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ONOMÀSTICA 6 (2020): 217-237 | RECEPCIÓ 27.10.2019 | ACCEPTACIÓ 31.1.2020

Minority place in today: their status and official and unofficial use Attila Sasi Lechner Knowledge Centre (Lechner Tudásközpont) [email protected]

Abstract: The use of minority place names in Hungary today has been widespread since the early 1980s, when numerous minority place signs were erected in minority- populated settlements. The Hungarian Central Statistical Office is responsible for publishing these names in the official Gazetteer, the only official list of minority place names in existence, while the local government in any given settlement is responsible for erecting the corresponding place name signs. No permission from central government or expert opinion has to be sought for their erection. However, place names in minority languages are not considered as being official; they are merely considered to be informative. In spite of their unofficial status, minority place names are used widely in Hungary, especially in the minority media, on websites, and in literature and scientific works. Hungary’s minority place names can be divided into three groups in accordance with their origin: historical, dialectical and artificially created names. In Hungary, the establishment and registration of official geographical names in minority languages are provided for under a Government Edict of 2007. The Lechner Knowledge Centre database, the “Gazetteer of Geographical Names in Hungary”, records all minority place names, but these names need to be reviewed, standardized and published so that these minority place names can be recognised as official. Key words: minority place names, town signs, gazetteer

Topònims minoritaris actuals a Hongria: el seu estatus i el seu ús oficial i no oficial Resum: L’ús de topònims minoritaris a Hongria s’ha generalitzat des de principis dels anys vuitanta, quan es van començar a col·locar rètols de topònims minoritaris en nuclis poblats per minories. L’Oficina Central d’Estadística d’Hongria és l’encarregada de publicar aquests noms al Butlletí Oficial, l’única llista oficial de topònims minoritaris que existeix, mentre que el govern local de cada nucli de població té cura de col·locar els rètols corresponents. No s’ha de demanar cap permís del govern central ni cap informe d’expert per a la seva implantació. Tanmateix, els topònims en llengües minoritàries no es consideren oficials; es consideren merament informatius. Malgrat el seu estatus 223 Attila Sasi no oficial, els topònims minoritaris són força utilitzats a Hongria, especialment en els mitjans de comunicació locals, en llocs web i en literatura i treballs científics. Els topònims minoritaris d’Hongria es poden dividir en tres grups, d’acord amb el seu origen: noms històrics, noms dialectals i noms creats artificialment. A Hongria, l’establiment i registre de noms geogràfics oficials en llengües minoritàries és previst per un edicte governamental de 2007. La base de dades del Lechner Knowledge Center, el “Gazetteer of Geographic Names in Hungary”, registra tots els topònims minoritaris. Ara bé, de cara a un reconeixement oficial d’aquests noms seria imprescindible la seva revisió, estandardització i publicació. Paraules clau: topònims minoritaris, rètols de ciutats, nomenclàtors

1 ETHNIC MINORITIES IN PRESENT-DAY HUNGARY According to the most recent census, conducted in 2011, of Hungary’s nearly 10 million inhabitants, 769,000 declared themselves to be a member of an ethnic minority group. Among these, 645,000 belong to one of the thirteen legally recognized domestic ethnic minorities. These groups use a total of fourteen minority languages; the Roma population speaking Bayash (a Romanian dialect) in addition to Hungarian Romani. The most populous ethnic minority are the Roma (Romani people, Gypsies) with some 316,000 members; yet, experts estimate even greater numbers, with anywhere between 800 and 900 thousand Romas scattered across the country. The second largest minority are the Germans, their 186,000 members living in numerous regions around the country. They are followed by 36,000 Romanians, living along the Romanian border; 35,000 Slovaks, residing in the North Hungarian Mountains and South East Hungary; 27,000 , living primarily near the Croatian and Austrian borders; 10,000 , concentrating mostly near the border and along the Danube river; 2,800 Slovenes, occupying a small region near the Slovenian border; 3,900 Ruthenians or Rusyns, an east- Slavic ethnic group, living in a number of villages in North East Hungary (though most Ruthenians live in the Ukraine); (4,600) and Bulgarians (6,200), each occupying single villages; Poles (7,000), who before the Second World War occupied a single village in North East Hungary, but today the Poles, Armenians (3,600) and Ukrainians (7,400) are not limited to a specific region, but live in various cities [Census 2011].

224 Minority place names in Hungary today: their status and official and unofficial use Of Hungary’s 3,154 settlements, approximately 700 can be said to ‘belong’ to one of the country’s national ethnic minority groups; however, in practice the minorities only form an absolute majority in 70 of these settlements. Thus, in 90% of the minority-populated settlements, these ethnic groups are in the minority.

1. Ethnic map of Hungary 2011 (Cartographia TK 2015)

2 HUNGARIAN GOVERNMENT EDICT (Nº. 303/2007. XI. 14.)

In Hungary, the establishment and registration of official geographical names, including minority names, are provided for under Government Edict [Edict 2007]. The second paragraph of this edict refers to the “official geographical name in a minority language” as a specific type of geographical name, specifically as the historical name of the location and other geographical objects as used by the minority living there. The fifth paragraph of the same edict states that an official minority geographical name may also be identified, but only in conjunction with the place’s Hungarian name. According to the edict, all officially recognised geographical names (including official minority geographical names) should be registered in the “Gazetteer of Geographical Names

225 Attila Sasi in Hungary” by the state organization of geodesy and geoinformatics (currently the Lechner Knowledge Centre, formerly the Institute of Geodesy, Cartography and Remote Sensing). However, since the publication of this edict, the official minority geographical names have not been identified and registered by the administration. In contrast, in Hungary’s neighbouring countries, the minority place names that can be placed on road signs are published on place name lists and the law regulates their use. Such use is typically linked to the proportion that a specific minority represents in the total population of a settlement: 33.33% in [Lábadi 2003; Andócsi, János 2012], 20% in [Edict RO 2001] and Slovakia [Edict SK 1994; Edict SK 1999], 15% in [Magyar Nemzeti Tanács 2012] and 10% in the Ukraine [Beregszászi–Csernicskó–Ferenc 2014]. In , all minority place names published in the corresponding decree can be used [Edict AT 2000], while in Slovenia the use of minority place names is totally unrelated to the proportion a minority represents in any one place [Edict SL 1991].

3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In the past, it was common practice in Hungary to include place names ​​ on maps and gazetteers in foreign languages. Indeed, in the first map of Hungary, dated to 1528, several multilingual place names are included, e.g. Hungarian/German: Coloswar/Clausenburg (today Cluj-Napoca/ Kolozsvár in Romania) and German/: Gran/Strigoniu (in Hungarian Esztergom), Alba Regalis/Stuell Weißnburg (in Hungarian Székesfehérvár), Funff Kirchen/Quinqz Ecclesiae (in HungarianPécs ) [Lázár 1528].

2. Extracts from the first map of Hungary (Tabula Hungariae, Ingolstadt 1528)

226 Minority place names in Hungary today: their status and official and unofficial use Similarly, the first gazetteer of Hungary, published in 1773, included settlement names in several languages (Latin, Hungarian, German, Slavic and Romanian) and, until the beginning of the 20th century, this was the typical practice of Hungarian gazetteers.

3. Extract from the first gazetteer of Hungary (Lexicon Universorum Regni Hungariae Locorum Populosorum 1773)

In 1898, the National Municipal Registration Committee was established with the primary task of standardizing the place names of Hungary and eliminating the repetition of place names. According to Article 4 of the 1898 Act on town/village names and other place names, each settlement should have only one officially registered name [Edict 1898]. For the state authorities, this was deemed important, because many settlements shared the same name while a considerable number had several names. However, the Act also meant, unfortunately, the official abolition of all allonyms, including minority names. In practice, all new official place names were Hungarian, despite the fact that 48.6% of the population of pre-World War I Hungary was not Hungarian (according to the 1900 census). This contrasted with the post- World War I population in Hungary, when, owing to the loss of most of the minority-populated territories, the proportion of minorities fell to just 7.9% (according to the 1930 census). The 1902 gazetteer of Hungary was, therefore, the last to include the minority place names. Indeed, they did not reappear on the maps and in the official state gazetteer until the 1990s [Központi Statisztikai Hivatal 1995].

227 Attila Sasi

4 PLACE NAME SIGNS IN MINORITY LANGUAGES

In Hungary today minority place name signs can be seen in nine languages: German, Croatian, Slovak, Romanian, Slovenian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Greek and Ruthenian. The erection of minority road signs in the 1970s was preceded by various consultations between the minority associations, local governments and the Hungarian Committee on Geographical Names. As a result, in 1979 approximately 180 minority place name signs were erected in the languages of the six officially recognized minorities in Hungary up until 1989 (Croat, German, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak and Slovenian) [Kulturális Minisztérium 1978]. Today, the number of minority signs has reached about 320 and they appear in a total of nine languages. Contrary to initial practices, today there is no need to seek permission from central government or for an agreement to be reached before putting up a road sign, nor does expert opinion have to be sought to ratify a minority name. Similarly, a minority group does not have to exceed a given percentage of the population of a settlement; decisions regarding such matters are entirely at the discretion of the local government. The process is just the reverse of that in other Central European countries, where minority road signs are erected by referring to a centralised list of minority place names. In Hungary, this centralised list of minority place names is actually compiled on the basis of the minority road signs that have been erected. But, note, the minority signs are not official names, they are merely informative. Interestingly, there are instances in which minority signposts have been corrected and replaced, where the original name was perhaps incorrect or not, in fact, the name used by the local population. For example, in the village of Véménd (German: Wemend) in Southern Hungary, the on its signpost was originally written asWeimend , that is, in the dialect of the neighbouring German village because the administration had its seat there. In the small village of Szigetújfalu, south of Budapest, the literal German word-for-word translation of the Hungarian name (Inselneudorf) was first used instead of the German dialectical form (Ujfluch), because according to the local council office the latter was “too simple” and “not German enough”. Today, both German names appear

228 Minority place names in Hungary today: their status and official and unofficial use

4 Place name signs in minority languages in Hungary on the signposts. Minority settlement names can also be seen, albeit very rarely, on directional signposts too (e.g. Németbánya/Deutschhütten). On occasions, it is possible to find minority signposts corresponding to settlements with extremely small minority populations (under 5% or with fewer than 10 inhabitants). This is the case of the villages ofVekerd (Romanian: Vecherd), with just three Romanian inhabitants (proportion 2.4%) and Kercseliget (German: Gerstleck) with six German inhabitants (proportion 1.5%). However, there are cases in which no minority signs have been erected even though the ethnic minority is actually in the majority, e.g. the village of Csővár (Slovakian: Čúvár), the only village with an absolute Slovak majority in Hungary according to the 2011 census, with 320 Slovak inhabitants (proportion 51%). Likewise, there is no minority signpost in the village of Keszőhidegkút (German: Hiewrkut or Hirekut) with a majority of 147 German inhabitants (proportion 70%). Finally, the largest national minority in Hungary (the Romas) have no minority signposts, be it in Romani or Bayash. The reason for this is

229 Attila Sasi that, before 1989, the Roma in Hungary were regarded only as a specific ethnographic group, not as an official ethnic minority; thus, the question of Roma place names was never raised. Moreover, written forms of Romani and Bayash place names in Hungary had not previously existed and were never used in any form; only recently have studies appeared containing settlement names in Romani. However, in many cases, the exact forms of these names and their spelling have varied. According to the 2011 census, there are 31 settlements in Hungary where the Roma are in the majority; yet, there is only one village, Alsószentmárton, with 1,140 Roma inhabitants (proportion 98.6%) where the Roma (Bayash) place name appears on a sign. In fact, it is inscribed on a public institution, but it adheres to Romanian spelling – Sînmarta de Jos – whereas, according to local Bayash pronunciation and Bayash spelling in Hungary, it should be written asSzîmártă dă Zsosz or Szîmártă or Szîmmártá [Arató 2013]. Based on the above, it can be concluded that minority road signs in Hungary, as an indicator of the linguistic landscape, fail to reflect the real situation of Hungary’s different national groups.

5 OFFICIAL USE OF MINORITY PLACE NAMES (DETAILED GAZETTEER OF HUNGARY)

The detailed gazetteer of Hungary, maintained by the Hungarian Central Statistical Office (www.ksh.hu), is today the only official state-level source of minority place names [Gazetteer 2019], which is based, as we have seen, on minority place name signs. However, unfortunately, the list does not contain all the minority names on the signs (omissions include, for example, Csömör, Slovakian: Čemer, German: Tschemer). Sometimes, the Gazetteer includes a name in a different form to the one that appears on the signpost (e.g.Battonya , whose is listed in the Gazetteer asBätania , but which is correctly written on the signpost asBătania ). Moreover, on occasion, the Gazetteer includes a name that in fact does not appear on any sign (e.g. Szigetcsép, German: Tschip, Serbian: Чип). If a minority name on a signpost is grammatically incorrect, then it usually also appears in the wrong form in the Gazetteer (e.g.Farkasgyepű , correct German name:

230 Minority place names in Hungary today: their status and official and unofficial use Wirtshäusl, but it appears in the Gazetteer asWirtshäuz ´l and on the signpost as Wirtshäuzl´).

5. Extract from the Detailed Gazetteer of Hungary prepared by the Hungarian Central Statistical OfficeGazetteer ( 2019)

The Gazetteer does not include the minority names of parts of settlements. However, there are many separate minority villages which, while belonging administratively to a nearby settlement, have their own minority signpost (e.g. Rábatótfalu, Slovenian name: Slovenska Ves, part of the town of Szentgotthárd). Furthermore, the Gazetteer does not indicate the language of the minority names, which is basic information and is not always clear. It is evident, therefore, that the list prepared by the Hungarian Central Statistical Office cannot be considered a complete or entirely verified list of minority place names in Hungary. Indeed, overall, it might be concluded that in Hungary official standardized minority place names do not in fact exist and that each settlement has just one official Hungarian name.

6 THE UNOFFICIAL USE OF MINORITY PLACE NAMES

Despite their unofficial status, minority place names are widely used in Hungary, mainly in the minority media, on websites, and in literature and scientific works. In online articles about certain settlements, minority

231 Attila Sasi names are usually also mentioned. Several tourist maps also include them. Minority organizations and their associated experts have also published various place name registers and maps with a minority focus incorporating minority toponyms [Cartographia TK 2015, Davidov 1990, Gyivicsán 1996, Gyivicsán–Krupa 1997, Hambuch 1992, Karagić–Mokuter 1986, Kozar-Mukič 1984, Mandić 2005, Petrusán–Martyin–Kozma 1999, Regényi–Scherer 1980, Sasi 2014, Weidlein 1980].

6. Extract from the Map of the Germans in Hungary (Sasi 2014)

In many cases, maps of Hungary published in the motherlands of Hungary’s minority groups use minority place names (Google maps in foreign languages also follows this practice). However, Google maps are unilingual and, as such, the minority allonyms appear as single names for settlements in Hungary. Minority place names often appear on public institutions in the corresponding settlement, even in instances where the town has no minority signpost (e.g. Csobánka, German: Tschowanka, Serbian: Чобанац, Slovakian: Čobánka). Sometimes the form of the place name

232 Minority place names in Hungary today: their status and official and unofficial use written on the public institution differs from that on the road sign (e.g. Felsőszentmárton, on the school: Martince, on the signpost: Martinci). Elsewhere, the minority name may appear only on the welcome sign at the entrance to a settlement, but not on any road sign (e.g. Bakonygyirót, German name on the welcome sign: Gyrolth).

7 Name signs in the villages of Csobánka and Felsőszentmárton

In addition to place names, minority street names may also be used, although their use is even less regulated. On street signs, the minority version is sometimes written in both literary and dialectal forms (Csobánkai út). These names may also include other minority geographic names, e.g. mountain names (Vértes utca) or the minority name of the neighbouring settlement (Csobánkai út).

8. German minority street names in Pilisvörösvár and Mór

Naturally, minority microtoponyms (names of mountains, fields, etc.) make up the largest part of the minority . The minority population is largely familiar with these names and uses them. Such names can be found in local historical and geographical name collection

233 Attila Sasi studies [Balogh–Ördög 1985, Hajdú 1982, Pesti 1982, Végh–Ördög–Papp 1981] and they appear on old cadastral and military maps (https://mapire. eu). The Lechner Knowledge Centre is also conducting in situ studies to collect data, but the building of a minority microtoponymy database at the national level still requires a considerable amount of work.

9. Slovakian microtoponymy of Felsőpetény/Horné Peťany on old cadastral map 1868 (https://mapire.eu)

7 TYPES OF MINORITY PLACE NAMES IN HUNGARY

Minority place names in Hungary can be divided into three groups based on their origin. 1. Historical minority names: In the past these names have appeared both on maps and in gazetteers. In the main, these differ in origin

234 Minority place names in Hungary today: their status and official and unofficial use from – consider, for example, the German names of the major cities: e.g. Raab, Ödenburg, Güns, Steinamanger and Fünfkirchen (Hungarian: Győr, Sopron, Kőszeg, Szombathely and Pécs). Hungary, also has, of course, non-minority foreign language place names. Thus, many settlements have Latin names, and there are names in other European languages for larger cities: e.g. Győr (in ancient Latin: Arrabona, in medieval Latin: Jaurinum, Turkish: Yanıkkale, Italian: Giavarino) and Székesfehérvár (in medieval Latin: Alba Regalis, Turkish: İstolni Belgrad, Czech: Stoličný Bělehrad). 2. Dialectical minority names: The majority of minority settlement names in Hungary belong to this group. These names are mostly phonological versions of the current or earlier Hungarian name or possibly of a place name originally in another language and based on the pronunciation of the minority language (e.g. Tököl, Croatian name: Tukulja, German name: Teckel, : Тукуља, or the village of Ólmod, Croatian name: Plajgor, but the origin of Croatian variant is the German name: Bleigraben). In some cases, the names are variants of the Hungarian name but adopting the spelling of the minority language (e.g. Mohács, German name: Mohatsch, Croatian name: Mohač), while in others the written forms are identical (e.g. Narda, Croatian name is also Narda). However, there is often considerable uncertainty about name forms due to differences in the records of data collectors. Here, the variants of the German name for the village of Almamellék are highly illustrative of this confusion: Homelik, Homeli, Homelk, Homeling, Momelik. A specific type of dialectical minority name occurs when the inhabitants of a minority settlement denominate in their language a nearby settlement where a different nationality lives, but for whom this name is usually quite unknown. These names may also appear on web sites and so can be somewhat misleading. For example, in an online article about the town of Budaörs, the German name (Wudersch) and three Croatian names (Jerša, Erša, Vundeš) are also employed. However, the population of Budaörs was entirely

235 Attila Sasi German, there being no Croatian inhabitants. Yet, the Croatian names had been recorded in various distant Croatian settlements. In an onomastic study, Živko Mandić reports there to be about 1,300 Croatian settlement names in Hungary, but the majority (about 1,000 names) fall into this group [Mandić 2005].

10. The allonyms of the town of Budaörs (online article and Živko Mandić 2005)

Romani place names are also mostly dialectical minority names. Here, research is on-going, but a number of examples can be provided – e.g. in the map of Mátyás (Arató) Rosenberg: Siklós, Roma (Bayash) name: Tîrg; Siklósnagyfalu, Roma (Bayash) name: Szát ăl Máré [Arató 2013, Kemény 2000, Orsós 2003]. In this group, a special category is constituted by Yiddish settlement names, which continue to be used by the Jews that lived in Hungary and by their descendants. However, Jews are not considered a national minority in Hungary today and so their place names are not considered as minority place names either (e.g. Bodrogkeresztúr/Kerestir and Kisvárda/Kleynvardeyn, Nagykálló/ Kalev). 3. Artificially created minority place names: Here, new settlement names are created as opposed to using existing dialectical minority names, e.g. Maisbrünn as opposed to Berin (Mezőberény). The use of such names is often shunned by the minorities themselves; yet, nevertheless, they are often propagated via the internet. However, these artificial names often appear on signposts: e.g.Lindenbrunn as opposed to Haschad-Jitjankut (Hárskút) or Rossbrunn as opposed to Lokut (Lókút).

236 Minority place names in Hungary today: their status and official and unofficial use

11. Map of the with Romani (Bayash) place names in the study of Mátyás Rosenberg (Arató 2013)

12. Place name signs in minority languages in Hungary

An interesting example of foreign language allonyms is provided by the city of Pécs in South Hungary. Of a total of 31 names, 20 correspond to domestic minority languages and 11 to other foreign languages. Some of the allonyms are dialectical variations of the Hungarian city name Pécs, while others are a literal translation of the medieval Latin names for Pécs:

237 Attila Sasi Quinque Basilicae (in English: five cathedrals) andQuinque Ecclesiae (in English: five churches).

Domestic minority languages: Fünfkirchen(German, literary) Fünfkirige, Fünfkiriche, Fenfkiricha(German, local dialect) Finfkirch(German, dialect in Villány) Pečuh (Croatian, literary) Pečuj (Croatian, dialect in Nagyhajmás) Pečuv (Croatian, dialect in Hercegszántó) Peču (Croatian, dialect in Kökény) Petocríkva (Croatian, dialect in Szentpéterfa) Печуј (Serbian) Pisju (Roma, Bayash) Pechuy, Pecho, Pech (Roma, Romani) Пейч (Ruthenian) Päťkostolie (Slovak) Pecz (Polish, currently) Pięciokościoły (Polish, medieval) Peci (Romanian)

Other foreign languages: Pětikostelí (Czech) Pēča (Latvian) Pėčas (Lithuanian) Peçuy, Peç (Turkish) Cinquechiese (Italian, medieval) Cinq-Églises (French, medieval) Vyf Kerken (Dutch, medieval) Quinque Basilicae, Quinque Ecclesiae (Latin, medieval) Sopianae (Latin, ancient)

8 CONCLUSIONS AND ONGOING WORK

The establishment of official geographical names in the minority languages of Hungary is only possible by dedicated, scientific work.

238 Minority place names in Hungary today: their status and official and unofficial use 1. Creating a database (Gazetteer of the Geographical Names in Hungary) The first job is to create a database of minority names, drawing on all available sources. Such a database has already been compiled by the Lechner Knowledge Centre and it contains almost 3,425 minority place names, corresponding to 1,298 settlements and 569 settlement parts in 12 different languages. This contrasts with the 261 minority place names included on the list in the official detailed Gazetteer of Hungary. Our database uses different codes to divide the minority names into three types: • Actually in existence, that is, the name for a settlement as used by a minority who populate that place today or in the recent past. • Historical name of a settlement where today no minority group actually lives. • Name for a settlement as used by inhabitants of a nearby minority settlement.

13. Extract of the database (Gazetteer of the Geographical Names in Hungary)

2. Standardizing place names The process of standardization has yet to be initiated. It will involve minority language experts examining the database and selecting the most appropriate name based on local use, linguistic correctness and historical legitimacy in the case of one or more allonyms.

239 Attila Sasi 3. Determining the category of the minority settlements It will then be necessary to determine in which instances an official minority settlement name might be used. Several factors have to be taken into consideration, on the understanding that it is not enough simply to respect a given proportion of inhabitants of a minority group in any one place, but that the absolute number should also be taken into account. Additionally, studies need to determine whether in the particular town or village there is any education in the minority language or whether there is any minority representation in local government, civil organizations, churches, or any manifestations of living minority affiliation or claims to demonstration of national identity. 4. Official publication of standardized minority settlement names The official publication of standardized minority settlement names would constitute the last step. There is still a great amount of work and many expert consultations to be undertaken, but the process is underway, which means that in the near future, as in many other countries of the region, a list of official minority place names should eventually be published in Hungary.

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