advance agricultural credit amounting to over 70 thousand crore rupees and making up around 19% of the institutional agricultural credit in the country. Generally, it is acknowledged that cooperative endeavours have immense potential for poverty reduction, social integration and employment generation and at present over one billion people are involved in this movement on a global level. Hence cooperative philosophy is known as a brilliant example of a value based business model.
As microfinance in a sense is a proven method, it is hoped that cooperatives can finally succeed in the effort they have been making since their emergence to reach out to the poor. The other advantage is
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the business prospects involved in promoting microfinance. Microfinance methods have the potential to help cooperatives scale-up their coverage of poor relatively easily bringing good dividends in terms of increased lending and assured recovery. Microfinance groups can also bring savings to cooperatives as savings are an essential component of microfinance methods. Moreover, microfinance interventions have the relative freedom to charge viable interest rates on lending reducing the element of cross subsidization for the poor.
THE SELF-HELP-GROUPS - COOPERATIVE BANK LINKAGE
The Self-Help-Groups (SHGs) have emerged as a tier below Primary Agricultural Cooperative Societies (PACs). SHGS comprise a group of 15-20 members. The groups begin by savings that are placed in a common fund. In a way, SHGs are co-operative (credit) societies linked to a commercial bank rather than an apex cooperative bank. Once linked to the bank, the SHGs may access a given multiple of the pooled savings for disbursement to its members. Group selects its leader and the selection of the leader is based on rotation. The SHGs have, moreover, emerged as a form of “social collateral” substituting other forms of ‘collateral security’ insisted upon by banks. High repayment rate has encouraged banks to institutionalize SHGs under the bank-SHG linkage model. According to RBI Guidelines, banks may give loans to SHGs up to Rs. 5 lakh without insisting on ‘collateral safety’.
There are some States where the overall SHG linkage is poor, when related to the total population, or to the rural poor population, but where the co-operative banks have performed relatively well. Thus the performance of the DCCBs varies widely from state to state. In order to target promotional resources effectively, it is necessary to search for common features in those DCCBs which are particularly
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successful in SHG linkage. Banks, which share these features but are not successful, may be the strongest candidates for assistance to improve their position.
The Bank-SHG linkage programme is noticed to have encouraged thrift/savings amongst the poor. According to one case study, while the average savings per member more than tripled, the increase in assets was about 72 per cent. Out of 234 BPL households surveyed under the particular case study, 122 households were noticed to have been lifted up from poverty. There was, furthermore, a decline in the share of consumption and crop loans and increase in loan for allied agricultural activities and small businesses.
This is the essential rationale advocated by NABARD in its promotion of SBLP with the formal financial institutions including the cooperatives. As highlighted earlier, in the Indian context microfinance has emerged under two broad models- SBLP and NGO/MFI models. The issue of linkage of cooperatives with microfinance is relevant in both the context. While in the case of SBLP the linkage is seen between SHGs and the conventional cooperatives, in the NGO/MFI model it is seen in working of cooperatives including the newer types established under the self-reliant cooperative legislations as MFIs. While apparently the linkage between the cooperatives and microfinance is a promising proposition but there are several challenges and contradictions for a successful outcome. Though microfinance methods have certain strengths, they go with several limitations both at the conceptual and operational level. It is argued that microfinance is more a neo-liberal phenomenon and may not be suited for welfarist goals of inclusion, poverty alleviation and empowerment. Being neo-liberal as such it may bring several pitfalls in the efforts to achieve the above goals. There are several studies which have now captured in this regard the limitation of microfinance from diverse experiences. Though the
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advocates of cooperatives have claimed that cooperatives credit unions have been the original micro financial institutions and harbingers of microfinance, even then the cooperatives cannot escape from the major constraints and limitations faced by the newer methods of microfinance including as a neo-liberal phenomenon. At the same time, given that cooperatives have a potential to bring balance in addressing various developmental contradictions, they may in fact be able to alleviate the negative consequences of microfinance for their members.
KISAN CREDIT AND COOPERATIVE BANK
Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme introduced in August 1998 has emerged as an innovative credit delivery mechanism to meet the production credit requirements of the farmers in a timely and hassle free manner. The scheme was revised in 2012 to room for ATM enabled debit card, operation through wider delivery channels including branch/cheque facility / Business Correspondents/ATM (debit card)/mobile handsets, inbuilt cost escalation for assessing limits, wider coverage under crop loans, moving towards accessing online land record and creation of charge etc. Kisan Credit Card is a pioneering credit delivery innovation for providing adequate and timely credit to farmers under single window. It is a flexible and simplified procedure, adopting whole farm approach, including short-term, medium-term and long- term credit needs of borrowers for agriculture and allied activities and a reasonable component for consumption need. It is to be implemented by Commercial Banks , RRBs , and Cooperatives. The implementing banks have the discretion to adopt the scheme to suit institution/location specific requirements.
Kisan Credit Cards can be issued for short term credit requirements for cultivation of crops, post harvest expenses, produce marketing loan, consumption requirements of farmerhousehold, working capital for maintenance of farm assets and activities allied to agriculture, like
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dairy animals, inland fishery etc. and investment credit requirement for agriculture and allied activities like pump sets, sprayers, dairy animals etc. The Kisan Credit Cards are issued by Cooperative banks, RRBs and Commercial banks.The number of KCCs issued by Co- operative banks increased from .16 million in 1998-1999 to 2.96 million in 2011-12 almost 18.5 times, KCCs issued by RRBs increased from .01 million to 1.99 million and of Commercial banks from .62 million to 5.12 million during the above period. During 2011-12, of the cumulative 113.91 million Kisan credit cards issued as at the end December 2011, the Co-operatives issued 43.66 million cards with its share in total as 38.33%, followed by RRBs who issued 17.19 million cards occupying a share of 15.09% in total whereas the Commercial Banks issued 53.06 million cards having a share of 46.58%. Though the network of commercial banks and RRBs has spread rapidly and they now have nearly 50,000 rural/semi-urban branches, their reach in the countryside both in terms of the number of clients and accessibility to the small and marginal farmers and other poorer segments is far less than that of cooperatives. In terms of number of agricultural credit accounts, the Short Term Cooperative Credit System (STCCS) has 50% more accounts than the commercial banks and RRBs put together. On an average, there is one PACS for every 6 villages; these societies have a total membership of more than 120 million rural people making it one of the largest rural financial systems in the world. MICRO FINANCE AND CO OPERATIVE CREDIT UNIONS
Cooperative credit unions are another important microfinance model developed in the country. The leading organization that has been successful in using the cooperative form in rural microfinance in India has been the Cooperative Development Forum (CDF), Hyderabad. CDF’s approach has relied on a credit union model involving a savings first strategy. It has built up a network of financial cooperatives based upon women’s and men’s thrift groups. After the implementation of Andhra Pradesh Mutually –Aided Societies Act for flexible functioning of cooperatives, it has registered the associations of thrift groups promoted by it under this Act. The MACS Act has become landmark legislation, which has been used by other organization as well to
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register associations based on other approaches such as SHGs and Grameen joint liability groups as MACS.
Features of CDF system
1. The primary bodies in CDF’s micro-finance (cooperative) system are the women’s/ men’s thrift cooperative (WTCs and MTCs) which consist of 300 members, usually from the same village.
2. CDF has started off by promoting much smaller units, but over time it encouraged these small units to merge into larger units as it felt that smaller units would not be viable.
3. The WTCs and MTCs are divided into smaller groups (10 to 15 members) to facilitate better monitoring of thrift and loan payments. Each group headed by a leader, who convenes the group meetings, collects savings, and monitors the repayment of loans.
4. The size of a group is often dictated by the capability of its leader, who is nominated by the members of the group.
5. Though groups serve some administrative purposes, CDF has encouraged members to identify more strongly with their thrift cooperatives rather than the groups, as they are the primary legal entities and viable units of operation.
6. All the members of the primary cooperatives constitute the General Body and adopt a uniform set of bylaws. The General Body meets once every year to elect the directors, review operations and discuss other issues. The Board of Directors consist of 12 directors who are elected from amongst the members.
CONCLUSION
Linking cooperatives with the phenomenon of microfinance is the latest among a series of policy measures taken in
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making co-operatives pro-poor and equitable in their working. The rapid growth of microfinance, notwithstanding the several controversies, has evoked responses from varied quarters to tap its potential for overcoming the challenges involved in reaching out to the poor. Just as women empowerment groups have evinced interest in adopting the group based microfinance for espousing their cause, a section of the cooperative advocates have argued for internalizing microfinance methods by cooperatives to become more inclusive. On the eve of the United Nation’s International Day of Cooperatives on July 2 2005, the UN Secretary-General observed (The Cooperator 2005): „…. both cooperatives and microfinance, when used and managed appropriately, can help give those most in need the power to improve their lives. Cooperatives have a long history of providing financial services to poor and low-income people. Cooperative banks and credit unions were initially established to reduce poverty and high indebtedness among small-scale farmers and craftsmen in urban and rural areas. Cooperatives continue to serve this mission today- often by providing affordable and equitable access to microfinance services‟. The cooperative banking sector is one of the main partners of Indian banking structure, the cooperative banks have more reach to the rural India, through their huge network of credit societies in the institutional credit structure. The Cooperatives have ideological base, economic objects with social outlook and approach. The cooperative covers almost all cent percent villages in India. According to recent study by World Bank and National Council for Applied Economic Research, the Primary Agriculture Credit Societies (PACS) amount for about 30 percent of micro credit in India.
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REFERENCE
1. Sarumathi, S. and K. Mohan, 2011, “Role of Micro Finance in Women’s Empowerment”, Journal of Management and Science, 1(1): 1-10.
2. Nikhil Suresh Pareek, 2011,“Micro Finance and Financial Inclusion”.
3. Chakrabarti, R. and S. Ravi, 2011. At the crossroads: Sector Report, 2007, Microfinance India Publications, microfinance in India. Money and Finance, New Delhi.
4. Shylendra, H.S., Samapti Guha & Veerashekharappa (2009) The Role of Self Help Groups (SHGs) as Microfinancial Intermediaries: A Study in Sabarkanta District of Gujarat, Working Paper No. 211, Institute of Rural Management, Anand.
5. Santhanam, S 2008, `Chandrapur DCCB-Anganwadi Model: A Case Study’ in K.G. Karmarkar (ed.) Microfinance in India, New Delhi: Sage Publications.Emerlson Moses, 2011, “An Overview of Micro Finance in India”, International Referred Research Journal, RNI-RAJBIL 2009/29954.VoL.III.
6. Tripathy, P. (2008) `Micro Financing through Co-operatives’, The Co-operator, 46(3), September, pp. 99-101.
7. Nadarajan S. and R. Ponmurugan (2006), Self Help Groups: Bank Linkage Programme, Kisan World, Vol. 33,No.2, February, pp. 35- 36.
8. Sen, Prabal K. (2006) Governance of Co-operatives as Micro Finance Institutions: An Overview in the Indian Perspective, Vilakeshan, 322), September, pp. 77-9
9. Sundar, I. and R. Asokan (2004) `Performance of Co-operative Banks in Financing Women Self-Help Groups’, Co-operative Perspectives’, 38(4), January-March.
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ROLE OF MICROFINANCE INSTITUTIONS IN THE GROWTH OF SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES IN ILLU ABABORA ZONE, OROMIA REGION OF ETHIOPIA
Saddam Mohammedamin Seid Teshome Dejene MBA, lecturer at Mettu University (MBA) Lecturer at Meddawelabu Mettu, Ethiopia University Bale Ethiopia
Yeshitla Gebre (MBA) Lecturer at Meddawelabu University Bale Ethiopia Abstract
This study aims to assess the role of microfinance institutions in the growth of small and medium enterprises in Illu Ababora zone, Oromia region of Ethiopia by using both primary and secondary data types. In order to achieve this aim, on behalf of primary data collection tool, the researchers used questionnaire while document review method has been used as a secondary data collection instrument. The primary data have been analyzed through descriptive method with the help of frequencies, percentages, tables and charts. Besides, the researcher regressed Loan provided by public MFIs against growth of SMEs as measured by net annual change in total assets. Such regression analysis has been made based on random effects model with the help of EVIEWS 9 software. From the analysis the researchers of present study found that public MFIs' loan have positive but insignificant impact on the growth of SMEs in Illu Ababora zone, Thus, it is concluded that MFIs were not playing a significant role in the growth of SMEs in Illu Ababora zone, Oromia Region of Ethiopia. Accordingly, management of MFIs in Illu Ababora zone are recommended to adjust and improve their institutional policy in line with the financing needs of SMEs in Illu Ababora zone. On the other hand, management of SMEs should improve their communication with MFIs in order to get improved microfinance services. Key words: SMEs, MFIs, OCSS.C Growth, Illu Ababora Zone
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1. Introduction According to the Central Statistics Authority (CSA) of Ethiopia, those business enterprises with a paid-up capital in excess of 20,000 but not above 500,000 birr, and excluding high technology consultancy firms and other high technology establishments are considered as small enterprises. It is clear that small and medium enterprises (SMEs) become the significant contributors for the well-being of an economy. In earlier times, large scale enterprises and industries were the lion shareholders of every nation’s economic development. However, afterwards the late 1970’s, SMEs alongside with their medium counterparts replaced large enterprises to be major contributors of industrial development thereby they are vital for economy of a nation (World Bank, 1994). Financial institutions’ support for smaller and medium firms is vital in order to promote their growth. More specifically, the role that MFIs play in promoting the growth of SMEs in any nation is significant. This fact is highly true when we come to the developing countries’ context. Mairura et al. (2013) empirically confirmed such importance of MFIs in promoting firm growth in context of small and medium manufacturing enterprises in Kenya, by providing banking services and credit extensions. More specifically, Mairura et al. (2013) suggest that the most significant aspects of financial intermediaries that affected the growth of small and medium manufacturing enterprises were support received, regulatory framework, and managerial competencies. Another study by Dereje (2012) suggest that MFIs played significant and positive role to SMEs growth in Ethiopia given particular attention for the capital city Addis Ababa. Generally, SMEs provide employment opportunities for significant portion of a population in a given country as well as effectively reducing poverty thereby minimizing income inequality in that country. Moreover, SMEs are believed to be the birth place and training site of significant number of emerging as well as potential entrepreneurs. Having this fact, such enterprises should be given heavy attention by concerning bodies of every nation including governmental and non-governmental. In this regard, SMEs of Ethiopia in general and particularly in case of Oromia regional state have got various support and motivating atmosphere from the government of Ethiopia. However, government’s support solely cannot be enough for their journey to growth and promotion. Thus, SMEs need an active as well as
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supportive financial institutions those can help them to run their operation effectively thereby enhancing their advancement. Similarly speaking, the contribution of financial institutions mainly MFIs in helping the growth of SMEs seems more reliable and obvious in context of Ethiopia in general and in case of Oromia regional state in particular. However, there exists deficiency of empirical evidences that confirm such role of financial institutions especially MFIs in promoting SMEs. As per the researchers’ latest knowledge, Dereje (2012) and Asmamaw (2014) confirmed such contribution of microfinance institutions (MFIs) in context of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) of Ethiopia given particular attention for Addis Ababa city and Amhara regional state respectively. More specifically, to the researchers’ knowledge limit there is no a single prior study that investigate the role of MFIs for the growth of SMEs in case of Oromia region in general and given particular attention for Illu Ababora administrative zone. So, having this gap, this study intended to investigate the role that MFIs play for the growth of SMEs those operate in Illu Aba Bora administrative zone of Oromia region given particular attention for SMEs found in Mettu, Bure, Bedele, Hurumu, and Yayo towns.
2. Objectives of the study
To explore accessibility of MFIs services for SMEs in Illu Aba Bora zone of oromia region.
To investigate the role of public MFIs in supporting the growth of SMEs of Illu Aba Bora Zone oromia region.
To know the degree and dimensions of support that SMEs get from microfinance institutions (MFIs) within Illu Aba Bora zone oromia region.
3. Literature
3.1 Theoretical Review 3.1.1 Economic Growth and Development of SMEs Credit markets worldwide are characterized by asymmetric information, moral hazard problems and credit market failures. Among the borrowers, the poor are normally considered not bankable because of their lack of collateral, prospective income or credit record, and are therefore severely credit rationed. The inability of the poor to obtain
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credit contributes to a variety of problems such as: low levels of consumption, malnutrition, low investment in human capital, inadequate medical care and high level of indebtedness thereby increasing their vulnerability (Youssoufou, 2002). The growth of microfinance reflects the expansion of informal sector activities. Large volumes of financial transactions are carried out by microfinance institutions, with little or no publicity around them. Their operations are not explicitly captured in official financial statistics and their activities are hardly reported by the mass media, yet their transactions impact directly on a large section of the population especially the poor and the small scale enterprises. 3.1.2 Access to Finance Accessing finance has been identified as a key element for small scale enterprises to succeed in their drive to build productive capacity, to compete, to create jobs and to contribute to poverty alleviation in developing countries. Small scale enterprises are a risk because of poor guarantees and lack of information about their ability to repay loans (Youssoufou, 2002). Without finance, small scale enterprises cannot acquire or absorb new technologies. Although the banking sector is the largest and most important source of external financing for small scale enterprises, by and large, it is believed that the SME sector is not well served. As a result, small firms rely more on non-bank services such as internal funds (savings, earnings or family network) and the informal sector (money lender) as they lack the collateral needed by the commercial banks loans (Salta, 2003). 3.1.3 Enhancing Competiveness of SMEs According to Ricupero (2002), MFIs play a major role in determining the survival and growth of SMEs. The strength of MFIs is that they serve the SMEs at low cost; their service delivery is flexible, which makes it easy for weak SMEs to access financial services from them. On the other hand, their weaknesses lie in their weak operational and management information systems, poor internal controls, limited access to technical assistance and dependence on donor funding. MFIs create opportunities for SMEs to undertake productive investments to expand their businesses and to acquire the latesttechnologies, thus ensuring their competitiveness by making profits, creating a higher capacity to create more jobs, operate in a free
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and fair environment, attract private sector investment and have a strong export base (Cuttler,2001). 3.1.4 Level of business development MFIs provide their products and services based on the level of development of the businesses. SMEs can be grouped into three main levels of business development that profit from access to financial services.
Unstable survivors are groups that are considered not credit worthy for financial services to be provided in a sustainable way. Their enterprise are unstable and it is believe they will survive only for a limited time and when MFIs focus on time to revert the situation by providing them other extra services, it is noticed that costs increases and time is also wasted.
Stable survivors are those who benefit in having access to the financial services provided by MFIs to meet up with their production and consumption needs. These types of microenterprises rarely grow due to low profit margins which inhibit them to reinvest and an unstable environment due to seasonal changes which makes them to consume rather than to invest in the business.
Growth enterprises are SMEs with high possibility to grow. MFIs focusing on these types of microenterprise are those that have as objective to create jobs, and to move micro entrepreneurs from an informal sector to a formal sector. MFIs prefer to provide products and services to meet the needs of this group since they are more reliable and posing them the least risk (Ledgerwood, 1999). 3.1.5 Evolution of the MFIs Industry in Ethiopia Initially, micro credit started as a government and non- government organizations motivated scheme. Following the 1984/85 severe drought and famine, many NGOs star started to provide micro credit along with heir relief activities although this was on a limited scale and not in a sustained manner (IFAD 2001). The Government also sporadically provided loans largely for the purchase of oxen through its Rural finance Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives. But these loans were not based on proper needs assessment and no mechanism was in place to monitor their effectiveness. In many cases, these loans were not to be repaid and might have fostered a culture of not repaying loans.
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During the command economic system (1974-91), the Development Bank of Ethiopia (DBE) and the commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE) were also involved in extending loans to cooperatives largely in response to the government’s pressure. A massive default by the cooperatives following the demise of the command economy along with its extensive control systems, however, forced the CBE has continued to provide loans for the purchase of fertilizers and improved seeds on the basis of regional government guarantees. The DBE has also been providing loans to micro and small-scale operators in some selected towns. This scheme was, however, based on donors fund designed in the form of revolving fund, and essentially based on a limited scale in terms of the number of clients covered. Funds were simple been given from the DBE to clients identified and screened by the Trade and Industry Breaux of regional Gove rally led to a low loan recovery rate (DBE 1999). In line with this, the early formal microfinance activity is the DBE (Development Bank of Ethiopia) Place, Pilot Credit Scheme, initiated in 1990 under the Market Towns Development Project, implemented in 1994. While many NGOs Programmers that emphasizes both credit and savings began in early 1990s. For example, the Rest Credit Scheme of Tigray (RCST) (now Dedebit Credit and Savings Institution, DECSI) was launched in 1993; Sidama Saving and Credit scheme (now Sidama Microfinance Institution) was established in 1994; Oromia Credit and Saving Scheme (Now Oromia Credit and Saving S.C.) Started in 1996 (Ageba). The formulization of the Micro finance institutions, micro credit used to be provided in a fragmented and unplanned manner even during the early 1990s. The micro credit scheme was donor driven rather than an outcome stemming from a clear policy direction and development strategy. Their outreach and impact also remained Limited (IFAD, 2001). Another feature of these credit schemes is that all was trying to address the credit delivery service alone. The provision of savings facilities, which is essential for a sustained credit service delivery, was completely ignored. The failure of the formal banks to provide banking facilities, on the one hand, led the in sustainability of the NGO’s credit scheme on the other hand, led the government to issue out a legal framework for the establishment and operation of micro finance institutions. Currently there are 27 microfinance institutions in
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Ethiopia, licensed and registered by NBE, following the issuance of proclamation No. 40/1994. 3.1.6 Formal Microfinance in Ethiopia
Formal microfinance in Ethiopia started in 1994/5. In particular, the Licensing and Supervision of Microfinance Institution Proclamation of the government encouraged the spread of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in both rural and urban areas as it authorized them among other things, to legally accept deposits from the general public (hence diversify sources of funds), to draw and accept drafts, and to manage funds for the micro financing business. Currently, there are 23 licensed MFIs reaching about 905,000 credit clients and some saving clients. Considering the potential demand, particularly in rural areas, this only satisfies an insignificant proportion. Interest rate ceilings on loans charged by MFIs were lifted by Directive No. MFI/11/98, which reads, “the interest rate to be charged on loans and advances extended by a microfinance institution shall be determined by the Board of Directors of each microfinance institution.” This has helped many to set a lending interest rate high enough to cover their operating costs. On the other hand, a minimum is set for the interest that can be paid to depositors. 3.2 Empirical Review
3.2.1 Empirical Review Outside Ethiopia
As per the researchers’ investigation, there were empirical works withregard to the role of MFIs in promoting growth of SMEs in context of countries other than Ethiopia. Many of such empirical works correspond with sub-saharan africa. Forinstance, Ngehnevu and Nembo (2010), investigated the Impact of MFIs in the Development of SMEs in Cameroon by using mixed research approach. After all, they found that cameroonian MFIs has a positive impact in the development of SME businesses. Morespecifically, according to such same study MFIs provide SMEs with financial and social intermediation services to help improve their businesses.
Anane et al. (2012), investigated the contribution of MFIs on 93 SMEs those found in the rural areas of Ghana. Accordingly, they found
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that MFIs in Ghana goes beyond providing capital by giving the platform to SMEs operators to receive remittances through MFIs and the provision of ancillary services such as training of SME operators in the areas of record keeping, proper credit utilisation and general business management techniques. Another study by Quaye et al. (2014), found that the operations of MFIs positively affect SMEs. They also found that MFIs have helped and continually helping to bridge the SME financing gap. This is because MFIs that are financially sustainable with high outreach have a greater livelihood and also have a positive impact on SME development thereby they guarantee sustainable access to credit by the poor. Obli (2011), investigated the effects of MFIs on the growth of SMEs in Kumasi metropolis and confirmed that the former have a positive effect on the growth of the latter, notwithstanding the inherent challenges. The findings of same study also showed that MFIs have contributed to the growth of SMEs through the provision of non-financial service such as Business, Financial and Managerial training programmes. the same study concluded that MFIs have also contributed largely in the area of mobilizing savings through their saving schemes that make saving more accessible, less costly and ready to receive little amounts. Oni et al. (2012), researched the contributions of Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) to the sustainable growth of SMEs in Nigeria. Accordingly, the findings of Oni et al. (2012) revealed that MFIs does and could contribute to the sustainable growth of SMEs in the country. Nevertheless, the same study also found among others; MFIs services outreach to SMEs at present is poor. Another research work by Bello (2013) in context of Nigeria studied the contributions of microfinance institutions on the growth of SMEs through content analysis. As a result, this research found that various opportunities are provided by microfinance banks and/or institutions that enable SMEs to function effectively. Rasheed et al. (2015) examined the influence of microfinance banks on small and medium enterprises growth in Osun state of Nigeria taken 150 SMEs through purposive sampling. Consequently, Rasheed et al. (2015) found that Micro finance banks' financing services have significant influence on SMEs growth and expansion capacity of micro and small enterprise in Osun State, Nigeria.
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Another study in context of Nigeria by Akpan and Nneji (2015), investigated the contribution of microfinance banks to the development of SMEs. Accordingly, the findings revealed that MFBs contributes significantly to an enhanced entrepreneurial environment by making the business environment more conducive and narrows the resource gap for small businesses. More specifically, based on findings from this study, the use of MFBs has potentials for enhancing the performance of small businesses in two ways; regular participation in micro financing and offering of non–financial services. In context of eastern African nations Wilfred et al. (2013) researched the impact of microfinance service delivery on the growth of SMEs in eastern Uganda. After their investigation Wilfred et al. (2013) found that although the MFIs have performed below a set standard on average due to some industry wide challenges, they have had a significant impact in linking SMEs and the poor to sources of credit thereby contributed to their growth via making grow business capital and stock accumulation. Another research by Laetitia et al. (2015) found that Microfinance institutions provide many different services like loan, advice on investment, savings and training on investment to women SMEs in Kicukiro district. From same study it is also found that MFI supports different sectors ranging from Agricultural sector, trading sector, Textile and many others. More specifically same research indicated that the entrepreneurs needed microfinance loan in order to promote business performance. Besides, in spite of the challenges SMEs face like high interest rate, lack of collateral, the research findings suggest that microfinance improved business performance in form of capital base increase, profitability increase, growth in size and expansion in size. Moreover Laetitia et al. (2015) concluded that Micro finance institutions have a positive impact on growth of selected Women SMEs in Rwanda. Makorere (2014) revealed that microfinance have a significant and positive impact in promoting SMEs in form of boosting business profits, employments, outlets and sales volume. Moreover, it is also revealed that many problems faced by Tanzanian enterprises are not related with microfinance received, but related with macro-economic institutional constraints, such as demand and supply problems, tax regime and energy problems. Makorere (2014) also found that microfinance instrument seems to promote Tanzanian SMEs in
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different stages of a business life; many businesses in the stage of starting-up have funded by owner' capital. Another research in context of Tanzania has been credited with Momba (2013), which examined the impact of Microfinance on growth of SMEs in Morogoro Municipality. Thus, the findings of Momba (2013) revealed that microfinance has a significant impact on SMEs growth. On the other hand, same research revealed that there is statistically significant relationship between SMEs growth and start-up capital while suggesting that SMEs activities there is no statistical significant relationship that experience on SME activities improves SME’s growth. Mairura et al. (2013), examined the role of financial intermediation in the growth of SMEs in kenya given particular attention for Small and medium manufacturing enterprises those found in Nairobi. Results of the such study revealed that the financial intermediaries played a significant role by offering banking services and extending credit facilities to SME businesses. Other support offered by financial intermediaries include; advisory services, training and financing the start of businesses. Morespecifically, based on their statistical analysis performed, Mairura et al. (2013) concluded that the most significant aspects of financial intermediaries that affected the growth of SMEs include; support received, regulatory framework, and managerial competencies. Moreover, Mairura et al. (2013) concluded that SMEs evaluation procedures were found not to have contributed to the current growth of SMEs hence the need to revise existing financial intermediaries’ evaluation procedures. Osoro and Muturi (2013) studied the role of micro finance institutions on the growth of SMEs in kenya taking into account micro financial institutions in kisi town. Accordingly, Osoro and Muturi (2013) suggest that accessibility of training is positively related to growth of SMEs in Kisi town of Kenya. Moreover, Osoro and Muturi (2013) concludes that provision of credit, training and a cheap savings account helps the growth of SMEs in Kisi town of Kenya. Another study Onyango (2011), once again in context of Kenya, investigated the role of microfinance institutions in the growth of SMEs given due attention for 72 SMEs those traded in gikomba market, nairobi. Thus, according to findings of Onyango (2011), Microfinance Institutions played a significant role in the growth of small and medium enterprises
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by providing seed capital, financial skills training, role models and mobilization of savings. 3.2.2 Empirical Evidences in Ethiopia As compared to empirical evidences from the other African nations as presented in the previous sub-section, there were few empirical works that have been conducted related to the role of MFIs in the growth SMEs in Ethiopian context. Dereje (2012) has conducted a research titled; the role of financial institutions (i.e. Banks and MFIs) in the growth of SMEs those found in the capital; Addis Ababa. According to the findings of Dereje (2012), MFIs played significant role to SMEs growth. In more specific manner, the relationship between loans from financial institutions (i.e. Banks and MFIs) and SMEs growth found to be positive and statistically significant. The same study also found that access to MFIs enabled SMEs, particularly small enterprises that are underserved by banks, to overcome financing constraints and thereby accelerating their growth rate. Moreover Dereje (2012) found MFIs to support the development of SMEs through training in book keeping and manpower development, business control and monitoring, and by providing available business as well as other relevant information. Asmamaw (2014), researched the role of microfinance institutions in the development of SMEs in Ethiopia given due attention to Amhara credit and saving institution (ACSI). From the information collected, it is realized that ACSI has a positive impact in the development of SMEs and provide its members with financial and social intermediation services to help improve their businesses. According to findings of same study, businesses that are viewed as growing had it easy to get a loan. Furthermore, Asmamaw (2014) indicated that the entry requirements are difficult for the poorest to meet thus they do not enjoy the services of ACSI. More recently, Fredu and Edris (2016) found that banks' and MFIs' engagement in financing SMEs in Ethiopia is limited. Specifically, findings of such research suggested that SMEs' specific factors such as poor financial records of SMEs, lack of adequate collateral, SMEs poor management of risks, and informalities of SMEs are the major obstacles underlined by banks and MFIs to their engagement with SMEs. Moreover, Fredu and Edris (2016) revealed that young firms who do not have adequate managerial
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and operation experience, and those with inadequate collateral are highly credit constrained. 4. Research Methodology 4.1 Research approach In order to achieve the objectives of this study thereby to give answer for its problems, mixed research approach has been used by the researchers. By doing so, the researchers were capable of skimming the advantages of both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. 4.2Study population As per Illu Ababora zone micro and small enterprises agency there were a total of 174 small and medium enterprises (i.e. 139 are small and 35 are medium) organized and operated within the zone in 2007 E.C. Accordingly, the target population of this study were those 174 small and medium enterprises of Ilu Aba Bora Zone. 4.3Sampling design Initially, purposive sampling has been used to exempt SMEs those found in more rural areas and with less experience as compared to SMEs in selected towns. More specifically, SMEs those have an operation experience of 5 years or more within the towns of Mettu, Bedele, Bure, Hurumu and Yayo were selected. Thus, based on such purposive sampling frame; out of the target population of 174 SMEs those found within the selected towns, 43 of them were selected purposively among which 7 of them are medium and 36 are small enterprises. The main reason behind to follow such purposive sampling is that it allows the researchers to get the richest information, from those who are the most experienced enterprises thereby to reach reliable and valid conclusion. Moreover, as a primary data collection tool, researchers prepared and distributed two pieces of questionnaire for each sample SMEs’ managers and vice managers which yields a total of 86 questionnaires. 4.4 Data Sources and Data Collection Methods
For the purpose of conducting this study, researchers relied both on primary and secondary sources of data. The primary data credited with questionnaires’ that has been filled by owner managers and/or vice managers of SMEs in the sample. With regard to secondary data, the researchers relied heavily on audit reports from sample SMEs and Illu
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Aba Bora zone MSE agency, Bedele town , Mettu town, Bure woreda, Hurumu woreda and Yayo woreda MSE offices. Besides, documents from public microfinance institution (i.e. OCS S.C) branches have been reviewed and collected by the researchers through document review method of data collection. 4.5Data Analysis Method
In order to analyze the primary data, researchers applied descriptive form of analysis. In such descriptive analysis, the questionnaire responses have been analyzed via tabular frequencies, percentages and cumulative percentages followed by appropriate interpretations. On the other hand, secondary data analysis concerned about a balanced panel data that has been analyzed in three forms namely; descriptive statistics, correlations, and regression analysis with the help of statistical software package of EVIEWS 9. 4.6 Description and Measurement of Variables
4.6.1 Dependent variable
For the purpose of present study, researchers used net annual change in total asset of sample SME as a measure of firm growth which is presented below: GRi,t=Total asset i,t – Total asset i,t-1 Where GRi,t=growth of enterprise i in year t as measured by net annual change in total asset Total asset i,t =total asset of enterprise i in the current year Total asset i,t-1=total asset of enterprise i in the previous year 4.6.2 Independent variable Public MFIs' Loan
The only independent variable used for secondary data analysis under this study deals with a loan that has been taken each year by sample SMEs from the only governmental microfinance institution namely Oromia credit and savings S.C. (OCS S.C.) in the study area. Hypothesis: There is a significant positive relationship between loan provided by public MFIs and SMEs’ growth in Illu Aba Bora zone.
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4.7 Model Specification for Secondary Data Analysis
As one employed in majority of previous panel studies including Amidu (2007) and Tornyeva (2013); the general panel equation for this study read as:
Yi,t = α + βXi,t+ εi,t Specifically, a panel regression model that has been used in this study on behalf of secondary data analysis read as follows:
GRi,t=α+β1(PUMFIi,t)+ε Where GRi,t= the dependent variable represented with growth of SME i in year t
α= the constant or an intercept β1= the slope coefficient for independent variable PUMFIi,t = loan provided by public MFIs in year t for SME i
ε= the error term 5. Findings
Based on the collected data the researchers of present study found the following;
Majority of SMEs represented with 60.1% of respondents in Illu Aba Bora zone were participated in trade and service providing business activities. Majority of SMEs as represented with 71.25% of the respondents, accessed finance from MFIs. On the other hand, 28.75% of the respondents respond as they did not accessed finance from MFIs. Mot of respondents (i.e. 75.4%) indicated that MFIs loans were inadequate to finance operating activities as well as for investing activities of SMEs. Majority of the respondents accounting 82.5% indicated that MFIs had no special products/services to the growth of SMEs. Majority (i.e. 69.6%) of respondents reason out difficulty of processes involved and lack of knowledge where and how to apply
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for MFIs loan, as two main obstacles of SMEs towards applying for MFIs' loan. Majority of enterprises in the sample represented with 59.6% respondents, uses MFI loans to Purchase inputs/raw materials. The maturity date to repay back loan is too short, because of this most SMEsused loan for short term working capital needs to finance operating activities. Majority of respondents representing 35.1% believed that collateral is the most important criteria to get loan from MFIs, that stand in the side of MFIs to effectively contribute to the growth of SMEs in the zone. It is also found that the remaining 35.1% of respondents revealed a business plan as the most important criteria to access MFIs' loan. More than half (i.e. 56.3%) of the respondents replied that criteria of MFIs to provide loan are difficult to be met. 59.6% respondents replied that SMEs those actually applied and received MFIs loan, are not in difficulty of repaying back the loan to MFIs while the remaining 40.4% replied as SMEs face problem in repaying back the borrowed funds. This implies that most of SMEs repay loan on time. Due to this reason MFIs didn’t fear offering loans but there are significant number of SMEs fail to repay on time. About 35 (61.4%) of respondents indicated that saving and asset management were additional products/services provided by MFIs to their businesses. This implies that MFIs support SMEs in Illu Aba Bora Zone apart than financial service through setting up their business, giving direction how to control business activities and providing orientation to manage their asset. Majority of respondents representing 70.1% refused to confess that MFIs contribute significantly to the sustainable growth of SMEs in Illu Aba bora zone. From regression analysis, it is found that public MFIs' loan found to establish positive and insignificant influence on the growth of sample SMEs with a p-value of 0. 0.4611. The regression result also revealed the R-squared value of 0.002563, implying that merely 0.26% of the variations in SMEs’ growth was explained by the independent variable (i.e. public MFIs' loan). Furthermore, the regression F-statistic which tests the null hypothesis of the slope parameter is zero read as 0.547346
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with a p-value of 0. 460219 attached to it. This implies that the null hypothesis should not be rejected, implying the slope parameter was insignificant.
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusions Based on findings, researchers made the following conclusions Services of MFIs those are opersting in Illu Ababora zone were accessible to SMEs found in the same zone. Morespecifically, SMEs in Illu Ababora zone had access to MFIs’ loans however the loan amount provided by MFIs (OCS S.C) is not adequate to satisfy the financing needs of SMEs thereby support their growth. It is found that public MFIs (i.e OCS S.C) could contribute positively and slightly to the growth of SMEs in Illu Ababora Zone. In other word, this data indicates that the role of public MFIs on the growth of SMEs in Illu Aba Bora zone is insignificant. Finally, from the findings; it can be concluded that MFIs had no any significant impact on the growth of SMEs in Illu Ababora zone. 6.2 Recommendations Based on the findings obtained and conclusions made the following recommendation were made.
It is concluded that public MFIs had no any significant impact on SMEs growth in the Illu Ababora zone. So, management of public MFI (i.e. OCS S.C.) should adjust and improve their policy towards excellent service provision to SMEs in Illu Ababora zone. Morespecifically, OCS S.C has to make the criteria of offering loan to SMEs easy thereby the latter can easily get adequate finance neccessary for business growth. On the other hand, management of SMEs should improve their communication with OCS S.C. and governmental MSE offices in order to get improved and wide range of microfinance services. Based on random effects regression result, it was found that R-squared was 0.006157. This implies that merely 0.26% of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by independent variable (i.e. Loan provided by public MFIs to SMEs) employed in this study. Thus, the explanatory power of the model used in this study in terms of R-squared is very low. Based on this finding, as a further
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research direction, it is recommended for future researchers to incorporate other explanatory variables other than used in this study. Furthermore, researchers of present study recommend that factors affecting the growth of SMEs and The role of MFIs towards new business establishment in context of Illu Ababora zone, Oromia region of Ethiopia as promising research areas for future research. Reference Akpan E.S., and Nneji I.D. (2015), Contribution of Microfinance Banks to the Development of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in Nigeria, Research Journal of Finance and AccountingISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online) Vol.6, No.8, 2015 Al-Shaikh FN 1998. Factors for small business failure in developing countries. Advances in Competitiveness Research, 6(10): 75-87. Anane, G.K., Cobbinah P.B., And Manu J.K.,(2012),SUSTAINABILITY OF SMALL AND MEDIUM SCALE ENTERPRISES INRURAL GHANA:THE ROLE OF MICROFINANCE INSTITUTIONS Asian Economic and Financial Review, 2013, 3(8): 1003-1017 Anton, S. (2003), Clients Exit Surveys: A Tool for Understanding Client Dropout, Vol.2, No.1, Journal of Microfinance: Brigham Young University Publications. Asmamaw, Y.C. (2014), The Role of Microfinance Institutions in theDevelopment of Small and Medium Size Businesses inETHIOPIA: A Case Study in Amhara Credit and SavingInstitutions, Journal of Business Administration and Management Sciences Research Vol. 3(6), pp.106-120, June, 2014 ISSN 2315-8727© 2014 Apex Journal International Basu, A., Blavy, R. and Yulck, M. (2005) "Microfinance in Africa: Experience and Lessons from Selected African Countries" IMF Working Paper 04/1 7 4, Washington. Bello (2013), An Assessmentof The Contributions ofMicrofinance Institutions on The Growth of The Small andMedium Enterprises(SMEs) In Nigeria,International journal of Innovative Research in Management ISSN2319–6912,(August 2013, issue 2 volume 8) Cuttler, C. (2001). Rheinish Savings Banks and Giro Association. Presentation for the Expert Meeting on Improving Competitiveness of SMEs. UNCTAD. Geneva, 22–23 October Issue.
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Dereje,W. (2012). Role of Financial Institutions in the growth of Small and Medium Enterprises in Addis Ababa, Master’s thesis, Addis Ababa University. Fredu, N., and Edris, H. (2016), Small and Medium Enterprise Access to Finance in Ethiopia:Synthesis of Demand and Supply, The Horn Economic and Social Policy Institute (HESPI)Working Paper 01/16,Published by the Horn Economic and Social Policy Institute Gebre-egziabher T., Demeke, M., 2004. Small Businesses in Small Towns of the Eastern Amhara Region: Nature and Economic Performance. A Research Report on IDR, Addis Ababa University. Hulme, David & Mosley, P. (1996a). Finance against poverty. Vol. 1. London: Routledge. IFAD (2001). “Ethiopia: Rural Financial Intermediation Programme (RUFIP) Formulation Report.” RUFIP Working Paper No.1. Inang, E. E. and Ukpong, G. E. (1992) ‘A Review of Small Scale Enterprises Credit Delivery Strategies in Nigeria.’ CBN Economic and Financial Review, VoL 30, No.4: pp 249 - 278. Hudson, MA., A. Smart and Bourne M. 2001. Theory and practice in SME performance measurement systems. International Journal of Operations & Production Management 21(8): 1096–1115. Laetitia, M., Shukla, J., and Luvanda, A. (2015), Microfinance and Business Growth of Women Small and MediumEnterprises's in Rwanda. (A Case of Selected Women Small andMedium Enterprises In Kicukiro District), European Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance Research Vol.3, No.11, pp.26- 39, November 2015 Ledgerwood, J. (1999). Microfinance handbook: an institutional and financial perspective. Washngton, DC. World Bank. Mairura,C.J.,Namusonge,G.S., and Karanja, K.(2013). The role of financial intermediation in the growth of small and medium manufacturing enterprises in Kenya: A survey of small and medium enterprises in Nairobi: International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences ISSN: 2278-6236 Makorere (2014), The role of microfinance in promoting small andmedium enterprises (SMEs) in Tanzania: empiricalevidence from SMEs holder who have receivedmicrocredit from financial
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institutions in Morogoro,Tanzania, Global Business and Economics Research Journal ISSN: 2302-4593 Vol. 3 (4):1 - 19 Momba, M.M. (2013), The Impact of Microfinance on Small and MediumEnterprises Growth in Morogoro, Master's Thesis, Open University Of Tanzania Ngehnevu C.B and Nembo F.Z. (2010), The Impact of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs)in the Development of Small and Medium SizeBusinesses (SMEs) in Cameroon:A case study of CamCCUL, Master’s thesis Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala 2010, ISSN 1401-4084 Obli Q.D.N.(2011), The Effect of Micro Finance Institutions On The Growth ofSmall and Medium Scale Enterprises (Smes); A Case Study ofSelected SMEs In The Kumasi Metropolis, master's Thesis, Kwame NkrumahUniversity of Science and Technology OECD (2006). Financing SMEs and Entrepreneurs. OECD Policy Brief Oni E.O., Paiko I.I., and Ormin K. (2012), Assessment of the Contribution of Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) to SustainableGrowth of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs) in Nigeria, INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESSInstitute of Interdisciplinary Business Research, JANUARY 2012, VOL 3, NO 9 Onyango, K.A.O. (2011), The Role of Microfinance Institutions in The Growth of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). A CASE OF Smes IN GIKOMBA MARKET, NAIROBI, KENYA, Master's Thesis,UNIVERSITY OF AFRICA. Osoro, K., and Muturi, W. (2013), The Role Of Micro Financial Institutions On The Growth OfSmes In Kenya:A Case Study Of Micro Financial Institutions InKisi Town, IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS)Volume 16, Issue 1 (Sep. - Oct. 2013), PP 83-93e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845. Penrose, E. (1995). The theory of the growth of the firm (4th ed). (p.3) United Kingdom: Oxford Schorlarship Online. Quaye, I., Abrokwah, E., Sarbah, A. and Osei, J.Y. (2014) Bridging the SME Financing Gap in Ghana: The Role of Microfinance Institutions. Open Journal of Business and Management, 2, 339- 353.
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Rasheed O., Taiwo J., and Adeniran J. (2015), Influence of Microfinance Bank on Small and Medium Scale Enterprises Growth in OsunState, Nigeria,International Journal in Management and Social Science (Impact Factor- 3.25), Vol.03 Issue-04, (April, 2015) ISSN: 2321-1784 Ricupero,R. (2002). Improving the Competitiveness of SMEs in Developing Countries: The Role of Finance to Enhance Enterprise Development. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Report. Robinson, M.S. (1998): The Paradigm Shift From credit Delivery to Sustainable Financial Intermediation, In Mwangi S Kimenyi, Robert C Wieland and J D Von Pischke (eds), 1998, Strategic Issues in Microfinance. Ashgate Publishing: Aldershot. Salta S. (2003), Microfinance institution support for entrepreneurship and business Development training and capacity building. pp. 2. Von, Pischke, J,D.(1991) Finance at the Frontier: Debt Capacity and the Role of Credit in the Private Economy. World Bank Economic Development Institute. Washington DC. Wilfred N.K., Max A., Michael O., Moses N., and Norman T. (2013), The Impact of Microfinance Service Delivery on the Growth ofSMEs in Uganda, ICBE-RF Research Report N0. 69/13 World Bank (1994). Can intervention work? The Role of Government in SME success, World Bank Washington DC. Zeller Manfred, 2003. “Models of Rural Finance of Rural Financial Institutions” Lead Theme paper presented at the international conference on best practices. Washington DC.
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FIELD OBSERVATION AND INTERNSHIP OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM: POINTS FOR REFLECTION Dr.Sailaja Chennat Associate Professor Faculty of Education University of Delhi Delhi Introduction:
The curriculum of the new two year B.Ed programme, as laid down by the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) comprise three broad curricular areas –
1. Perspectives in Education
2. Curriculum and Pedagogic Studies
3. Engagement with the Field.
Among these, as the focus of the paper is on field observation of the first year and internship of the second year, the detailing given under field engagement is given below:
Engagement with the Field – the Self, the Child, Community and School
This curricular area would have three components –
1. Tasks and assignments that run through all the courses as indicated in the year wise distribution of the syllabus
2. School internship
3. Courses on enhancing professional capacities (EPC)
Engagement in the field except the EPC part has been spread out across the two years of the programme, starting with the first component translated into field observation in the first year followed up with a four month school internship in the second year.
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Field Observation organized in the first year (as a part of Field Engagement)
Field observation has been categorized into
1) Visit to schools: observation of school activities and
2) Visits to Institutions: observation of processes in institutions associated with school education.
Visit to Schools
Observation of School Process and Activities
School process consists of both classroom and the larger school activities including, the sites of library, playground, assembly, co- curricular activities, school day celebrations etc.
Classroom process:
School observations as part of field observation in the first year have been included with an objective of holistic understanding of the field before plunging into teaching per se. This understanding can be a result of developing deep insights and reflecting on these through collaborative discussions with teacher educators who share these contexts with STs. It is well understood that these school contexts are ever changing and that discussions on field experiences have merit only when these are situated within the specific context that is observed.
Classroom observation has been split into both the years. In the first year, teaching by practicing teachers of the school is observed by the student teachers (STs) and in the second year, peer observation is carried out by STs. What are the objectives of such a process of observation which is also assessed? Is it, enabling the ST to get a feel of the classroom processes? If yes, then what could be the criteria for assessing him/her?
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The process of classroom observation is organized as follows: Areas with density of population of STs are identified. A set of 2 schools, Government and Private/Pvt. aided is selected from each of these areas identified. Students are divided into small groups of 4/5. Each ST cohort visits both the categories of schools one after the other spending around 2/3 weeks in each school enabling them to be exposed to both the school environments. A broad suggestive framework for observation is provided to the STs to facilitate their observation process. Each ST cohort is attached with a research scholar who organizes the field observation. The process of observation of classroom processes and the school processes are interspersed with a once- a- week discussion with a Teacher Educator (TE) from Teacher Education Institution (TEI) who is the mentor of the group. The role of the mentor envisioned in the programme is to catalyse and facilitate reflective process in the STs. These weekly discussions between the mentor and the STs become the base for the assessment of STs in this phase of field observation. A point worth noting in this model is that a mentor from the TEI is not present along with the STs during the field observations carried out by them which means the context is not shared or experienced by the mentor. Later when these observations are being discussed between STs and mentor in the B.Ed classes, to what extent can the mentor enable STs to reflect on the observations without having shared these contexts? Where is the scope for any negotiations or dialogue between the mentor and the STs? Mentor is limited to seeing the classroom transaction from the lens of STs. What is the basis for assessment of STs in such a context? This needs to be reflected and deliberated upon rigorously.
Observation of School Processes (outside classrooms)
Observation of activities at the playground, assembly, cultural and literary forum, annual sports etc is as important a component in the programme as is the observation of classroom processes.
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Visit to Institutions
As per NCTE, visit to innovative centres of pedagogy and learning - innovative schools, educational resource centres, etc. is to be organized.
These visits include observation of activities and processes in these institutions decided on the basis of 2 criteria: general institutions that all students are interested to visit and subject specific (language, social science, science) institutions according to the pedagogy subjects. The organization of these visits is almost the same as presented above with regard to school visits, but here the groups of students are larger and hence these visits are completed in shorter duration of time. Between school visits and institutional visits, more weight is given to school visits with reference to assessment. Here again, the mentor assigned to each small group of students (5 or 6) doesn’t share the experiences of the small group of STs they are tied up with for discussion and reflections on the field observations leading to assessment.
Disability Perspective
1. Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. If we agree on this, situation is very challenging for STs with visual impairment. As we know, there is an increase in the number of students with visual impairment, most of them who cannot see at all, taking admission in B.Ed programme. In their context, observation of school processes and of institutions related to schools is definitely a huge challenge. The buddy system is what we can best do as organisers of field observation. In this scenario, the purpose of observation gets defeated. If observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source, the acquisition of blind STs through a buddy system is definitely not observation. They acquire information from the lens of their buddy and hence it becomes a secondary source.
2. Learning about the environment through observation is not just through visual sensation, but through auditory and tactile sensations
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as well. In the field observation component of the curriculum, apart from the classroom processes the other sites of activities, like play ground, performances by students, art and literary activities, assembly etc are all included. These sites too pose a challenge to ST s with visual impairment; comprehension through listening (auditory stimuli) is possible only in less noisy environment, especially in the out door contexts whereas in the classroom situations, this may be possible to a great extent when the noise level is not as heavy as to immerse the sound of classroom transactional processes.
3. Field observation component covers learning from visits to institutions related to school education, like museums, national and state level institutions like NCERT, Gandhi Smriti etc. In some institutions, tactile sensation is a mode that can be used for understanding about the exhibits and other artifacts, but definitely not in many of the institutions. Here again, STs with visual impairment have to bank on the secondary source, the peer group.
4. The most critical issue is that these visits and subsequent discussions and reflections on their learning from these carry weight in the overall internal assessment. Are we doing justice to the STs with visual impairment by depriving them of alternatives and compelling them to present their reflections based on what have been perceived by their peer group?
We need to reflect on such field observation component of the B.Ed Programme which has a rising number of students with visual impairment enrolling each year. Is this an inclusive curriculum? Can we think of alternatives to field observation suited to our STs with visual impairment? This is a larger question to the agencies involved with planning of Teacher Education curriculum and its implementation.
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Second Year Curriculum
In the second year, out of 650 marks, NCTE has given weight of 250 marks to internship programme. The principles of internship laid down by NCTE are as follows:
1. Teacher Preparation: Joint Responsibility of NCTE, State Education Departments, Schools, Affiliating Bodies
2. Performance assessment by TEI and Schools
3. Intern teachers as full-time teachers
4. Competent and willing internship school teachers as mentor teachers
5. School experience in diverse contexts: 80% Govt Schools, 20% Non Govt schools
6. Internship schools as lab schools
The analysis of the organization and implementation of internship has been situated in the context of the above principles laid down by NCTE.
Analysis of the Organization and Implementation of Internship
1. Peer observation as a tool for professional development: Peer observation has long been regarded as an integral part of pre- service teacher education programmes which adds credibility to the experience of the teacher pupil and validates the interactive and social nature of learning. With the epistemological perspectives on teacher learning and cognition (Borg, 2003) and recognition of the situated nature of learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991), peer observation as a tool for learning (Wajnryb, 1992) is a highly appropriate model for reflective teaching which legitimises practitioner experience and valorizes the interactive and social nature of learning. But teacher pupils generally carry out peer observation to fulfill criteria for appraisal without recognizing its significance as a tool for professional development. It is
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when this tool is used as lens for reflective practice can its credibility as critical to professional development of teachers be adequately realised. This realisation can come in only with hard work by the teacher educator and the peer group during the period of school internship including collaboration, dialogue, mediation, and use of written artifacts all of which can structure or guide reflection. Ideally peer observation should be the process whereby student teachers observe peers/practicing teachers with the aim of collecting data, analysing the classroom process and reflecting on their own practice all of which fall into the steps of an inquiry based method of learning, learning to teach. These processes seldom happen in real situations. At the root of this problem lies the lack of understanding of the difference between the process of observing and being observed. When the emphasis is on being observed, it suggests a judgmental perspective of the observer. However, if the emphasis is on observing, the focus is on learning by the observer from the observed teaching (adapted from Engin, M. & Priest, B., 2014).
In the second year, observations are restricted to peer observations as was the model in the previous one year B.Ed Programme. But unlike in the previous one year programme, this is an internship model spread over 4 months interspersed with less number of theory classes. In this model, the principle is that the STs may be left on their own to experience school processes for a longer time period so that they develop deeper insights about their professional context and get an opportunity to be part of the system more holistically. This process is envisioned in the new model with minimum supervision by mentor teachers. In such a scenario, what is the role of the mentor in the discussions of these observations? How does one do full justice in guiding the peer observations and reflective practice of the STs without having shared the context?
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Another pertinent question to reflect on is, to what extent are these field experiences interspersed with the theory building developed in TEIs with just one day in week of class in TEI? Are we able to gear our discussions with theorizations in the first year and the ongoing classes of the second year?
2. Role of Mentor Teachers from TEI
There is more trust bestowed on STs and ample autonomy given to them with much less supervision of STs’ teaching by mentor teachers from TEI. The result of this practice is that the shared contexts between the mentor and STs are much less than in the earlier model. The number of classroom transactions observed by the mentor is very few and therefore the discussions of the STs with the mentor are becoming less and less …’collaborative, dialogic and meditational’. (Sylva & Dana, 2001)
3. Research Scholars as Supervisors
In the Departments that have research scholars, these scholars are given the responsibility of sharing the supervision work which is a privilege enjoyed only by University departments and not colleges. In this context, many times, these scholars seem not oriented well for their role and this creates hurdles in the field, especially in terms of giving feedback to STs and assessing them.
4. Teachers as Mentors
As STs get started with the actual classroom teaching, they get attached with the teacher engaged in their pedagogy subject. It is possible that more than one ST gets attached to a teacher of the school. There is a major responsibility bestowed on the school teachers in this model. This tie up is the beginning of a mentor- mentee bonding in the path of professional development of STs. This is an important departure from the earlier model. In fact the mentors from the Dept
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/College are expected to consult these school teachers during assessment of the STs.
As per the NCTE principles, ‘competent and willing internship school teachers…’ are seen as mentor teachers.
‘….The teachers identified by it (TEI) as mentor teachers shall participate in the orientation workshop organised by the concerned TEI and contribute towards the development of the internship Implementation Plan. The mentor-teachers shall be called upon to continuously supervise the student-teachers and provide them the necessary guidance, as and when required on the listed school-based and community-based activities. The mentor-teachers will also be involved in the assessment of student-teachers’ performance for which they will be oriented to the use of a variety of assessment tools like rating scales, questionnaires, observation schedules, etc.’
In order to loop in the expertise of school teachers into this serious programme of professional development of STs, the schoolteachers definitely need orientation and guidance to fulfill their role effectively. Intense discussions between the mentors from TEI and the school mentors are necessary to help the school teachers perform effectively as mentors. It is important to let the school teachers know the expectations of the TEI before they start their work with the STs. In the previous model, school teachers didn’t have such a critical responsibility and they tend to carry on with the same model. In fact it is common to hear teachers say, ‘now that the B.Ed trainees are here, we can be a bit relaxed from routine work’…In order to bring in a shift in the mindset of school teachers seems not an easy task without hard work from the side of TEI. What have we done in this direction as TEI, is food for reflection.
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5. Feedback to Student teachers (STs)
Observation by mentors or research scholars followed with a feedback to the STs is critical to the professional development of STs. In the present model, not only is there a deficit of shared contexts between mentors and STs, there is also a dearth of feedback sessions to the STs. With just one period allotted for discussion with STs on their classroom transactions, the importance and rigor given to feedback sessions seem to be on the decline.
6. The school - TEI linkage and School Readiness
Organising the school experience programme in the previous model of B.Ed course of one year was itself challenging in terms of soliciting school cooperation and collaboration in the expected manner. The new two year model has brought in more logistics issues for the organizers of this component.
The challenge starts with making the school system understand the objectives of the new model with more focus on school internship. The responsibility of the schools envisioned in the new model is much more critical to the professional development of the STs and it seems that internalizing this new role of the school system seems difficult to be driven into the school authorities. They tend to view the new model like ‘the same wine in a new bottle’.
Schools tend to question the observation phase of the 1st year and the prolonged period of internship of the 2nd year.
Among the above two challenges at hand, the first one seems to be more difficult to face. The connotation of observation is understood as inspection, judgment, reporting etc and hence schools tend to be on the defense, or feel threatened so much so that the phrase ‘school observation’ seems to demand holistic explanation as tool for professional development. Thorough and planned negotiations and
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dialogues with the school authorities are essential to make them understand that observation by STs means familiarizing them with school processes to widen the horizon of their understanding of the school context as a precursor to classroom teaching scheduled for the second year.
The second challenge is the cooperation expected from the school system during the long period of internship. As per NCTE guidelines, a school chosen by TEI for internship is supposed to be the ‘lab school’ and is supposed to act as the ‘extension of TEI’. This is definitely heavy expectation from the selected schools and a major challenge for TEIs. The modifications in the new model are essentially two pronged: there is more liberty with the STs, with less of control by the mentors from the TEI and there is more collaboration and support expected from the subject teachers of the school.
NCTE has laid down detailed and specific guidelines for strengthening the school-TEI linkage in the context of a prolonged and phased out school observation in the first year and school internship in the second year.
• Provide Internship Handbooks to the internship schools.
• Organise orientation–cum-consultation meetings with the school principals and mentors teachers.
• Develop supplementary material for additional activities in collaboration with mentor teachers.
• Hold fortnightly review meetings with mentor teachers.
• Hold follow-up meetings with student-teachers at regular intervals in the TEI.
• Monitor implementation of internship including observation of practice teaching. Assess, in collaboration with school mentor-teachers, the internship performance of student teachers.
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These guidelines are geared to ensure school readiness, through negotiations and discussions with the school Heads to make them abreast of their critical role in supporting the teacher education system and help them rise to the expectations of TEI. But, despite all these stipulations, how much of such negotiations are carried out to ensure the readiness of the school system? Is the school system ready for this higher role in the professional development of STs? Have we oriented school teachers adequately to discharge this role at the expected level of competence? Most of the schools seem to look at the new model as ‘teaching practice with no supervision by University/ College teachers’ or as ‘not an organized exposure given to STs’ Given that there are diverse systems of schools, how do we ensure parity across schools in terms of cooperation from the teachers? What is the role of school teachers in the assessment of STs? These are questions for all of us in the teacher education system to reflect on.
Disability Perspective
During organization of internship, one of the first tasks was to identify schools followed with allocation of STs to each of these schools. In the first year’s batch of STs, (2015-16) there were around 15 STs with visual impairment. Care was taken to ensure that each group had only one ST with visual impairment. To the surprise of the organisers, one of the schools made it clear that they wouldn’t participate in the internship programme if there was a ST with visual impairment in the group allocated to them. One’s astonishment may be doubled to know that it was a Govt. school. Talking about inclusiveness and inclusive school seem so redundant when such field realities hit us hard. This again is a reflection for TEIs. Are our negotiations and discussions with the schools adequate? What are our efforts to make the programme inclusive? How can we impact the mindset of school authorities and render our programme more inclusive?
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Conclusion
Organising school experience programme of one year B.ED programme has its own issues and challenges. Obviously, the new model of two year programme would have teething problems for sure. Apart from these teething problems are the serious concerns raised in this analysis. Success of any pre-service teacher education programme depends on the cooperation of and collaboration with, schools in the community of TEIs. It is critical that modifications in the pre-service programmes should always take place, taking the school system into the loop of planning and discussions. In our context redesigning the B.Ed programme has been carried out without addressing adequately, the age old issue of gap between schools and TEIs. Unless this problem gets addressed with seriousness, many of the field level implementation issues will persist.
Our commitment to equity and social justice and inclusivity definitely calls for addressing the needs of STs with disability. The needs of such STs and their challenges cannot be overlooked while designing curriculum. Alternatives in terms of their curricular experiences and corresponding assessment strategies will have to be worked out by the institutions/bodies involved in these tasks.
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