Pasolini's Trilogy of Life the Delay of Death

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The Delay of Death – Pasolini’s The DelayT ohfe D Deealtahy – o Pf aDseoaltihn i–’s Pasolini’s Trilogy of TLriifleogy of Life TOn rthiel ooccagsioyn o f onewf D OVLnD stih befy oe Cccriatesirioonn oafn nde aw MDoVMDAs breyt rCospriteerciotinve a,n ad lao oMk oaMt PAi erer tProaspoloe cPtaiveso,l ian il'osok at Pier Paolo Pasolini's On the occasion of new DVDs by Criterion and a MoMA retrospective, a look at Pier Paolo Pasolini's "Trilogy of Life" and _Salò_."Trilogy of Life" and _Salò_. "Trilogy of Life" and _Salò_. Gabriel Abrantes 24 DEC 2012 Gabriel Abrantes 24 DEC 2012 Gabriel Abrantes 24 DEC 2012

Above: Giotto, Meeting atA thbeo veGo: lGdeiont tGo,a Mtee, e1t3in0g5 .at the Golden Gate, 1305. Above: Giotto, Meeting at the Golden Gate, 1305.

Pier Paolo Pasolini’s Salò P(1ie9r7 P5)a owlaos P raesolealiseni’sd Sbayl òC (r1it9e7ri5o)n w ina s1 9re9l8e aasendd i nb y2 0C0r4it ethrieoyn in 1998 and in 2004 they Pier Paolo Pasolini’s Salò (1975) was released by Criterion in 1998 and in 2004 they released Mamma Roma (1re9l6e2a)se. Tdh iMs apmastm am Roonmtha t h(e1y9 6re2l)e. aTsehisd paa mstu mcho nbthe lathtedy rbeolex-asesetd o af hmisu sichx- belated box-set of his six- released Mamma Roma (1962). This past month they released a much belated box-set of his six- hour Trilogy of Life (1971-1h9o7u4r )T,r ilno gay b oefa Luitfiefu (l1 r9e7st1o-r1a9t7io4n) ,a ind a abcecaoumtifpual nreiestdo wraitthio ann a anwd easoccmome pheaanpied with an awesome heap hour Trilogy of Life (1971-1974), in a beautiful restoration and accompanied with an awesome heap of great docs, essays ando of tghreera gt ododcis,es. e sOsan ysDe acnedm obtehre r1 3g oMoodMieAs. stOanr tDedec ae mbonetrh 1-3 MoMA started a month- of great docs, essays and other goodies. On December 13 MoMA started a month- long retrospective dedicaltoendg t ore htriso spwoerck.tive dedicated to his work. long retrospective dedicated to his work.

I. Defending Pasolini AgainstI. Defending His Devotees Pasolini Against His Devotees I. Defending Pasolini Against His Devotees The prevailing view of PieTr hPea oplroe Pvaaisolinlgin vii heaws obfe Pcioemr Pea suolob jPuagsoatelidni thoa tsh eb emciosshmea psuebn juregpautetadt ioton tohfe misshapen reputation of The prevailing view of Pier Paolo Pasolini has become subjugated to the misshapen reputation of his most infamous film, Sahlòis (m19o7st5 )i.n Tfahme ofilums ’fils mun, yiSealldò in(1g9 se75r)i.a Tl hdee scfilmen’st uinntyio eelvdeinr gm seoreri asel dveescreent into ever more severe his most infamous film, Salò (1975). The film’s unyielding serial descent into ever more severe cycles of mutilation, sodomcyyc, lceosp orfo mphuatiglaiatio, na,n sod cdhormonyi,c c roappreo pohf aag giaro, uapnd o fc 1h2ro-n1i5c yeraapre o oldf sa hgarosup of 12-15 year olds has cycles of mutilation, sodomy, coprophagia, and chronic rape of a group of 12-15 year olds has scandalized and influencescd aan cdualltiuzered tahnadt i sin fflruaenntic efodr aa ncyu lsttuirme uthli atht aist fcrant irce mfoirn adn iyts st ciomnustlii ttuheant tcsa onf remind its constituents of scandalized and influenced a culture that is frantic for any stimuli that can remind its constituents of their humanity. The film hatsh efuirr hnuishmeadn itaym. Tphlee ffilodmd hear sfo fru grneishneeradt iaomnsp olef filfomddmearke forrs g iennteenrta otionns of filmmakers intent on their humanity. The film has furnished ample fodder for generations of filmmakers intent on appropriating and capitaliazipnpgr oopnr iiatsti ncga paancdi tcy afoprit ashliziocnk,g oans iats l acsatp daitccithy afottre shmpotc tk,o haasve a lansty deiftfcehc tattempt to have any effect appropriating and capitalizing on its capacity for shock, as a last ditch attempt to have any effect whatsoever on an audiencweh, aintso ane veagr eo nw haenr ea ucduiletunrcee h, ains alons at gaell rwehligerioeu csu altnudre p hoalisti cloasl tc arell dreibliigliitoy.us and political credibility. whatsoever on an audience, in an age where culture has lost all religious and political credibility. This tendency has degradTehdis P teansodleinnic tyo hthaes stdeagtursa doef da Phoalsolowlin pi tuolp thitee str aotfu scs oafn ad ahlo, ltlhoew tpypuelp oitef er of scandal, the type of This tendency has degraded Pasolini to the status of a hollow pulpiteer of scandal, the type of fashionable figure that he fsoash aiodnaambalen tfigly audrem tohnaitsh hee dso d audrinagm ahnist llyif eatdimmeo.n Yishet eSda ldòu grianigns h eisn loifremtimoues. Yet Salò gains enormous fashionable figure that he so adamantly admonished during his lifetime. Yet Salò gains enormous depth when regarded as ad epputnhc wtuhaetino nre tgoa Prdaesodl iansi’ sa e pnutinrec tduiasctioonu rtseo P, aasondl insei’se ne nthtireo udgisch tohuer sepri,sm an do fseen through the prism of depth when regarded as a punctuation to Pasolini’s entire discourse, and seen through the prism of his struggle to comprehenhdis a stnrdu gwgrelest tloe cwoitmh par esohecniedty a tnhda tw wreasts lper owgitrhe ssia soveclyie dtye tbhaasit nwga sit seprolf ginretossi avely debasing itself into a his struggle to comprehend and wrestle with a society that was progressively debasing itself into a 1 conformist and racist creed. The Trilogy of Life is the positive accumulation of his discourse, with a vision of culture that is far more elucidating than the adolescent fascination with the effect of violence: culture as the delay of death.

II. Cinema of Poetry

The system of contradictions which models the complexity of Pasolini’s cinema can begin to be revealed by the description of a few binary oppositions. His framing, lens variation, shot language, conformist and racist creed. cThaest Triinlogy cofh Loifeic ise ts,he paorsit tidveir aecccutimounla,t iomn uofsi hics adilsc cohuroseic, weis,th aand editing strategies can all be seen as subject to vision of culture that is far more elucidating than the adolescent fascination with the effect of violence: culture as the delaya o lfo dgeaitch .of conjoining ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture.

The titleII. c Cinemaards i nof hPoetryis ﬁlms already proffer a disorienting opposition of the aural and visual. The The system of contradictionsb wehgichin mnoidnegls tohef Tcohmep leDxietyc oaf Pmasoerlionin’s cbinleinmda sca wn bitehg ina t ow bheite ﬁeld of grain and the black all capital roman revealed by the description of a few binary oppositions. His framing, lens variation, shot language, casting choices, art directionle, mttuesircianl gch oifc ets,h ean cd reedditinitgs. st rTathegeie fso cnant aolln b et hseee nb aasc sukgbjercot utond creates the distinct impression that the names a logic of conjoining ‘high’ anind t‘elowrm’ ciutlttuerne.tly appearing on screen (director, producer, cast, etc.), carry the weight of the Roman

The title cards in his films alrneaadmy perosff eer na gdirsoarveientdin gin o ptphoesiitrio nse ofn thaet aeu’sra lm anod nviusumal.e Tnhte to peace, the Ara Pacis, but transformed by the beginning of The Decameronfli bclinkedsr winithg a wwhaitrem fietlhd oof fg rlaiqinu aindd tehem bulalcsik oalnl c.a Opitavel rorm tahnis dignified procession of letters, we are lambasted by lettering of the credits. The font on the background creates the distinct impression that the names intermittently appearing on scErneenni o(d iMrecotorrr, ipcroodnuece’sr, cvuastl,g etacr.) ,c carcryo thpeh woenigyht off t hme Roonmoarnhythmic five-tone harmonicas, cornets, bells, names engraved in their senbatae’sg mpoipnuems,en tJe to pwes’ac eh, athrep As,ra Ptacmis,b boutu trrainnsfeos,rm elad ubyg theing, singing and percussive dancing. Already in the flickering warmth of liquid emulsion. Over this dignified procession of letters, we are lambasted by Ennio Morricone’s vulgar caccorpehodniyt so f wmoen oarhreyt hcmoicn fivefro-tnonte dha rwmoitnhic aas, c cormnepts,l ebexills,ty of class and cultural references scintillating into each bagpipes, Jews’ harps, tambootuhrieners,, olanug ahi nscg, sianlegi ntgh aantd spperacunssis veth dea necningti.r Ael resoadcy iian lth heistory of Roman culture (from the Republic’s Ara credits we are confronted with a complexity of class and cultural references scintillating into each other, on a scale that spans tPhea ecnitsir et oso cthiale h iCstoirnye ocf Ritotmaa, na cnuldtu rfer o(frmom tthee R feoplukb lisc’os nArgas of Naples to Ennio Moricone’s trademark Pacis to the Cinecitta, and frosom uthne dfotlkr asocnks)gs o.f Naples to Ennio Moricone’s trademark soundtracks).

Above: YouTube comments for Pasolini's Decameron.

Pasolini used an inverted version of this opposition in his first film, Accattone. He managed to Above: YouTube comments for Pasolini's Decameron. sanctify a rapscallion pimp (played by Franco Citti) and a landscape filled with the most brute and crass (albeit charming) hoodlums by cuing them with sixteenth century ‘holy’ music: Pasolini used an inverted version of this opposition in his first film, Accattone. He managed to “I think what scandalized [the audience] in Accattone was the mixture of violent Roman subproletariat with the musasicn ocf Btiafcyh .a”1 rapscallion pimp (played by Franco Citti) and a landscape filled with the most brute and crass (albeit charming) hoodlums by cuing them with sixteenth century ‘holy’ music: In this first film, along with his second, Pasolini developed an aesthetic that hinges on a dialectic, a style that he described as ‘reverential.’ In both Accattone and Mamma Roma he would film his “I think what scandalized [the audience] in Acca2ttone was the mixture of violent Roman subproletariat with the music of Bach.”1

In this first film, along with his second, Pasolini developed an aesthetic that hinges on a dialectic, a style that he described as ‘reverential.’ In both Accattone and Mamma Roma he would film his thieving, pimping, and prothstieitviutningg, psuimbp-pinrogl,e atanrdia pnr opstroittaugtinogni stsusb i-np frroalemtaersi arenf eprreontacginogn iMstes dinie fvaralm aensd referencing Medieval and Mannerist religious paintinMgas.n nPearsoistl irnei lmigoiostu so pfteanin tcinitgess. M Passasolicnio m, aonstd o ifnte lant ecrit efilsm Ms aGssaiottcoio, ,P aienrdo in later films Giotto, Piero dela Francesca as well asd tehlea cForalonrcse oscf tah ea sm waenlnl earsist thse P coonltoorrsm oof tahned m Raonssoner iFstiosr ePnotnintor.m Toh ea npdo seRosso Fiorentino. The pose and composition of a Masaancdc icoo cmrupcoisifixition oisf rae pMliacsaatecdci oin c trhuec cifixionocnlu isis orenp olifc Mataemd mina t hReo mcoan, cwluitsih othne of Mamma Roma, with the proto-bourgeois teenage pthrioetfo E-btooruer gine tohise tpeleancaeg oef tChhierfist E,t oswree iant itnhge fprolamce c ofn Csuhmristpt,i oswn,e haotirnizog nfrtoamlly consumption, horizontally crucified in the isolation ocf rau pcirfieisodn i nc ethll.e isolation of a prison cell.

These references come frTohme setwo r esfheurennnceeds p ceormioed sfr ofm a rtwt hoi ssthouryn,n tehde Mpeerdioiedvas ol fa anrdt hthiset oMrya,n tnher Miste.dieval and the Mannerist. Both are usually regardedB aosth in afereri ours utoa ltlhye r epgeariroddesd tahsa ti nthfeeryio frr atom teh:e A pnecriieondts R tohmate t,h tehye fRraemnea:issa Ancniceent Rome, the Renaissance and the Baroque. Giotto, Manadssa thec ioB,a aronqdu Pei.e Groi odtteola, MFraassancecscio,a a anrde Poine rtoh ed etrlaan Fsirtaionncaelsc cuasp ar eo fo tnh ethe transitional cusp of the invention of perspective, tihnev eangtieo no fo rfe paesorspn, eacntdive th, eth nea ascge notf streransodns, oafn indd tuhste rnialsc loegnict .st Graiontdtos’s of industrial logic. Giotto’s malformed and disjointedm paelrfspormecetdive as,nd w ditihsj oeianctehd b pueildrspinge crteiveces,di nwgit hto ewaacrhd sb iutsil doiwngn rheocreizoding, a troewards its own horizon, are part of the same pre-industparirat lo ‘rfe tahleit y’sa amned p‘inren-oincdeunstceri’a tlh ‘raet aPliaty’so alindi w ‘ionunlodc leantecre r’ ethaadt iPna Bsooclincia wccoiuold later read in Boccaccio and Chaucer. Pontormo aanndd R Cohssoau cFeior.r ePnotnintor,m oon athned o Rthoessor h aFniodr,e anrtein por,o otang thoen istotsh eorf hthaen dM, aanren eprristotagonists of the Mannerist period, with canvases coveperreiodd in, wsiuthp ecrannavatursealsly ceolovengreadte idn sﬁgupuererns aatnudra ellyth eelroenagl aptaelde tﬁgtesu oref sp anstde lethereal palettes of pastel pink, green and cerulean.p Tinhk,is gkirtescenh apnadst cicehreu loefa enx. aTghgise kiratsctedh Rpeanstaicissahe nocf ee xfoargmgse rwaatesd a R celenarissance forms was a clear disengagement from the rdigiseid nloggaigce omf eitns tp froemce tdhien gri gpiedr iloodg.ic of its preceding period.

Above: Masaccio, The ExpAublosiveon: Mofa Asadcacmio a, nTdh eE veExp (buelsifoorne oafn Add aafmte ra rnedst oErveat io(bne),f o1r4e2 a6n.d after restoration), 1426.

Pasolini eventually had to Pmaosodliifnyi heivse ‘rnetuvearlleyn htiaadl st toyl me,o’ danifyd haids a‘rpetve threesenti aale ststylhe,t’i ca nredf eardenacpet sth teose a aesthetic references to a different subject matter. Odni ftfheere firnts sut dbajye cotf mshaottoetri.n Og nT hthee G firosspt deal yA cocf oshrdoiontgin tgo St. Matthew, a film a film The Gospel According to 3St. Matthew, portraying the life of Jesus according to the Gospel of Matthew, Pasolini nearly gave up the project, intuiting the superfluity of his ‘reverential syle’:

portraying the life of Jesus according to the Gospel of Matthew, Pasolini nearly gave up the project, “Already in Accattone my style was religious… Using a reverential style for The Gospel was intugitilidngin gth teh esu liply:er iflut citaym oef hoiust ‘rheevetorerinct.i.a. lR sylevee’r:ential technique and style in Accattone went fine, but applied to a sacred text they were ridiculous;… When I was filming the baptism scene near “Already in Accattone my style was religious… Using a reverential style for The Gospel was Viterbo I threw over all my technical preconceptions. I started using the zoom, I used new gilding the lily: it came out rhetoric... Reverential technique and style in Accattone went fine, but camera movements, new frames, which were not reverential, but almost documentary.”2 applied to a sacred text they were ridiculous;… When I was filming the baptism scene near Viterbo I threw over all my technical preconceptions. I started using the zoom, I used new By understanding the redundancy of filming a religious subject with references to religious camera movements, new frames, which were not reverential, but almost documentary.”2 paintings, Pasolini discovered his revolutionary cinematographic methodology, and its transformative potential. In order to forge a new perspective of Christianity, he would have to film By understanding the redundancy of filming a religious subject with references to religious Jesus Christ as a man, as anything but holy. Pasolini decided to film the gospel with a profusion of paintings, Pasolini discovered his revolutionary cinematographic methodology, and its portraying the lifeve of rJeitsués t aeccohrdninigq tuo ethes: Gospel of Matthew, Pasolini nearly gave up the project, transformative potential. In order to forge a new perspective of Christianity, he would have to film intuiting the superfluity of his ‘reverential syle’: Jesus Christ as a man, as anything but holy. Pasolini decided to film the gospel with a profusion of “Already in Accatto“nTe hmey stayllet ewrans raeltigioionus… o fU dsinifgf ea reevenret nlteianl stseyle sfo,r aTh e2 G5omspeml w asnd a 200mm on the same face; the proliferation of gilding the lily:ve it craimtée otuet crhhetonricq...u Rees:verential technique and style in Accattone went fine, but applied to a sacredw teaxtst theeyd w ezore roidmicu lshous;o…t s,Wh ewn iIt wha st hfileminrg l tehen bseaptsism o scf veener nye ahr igh numbers which are on top of things, Viterbo I threw oveer axll pmay tnecdhinnicgal ptrheceomnce lpitkeions. e I xstcaretessid usveing ltyhe lzoeaomve, I unseedd n ebwread; the continuous, deceptively casual shots camera movements,“T nhewe f ramltees,r wnhaicthi owner eo nfo td reivefferernetianl, tb ulet anlmseosts d,o cau m2e5ntmarym.”2 and a 200mm on the same face; the proliferation of against the light, which dazzle the camera; the hand-held camera movements; the more sharply wasted zoom shots, with their lenses of very high numbers which are on top of things, By understanding thef roedcuundseancdy otfr filamcinkig na gre lishgiouos tsus;b jethct ew itwh rreofenregnc eesd toi treinliggio ufsor expressive reasons; the irritating opening shots; paintings, Pasolini disceoxvepreadn hdis irnevogl uttihoneamry c ilnikeema teogxracpehissic mevetholdyo lolegya, avend nitsed bread; the continuous, deceptively casual shots transformative potentitahl. eIn oinrdteer trom foirgnea ab nleew pearspuesectives oof nCh rtihsteian saity, hme weo uilmd haagvee to, filemtc.”3 Jesus Christ as a mana, ags aaninythstin gt hbuet h loilgy. hPat,so wlinhi diecchid edd atozzl film eth et hgoesp cela wmith ea rparo;f utsihoen ohf and-held camera movements; the more sharply verité techniques: focused tracking shots; the wrong editing for expressive reasons; the irritating opening shots; Casting would be one of the most creative aspects of Pasolini’s work, and (after the period of his “The alternation of tdhiffer einnt tleenrsems, ian 2a5bmmle a npda au 2se00msm oonn t hteh saem sae famce;e th iem praolgifeera,ti oen tocf .”3 wasted zoom Rshootms, waitnh thfileimr les)nse sw oof veulrdy h imgh anunmabgeres w ahi csth arrieki on gtop e of ftheincgts,: every character in history would now become a sub- expanding thepmr loikele etxacerssiiaven lyb leoadveyn.e dP baresoad;l tihnei ’cso nitminuaougs,i ndeacreypt ivewloy craldsusa l wshotsuld become populated exclusively with rough local against the ligCht,a wsthicihn dgazzl weo thuel dca mbeera ; othne eha nodf- htehlde c ammeorast m ocveremeanttis;ve the amsorpe eshcartpsly of Pasolini’s work, and (after the period of his focused trackinngo shn-opts;r tohefe wssirongo endiatinlg a focr teoxprrs,essi rvee greaasordns;le thsse i rroitaft iwngh opeetnhineg rsh tohts;ey represented cuckolded bakers, sex-obsessed the interminabRle opamuseasn o nfil thme sas)m ew imoaugled, e mtc.”a3 nage a striking effect: every character in history would now become a sub- good-for-nothings, enthusiastic virgins, adulterous queens, perverted friars, or even the incestuous Casting would bep ornoe loef thaer miaostn cbreoatdivey a. sPpeacsots ofl iPnaiso’sli niim’s waogrk,i nanadr (yaf twer othrel dpesrio wd oof uhisld become populated exclusively with rough local Oedipus Rex. Roman films) wounldo mna-npagreo af estssirikinog neffaecl t:a ecvetroy rcs,ha rarcetegr ainr hdislteorssy wo ouldf nwowh ebetchoemre ath sueby- represented cuckolded bakers, sex-obsessed proletarian body. Pasolini’s imaginary worlds would become populated exclusively with rough local non-professional gacotoors,d r-efgoard-lnesso tohf winhegths,er teheny trhepuresiseantstedi ccu cvikorlgdeidn bs,ake ars,d seulx-teobrseoussesd queens, perverted friars, or even the incestuous good-for-nothings,O eentdhuisipaustsic viRrgeinx.s, adulterous queens, perverted friars, or even the incestuous Oedipus Rex.

Above: YouTube comments for Pasolini's The Canterbury Tales. Above: YouTube comments for Pasolini's The Canterbury Tales.

Above: YouTube comments for Pasolini's The Canterbury Tales. It is surprising that Pasolini refrained from positing Caravaggio as an influence, as he seems to have so much in common with him. Caravaggio, a 17th century Italian baroque painter, usually rendering mythical, religious, or moral themes, also exclusively cast his models from the lowest social classes of Naples. Further parallels can be found in Caravaggio’s sexuality, his attraction to violence, and his death, which like Pasolini, was from knife wounds on an Italian beach. Pasolini only once mentioned how he felt about Caravaggio, stating that he was not much influenced by him. He justified this, stating that everything Caravaggio painted had the patina of death, although he concedes that the world Caravaggio placed in front of the easel was a spectacular invention;

‘the neglected children of the greengrocer, disparaged women of the people, etc.’4 What made Caravaggio’s work revolutionary was his choice to alter his perspective, detailing the low, vulgar, and disparaged classes of society. The Entombment of Christ is painted from the point of view of beggars’ feet, the Conversion on the Way to Damascus consecrates a quarter of its surface to the chiaroscuro modeling of a horse’s rump, and all of his paintings are filled with representations of Christ, Mary, saints, and apostles modeled by the weathered faces, scum-filled fingernails, and withering breasts of bodies that suffered a lifetime of social oppression. This political dialectic of representing the holy with the marginalized factions of society is so analogous to the dynamic of Pasolini’s cinema that his denial reveals itself as all the more conspicuous.

These examples point to the centrality of Pasolini’s approach to casting and the dialectic that founds its political distention. As P. Adams Sitney established in his text Acattone and Mamma Roma, the source of the genealogical shrift in between Neo-Realism and Pasolini’s cinema arose from the mytho-poetic torque that Pasolini infused in his characters and actors.5 In Mamma Roma, Anna Magnani incarnates the Mother Madonna as she hangs from the window of a social housing building, weeping for her son who lays feverishly bound to a cruciﬁx.

These series of contradictions (camera, acting, music, casting, art direction, etc.) are then conjoined, sometimes forming overlaps of pairs (i.e. Bach contrasts with the sub-proletarian pimp, who in turn contrasts with medieval icon composition), creating a highly complex polymorphic network of contradictions, which establish the principal impetus of his discourse: the Nietzschean dialectic of Epic and Folk. Pasolini often refers to the notion of epic:

5 Above: Pontormo, DescenAt bfroovem: tPheo nCtorormsso, ,c D. e1sc52e5n. t from the Cross, c. 1525.

“Dreyer, Mizoguchi and C“hDarpelyein,r ,t hMeiyzo agreu cahll i eapnidc, C- hnaopt leinp,i cth ieny t haere B arlel cehptiica,n - senontse ep oicf tihne t hweo Brdre; cI htian sense of the word; I mean epic in the more mytmheica nse enpseic ionf tthhee mworde m- mytohriec nseantusera lo ef pthicen wessord w -h micohr ep enratatuinras l meporicen teoss which pertains more to things, to facts, to charactehrins,g ts,o toh efa stcots,ry ,t ow cithaoruat cBterers,ch tto’s tdhe tstacohrmy, ewnith. oI ufet eBl rtehcish mt’syt dheitcachment. I feel this mythic epicness in both Dreyer aenpdi cMniezossg uinc hbio athn dD rCehyeapr lainn:d a Mll tizohregeu csehei a tnhdin gCsh afrpolmin :a a pll othinrte oef sevieew things from a point of view which is absolute, essentiwalh aicnhd isin a ab csoelrutatein, ewsasey nhtoialyl, arenved irne nat icael.r”t6ain way holy, reverential.”6

The juxtaposition of the epTihce a jnudx ttahpeo fsiotlkio lnie osf atht eth ep cice natnedr othf eh ifso wlko lirek,s aant dth ael lc oefn ites rp oafr hticisu wlaorrk, and all of its particular modular contradictions. Itm iso idnutelanrd ceodn ttora gduicidtieo nths.e I tfil ims isn teonwdaerdds t oth geu midyteh tihce. Tfilhmiss i sto wwhayrd its isth uen mjuytsthic. This is why it is unjust to delimit his work as burletosq dueelim eict lheicst iwciosrmk .a Tsh beu strlerusqctuere e ocfl ehcisti cinisdmivi. dTuhael stworurksctu aren do fo hf itsh ien dbioviddyu oafl works and of the body of work did not assemble a twotoermk idci dp anstoti cahsese, amcbcluem au tloatteinmgi cd ipffaestreincth syme, acbcoulimc ufolarmtinsg o dnieff eorne ntot psym of bthoelic forms one on top of the other, but, rather, through oat hfleerxi, bulet ,d riaatlheecrt,i cth arosusegmh bal efledxi thbele l idkeianlecssti co fa asse nemwb wleodr ltdh,e a l iwkeonrledss of a new world, a world founded in the fragmentarfyo uonpdpeods iitnio tnhse ofrf athgem suenbtacroyn oscppioouss.itions of the subconscious.

In contradistinction to the Idnyn coanmtriacds isdteinscctriiobne dto athbeo vedyn, Saamlòic ws odrekssc tori beelid ea bthoeve m, aSjoarlòit yw oofr kstec thon eiqliudees the majority of techniques that Pasolini had elaboratethda ta Pndaso uselindi huandti le tlhaebno.r aFtoerd t haen dm ouviseed o uffnetrisl tohnelny. aF ocro tnhsiest meonvit aen odffers only a consistent and

6 unyielding linearity of axis in camera angles, acetic limit of lens variety, overall restraint from camera movement (especially handheld), and the rigidity of an unidirectional climactic story. The film even unyielding linearity of axis in camera angles, acetic limit of lens variety, overall restraint from camera movement (especially hmanadnhaeglde), sa ntdo tdheisc rigaidridty seof annt iumniedinretc itnio nitasl cnliamrarcatitcive sto rcy.o Tnhste rfilumc etiveonn, eschewing any pretense of suspense, manages to discard sepntrimefeenrt riinn igts ninasrrtaetiaved c tohnest rmucotioren, besacsihecw stingr uacnytu prreet eonfse a ostf suorspy ewniseth,out plot, where events merely proceed unyielding linearity of axis in camera angles, acetic limit of lens variety, overall restraint from camera preferring instead the more basic structure of a story without plot, where events merely proceed movement (especially hoanned haefldte),r a tnhde t hoet rhigeidr itiyn o spf anit eun oidfi remcotiotnivaal ctiloimna c(tmic ustcohry .l iTkehe filthme epverinmitive man’s fireside story, glued together one after the other in spite of motivation (much like the primitive man’s fireside story, glued together manages to discard sentiment in its narrative construction, eschewing any pretense of suspense, with an endless ‘and thwenit, ha nadn th een,d alnedss th e‘an…’nd). tThheisn u,n aidniredc tihoneanl ,fr iagniddity t pheernm…’eate).s Tthheis unidirectional frigidity permeates the preferring instead the more basic structure of a story without plot, where events merely proceed majority of Salò, and if mit waejroer nitoyt foofr oSnael òp,a raticnudla rif sc ite wnee, riet c nouoldt fjuosrt ifiaonbely pbea rseticenu alas rt hsce ene, it could justifiably be seen as the one after the other in spite of motivation (much like the primitive man’s fireside story, glued together equivalent to cheap naeusequaitivangl esnnutf f taot tacchkienagp se nxuaaullsey daevitinangt fsnascuistffs. attacking sexually deviant fascists. with an endless ‘and then, and then, and then…’). This unidirectional frigidity permeates the majority of Salò, and if it were not for one particular scene, it could justifiably be seen as the equivalent to cheap nauseating snuff attacking sexually deviant fascists.

Above: YouTube comments for Pasolini's Arabian Nights.

This singular scene rotates the hinge of the entire film, altering our moral perspective. The scene, Athbeo cveen: tYeorpuTieucbee ocfo tmhem filAemnbt,so r feveover :Pa aYlssoo thulienT ifu'sob uArer pa bactioarinam rNcmhig elhibtnset.rsti nfeosr loPuansoginlgin, bi'rsa nAdrya inb ihaannd N, aigftehrt asn. exhausting bout of torturing, degrading and defiling their pubescent captives. In one of the rare This singular scene rotates the hinge of the entire film, altering our moral perspective. The scene, camera movements in Salò, a tracking shot introduces them, neckties loosened, arms and legs the centerpiece of the filTmhi,s re sivenaglsu thlae rf oscur epanteria rrochta litbeesrt inthese lohuinggineg ,o bf rtahnedy e inn htiarend fil, amfte,r aalntering our moral perspective. The scene, akimbo, sprawled over the carpet of a secluded drawing room. The cinematography, in an unusual exhausting bout of torturing, degrading and defiling their pubescent captives. In one of the rare movement and attitudet hfoer Pcaesonlitnei,r pdoiesc neo ot cf otnhcee nfiltramte, orne vetheair lfsa ctehs,e bfuotu rar tphear torbiafurcscha tleibs ethretiirnes lounging, brandy in hand, after an camera movements in Salò, a tracking shot introduces them, neckties loosened, arms and legs presence in the musk oef xthheair usustrrionugn dbinogus.t Iot pf itvoortst uinr ian mg,e adsuergerda adnidn cgo natnritde hdaelf filciirnclge tthhaet ir pubescent captives. In one of the rare akimbo, sprawled over the carpet of a secluded drawing room. The cinematography, in an unusual leaves their conversatiocna tmo beer ahe mardo veovemr tehen tosb jienc ts that, su ar rtoruancdki thnegm ;sh a lootw i nvotircoed cuacn ebse htheaermd , neckties loosened, arms and legs movement and attitude for Pasolini, does not concenStratleò on their faces, but rather obfuscates their quoting a Baudelaire verse as the camera moves over a vast industrial-erotic Fernand Leger fresco; presence in the musk oaf kthimeirb suor,r ospunrdainwgs.le Idt p oivovetsr inth ae m ceasurpredt oanf da c seontcritleu dhaelfd c idrcrlea wthaint g room. The cinematography, in an unusual another voice doubts that the quote is Baudelaire’s as we see a set of exquisitely framed Dada and leaves their conversation to be heard over the objects that surround them; a low voice can be heard Suprematist collages. Cmomoveplemtineg nthti sa mndea suatrteitdu hdaelf cfoircr leP arsoounlidn it,h ed rooeoms , nthoet ccaomnecrae senttrtlaeste on their faces, but rather obfuscates their quoting a Baudelaire verse as the camera moves over a vast industrial-erotic Fernand Leger fresco; into the familiar Pasolinpi crleose-nupcse ( ainlb ethit ein mlesussk fro notaf l,t hthereire suquarroteur npodritnragits)s. w Iht epreivo thets m ienn a measured and contrite half circle that another voice doubts that the quote is Baudelaire’s as we see a set of exquisitely framed Dada and agree that they were in fact quoting Nietzsche. The men, cigars in hand and swiveling their Suprematist collages. Cleoamveplesti ntgh ethiirs cmoeansuvererdsa htailof cni rctole bareo uhned athred roovme,r t hthe eca ombejrea csetstt lethsat surround them; a low voice can be heard glasses, exhibit bohemian postures transported directly from Manet’s Le déjeuner sur l'herbe. They into the familiar Pasolini close-ups (albeit in less frontal, three quarter portraits) where the men assume, in context andq pueorsotinnga, tah eB paourtd oef lleafti-rwei nveg irnsetell eacstu athlse th cata fmasceirstas msoo vevehesm oevnetlyr a vast industrial-erotic Fernand Leger fresco; agree that they were in fact quoting Nietzsche. The men, cigars in hand and swiveling their excoriated. The modernainsto ptoheetrry ,vo paiicntein gds,o uanbdt sb otheamt iathn elif eqstuyloet ere pisre Bseanutedde inla thiree sc’s eanse wforem see a set of exquisitely framed Dada and glasses, exhibit bohemian postures transported directly from Manet’s Le déjeuner sur l'herbe. They a material list of the objects and social behaviors that the Fascist state had deemed ‘degenerate.’ assume, in context andS pueprsorenma, athteist p ocrto ollfa legfte-wsi.n gC iontmellpecletutainlsg th taht ifsasc mistesa sosu verehde mheanltfl ycircle around the room, the camera settles excoriated. The moderninistto p otheetry ,f apmainitlinagrs, P aansod blionhie cmlioanse lif-eustpylse (reaplbreeseitn itned l eins tshe f rsconentae lf,o rtmhree quarter portraits) where the men a material list of the objaegctrse aen dt hsoact iathl beeyh awvieorse thina t ftahce tF aqscuoistt istngat eN hiaedt zscdeemhed. T‘dhegee mneerante,. ’cigars in hand and swiveling their glasses, exhibit bohemian postures transported directly from M7 anet’s Le déjeuner sur l'herbe. They assume, in context and persona, the port of left-wing intellectuals that fascists so vehemently excoriated. The modernist poetry, paintings, and bohemian lifestyle represented in the scene form a material list of the objects and social behaviors that the Fascist state had deemed ‘degenerate.’ Above: Carravaggio, Entombment of Christ, 1602.

This is the only scene in Salò that appeals to the revolutionary potential of Pasolini’s previously developed dialectic strategies. In an ironic reversal of the representation of the sub-proletariat as saints, Pasolini represents Fascists as left-wing intellectuals. In this he invests in the same leverage Above: Carravaggio, EntoAmbbomvee:n Ct oafr rCavahrigstg, i1o6, 0E2n.tombment of Christ, 1602. Above: Carravagthgiao, tE nhtoism bdmieantl eofc Cthircista, l1 6a02p. proach affords, but applies it as a gesture of masochistic self-effacement. At This is the only scene in STahlòis t hisa tth aep opnelay lssc toe nthee in r eSvoallòu ttihoanta aryp ppeoatelsn tioa lt hoef Preavosolluintiio’sn pareyvi poouteslnytial of Pasolini’s previously Tdheives ilso ptheed odnialyl esctchteican estt rinam tSedaogeliòemve s.thl eoaInptn eadtpn pdtirehioaanleleiscc tteroiec xtve hstcerr saaroetelvor goiiafle uts.htiioe nIn nraeg arpyn r le piirsebotneneinctart irttaieoilve no faor saPf gathlso eof l suitnohibe’sf - rpetrhpoerlvieeotse auprnsliatayat tatiorsnia orf cthhe ssu bis-p rnoleotatr iseat aes n as the objectionable pursuits of dsaeivents,lo pPeadso dliinail erecpticre stseranttessag Fiieans.scts, Ii stnP sa sona silr iolnenif itrc-ew priernevegse rinsanttesl l loFefac tscthueai stlrs.esp Iarnes tse hleisnft t-haweti oningve oinfst ttehslle ein csu ttuhbae-l ps.sar oImnle etha liresiave ht eraa signvee sts in the same leverage pathological reprobates, but as the sexually liberated experimentation of sensitive philosophically tsahaint ths,is P daisoalelicntii creapl arepseprnotastc hFhaa tasc hffioisstr dsis, aal seb culettif cta-apwl pianlpigep sinr oite aalclseh ca at ugffaeolstrs.du s,Irne b tohufits ma hpaepso ilniecvesh iistt asic si n sea t hglfe-e stsaffuamrceee mo lfee mventa.r soaAgtcehistic self-effacement. At that mhiso mdieanlet cthtiecm ael xaicnpoprdiraoetaintcdhgha ltaid bmffeaoorrtmdnins,eadn gbtie eut hto s.eaf pteh xpeTcl ioephrsaie atirtti iraanersgc halis bsg eie srnst tninuoarte gse deo feo mnf u tahsobse tptch ahetti hstroiabiacrjce tsehc stbil ofi-snye afn fbaoselcte ese pmtuteeirnnsu ta.gi stAs tt huoefp ob tjehcitison ianblce opunrsugirtsu oof us representation of fascists, tphaatth molomgiecnatl rtehpe reoxbcaoteris,at ibnpugat t lhaibosel otrhtgienic aseagl exur eoapf lrltoyhb elia bpteears,tar itaberduct h easxs pi steh rneimo sete senxuteaantilo layn sl i obthfe eser aontbesidjet icevetxiop pnehariblmolesoe npptuahrtisuicoanilt lsoy fo sef nsitive philosophically mpainthdoeldog dicaanld rieeps.Pr oTabhaesotrees, ils ib mnnuoiitn admseo dutehb deat asethnadxutti ebats.yoll yTse hlmibteteirnoerga ims tue npdeo te hndxiospt uaeinbrrictm iotlhenyang tr auubtoiynou nsesw ortetfi npseagren veusesiptn itve thatisth ip oiehnic l oogfson fgoaprschussaioicstuass,ll yrmepererse filntatteiorn otfh fasct istds,ivides his radical left wing politics mPainsodelindi dmaenadniet s.tofr Tmohomemree intsht Panareoisol y d eluoinnuxiwb mtter teaehaveamnt tb ttheoye semgroitgtmssainehgn mtuta pewrr itl yhfili inutse ngirnw tch eopaantve ogdr iluvitihotdeiuec sgs so rhessa ipstr hremaseadeirtnc tfilaahltt eileoern f t howafai tnf adgdsci vip diosostelis,tsic hsmis raadleicvoal lelfet wnintgly p orleiticms onstrated throughout his life. Pfroamso ltihnei mexetarenmt teo rmigohmt wenintfagror ipmlyo ultihtniecw see xtahtveraetm hthee rh iggaohdssat sowim nmgea rpl efilovotlietilrce tsnh tatlhyt adrte ivihmedo ehnsast dhra isost er damd tahiclreaovolu lgelehftno wtulyitn hrgeis mp loioflenit.sticrsated throughout his life. from the extreme right wing politics that he had so malevolently remonstrated throughout his life.

Above: YouTube commenAt fboor vePa: soYoliunTi'usb Teh ceo Cmamnteenrtb fuorry P Taasolesli.ni's The Canterbury Tales. Above: YouTube comment for Pasolini's The Canterbury Tales.

Above: YouTube comment for Pasolini's The Canterbury Tales. 8

III. Delay of Death

The Trilogy of Life, although not yet subscribing to this pessimistic and auto-destructive perspective, is already a premonition of it. During its conception Pasolini had already lost conﬁdence with all of his Marxist prerogatives, and so the trilogy operates as a conscious delay of death. In this sense it can be categorized as a six-hour elegiac rumination on the ruins of what Pasolini considered to be a perished humanity. With it, he forged the culminating statement his body of work, and wittingly went about it in a manner that was a wild critical and commercial success. This success, as well as the ﬁlms’ faux naïveté and mock optimism, reinforces the grand irony of succeeding this trilogy with Salò.

The three sources for the trilogy, Boccacio’s The Decameron, Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, and the anonymous 1001 Nights are all products of medieval (pre-industrial) cultures that relish in caricature, vulgarity, sexuality and trickery. The structure of the books are similar, as they are all composed of a series of stories strung together by a frame narrative. The choice of medieval narratives for the trilogy, especially ones that lean so heavily on a blatant erotic crudity as a source of gregarious jest and joy, comes as an evident culmination of Pasolini’s previous interest in a pre- modern authenticity and view of liberated sexuality as the most effective tool against the bourgeoisie. In addition to these two facts underline the texts’ most signiﬁcant particularity (which is also shared in common with Sade’s 120 Days): the main impetus for storytelling is to delay a confrontation with death.

How each frame operates as a ‘delay of death’ is clear in their summaries. In The Decameron a group of Florentine citizens barricade themselves in a countryside castle in order to avoid the black plague scourging the city. While they are barricaded each member of their party tells a story in order to pass the time. In The Canterbury Tales, a group of English men and women tell each other stories to pass the time as they proceed on their pilgrimage towards Canterbury. The relation of this frame to a delay of death is founded on its structure around a pilgrimage. These long voyages to visit holy relics (throughout history as well as today) most commonly function as a demonstration of faith entreating divine providence to cure personal illness. In 1001 Nights an artful young woman marries a sultan who has been chronically slaying his wives one after another on their wedding night out of spite for being cuckolded by his ﬁrst wife. The young woman attempts to save herself (and the many women that would come after her) by telling an extended chain of stories, which, keeping the sultan in suspense, delay her immanent execution. In all three cases the frame characters set about telling stories in order to delay their confrontation with death, whether it be the black plague, divine providence, or the rancorous sultan’s sword.

9 Above: Still from 35mm ﬁlm of The Arabian Nights by Pier Paolo Pasolini, 1974. Above: Still from 35mm ﬁlm of The Arabian Nights by Pier Paolo Pasolini, 1974.

All three books posit storytelling as a form of entertainment in order to pass the time, as well as a All three books posit storytelling as a form of entertainment in order to pass the time, as well as a form of escaping death. Regardless of the fact that Pasolini’s trilogy does away with the frame form of escaping death. Regardless of the fact that Pasolini’s trilogy does away with the frame narratives (although he had originally filmed and edited over 20 minutes of the pilgrims narratives (although he had originally filmed and edited over 20 minutes of the pilgrims in Canterbury, he ended up editing these out the night in between the press screening and the public screening at the Bine rClina nFtielmrb Fuersty,i vahel pernedmeider eu)p, tehdei tfilinmgs t hoepseera oteu to tnh teh insi gsahmt ien, bbeatsiwceen the press screening and the premise. The Trilogy arisepus boluict oscf are deinsiilnlugsi aotn tmhe nBt ewriltihn tFhielm p oFleitsticiaval pl opterenmtiaiel roef )c, itnheem filam, asn odperate on this same, basic acquiesces to a concepptiorenm oifse life. Tthhaet Tvireilowgsy c aurltiuseres aosu at omf aan dneisir ltlou sidroenamme anwt wayit htim thee, apso alit iwcayl ptootential of cinema, and postpone our irremediabalec qeuxistescenetisa lt oco an dciotinocne opf t‘itohnro owfn leifess- thtoawt aviredws-sd ecautlhtu.’re as a manner to dream away time, as a way to postpone our irremediable existential condition of ‘throwness-towards-death.’ This logic arises out of the Pasolini’s desperation in regard to the political impotence of having an audience that was limiteTdh tois tlhoeg dico amriinseatse do ufat cotfi othnes oPfa tsohel ibnoi’su rdgeespoiseiera (taiortnist isn arengda inrdte tlole cthtuea pls)o.l itItical impotence of having an also comes out of his disaaupdpieoinnctme ethnat tin w tahes alimestitheedt itcos tohfe a dnoamrcihnya pterdop foasectido nbsy othf eth ‘cei nbeomuarg oefoisie (artists and intellectuals). It poetry’; they were to readalilsyo a cpopmroepsr iaotuetd o ifn htois a d fiasashpiopnoainbtlme ceannt oinn tohfe i naterstnhateiotincasl ofilfm amnaarkicnhgy ,proposed by the ‘cinema of much like Marxist posturpinoge btrey’c;a tmheey f awsherieo ntaob rleea fdoirl yth aep yopruotphr oiaf tEeudr oinpteo. aP afasoshlinioi naanbdl eh ics apnrodnu ocfe irn,ternational filmmaking, Alberto Grimaldi, evadedm tuhceh p loikeliti cMs aorfxi msta rpgoinstaul, rainltge rbneactiveam aen fda shcoiuonntaerb-cleu lftourr athl fea shyoiuotnh, obfy Europe. Pasolini and his producer, attempting to formulate aAnlbd emrtaor keGrti mThaeld Tir,i leovgayd aesd a t hmea sspo lspiticesc toafc mle.arginal, alternative and counter-cultural fashion, by attempting to formulate and market The Trilogy as a mass spectacle. This strategy was enormously successful, and The Trilogy was widely awarded, critically acclaimed, and commercially successful. The Decameron won the Silver Bear at the 1971 Berlin This strategy was enormously successful, and The Trilogy was widely awarded, critically International Film Festival, a year later The Canterbury Tales won the Golden Bear, and in acclaimed, and commercially successful. The Decameron won the Silver Bear at the 1971 Berlin 1974 Arabian Nights won the Grand Prize of the Jury at the Cannes Film Festival. Up till the International Film Festival, a year later The Canterbury Tales won the Golden Bear, and in production of The Decameron, Pasolini had only won one other major prize, grabbing the Special 1974 Arabian Nights won the Grand Prize of the Jury at the Cannes Film Festival. Up till the Jury Prize at the ’64 Venice film festival, with The Gospel According to St. Matthew. The films’ production of The Decameron, Pasolini had only won one other major prize, grabbing the Special commercial success can be linked to a politics of the producer’s publicity strategy and Pasolini’s content. All three films wJuerery a Pdrveizert iseat dth aes ’ 6sa4l aVceinouicse f afilrmce sfe csetilvaeblr,a wtinithg Tthhee j oGyo ospf ae li bAecrcaoterding to St. Matthew. The films’ sexuality, the puerile delicgohmt omf eerxctriaml suarcitacle fssoo lchaanrd binee ss,linke andd t oth ae cpoomlitiic sm oishf thapes p orof dbeugcueirl’esd p nuabïflis.city strategy and Pasolini’s The posters mimicked thceo stntyleenst. oAf lpl tohrrneoeg rfilamphsi cw Be-rfile mads,ve writthise thde ainse savitalabcleio duissp falarcy eosf ncuedleitby,rating the joy of a liberated burlesque grimaces, widsee mxuoaulitthye, dth pea pnutoemriilme eds,el iagnhdt oa fva exriteragmataerdit asal tfuoroalthioanrd oinf ess,xoti ca nlodc athtieo ncsomic mishaps of beguiled naïfs. and costumes. The traileTrsh ee xpaocsterebrast em tihmisic lkeogdic tehvee stn ylfuertsh eorf, puotilrinzionggr anp hailcte Brn-afiltmings, m woitnht athge tinhaetvitable display of nudity, burlesque grimaces, wide mouthed pantomimes, and a variegated satura10tion of exotic locations and costumes. The trailers exacerbate this logic even further, utilizing an alternating montage that flips rhythmically in between explicit sex and close-ups of grotesque hooting, cackling, moaning, and flatulence. They conclude with a boisterous tongue in cheek V.O. boasting of the films’ XXX rating. Such strategy would pander —quite successfully—to a mass audience craving commodities that fed their recently liberated senses of self, the same audience that had previously been alienated, wearied, or bored by Pasolini’s less jocular films. Such commercial mechanisms functioned so well that, by the end of the trilogy, the longest review of Arabian Nights ran a staggering eleven pages, punctuated over thirty spreads of Italian Playboy’s soft-porn bunnies.7

The trilogy and Salò are very different, but they are founded in a common impetus, experimental research on how one can go about as a poet in a secular and politically flaccid culture. Both films posit the same answer, albeit in different typologies: one through the escapism of a gregarious popular form and the other through a melancholy fueled pessimism. They both revel in affirmations of the Elegiac form as the only justifiable genre of cultural production. They operate as a preemptive elegy, as a funeral oration, or a funeral speech: a discursive locus for collective mourning in order to usher the fabricated qualities of the dead back into a living corpus.

“Now hearing this gospel of universal harmony, each person feels himself to be not simply united, reconciled or merged with his neighbor, but quite literally one with him, as if the veil of maya had been torn apart, so that mere shreds of it ﬂutter before the mysterious primordial unity (das Ur-Eine).”8

Special thanks to David Phelps.

Notes

1. Stack, Oswald (ed.) “Accattone.” in Pasolini on Pasolini. (Thames and Hudson, London 1969.) 52.

2. Stack, Oswald (ed.) “Accattone.” in Pasolini on Pasolini. (Thames and Hudson, London 1969.) 83-84.

3. Pasolini, Pier Paolo. “The “Cinema of Poetry”.” in Heretical Empiricism. (New Academia Pubishing, Washington, D.C. 2005.) 184.

4. Pasolini, Pier Paolo. “La Luce di Caravaggio.” in Saggi sulla letteratura e sull’arte, Tomo II, (Meridiani Mondadori, Milano 1999.)

5. SITNEY, P. Adams. “Accattone and Mamma Roma.” in Pier Paolo Pasolini - Contemporary Perspectives. RUMBLE, Patrick (ed.) (Toronto Press Incorporated, Toronto 1994) 173. 11 6. Stack, Oswald (ed.) “Accattone.” in Pasolini on Pasolini. (Thames and Hudson, London 1969.) 43.

7. Pasolini, Pier Paolo. “Il ﬁore delle mille e una notte “le mie mille e una notte”” in Italian Playboy. Sept. 1973. Print.

8. Nietzche, Friedrich. “The Birth of Tragedy” in The Birth of Tragedy And Other Writings. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999.) 18.