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Cultic Niches in the Nabataean Landscape: a Study in the Orientation, Facade Ornamentation, Sanctuary Organization, and Function of Nabataean Cultic Niches

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Cultic Niches in the Nabataean Landscape: a Study in the Orientation, Facade Ornamentation, Sanctuary Organization, and Function of Nabataean Cultic Niches Brigham Young University BYU ScholarsArchive Theses and Dissertations 2008-03-20 Cultic Niches in the Nabataean Landscape: A Study in the Orientation, Facade Ornamentation, Sanctuary Organization, and Function of Nabataean Cultic Niches Holly A. Raymond Brigham Young University - Provo Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd Part of the Anthropology Commons BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Raymond, Holly A., "Cultic Niches in the Nabataean Landscape: A Study in the Orientation, Facade Ornamentation, Sanctuary Organization, and Function of Nabataean Cultic Niches" (2008). Theses and Dissertations. 1359. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/1359 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Cultic Niches in the Nabataean Landscape: A Study in the Orientation, Facade Ornamentation, Sanctuary Organization, and Function of Nabataean Cultic Niches by Holly A. Raymond A thesis submitted to the faculty of Brigham Young University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Anthropology Brigham Young University March 2008 Copyright © Holly A. Raymond 2008 All Rights Reserved BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY GRADUATE COMMITTEE APPROVAL of a thesis submitted by Holly A. Raymond This thesis has been read by each member of the following graduate committee and by majority vote had been found satisfactory. Date David J. Johnson, Chair Date Cynthia S. Finlayson Date Joel C. Janetski Date Glenna Nielsen-Grimm BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY As chair of the candidate’s graduate committee, I have read the thesis of Holly A. Raymond in its final form and have found that (1) its Format, citations and bibliographic style are consistent and acceptable and fulfill University and department style requirements; (2) its illustrative materials including Figures, tables, and charts are in place; and (3) the final manuscript is satisfactory to the graduate committee and is ready for submission to the university library. Date David J. Johnson Chair, Graduate Committee Accepted for the Department Joel C. Janetski Graduate Coordinator Accepted for the College ABSTRACT Cultic Niches in the Nabataean Landscape: A Study in the Orientation, Facade Ornamentation, Sanctuary Organization, and Function of Nabataean Cultic Niches Holly A. Raymond Department of Anthropology Master of Arts Niches are common features in the Nabataean landscape (Healey 2001; Starcky 1966: cols. 1008-10; Patrich 1990:50-113). From their frequent appearance in the archeological record, it is evident that the Nabataeans placed great importance on these cultic features. However, very little is known about them. The purpose of this study was to find and record Nabataean cultic niches in a field survey and then to interpret these niches as part of a research design that proposed purposes of niche variation in construction, orientation, and placement of niches on the landscape. My research addresses several neglected issues in the study of cultic niches in Nabataean religion. Robert Wenning has stated there is a need “to research the elements and details of niches in order to understand which detail or combination of elements indicates a specific function or points to an individual deity or certain divine aspect” (Wenning 2001:88). With this research, I hope to determine whether or not certain characteristics of niches can show preferred orientations, indicate a specific function, determine how sanctuaries containing niches were organized, show preferred niche façade ornamentation, or aid in the potential identification of deities. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my family, especially my parents, Jim and Roxann Raymond, for their continued support and encouragement in all aspects of my life, especially regarding my ambitions and scholastic endeavors. My Committee Chair, Dr. David Johnson, and committee members, Dr. Cynthia Finlayson, Dr. Joel Janetski, and Dr. Glenna Nielsen also deserve a considerable acknowledgement for their contributions, suggestions, and help that they provided for my thesis and my overall education at Brigham Young University. I would also like to thank Dr. Ron Harris for his suggestions and contributions to this thesis and for teaching me about the geological aspects of Petra. A special thanks to Dr. David Johnson, Dr. Ron Harris, Heather Bullock, and Deborah Harris for venturing out with me to survey the rugged terrain of Petra, often after long, hot days of excavation. I would also like to acknowledge Rich Talbot and Lane Richens of The Office of Public Archaeology as well as Shane Baker for their significant roles in my archaeological education and years of mentoring in the field and in the office. I would also like to thank Scott Ure and Debbie Silversmith who have both helped me considerably with formatting issues and with the images used in this thesis, as well as for their roles as mentors. I would also like to thank my friends, Aaron Woods, Cady Jardine, Chris Watkins, Jennifer Beard, Molly Hall, David Yoder, Deborah Harris, Jake Skousen, Julie MacDonald, and Heather Bullock for our many discussions regarding the Nabataeans. I would also like to thank Dakilallah and Umm Khalid for their warm hospitality and kindness, and their daughters, Fatima, Zeineb, Farah, and Badria for being excellent cooks and friends during my stay in Umm Sihoon, Jordan, and also for their continued friendship. I would also like to thank the American Center of Oriental Research in Amman, Jordan for providing an excellent library and environment suitable for scholarly research. TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE page . i COPYRIGHT page. ii graduate COMMITTEE approval . iii FINAL READING approval AND acceptance. iv ABSTRACT . v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . vi table OF CONTENTS . vii LIST OF tables . x LIST OF FIGURES . xi 1. INTRODUCTION . 1 Definitions . 2 Niches . 2 Betyls. 3 Nephesh . 4 Mwtb’. 5 Biclinia and Triclinia . 6 Previous Research. 6 Research Objectives. 9 Research Method Summary. .10 Thesis Organization . .13 2. Nabataean History AND TRADE. .15 Nabataean History . 15 Introduction . .15 Historical Sources . .16 Early History and Settlement Patterns . 17 Origins . .19 Nabataean Trade . 20 Nabataean Trade and its Role in Nabataean Cultural and Political Complexity .20 Nabataean Trade and its Influence in Nabataean Religion and Architecture . .24 3. nabataeAN DeITIeS: ATTRIBUTeS, RePReSeNTATIONS, AND FOReIGN INFLUENCES . .26 Introduction . 26 Deities. .27 vii Dushara. .27 Dushara-A’ra, the God of Bosra . 31 Dushara and Dionysos . 32 Dushara and Zeus . .33 Dushara and Helios. .33 Dushara, Osiris, and Serapis . 35 Ruda and Dushara . .36 Al-Kutba . 36 Qos . 38 Shay al-Qaum . 39 Al-Uzza. .39 Manat. .42 Allat . 43 Atargatis . 46 4. THE NICHE IN THE Nabataean LANDSCAPE . 48 Introduction . 48 Niche Contexts . .48 High Places. .48 Funerary Contexts . .49 Nabataean Temples in Petra . 54 Nabataean Temples Outside of Petra in Central Nabataea . .60 5. Survey Results AND NICHE Analysis . 64 Geographical Context . .64 Sampling Methods . 66 Survey Methods. .67 Recorded Variables . 68 Orientations . .68 Size . .69 Shape . .69 Betyl or Interior Niche Presence . .77 Water Features . 77 Architectural Details . 77 Interior Architectural Features . .78 Exterior Architectural Features. .78 Survey Results, Niche Analysis and Interpretation . .79 Introduction . .79 Orientation . 80 viii Introduction . .80 Methods and Research Objectives . 82 Discussion . 82 Betyl or Interior Niche Presence and Deity Identification . 91 Introduction . .91 Betyl Shapes and Deity Identification . 92 Groupings of Betyls in Niches . .93 Discussion . 96 Niche Sanctuaries . .98 Introduction . .98 Renfrew and Bahn’s Model . 99 Discussion . 105 Niche Sanctuary Typology . 106 Open Air Sanctuaries. 106 Closed Air Sanctuaries . 111 Niche Functions. 118 Niches as Sanctuaries and Miniature Temples . 119 Niches as Receptacles for Offerings . 120 Niches and the Ritual Use of Water . 121 Discussion . 127 Niche Facade Typology . 129 Introduction . 129 Discussion . 139 6. CONCLUSIONS . 144 Review of Research Objectives and Conclusions . 144 Significance and Broader Implications ..
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