90 CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 Note doi:10.2533/chimia.2010.90 Chimia 64 (2010) 90–90 © Schweizerische Chemische Gesellschaft The Follies of Citation Indices and ­Academic Ranking Lists A Brief Commentary to ‘Bibliometrics as Weapons of Mass Citation’

Richard R. Ernst*

The account by Antoinette Molinié and ry about the mediocrity of rating agencies. tablished and regularly publish science ­Geoffrey Bodenhausen on ‘Bibliometrics as Otherwise, human history would have taken citation indices and university ranking Weapons of Mass Citation’ presents a lucid a different course; and many of the great- lists; agencies that enrich themselves indictment on the current misuse of citation est human achievements would never have on the account of science quality, and numbers and of science rankings. In the face been made. Our pride of being the most cause more harm than good. Let us urge of ratings and rankings by merely count- creative species ever living on earth would funding agencies to never ever support ing citations like nit-picking, the outcry of then be plainly ridiculous. projects that intend to further extend two concerned researchers necessitates no The only question that remains to be an- bibliometrics based on merely counting corollary or further supporting arguments. swered, after having read the pertinent ac- citations. The present hype of bibliometry made it count by Molinié and Bodenhausen, is how plainly obvious that judging the quality of can we stop this degrading bureaucratic re- It is only by this kind of active resist- science publications and science projects by gime of ranking and citation agencies and ance to the follies of bibliometrics that our bibliometric measures alone is inadequate, their mindless fan community? – In the fol- scientific self-respect and credibility can be and reflects the inadequacy of science man- lowing, I would like to propose a number of saved. We should liberate our minds again agement regimes staffed by non-scientific remedies to save the dignity and creativity to enable true creativity in view of long- administrators or by pseudo-scientists who of scientists and researchers. term social benefits. We certainly do not failed to develop their own personal judg- want to convert our precious universities ment. i) Let us formulate a creed of scientists into bureaucratic training centres for mind- Today, an erroneous conviction prevails and researchers of all kind: Never ever less citation hunters! Our institutions shall that institutions and individuals of ‘value’ use, quote, or even consult science cita- remain for ever unbiased resorts of limitless can be measured ultimately in terms of a tion indices! Let us appeal to the pride human dignity and foresight. single number that may form part of a com- and honesty of researchers to derive We are deeply convinced that human petitive ‘ranking list’! Only nobodies and their judgments exclusively by careful ingenuity and creativity are beyond all con- nameless institutions never ever appear in a studies of the literature and other sci- ceivable quantitative measures. We know ranking! Today, an uncountable number of entific evidence. It is better refuse to that human beings are singular in their qual- granting and promotional decisions are tak- comply with requests than to base your ities (and their deficiencies). In order to ap- en based on such superficial and misleading judgment on numeric bibliometric in- ply justice to them, we have to respect them lists. – The absurdity of such a craze may dicators! Let us incorporate this creed as individuals, each with his own particular best be enlightened by a comparison with into our teaching, discrediting ‘number gifts. Let us try to understand researchers non-scientific fields: Who would ever select games’ as incompatible with our goals and their creative output, but not attempt top musical performers just by the number of objectivity, credibility, fairness, and to compare or rank them! Whenever ill- of references in newspapers, irrespective social responsibility, as researchers. conceived bibliometric measures are being whether the reviews are favourable or not? ii) Let us establish, on the Internet, a gener- applied, it means that non-quantifiable ex- Who would ever qualify renowned painters ally accessible Webpage to list agencies, traordinary achievements are cropped such based on the number of ‘quotes’ in the form journals, and individuals who regularly that they become commensurable with the of plagiary borrowings by less creative art- use and misuse bibliometric measures mediocrity of routine research. In this way, ists or by plain copyists? Who knows, soon in their judgements. Let us encourage science loses all its outstanding features that also Nobel Laureates in literature will be researchers to add their critical com- could justify also outstanding supporting ef- selected based on citation indices! – For- mentaries to this database to identify forts. Bibliometrics may indeed turn out to tunately, very fortunately, most of the great notorious violators of the above creed. become the ultimate tombstone of veritable human minds of the past had not yet to wor- We may call this database ‘Bibliometric science. Discredibility Pillory’ or BDP. It could And as an ultimate plea, the personal be that an enthusiastic bibliometrics wish of the author remains to send all bib- fan might even be inclined to apply the liometrics and its diligent servants to the standard bibliometric evaluation tools to darkest omnivoric black hole that is known this database to establish a ‘Bibliometric in the entire universe, in order to liberate *Correspondence: Prof. Dr. R. R. Ernst Discredibility Index’ or BDI to identify academia forever from this pestilence. – Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie the worst offenders of academic cred- And there is indeed an alternative: Very sim- ETH Zürich ibility. ply, start reading papers instead of merely Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 10 CH-8093 Zürich iii) Let us discredit specifically rating agen- rating them by counting citations! E-mail: [email protected] cies and their managers that have es- Received: December 21, 2009 78 CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 Note doi:10.2533/chimia.2010.78 Chimia 64 (2010) 78–89 © Schweizerische Chemische Gesellschaft Bibliometrics as Weapons of Mass ­Citation La bibliométrie comme arme de citation massive

Antoinette Molinié*a and Geoffrey Bodenhausen*bc

Abstract: The allocation of resources for research is increasingly based on so-called ‘bibliometrics’. Scientists are now deemed to be successful on the sole condition that their work be abundantly cited. This world-wide trend appears to enjoy support not only by granting agencies (whose task is obviously simplified by extensive recourse to bibliometrics), but also by the scientists themselves (who seem to enjoy their status of celebrities). This trend appears to be fraught with dangers, particularly in the area of social sciences, where bibliometrics are less de- veloped, and where monographs (which are not taken into account in citation indexes) are often more important than articles published in journals. We argue in favour of a return to the values of ‘real science’, in analogy to the much-promised return to a ‘real economy’. While economists may strive towards a more objective evaluation of the prospects of a company, a market, or an industrial sector, we scientists can only base our appraisal on a responsible practice of peer review. Since we fear that decision-takers of granting agencies such as the FNRS, CTI, EPFL, ETHZ, ANR, CNRS, NIH, NSF, DOE,[1] etc. will be too busy to read our humble paper in Chimia, we appeal to scientists of all countries and disciplines to unite against the tyranny of bibliometrics. Keywords: Bibliometrics · Citation indices · Eigenfactors · h-Factors · Fun factors · Impact factors · Science policy · Teaching factors

Introduction those in scientific research. In the realm of mind of the scientists themselves. Their modern science, false promises and ‘hype’ fascination for citation indexes often drives Much has been written about the current have become widespread. Nobody seems them beyond reason. Their obsession with economic crisis. Subprime loans were to care if we can live up to our promises. their egos is much more perverse than the granted to insolvent borrowers by irre- Just as the ‘value’ of financial products is laziness of granting agencies. In some re- sponsible financial institutions. Shares and assessed by irresponsible ranking agen- spects, scientists remind us of body-build- other ‘financial products’ were over-pack- cies, the value of scientific research is as- ers who, under the pretext of ‘working out’ aged, over-rated and over-sold. Very few sessed by ill-conceived parameters such as in gyms and other salons de musculation, economists anticipated how fantastic ex- citation indices, h-factors, and worst of all, seem fascinated by their own bodies, re- pectations fuelled by false promises would impact factors of journals. It can be argued flected in floor-to-ceiling mirrors. Perhaps cause the world to shake on its foundations. that citation indices give a similar measure a ‘narcissistic scientist’ is a tautology. Wir We perceive similarities between the over- of scientific excellence as the Dow Jones alle brauchen ab und zu eine Streichelein- blown ambitions in the financial sector and index does of the economy. We shall illus- heit (MMu[2]). Fascination with one’s self trate some of the most perverse effects of is one of the driving forces of research. But bibliometrics-driven science policy. if mirrors indeed constitute a necessity of The Science Citation Index, which has the trade, one may at least hope that they appeared in the form of bulky volumes provide a reasonably undistorted image. since the sixties, offered the possibility to find out if (and by whom) a particular pa- Le narcissisme des chercheurs est per was cited. Many scientists used this In- d’autant plus tragique qu’il se pratique dex, rightly or wrongly, to find out if their sans miroir. En effet, malgré la multipli- work had been followed up by others. But cation des réunions scientifiques, malgré *Correspondence: Dr. A. Moliniéa, modern bibliometrics have become truly les scoops d’une presse ignorante, malgré Prof. G. Bodenhausenbc fashionable since 1997, when the Institute l’entrée des ‘nouveaux philosophes’ dans aMaison de l’Archéologie et de l’Ethnologie (MAE) for Scientific Information (ISI), now part of la cour des people, jamais le savant n’a Université de Paris-Ouest Nanterre La Défense 21 Allée de l’Université Thomson Reuters, made it possible to look été aussi seul. Si Léonard de Vinci est mort 92023 Nanterre Cedex, France up the complete citation record of any sci- dans les bras du roi François 1er qu’il fasci- E-mail: [email protected] entist, friend or foe, in a matter of seconds. nait, aujourd’hui le président de la Répub- bDépartement de Chimie associé au CNRS, Ecole Normale Supérieure In this manner, one can readily ‘quantify’ lique française ne cache pas son mépris 24 rue Lhomond their reputation, or so it seems. Granting pour la communauté scientifique de son 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France agencies clearly appreciate these metrics, pays.[3] Et le narcissisme des médiocres cInstitut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne which greatly simplify their arduous job. s’accompagne de l’auto-flagellation des CH-1015 Lausanne But the overwhelming fashion of bib- grands. Le miroir bibliométrique serait-il E-mail: [email protected] liometrics is largely due to the narcissistic le puits sans fond de la science moderne? Note CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 79

What is it that Makes us Tick? to a broad community of scientists, rang- acronym. The idea of stringing together two ing from solid-state physicists to organic consecutive steps of magnetization transfer Truly creative researchers do not seem chemists. It has been argued that his name, was pioneered by LM,[14] who gathered no to care for citation indices. Our ministries which is ‘embedded’ in the ubiquitous less than 759 citations for a method that be- of research, offices of higher education, abbreviation ‘NOE’ is mentioned more came known under the acronym of HMQC. granting agencies and other tutelles,[4] as often than any other scientist’s. Having The cherry on the cake is the amazing im- the French call them affectionately, try to been overlooked for years by the Nobel pact of DR’s and GB’s work,[11] who were encourage the emergence of new ideas, Prize Committee, Albert Overhauser was ‘awarded’ no less than 1776 citations for create more attractive conditions, offer re- recently awarded a Russell Varian Prize HSQC, which is really nothing more than wards, etc. But none of their officers, no on the occasion of a EUROMAR confer- two INEPT sequences put back to back. The matter how hard they try, seem to under- ence held in Göteborg in 2009. He gave idea may be useful, but can hardly be called stand what makes us tick. There seems to a stunning lecture about the intellectual creative! be a divorce between the science policy environment at Berkeley and Urbana makers and those who are being evaluated. Champaign in the early fifties. Younger iii) DQF-COSY (double-quantum fil- After all, generations of scientists have scientists might enjoy his historical ac- tered correlation spectroscopy) is the ac- somehow managed to keep their momen- count in the Encyclopedia of Magnetic ronym of a clever idea due to UP, OS and tum without citation indices. A clock keeps Resonance.[5] Overhauser’s seminal pa- RE[15] (NC = 1603), developed independ- ticking away as long as its spring is wound per, which appeared in Physical Review ently by AS and RF[16] (NC = 387). The up from time to time. So what does it need in 1953, is modestly entitled ‘Polarization most famous paper on the subject[17] (NC to keep a scientist ticking? For some of of nuclei in metals’.[6] Had it been submit- = 2367) describes a simple application to us, watching the steady progress of our h- ted 50 years later, it would probably have a small protein that gave rise to some nice factor may help. But the motivation of most been turned down by the referees unless graphical illustrations. From GB’s per- scientists is more complex. Truly inspired it had been ‘hyped up’ to something like sonal perspective, its success is mostly a scientists seem unable to explain their own ‘Thousand-fold enhancement of NMR reminder of a failure. At MR’s request, he creativity. They do not seem to know how to signal intensity’ or ‘A paradoxical viola- made a round-trip from the centre of Zu- wind up their own springs. They simply are tion of the second law of thermodynam- rich to the Hönggerberg, in the hope that creative, pretty much regardless of the force ics: nuclear cooling through heating of the the experiment might be improved, but the fields to which they are exposed, regardless electron spin reservoir’. Perhaps the lack discussion did not lead anywhere. GB did of income, rewards and recognition. of hype is in part responsible for the low not realize until much later that RE and To make progress, science relies on a visibility of the paper: it has gathered a KW had kindly put his name on the manu- mix of ingredients, ranging from roman- mere 530 citations in 56 years. By mod- script. He only discovered ‘his’ work sev- tic strokes of genius to boring footwork. ern standards, this must be regarded as a eral years after it had appeared in print in There are indeed those rare insights, such flop! Perhaps the failure of Overhauser’s a rather obscure journal. Today, this work as the celebrated ideas of Galileo, Darwin, original paper is due to the success of appears as GB’s most-cited paper, provid- and Pasteur. But there are scores of lesser CS’s brilliant experimental verification[7] ed one refines the search to include ‘bio- scientists who have painstakingly charted (NC = number of citations[8] = 105), to physics’ (Monsieur Jourdain apprend à sa the motions of planets, established a tribal IS’s clever extension to molecules in so- surprise qu’il fait de la biophysique!) It is kinship genealogy, determined reaction lution[9] (NC = 2365), or to the publica- the 3rd most popular paper on KW’s list, enthalpies, decrypted an archive in Mid- tion of an excellent monograph[10] (NC and the 4th on RE’s list. Obviously, their dle English, substituted methyl groups, unknown, in accordance with ISI rules). Nobel prizes were based on more profound recorded spectral signatures, carried out contributions. site-specific mutations, polymerase chain ii) HSQC (heteronuclear single-quan- reactions, etc. At times, much of this hum- tum correlation spectroscopy). It seems iv) NOESY (nuclear Overhauser effect ble footwork may seem pointless. Yet, obvious that the number of citations is spectroscopy) may be regarded as one of without accumulating a sound bedrock of often not proportional to the importance the most influential inventions in magnetic observations, science would not be able to of the paper under scrutiny. At the risk resonance.[18–20] AK has given a historical move forward as it does. Since h-factors of appearing a trifle self-centred, let us account of the emergence of this revo- and the like tend to focus on flashy work, illustrate this point by a paper that GB lutionary concept.[21] The idea was well the fashion of bibliometrics may be a coup ‘co-authored’, modestly entitled ‘Natu- ahead of its time, and it took many years to de grâce for humble science. ral Abundance Nitrogen-15 NMR …’,[11] be ‘picked up’ by the scientific community. but later re-dubbed by AB as HSQC. This The citations of the three seminal papers fancy acronym seems to match today’s only took off after a long period of ges- Citation Indices: A Few Case unquenchable thirst for hype and exoti- tation (BM) (Fig. 1). This phenomenon is Studies ca. In fact, HSQC is nothing more than interesting in view of the definition of the a double transfer of magnetization, for impact factors (IF) of journals (see Annex Bibliometrics are based on the idea that example from protons to nitrogen-15 nu- 1): from the point of view of the journals, frequently cited papers must be innovative, clei and back. Back in 1975, the very idea NOESY was a complete failure! creative and influential. This basic assump- that magnetization could be transferred in tion turns out to be a fallacy in many cases. liquids was unknown, and it required RE’s We shall take a few examples picked from considerable skill to devise a revolutionary Scientists and their Beloved the area of magnetic resonance. Similar experiment.[12] This brilliant invention was h-Factors examples can easily be found in any other hardly recognized, since it gathered a mere area, ranging from synthetic chemistry to 373 citations. A much better reception (NC The most recent ‘measure’ of an in- elementary particle physics. = 1442) was given to GMo’s and RF’s pa- dividual’s fame is his so-called h-factor per entitled ‘Insensitive nuclei enhanced by (see Annex 2). Although some scientists i) NOE (nuclear Overhauser effect). polarization transfer’, better known as IN- view these factors with a healthy dose of Albert Oberhauser’s name is well known EPT,[13] perhaps in part because of its witty scepticism, most of them love to monitor 80 CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 Note

Siegert effects[24] (his 47th paper having been cited 49 times), nor should he worry about the fate of longitudinal two spin or- der[25] (his 48th paper having been cited 49 times). On the other hand, GB would be well advised to renew his interest in multiple-quantum effects associated with double resonance[26] (his 49th paper hav- ing been cited a mere 48 times, evidence of poor h-management). Such an opportunis- tic policy leads to weird zigzag trajectories through disconnected themes.

Des armes de citation massive

Les chercheurs en sciences sociales at- tendent peu des indices de citations. Pre- nons l’exemple de Claude Lévi-Strauss, l’un des fondateurs de l’anthropologie sociale. Son rayonnement intellectuel dé- passe de loin les frontières de sa discipline. Il peut être considéré comme l’un des pen- seurs les plus prestigieux du XXème siècle, Fig. 1. Cumulative numbers of citations for the three seminal papers on nuclear Overhauser ef- peut-être comparable à Sigmund Freud ou fect spectroscopy (NOESY). The initial slope and sigmoid shape (reminiscent of second-order Albert Einstein. La plupart de ses travaux effects)  imply that these classic papers did not significantly contribute to the impact factors of the journals. Black circles represent the work of Jeener, Meier, Bachmann, and Ernst,[18] red triangles ont été publiés sous forme de livres, lesquels the paper of Kumar, Ernst and Wüthrich,[19] and green squares the work of Kumar, Wagner, Ernst and ne sont jamais pris en compte par la base Wüthrich.[20] Figure kindly drafted by PM. des données de l’ISI. Seuls quelques 25 ar- ticles qui ont été publiés dans L’Homme, Les Temps Modernes, Esprit, Diogènes, the steady progress of their own h-factors is driven by ambition, his overriding objec- Sinn und Form, the International Social (which can never go down, unlike a golf- tive should be to make sure that his 50th Science Journal, et Current Anthropology er’s handicap). The h-fashion has been most-cited paper be cited at least 50 times. sont mentionnés par ISI. Le nombre de ci- spreading across the world even faster than So he should invite his friends to cite him tations de son travail ne donne guère la the A(H1N1) influenza virus. Provided more often, or (a safer expedient) cite him- mesure de son extraordinaire influence: you have authorized access (http://apps. self in a review in Chimia. Once professor le facteur h de Claude Lévi-Strauss ne dé- isiknowledge.com/), you can check any- X has thus managed to push his h-factor passe pas h = 1! body’s h-index by ordering his or her list up to 50, he can switch his attention to his Plus modestement, la liste ISI de AM of publications in decreasing order of pop- 51st most-cited paper. Is there any harm in ne mentionne que 4 articles parus dans ularity, i.e., the most-cited first. One must this childish game? Yes: there is a perverse the Journal of the Royal Anthropological of course narrow down the search to avoid effect, as noted by HH: why should profes- Institute, L’Homme, et Diogènes, avec un adding up the indices of people who carry sor X bother to publish a paper in a novel facteur h = 0. Ses 97 autres travaux, la plu- the same name. It suffices to check that the area? Would such a paper stand any chance part publiés en français ou en espagnol, hth paper has been cited at least h times of being cited 51 times before professor n’ont pas été jugés dignes d’être mention- (see Annex 2). By looking up your own ‘h- X’s retirement? Publishing in a novel area nés dans les registres bibliométriques. factor’, you can quantify your ‘weight’ as is surely not worth the effort! As a conse- Il peut sembler que les disciplines easily as you can step on the scales in your quence, X will persevere in polishing his des sciences humaines disposent d’outils bathroom! tombstone, even if his pet subject has gone convenables, soit trois banques de don- Of course, such a ‘beauty contest’ stale years ago. nées produites par Thomson, le Science can only be meaningful if the number of Citation Index (SCI), le Social Science citations   is a sound measure of quality, Citation Index (SSCI) et le Arts and Hu- originality, etc. The case studies discussed More Case Studies manities Citation Index (AHCI). Cepen- above invite us to be cautious. On the occa- dant les disciplines des sciences humaines sion of the 25th anniversary of the National Let’s consider a few cases for the sake diffèrent de celles des «sciences dures» Latsis Prize in Bern on January 25th 2009, of illustration. Albert Overhauser’s h = non seulement par leurs méthodes, leurs FM offered some provocative comments: 32, since his 32nd paper has been cited 38 objets d’étude et les liens qu’elles en- ‘Judging the ability of a scientist by his h- times, but his 33rd only 32 times. In the tretiennent avec le contexte social, mais factor amounts to choosing wine according (unlikely) case that he should wish to push encore par leur mode de communication to the price of the bottle, Swiss cheese by his index up to h = 33, he should attract scientifique. Un rapport de Science-Me- measuring the size of its holes, and choco- more attention to his work on electron- trix, une organisation canadienne spécia- late by its sugar content.’ phason scattering effects.[22] Likewise, GB lisée en évaluation scientifique dans les Celebrities (and would-be celebs) who should no longer waste his time on cross pays anglo-saxons et scandinaves, intitulé are obsessed with their own h-factors are correlation effects in the presence of spin ‘The Use of Bibliometrics in the Social likely to forget their core business. Sup- locking[23] (his 46th paper having been Sciences and the Humanities’ montre que pose that professor X approaches the age cited 51 times, despite its forbidding title), la communication scientifique est beau- of 60 and has an h-factor of, say, 49. If he nor need he pay further attention to Bloch- coup plus hétérogène dans ces disciplines Note CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 81

que dans celles des sciences dures.[27] de leurs objets d’étude et de l’importance Les citations des œuvres en sciences so- Les livres ont un impact beaucoup plus des contextes de ces derniers: leur thème ciales sont particulièrement vulnérables à important en sciences sociales: ils repré- de recherche souffrant souvent d’une des pratiques peu éthiques: il est facile de sentent en effet 40% des citations. Ces quantification naïve, ils sont d’autant plus piller un article non indexé car publié dans proportions varient significativement se- conscients quand celle-ci frappe leur pro- une langue minoritaire telle que le fran- lon les disciplines, de l’économie au droit duction. De plus, l’internationalisation de çais, ou bien de piétiner les pelouses d’une ou à l’histoire. C’est ainsi que le recours à leur savoir à travers les revues est beau- discipline proche à laquelle le lecteur n’a la bibliométrie a une utilité variable selon coup moins avancée que celle des sciences pas accès: c’est ainsi que tel ethnologue les disciplines.[28] dures. Le Web of Science (WOS) a été consacrera quelques chapitres à l’histoire Une des caractéristiques du Social souvent critiqué pour son inadéquation de la région où il travaille et importera Science Citation Index (SSCI) et du Arts aux sciences humaines: en contrebande les informations d’un his- and Humanities Citation Index (AHCI) «Il recense quelque 8700 revues inter- torien non cité. Le jury chargé d’évaluer de Thomson ISI est la surreprésentation nationales (or, on estime à environ 20000 son travail de recherche pourra s’extasier de la production scientifique rédigée en le nombre de revues scientifiques dans le devant la pluridisciplinarité (sacro-sainte anglais. Ce biais peut être estimé à une monde), mais seulement 1000 pour les qualité en sciences sociales) du chercheur. surreprésentation de 20 à 25% de l’an- sciences humaines et sociales (SHS), dont Partageant avec les sciences dures les pra- glais dans ces banques de données.[29] la quasi-totalité sont d’origine anglo- tiques de citations de courtoisie, les oublis Andersen 2000 citant Andersen 1996[30] saxonne. A titre d’exemple, les revues SHS opportuns et les renvois d’ascenseurs cita- suggère que 60% des articles réperto- soutenues par le CNRS ne figurent pas tionnaires, les sciences sociales ont trouvé riés dans le SSCI ont des auteurs ayant dans le WOS. Le CNRS a tenté de négo- une particularité dans la coquetterie de la une adresse aux États-Unis et 20% au cier en 2004 des améliorations auprès de citation inattendue, osée et exotique. Celle- Royaume-Uni. Puisque Thomson ISI sé- Thomson/ISI qui prendraient en compte ci peut faire l’objet d’une toquade qui lectionne les revues selon le nombre de les besoins et les spécificités européennes, multipliera ainsi la parole de médiocres citations qu’elles reçoivent, les habitudes mais il n’y a pas eu d’avancée. Un rap- salonnards. C’est ainsi que l’on peut ex- de citation des différentes communautés port remis en 2003 par Philippe Jeannin pliquer le succès de la ‘French Theory’ linguistiques jouent un rôle important au ministère de la recherche et des nou- dans les transatlantic cultural studies, par dans la constitution même des banques velles technologies sur l’évaluation de la une distorsion de la citation. On voit bien à de données. Par exemple, les sociologues recherche en SHS confirme l’absence de quel point les sciences sociales sont vulné- américains et anglais citent dans 99% des couverture des revues françaises dans ces rables à des phénomènes de mode. La mul- cas des articles écrits en anglais, bien que domaines. En vue de mieux analyser la tiplication des citations des œuvres post- ces articles ne constituent qu’approxima- production scientifique européenne dans modernes nord-américaines, avec leur exi- tivement 70% de la littérature internatio- le WOS, la European Science Foundation gence bien-pensante de donner la parole nale en sociologie,[31] ce qui explique en (ESF) s’est lancée dans l’évaluation des aux peuples étudiés et de mettre celle-ci au grande partie la surreprésentation anglo- revues en SHS et a publié en juin 2007 même plan que celle du scientifique, a pro- saxonne dans les banques de données de une liste initiale sous le nom de Euro- duit une «inflation citante» et des monstres Thomson ISI. pean Reference Index for the Humanities d’évaluation. Certains auteurs critiqués Si on compare la liste des périodiques (ERIH), qui les classe par rang A, B, ou par cette école ont bénéficié d’un grand en sciences sociales de l’UNESCO à celle C. Cette liste exclut certains domaines des nombre de citations: c’est ainsi que des de l’ISI, on remarque des divergences as- sciences sociales, comme la géographie, post-modernes médiocres (est-ce un pléo- sez importantes. La liste de l’UNESCO qui feront l’objet d’un autre classement. nasme?) ont célébré des pré-modernes mé- contient environ 2.5 fois plus de revues L’ESF statue sur l’intégration des revues diocres (jusqu’alors non cités) dont le seul scientifiques que celle du SSCI. La cou- dans cette liste de référence, ce qui ex- tort avait été de relever une ethnographie verture du SSCI contiendrait 60% de re- plique pourquoi les revues soutenues par classique dans laquelle l’indigène avait la vues américaines, alors que la propor- le CNRS n’y figurent pas toutes. Mais place honorable d’informateur plutôt que tion mondiale qu’elles occupent ne serait l’ERIH n’a pas vocation à être un outil de victime héroïque. que de 17% selon la liste compilée par bibliométrique et ne se pose pas comme Un autre facteur de distorsion des ci- l’UNESCO. En fait, il est apparu qu’il y a une alternative au WOS. L’Observatoire tations en sciences sociales provient de plus de revues américaines couvertes dans des Sciences et des Techniques (OST), qui leur sensibilité médiatique. Il y a eu en le SSCI qu’il n’y en a de recensées dans la a précisément pour mission de concevoir France dans les années 70 une mode de liste de l’UNESCO. et de produire des indicateurs sur la re- l’ethnologie qui a propulsé les marchands On ne peut ignorer la hiérarchie impli- cherche et le développement, annonce d’exotisme. Puis, à mesure que la planète cite qui règne dans les «sciences molles», qu’il va travailler sur les indices d’impact se rétrécissait dans sa diversité, ce fut le certaines étant considérées comme plus à partir des revues recensées par l’ESF. tour des historiens. Aujourd’hui, grâce à «dures» que d’autres. C’est ainsi que La base de données ‘Scopus’ (Elsevier), la crise, c’est l’économie qui a la cote. l’économie occupe le sommet, probable- pourrait constituer une alternative au De façon générale, les sciences humaines, ment parce qu’elle prétend à des méthodes monopole de Thomson. En effet, Scopus dès lors qu’elles traitent de problèmes quantitatives que les autres disciplines indexe environ 17000 titres dont 2850 en sociaux, ne peuvent être insensibles à la ne peuvent revendiquer, mais aussi parce SHS, soit le double du WOS, et ne se li- société qui les finance, et les citations de qu’elle est réputée utile à la société. Les mite pas aux revues anglo-saxonnes. La leur production reflètent ces relations revues en sciences économiques ont la part répartition géographique des titres est de complexes. belle dans les indexations: une excellente 25% pour le Royaume-Uni (4157 revues), La communication scientifique uti- publication en histoire de l’art sera moins 25% seulement pour le reste de l’Europe/ lise désormais les nouvelles technologies citée qu’une œuvre médiocre en économie. Moyen-Orient/Afrique, 37% pour l’Amé- de la communication et de l’information Par ailleurs, les chercheurs en sciences rique du Nord, 12% pour Asie/Pacifique, (NTCI), ce qui a pour effet une réforme sociales sont particulièrement conscients et 1% pour l’Amérique du Sud. La cou- profonde des modes de diffusion de l’in- du réductionnisme qu’implique la quan- verture est donc beaucoup plus large que formation scientifique. La plupart des tra- tification, du fait même de la complexité celle du WOS.»[32] vaux scientifiques sont numérisés et mis en 82 CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 Note

ligne, soit par les chercheurs eux-mêmes, The Madness of Impact Factors of paper before the ink has had time to dry, soit par les éditeurs commerciaux, sur Journals iii) these colleagues must find an interest- des sites d’archives institutionnelles, sur ing application of our method, or invent an des sites publics, ou encore sur des pages The impact factor (IF) of a journal is improvement of said method, iv) carry out personnelles. Les NTCI modifient donc les supposed to give a measure of its inherent novel experiments, v) write up their obser- comportements des chercheurs qui ont dé- ‘quality’ (see Annex 1). The higher the IF, vations, vi) submit their paper to a journal sormais les moyens d’augmenter la visibi- the better the journal is believed to be. For of their choice, vii) wait for the referee lité de leurs travaux à l’échelle mondiale the sake of illustration, consider the impact reports, viii) incorporate suggestions for et d’accroître leur «potentiel de citabilité» factors for 2008 of a few journals in our improvements, and ix) have the paper ac- par la mise en ligne. Cette évolution marque respective fields: L’Homme (the journal is cepted and appear in print before the end un tournant important à la fois dans les re- indexed but its IF is not listed), Journal of of 2011! Depending on the date of publica- lations avec les éditeurs scientifiques com- the Royal Anthropological Society (idem), tion of the original paper (which could be merciaux et dans les pratiques de travail. Nature (IF = 31.434), Science (28.103), anywhere between January and December En effet, le développement des NTCI peut Angewandte Chemie International Edi- 2010), our colleagues have only 12 to 24 nous faire entrer dans une ère nouvelle, une tion (10.879), Proceedings of the National months to complete the entire process! ère du partage et du libre accès. Mais cette Academy of Sciences (9.380), the Jour- This is clearly pure folly. Very few scien- évolution est contrée par la résistance des nal of the American Chemical Society tists can produce a serious paper in such acteurs financiers, comme en témoigne la (8.091), Physical Review Letters (7.180), a short period. (Incidentally, NMR may création toute récente par l’Association des Progress in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance be an exception, since many techniques éditeurs américains de l’organisation Anti- Spectroscopy (6.162), Physical Chemistry can be implemented virtually overnight. Open Access Part­nership for Research Inte- and Chemical Physics (4.170), ChemPhys But beware if you have to build your own grity in Science & Medicine (PRISM). La Chem (3.636), the Journal of Chemical instrument, align your laser beams, pump politique de la citation en sciences sociales Physics (3.149), Chemical Physics Letters your vacuum chambers, synthesize your pose ainsi des problèmes spécifiques du fait (2.169), the Journal of Magnetic Reso- precursors, let alone carry out field work de l’interaction toute particulière entre la nance (2.438), and Chimia (1.283). Impact in the depth of the Amazonian forest!). production scientifique et la société qui gère factors tend to vary wildly in short time- Impact factors are not only unstable: cette production. Mais les sciences de la vie spans. Consider by way of example some they are ill-conceived and misleading. Im- sont aussi en interaction étroite avec la so- recent ups and downs in physical chemis- pact factors appear to be even more erratic ciété qui commercialise leurs découvertes. try (Fig. 2). than stock exchange indices such as the La particularité des sciences sociales vien- What do these numbers mean? To be Dow Jones, NASDAQ, FTSE or CAC40. drait plutôt de la facilité avec laquelle on honest, very little. The calculation of the IF Why bother to dwell on these obvious peut instrumentaliser les citations à des fins is only based on the preceding two years. shortcomings? Because it turns out to be idéologiques ou commerciales, de par le ca- For example, the 2008 impact factor of a easier for scientists who publish in journals ractère non expérimental de leur méthode. journal is defined as IF = A/B, where A is with high impact factors to obtain grants, «Depuis début 2006, le CNRS a entamé the number of times that articles published to get promoted, and to find jobs for their une grande campagne d’information allant in the journal in 2006 and 2007 were cited former students. In some countries, as ex- dans ce sens. La European Strategy Forum during 2008, B being the total number of plained by GO, scientists are evaluated on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI) réflé- ‘citable items’ published in 2006 and 2007 simply by weighting the numbers of their chit sur de nouvelles formes d’évaluation in the same journal (see Annex 1). publications with the IFs of the journals in des SHS dans la perspective du 7ème pro- Suppose we wish to boost the IF of which they have appeared. By this stand- gramme-cadre de recherche et de dévelop- our favourite journal in 2012. That im- ard, a single paper in Science would be pement (PCRD) de l’Union européenne. plies that: i) we should publish a paper ‘worth’ more than 11 papers in the Journal La Fondation Européenne pour la Science in 2010 (preferably early in the year, as of Magnetic Resonance. (ESF) a entrepris le recensement et la vali- explained below), ii) some colleagues, In France, according to the unwieldy dation de listes de revues pour chaque do- friends or competitors should discover our instructions to the experts of the Agence maine des sciences humaines et sociales, avec un classement selon leur réputation». Tous ces efforts sont probablement mé- ritants, mais il reste que l’évaluation des recherches en sciences humaines demeure peu perméable à la bibliométrie. En cela ces disciplines constituent le miroir grossis- sant des problèmes plus généraux que pose à la science son évaluation bibliométrique. Il est clair que les sciences humaines attendent les analyses multi-factorielles qui pourraient donner une approximation à leur évaluation. Quoi qu’il en soit, il serait dommageable de leur imposer les mêmes critères qu’aux sciences expéri- mentales. La bibliométrie en sciences hu- maines pourrait alors se présenter comme un avortement. La peinture de la renais- sance italienne aurait-elle supporté une cotation en bourse?

Fig. 2. Trends of impact factors of journals in physical chemistry.[33]   Note CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 83

pour l’Evaluation de la Recherche Scien- récent donc, suivant cette logique, ayant put it, magazines such as Science are fit to tifique (AERES): ‘une [seule] publication été lui-même considéré comme ‘urgent’. be left on the coffee table in the common dans Nature, Cell ou Science [en quatre La production de la science irait ainsi room, along with Time Magazine, l’Hebdo, ans] va suffire à cataloguer le chercheur ou d’urgence en urgence, comme le service Spiegel, and perhaps Gala. enseignant-chercheur comme publiant.’[34] des premiers secours dans un hôpital. Il s’agirait ainsi de parer sans cesse au plus pressé sans jamais se plonger dans une A Dance amongst the Wolves Editors and Science Policy réflexion à long terme. Cette conception correspond d’ailleurs aux modes d’attri- Most scientists are content with pub- Good journals used to pay a great deal bution des crédits de recherche: ceux du lishing papers in a variety of specialized of attention to the quality of their produc- CNRS sont passés de l’attribution aux la- journals. Senior readers of Chimia know tion. Nowadays, they expect the authors boratoires à l’allocation de moyens par how the process works, but let’s give a to submit a finished product. Along with l’ANR sur des critères d’‘urgence’ qui sont brief summary for the benefit of younger typesetters, copy editors have been largely mal définis. Ceux-ci sont tellement flous students. We can distinguish a number of phased out, so that the publishers can focus que l’ANR a été contrainte à multiplier les steps in this tribal dance: i) Having col- on their core business of making profits. projets ‘blancs’ dans ses appels d’offres. lected sufficient experimental evidence or Wielding their IFs as Greek gods their En linguistique, plutôt qu’un commentaire constructed a sound body of theory, one bronze axes, editors-in-chief of major sur un article ‘urgent’ dans une revue des may decide that time has come to publish journals are now endowed with inordinate urgences, n’est-il pas plus ‘urgent’ de pu- a new paper. ii) Equally respectable (and power. Their Editorial Boards have little blier la grammaire d’une langue en voie more profitable in terms of h-factors), one say. Their staff terrorizes the community by de disparition? Il est certain qu’une telle may decide to write an overview of some taking far-reaching decisions about papers publication n’augmentera pas le facteur area that is close to one’s heart. iii) You that are rejected straight away, and about h de son auteur puisque son objet sort du then submit the paper to a journal of your papers which in their opinion deserve to néant et se présente comme un témoignage choice (nowadays via a website), consider- be sent out to review. Publications must d’une mort annoncée. ing its reputation, its peer review policy, its be perceived as relevant to a ‘broad audi- Par ailleurs les revues de sciences hu- impact factor, the career ambitions of your ence’, which is of course at the discretion maines sont sujettes à l’intervention d’une students and post-docs, etc. iv) The editors of the editors. Editors have a central func- idéologie politiquement correcte. Ainsi, la forward your paper to a few more or less tion as gatekeepers of the system. They can rédactrice en chef de la prestigieuse revue well-chosen experts (known as ‘referees’). shape research much more than any fund- Journal of the Royal Anthropological Ins- v) After a few weeks, you receive the writ- ing agency! It can be argued (KG) that if titute a voulu imposer des modifications à ten opinions of the anonymous experts, of- you would replace all associate editors of l’auteur d’un article portant sur des rituels ten with excruciatingly detailed criticism, JACS, chemistry as a science would look espagnols opposants Juifs et Chrétiens: plus a more or less standard letter of the completely different in 10 years from now. selon elle, certaines données ethnogra- Editor who decides to publish or let you On 24th July 2006, we received a re- phiques et commentaires indigènes des perish. vi) You try to overhaul your paper vealing letter from the Editor-in-Chief of rituels étudiés étaient suspects d’antisé- to placate the scepticism of the experts, and one of the most highly regarded journals in mitisme et l’auteur devait donner en note write an accompanying letter in the hope the field of chemistry (kindness forbids us un témoignage d’antiracisme. Comme si that you can convince the Editor to let you to betray his identity). He rejected one of l’auteur d’un article sur l’anthropophagie live a bit longer. If you fail to convince our papers without sending it out to review devait jurer ne jamais avoir consommé de him, go back to iii) and start all over again. on the following grounds: la chair humaine! vii) If the Editor can be swayed, you’ll re- “(i) A major requirement of a Commu- ceive so-called galley proofs (sometimes nication [in our journal] is timeliness and It is sometimes believed that high- riddled with misunderstandings about urgency. How can your manuscript be time- impact journals have high standards of mathematical or chemical formulae) a few ly if most of your references are 30 years peer review. This perception is a fallacy. weeks later. viii) You fight a battle against old and the most recent one is from 2001? If asked to review a paper, we do not pay the printer (or against the computer pro- (ii) Why is this urgent? This is an improve- more attention when the request comes gram that replaced him) to get everything ment on an existing technique with little or from Science than from the Journal of right. ix) Your paper appears on the Web no conceptual advance that I can see. (iii) If Magnetic Resonance. On the contrary! (sometimes even before you have submit- this really is of broad general interest why Since the likelihood that a paper actually ted your corrections!). x) Your paper ap- are your references to broad general inter- will be accepted in Science appears slim, it pears in hard copy for the benefit of a few est venues like PNAS and JACS 30 years is all too tempting for a referee to deliver remaining old-fashioned libraries. In fact, old? There is not a single reference to a a superficial review. Worse, the ‘general- the only evidence that a hard copy actually broad general interest journal like Science, ist’ editors of non-specialist journals do not exists lies in the page numbering. Nature, PNAS, JACS that is recent.” know whom to ask. As a result, it is not rare Perhaps some readers of Chimia have You can trust us that, ever since, we have to read papers in Science that are as mud- shared our experience: driven by ambi- taken the precaution to pepper our works dled in their argumentation as spectacular tion, by the desire to be recognized, by with recent references to Science, Nature, in their claims. Such papers would never the wish to promote the careers of one’s PNAS, JACS, etc. Thus embellished, our be accepted by the Journal of Magnetic graduate students, one is tempted to sub- paper ended up in ChemBioChem[35] and Resonance! In fact, many articles that are mit a paper to the ‘best’ possible journal, was cited four times in its first year. published in Science are very ephemeral, i.e., to the journal with the highest impact while more fundamental long-lasting pa- factor. Having been taken by surprise by Comment analyser la notion d’urgence pers can only be found in the specialized a favourable (perhaps erroneous?) deci- dans la production scientifique? D’après literature. Science has great stories on sion by the editors of Science,[36] we have l’exemple ci-dessus il semblerait qu’une exoplanets, global warming, and influenza become bold enough to submit a recent publication est réputée ‘urgente’ à pu- epidemics. This may explain its popularity. paper on MRI in inhomogeneous fields to blier quand elle fait référence à un article As one of our most esteemed colleagues Nature. Upon receiving a curt refusal, we 84 CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 Note

tried Science, then Nature Methods, than La civilisation du chiffre: pourquoi sie. L’allégorie de la Science ressemble dé- the Proceedings of the National Academy la fièvre bibliométrique? sormais à celle de la Justice: les yeux ban- of Sciences (PNAS), all in vain. Finally, dés, elle s’avance en présentant la balance we settled for our old friend, the Journal La hausse rapide de la fièvre biblio- impitoyable mais égalitaire du facteur h. Ce of Magnetic Resonance (JMR). To over- métrique mérite sinon une explication, du qu’il y a dans les plateaux de la balance come these humiliating defeats, we tried moins la recherche d’indices contribuant importe peu: c’est la mesure qui doit être to boost our morale by remembering that à son analyse. Il est vrai que l’infantile «juste», c’est-à-dire exactement la même JMR has published some nice pieces, such narcissisme du scientifique se satisfait de pour tous. Cette représentation dévoyée as the first paper on ‘Fourier transforms la hausse de son facteur h, comme de la de la Démocratie pollue actuellement les in MRI’[37] (NC = 553) and my favourite puissance du moteur de sa voiture ou de évaluations des chercheurs, les attributions work on ‘Coherence transfer pathways’[38] sa vigueur sexuelle. Cet obscur goût de soi de poste, les distributions de crédits. Elle (NC = 1173). Clearly, the ‘big’ journals s’accompagne d’une certaine lâcheté: la bi- conduit trop souvent à des choix de médio- do not have a monopoly. Impact factors bliométrie est un refuge pour le scientifique crité sous couvert d’égalité des chances. give undue attention to generalist journals, évaluateur qui craint ses collègues et les Cette question est particulièrement délicate while pure science, necessarily focused, institutions. Dans la jungle académique du dans les sciences non expérimentales et only appears in specialized journals. Les pouvoir, comment tracer avec exactitude les singulièrement dans les sciences humaines revues spécialisées sont mal cotées par la jeux d’alliance, les réseaux, les clientèles? pour lesquelles les estimations objectives bourse des revues! Plutôt que d’avancer un jugement indépen- peuvent être empreintes d’idéologie : telle dant qui peut vous créer des ennemis, il est conclusion de l’un vaut bien celle de l’autre moins risqué de faire œuvre de comptable. puisqu’il n’y a pas de démonstration mathé- A Threatened Species: Cependant il est facile d’imputer les matique. Face à l’impossibilité d’établir un Monographs carences de la bibliométrie à des troubles jugement qui pourrait faire courir à l’ob- du caractère et il est plus juste d’en cher- jectivité un danger majeur, on a recours à The noble art of book writing, which is cher des raisons dans la société qui produit la métrique de la bibliométrie qui, comme much more prevalent in the realm of social cette science formatée. Il semble que la re- nous l’avons vu, s’avère particulièrement sciences than in the so-called ‘hard’ scienc- cherche de facteurs d’impact ailleurs que inadéquate à ces disciplines. es, is threatened by the current obsession dans la qualité intrinsèque d’un travail Finalement les deux tendances que with citations. RE’s, GB’s and AW’s mag- scientifique vienne d’abord d’une perte de nous venons d’examiner, d’une part la num opus,[39] which sold over 11000 copies repères. De même qu’il y avait en Bourse perte de repères et d’autre part le besoin in four languages between 1987 and 2009, des valeurs sûres, des «actions de père impérieux d’un égalitarisme qui ne se may be considered a success. Yet it did not de famille», il y avait jusqu’à présent en trouve évidemment ni dans la Nature ni contribute a speck to the h-factors of its co- science des thèmes porteurs, en particulier dans l’intelligence, convergent vers une authors. In fact, it has been argued (MMo) dans les humanités. On distinguait les bons troisième perversion qui est probablement that writing a book no longer pays off, sujets des mauvais et l’on classait ceux-ci la plus grave: le besoin de recourir à une since an author who summarizes his work dans des disciplines plus ou moins figées. entité supérieure qui juge à votre place. in a monograph damages his own h-factor. Un certain nombre de critères étaient re- Quoi de plus rassurant qu’une divinité Perhaps the end of book-writing is in sight? quis pour faire de la bonne science, tels comptable? On n’est plus à la merci d’un que la qualité de la documentation, la collègue irascible mais confiant dans la Ceci est particulièrement dommageable rigueur du raisonnement ou l’élégance toute-puissance du chiffre. On voit tout ce pour une discipline comme l’anthropo- de la présentation. Ces critères n’étaient que cette conception a de dangereux pour logie. En effet une monographie sur une évidemment pas tous adéquats, mais ils la vie politique en général. La Justice aux ethnie, un village ou un groupement d’indi- avaient le mérite d’exister et d’emporter yeux bandés peut faire place impercepti- vidus est la voie royale de cette discipline. une certaine unanimité. Aujourd’hui beau- blement à un Big Brother comptable, caché La découverte d’une culture, d’une langue coup d’entre eux sont considérés, à tort ou derrière le caractère imperturbable de la ou d’un rituel peut difficilement s’exprimer à raison, comme conformistes. Mais com- statistique. Il décerne des notes aux revues, en un seul article. Prenons par exemple les ment les remplacer? Le facteur h fournit mesure les bibliographies individuelles, résultats d’une enquête de terrain sur telle non un critère interne à la science et à sa débusque les minorités de publications ou telle divinité. Celle-ci est à la fois une qualité mais un repère externe. Comme visibles ou invisibles, mais surtout inhibe image vivante dont il faut exposer les pro- si on jugeait une œuvre d’art à son suc- toute réflexion. Tout cela au nom sacré de cédés d’anthropomorphisation et débus- cès de diffusion en son temps: à ce titre le l’égalité des chances. quer les substituts; un symbole régional Requiem de Mozart, les paysages de Van dont il faut montrer les ressorts politiques; Gogh ou les poèmes de Verlaine ont souf- une figure de royauté dont il faut démar- fert de leur temps d’un facteur h déficient. Are there any Alternatives to quer le territoire; une marque sur le cycle Il ne faut pas se cacher qu’il est difficile Bibliometrics? rituel de la région; l’objet d’une initiation d’énoncer des critères mesurant la qualité à l’âge d’homme par les porteurs de son d’un travail scientifique, et le facteur h est Since ‘any number beats no number’ image; le vecteur d’une agentivité sur le un recours à la facilité, le fruit d’une pa- (YG), it will be difficult to overcome the réel qu’il faut rechercher dans l’énoncé de resse intellectuelle qui, de plus, a bonne era of fake indices without replacing them ses vertus, dans ses apparitions, dans ses conscience. by other indices. Yet AF’s complaint is un- miracles, dans son invention…. Chacun de En effet, cette perte de repères s’accom- ambiguous: “The terrible legacy of IF is ces aspects peut évidemment faire l’objet pagne dans l’évaluation scientifique d’une that it is being used to evaluate scientists, d’un article et l’ensemble pourra favori- contagion par l’égalitarisme bien pensant rather than journals, which has become of ser le facteur h de l’ethnologue concerné. présenté comme de la démocratie. L’un increasing concern to many of us. Judge- Mais ne serait-ce pas plus cohérent, plus des dictats de la bibliométrie: nous devons ment of individuals is, of course, best done intéressant et, finalement, plus scienti- tous être jugés à la même aune. Même si by in-depth analysis by expert scholars in fique, de publier l’ensemble de ce travail la mesure est médiocre, elle vaudrait mieux the subject area.” Yet another call for a re- dans un livre? qu’un soupçon de favoritisme ou de fantai- turn to the status quo ante! AF also argues Note CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 85

in favour of ‘eigenfactors’ (EFs), appar- should of course always resist the tempta- à réinventer la roue en ignorant les mo- ently without the slightest concern for their tion to take credit, as AE pointed out after dèles étrangers, et les lacunes quant aux definition, thus providing evidence that the receiving a gold medal at the Académie modes d’évaluation qui iraient au-delà des standards of his beloved PNAS are not as des Sciences in Paris: ‘Man soll keinen simples mesures bibliométriques. Il ne suf- rigorous as he claims. Anspruch erheben.’) Such are the rewards fit pas, comme le fait l’ANR, d’injecter des YG favours leaving the business of of teaching, which cannot be measured by moyens au coup par coup, dans quelques evaluation to professionals: any h-factors and the like. projets choisis. Il faut assurer la continuité “La plupart des critiques se résument Research can also be a source of pleas- et la stabilité des équipes, l’encadrement à faire ressortir les «limites» des classe- ure. This aspect is best expressed in terms des jeunes, et la relève de leurs dirigeants. ments sans jamais se poser clairement la of a fun factor (FF). Consider i) the pleas- Tout cela relève d’une dynamique subtile, question préalable de leurs fondements ure of giving a revolutionary talk to a rav- qu’on ne saurait décréter d’en haut (top épistémologiques: les indicateurs ont-il ing audience in a beautiful seaside resort, down), mais qui exige une écoute attentive bien la signification qu’on leur attribue?” ii) reading a review that starts with ‘This des besoins des laboratoires (bottom up). (…) “l’absence de balises et de réflexions is a well-written paper…’ knowing that Le Comité National du CNRS a su, tant bien méthodologiques sérieuses donne lieu à ce the writing was one’s chief (and perhaps que mal, assumer cette fonction depuis des qu’il faut bien appeler des utilisations an- only?) contribution. But there are more se- décennies. archiques, pour ne pas dire sauvages, de la cretive pleasures, such as iii) the stare of Les grandes découvertes ne viennent bibliométrie.”[40] an envious colleague, iv) writing a nasty plus aujourd’hui d’un cerveau génial ins- He reminds us that useful indica- review on a paper from a competing labo- piré dans sa tour d’ivoire par le miroir de tors should be defined in adequacy to the ratory, etc. All of this easily beats the fas- son facteur h. Elles nécessitent un terreau subject (people, journals, and institutions cination for h-factors! qui peut, certes, contenir quelques mau- should not be judged by the same metrics), It will be challenging to convince vaises herbes, mais qui permet la florai- the measurement should be homogene- granting agencies to respond to yet-to-be- son de belles plantes. Un tel terreau existe ous and should reflect the inertia that is defined factors. Imagine writing in a pro- aux USA dont les universités sont adap- characteristic of journals and institutions. posal that your TF = 8 and your FF = 9! tées pour recevoir les fonds de la National The worst infractions against these rules Pure fantasy? Not necessarily. In the last Science Foundation (NSF), des National have been made by the so-called Shanghai few years, GB has consistently included Institutes of Health (NIH), du Department classification of universities, which mixes in his proposals an overview of the current of Energy (DOE), et d’autres agences de many unrelated and unstable parameters. jobs held by former PhD students and post- moyens. En France, ce sont les équipes de The damages that have been inflicted on docs. A poor man’s TF? recherche associées au CNRS qui jouent European universities by this ill-conceived ce rôle de capteurs de fonds. Faire dispa- indicator dwarf the effects of weapons of raître le CNRS reviendrait à vouloir faire mass destruction. Des réformes mal engagées de l’agriculture hors sol. Les produits de celle-ci, on le sait, sont insipides. En re- La focalisation sur la seule visibilité vanche une réforme concertée des trois How are your TFs and FFs Doing? de la recherche à travers des facteurs h piliers de la recherche française, CNRS, conduit au désintérêt pour les structures Université et ANR est la seule manière de Most scientists are unlikely to dedicate de production de la science. En France, donner un sens à l’ANR dont les perver- sufficient time to acquire a truly profes- le devenir du CNRS est au cœur de la re- sions déjà visibles proviennent en partie sional grasp of indices. We favour a more production de la science. Faut-il conso- de la faiblesse des établissements qu’elle provocative and playful response. There lider le CNRS? Faut-il au contraire le a pour mission de soutenir. are plenty of stimuli to which we scien- démanteler? Dans son plaidoyer pour la tists eagerly respond. Let us start with the sauvegarde du CNRS, Albert Fert, lauréat teaching factor (TF). Paying attention to Nobel de physique 2007, attire notre at- Publish but Nevertheless Perish your TF is much more fun than watching tention sur les dangers de la disparition your h factor! Indeed, many of us are sensi- du CNRS.[41] Il s’insurge contre “une ré- La logique de publication en sciences tive to the rewards of teaching: i) the pleas- forme du système de recherche... dictée sociale d’un grand centre de recherche ure of being challenged by a demanding par des motivations idéologiques.” En comme le CNRS est perverse: i) On paye student who, after an ill-prepared lecture, effet, la vraie recherche échappe à toute des scientifiques pour faire de la recherche; complains that your half-baked theoretical volonté étatique, surtout si celle-si s’ha- ii) on ne prévoit pas de fonds pour publier explanation is incomprehensible (e.g. ring- bille des atours de la bibliométrie. les résultats, ni pour les traduire en anglais current contributions to chemical shifts), ii) Les grandes découvertes, surtout celles afin de prévenir le pillage intellectuel; iii) the satisfaction of hearing a student in an qui débouchent sur des applications utiles, on reproche au chercheur la faiblesse de oral examination clearly expose some chal- ne se font pas par décret ni par facteur h. ses publications dont le financement n’a lenging piece of theory (e.g. Overhauser Tout au plus peut-on espérer créer un champ pas été prévu. C’est ainsi que SP, cher- effects), when you remember having given de force favorable à l’éclosion d’idées nou- cheur au CNRS, a bénéficié de subsides a muddled explanation on the blackboard a velles. Or, sur ce point, la France a frappé un pour plusieurs missions en Indonésie étu- few weeks earlier, iii) the pleasure of hear- grand coup par l’invention du CNRS, struc- dier une société pratiquement inconnue. ing a smooth seminar given by a self-con- ture unique au monde. Certains pensent que Après des années d’enquêtes difficiles, elle fident graduate student who was riddled l’Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) a écrit une monographie remarquable, et by doubts when starting his PhD, iv) the pourra prendre un jour la relève du CNRS. elle a obtenu d’une fondation une aide à la joy of attending the public PhD defence of Mais les premiers balbutiements de l’ANR publication. Elle a attendu cinq ans pour a student who is radiant with pride of his sont assez inquiétants, et pas seulement par que l’éditeur publie enfin son livre, c’est-à- achievements, v) the promotion of one’s leur dérive bibliométrique: on n’est guère dire les résultats d’une recherche qui avait former students to a tenured professorship, rassuré par le manque d’expérience de ses coûté au CNRS des années de salaire et des vi) a prize, grant or project of international responsables, la pesanteur administrative frais de mission. De futurs évaluateurs se scope given to one’s former students. (One derrière laquelle ils se réfugient, leur zèle pencheront peut-être sur son dossier pour 86 CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 Note

lui reprocher la faiblesse de son indice de ization[43] (NC = 1369), and self-induced cédure d’évaluation, car ses grands résul- publication. Celui-ci de toute évidence ne transparency[44] (NC = 1004). Allowing for tats furent validés avec un retard incom- sera en rien représentatif de la qualité de a hundred trials does not seem excessive patible avec la tenure track d’aujourd’hui. ses recherches. Il ne suffit pas d’écrire les to achieve three ‘hits’ of such magnitude. Il n’aurait jamais été capable d’obtenir un résultats d’une étude. Encore faut-il trou- In the vein of EH’s prohibition, one might subside du Fonds National [en Suisse], de ver un éditeur qui investisse des fonds pour also consider imposing a limitation on the donner un cours de base ou de suivre des les publier! Pour avoir un indice h correct creation of new journals. Nobody questions doctorants. Juif laïque et libre penseur, il un chercheur en sciences sociales doit se the respectability of Angewandte Chemie. aurait été victime du feu croisé d’intégristes doubler d’un businessman. But was PG well-inspired when he created et fanatiques de plusieurs religions.” Thus Dans ces disciplines, l’évaluation par Chemistry a European Journal, Chemistry Einstein would probably never be granted la vitesse de publication est d’autant plus an Asian Journal, ChemPhys Chem, Chem- tenure in today’s system. absurde qu’un auteur doit parfois attendre BioChem, ChemMedChem, etc.? un ou deux ans avant que son article, une fois accepté par une revue, ne soit publié, Permanent Evaluation parfois le temps qu’un rival publie un Academic Appointments article sur le même sujet dans un autre Once upon a time, there were no peer journal. On a vu des revues pratiquer vo- Two bright graduate students have reviews at all. When Einstein received an lontairement la rétention d’un article pour recently completed their PhDs at EPFL. anonymous review for the first time in his permettre à tel ou tel collègue de publier Although they have very different person- life, he drily replied to the editor: “I sub- le sien sur le même sujet! Font aussi l’ob- alities, interests and areas of expertise, it mitted this paper to be published, not to be jet de trafics indignes les comptes-rendus would be hard to say that one is ‘better’ criticized”. Today, the quality of peer re- de livres qui sont déterminants pour le than the other. Each of them co-authored view is the main (and perhaps only) differ- facteur h d’un auteur. C’est ainsi que tel about eight papers during four years of ence between good and bad journals, be- collègue acceptera de recenser un ouvrage research. SCa has collected 97 citations, tween granting agencies that fail and those qui fait concurrence au sien, puis oubliera while RS has to be content with a mere that sail. Anonymous peer review lies at d’écrire ce compte-rendu, le temps que son NC = 8. Does this mean that SCa will find the heart of modern science. Recently, I livre à lui déploie sa force de citation. Le it easier to get a job? Or will prospective was asked by Science to review a paper. In livre dont il s’est engagé à rendre compte employers realize that SCa’s subject area is a brief spell of arrogance, I wrote “The au- est ainsi pris en otage. more fashionable, while RS’s subject may thors would be well advised to submit their be more challenging and less popular? One work to a more serious journal less inclined shudders at the implications! to favour hype”. I told the story over break- Inflationary Publication Rates Appointments of assistant professors, fast at some meeting, and was impressed maîtres de conference, and other faculty by the profound silence around the table, In principle, the fashion of h-factors members shape the future of institutions as if my dear colleagues all thought “how should favour publishing a small number of higher learning. Many mechanisms dare you!” Une forme de lèse majesté ? of good papers, rather than endless series have been invented in various countries to Much more than in Einstein’s days, we of minor works. Perhaps the only posi- fight the more-of-me (MOM) syndrome, are being evaluated continuously.[46] When tive aspect of the h-fashion is that it might old boy networks, and nepotism. None of we write papers and submit them to jour- slow down the tremendous inflation of the these safeguards appear to be quite fool nals. When we submit proposals to grant- number of published papers. By combin- proof. When directors of institutes, deans ing agencies. When we send a sketch of a ing ‘copy-and-paste’ methods with the of faculties, and presidents of universities patent application to an industrial partner. power of ‘search engines’, it has become are ill-inspired, they can create havoc. And When we encourage young PhDs to apply far too easy to write! Some readers may they often do! Excessive reliance on bib- for grants to pursue post-doctoral work. have overheard a Senior Common Room liometrics fuels poor decisions. Instead of When we submit abstracts to the organizers exchange between two Oxbridge dons: reading the candidate’s research project, of meetings in the hope of being invited for “I’ve just published a new book”, says browse through his published papers, and a talk. When our Department or Institute one of them. “Jolly good”, comes the re- listen attentively to his lecture, it is so or Faculty or Unité Mixte de Recherche ply, “under what title have you published much easier to ask a secretary to look up (UMR) or Ecole Doctorale (ED) is evalu- it this time?” some bibliometric data! ated. If you are a member of n such groups Referring to the good old times when The risks of the current policies have and teach m courses, you will be evaluated the increasingly fat volumes of Physical been summed up by GMa:[45] “Nous ar- n + m times. By a professional evaluator. Review were still physically stacked on li- rivons maintenant à la question épineuse: By a computer. By students (how refresh- brary shelves, AA observed that the speed que ferait-on aujourd’hui d’un type comme ing their comments can be!) By an ad-hoc of propagation v of the front page would Einstein? Je réponds de façon assez pessi- committee whose members have been soon exceed the speed of light c. The prin- miste à cette question. Il aurait été envoyé picked by some Director, Dean, or Presi- ciples of relativity were not at stake, said à l’apprentissage plutôt qu’à l’université, dent. By a committee despatched by the AA reassuringly, since the information en tout cas, il n’aurait jamais obtenu la CNRS. By the Agence pour l’Evaluation content was approaching zero. maturité [équivalent suisse du baccalau- de la Recherche Scientifique (AERES). To fight this tendency, EH suggested réat]. Etudiant universitaire de bachelor, Whatever the inherent shortcomings of that each scientist should be issued a non- il aurait probablement raté nos examens these rituals may be, bibliometrics can renewable chequebook at the beginning of [ceux de l’EPFL]. Même s’il avait atteint only make them worse! his career, so that it would be impossible le niveau du master, il aurait été victime de to publish more than, say, 20 papers in the la maîtrise insuffisante de l’anglais (lan- La fascination du pouvoir life of a scientist. Actually, notwithstand- gue qu’il martyrisa toute sa vie). Après un We scientists have power! This is par- ing his own rule, EH wrote no less than 95 éventuel doctorat, il aurait difficilement ticularly obvious in the area of chemistry. papers! But these include time-reversal by trouvé un emploi public. Jeune professeur The power to heal. The power to avert spin echoes[42] (NC = 2860), cross-polar- assistant, il n’aurait jamais passé la pro- suffering. The power to improve life. The Note CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 87

power to predict the future. One of my and the like, they should leave it to com- Simone Cavadini; SP = Simonne Pauwels; UP friends (MMu) developed a drug against puters to take all decisions about science = Umberto Piantini; YG = Yves Gingras. hepatitis C that is currently being tested in policy. One corollary would be that they ‘phase III’. SCo hopes to cure tuberculosis. would make themselves superfluous. It is Abbreviations used in the Text: CD worked out how to screen drugs against well known that no body of administrators AERES = Agence [française] pour protein targets. PP hopes to make MRI will ever agree to be phased out. Let’s hope l’Evaluation de la Recherche Scientifique; more accessible. Whether these hopes are that they will find some convoluted way to AHCI = Arts and Humanities Citation Index; legitimate, or whether they might end up justify their continued existence, and that ANR = Agence Nationale [française] pour with disappointments, is not the point here: the procedures they will invent can attenu- la Recherche; CNRS = Centre National [français] pour la Recherche Scientifique; CTI the key lies in the driving force, the mo- ate the impact of impact factors! = Commission [suisse] pour la Technologie tivation, the libido, in the question ‘what The most obvious suggestion (CG) is et l’Innovation; DOE = [US] Department of makes them tick’, what motivates them to to revert to the status quo ante. After all, Energy; DQF-COSY = double-quantum filtered return again and again to their laboratories. science has relied on peer review for dec- correlation spectroscopy; EF = Eigenfactor; Scientists who are passionately in- ades without being contaminated by any EPFL = Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de volved in their pet areas have little interest bibliometrics. Reverting to the old times is Lausanne; ERIH = European Reference Index in taking over administrative responsibili- a bit like asking people who are addicted for the Humanities ; ESF = European Science ties. The corollary is that it is difficult to to watching the so-called ‘news’ on TV to Foundation; ESFRI = European Strategy find qualified scientists who are willing revert to reading newspapers. This advice Forum on Research Infrastructures; ETHZ = to run the show. As a consequence, col- may be taken in individual cases, but is Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich; FF = Fun Factor; FNRS = Fonds National leagues who have never experienced the unlikely to work for an entire community. Suisse de la Recherche Scientifique; HMQC thrill of a real discovery tend to rule the One should constantly torpedo bibliomet- = Heteronuclear multiple-quantum correlation waves of science policy.[47] rics by forcefully speaking out against spectroscopy; HSQC = Heteronuclear single- them in appointment committees (BM).[48] quantum correlation spectroscopy; IF = Impact Par contraste avec les sciences dures, We should constantly challenge the arro- Factor; INEPT = Insensitive nuclei enhanced la majorité des sciences molles ont de gance of journal editors and make every by polarisation transfer; ISI = Institute for moins en moins de pouvoir, dans la me- effort to ridicule their beloved impact fac- Scientific Information; JACS = Journal of the sure où le savoir ‘inutile’ a de moins en tors. Another way of restoring the balance American Chemical Society; JMR = Journal moins de prestige, contrairement à ce qui is to pay more attention to teaching factors of Magnetic Resonance; NC = Number of cita- était le cas dans les salons bourgeois du and fun factors. tions; NOE = Nuclear Overhauser effect; NSF ème = [US] National Science Foundation; NTCI XIX siècle. = Nouvelles technologies de la communica- Par ailleurs les scientifiques des disci- La bibliométrie donne incontestable- tion et de l’information; OST = Observatoire plines ‘molles’ n’ont pas accès aux médias. ment une indication sur l’activité d’un des Sciences et des Techniques; PCRD = Quand de rares radios ou télévisions leur chercheur et il ne faut pas la refuser par programme-cadre de recherche et de dével- ouvrent leurs portes, c’est à des pseudo- principe. C’est plutôt l’obsession mé- oppement [de l’Union Européenne]; PNAS scientifiques qu’elles s’adressent. C’est trique qu’il faut combattre car elle crée = Proceedings of the National Academy of le cas des ‘nouveaux philosophes’ comme les distorsions d’évaluation que nous Sciences [USA]; PRISM = Partnership for BHL: ils se servent de leur pouvoir symbo- avons exposées. Mais surtout elle peut, Research Integrity in Science & Medicine; SCI lique pour défendre des ‘causes justes’, ces par le mirage comptable qu’elle produit, = Science Citation Index; SE = Streicheleinheit; dernières venant légitimer un savoir qu’ils cacher les vraies valeurs du travail scien- SHS = Sciences humaines et sociales; SSCI = Social Science Citation Index; TF = Teaching ne possèdent pas. Le raisonnement per- tifique: le talent de chercheur et d’ensei- Factor; WOS = Web of Science. vers est le suivant: BHL défend des causes gnant, et surtout son engagement person- justes et nobles, donc son savoir est juste nel qui est fait à la fois de prise de risque, ANNEX 1 et noble. C’est le cas de CC qui abreuve d’implication personnelle et de responsa- ‘The impact factor, often abbreviated IF, is de clichés bien-pensants sur les sauvages bilité collective. Ces valeurs ne peuvent a measure of the citations to science and social l’Université Populaire que lui a confiée le ressortir que d’un examen qualitatif de science (sic) journals. It is frequently used as musée du Quai Branly. Pourquoi ne pas l’activité scientifique. a proxy for the relative importance of a jour- avoir accordé cette mission aux nombreux nal within its field. The impact factor was de- anthropologues qui cherchent à se rendre Acknowledgements and Initials: vised by Eugene Garfield, the founder of the utiles? La dénonciation par EJ de l’im- We are indebted to (in alphabetic order): Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), now posture que constituent les déclarations AA = Anatole Abragam; AB = Ad Bax; AE = part of Thomson, a large worldwide US-based de cette dame ‘people’ sur les Dogons ne Albert Eschenmoser; AF = Alan Fersht; AK publisher. Impact factors are calculated each year by Thomson Scientific for those journals peut avoir d’impact sur le public car les = Anil Kumar; AM = Antoinette Molinié; AO = Albert Overhauser; AS = AJ Shaka; AW = which it indexes, and the factors and indices are ethnologues qui s’en prennent aux mythes Alexander Wokaun; BHL = Bernard Henri- published in the Journal Citation Reports. The dont notre société a besoin sont privés Lévy; BM = Beat Meier; CC = Catherine publication of each year covered occurs in the de pouvoir. Il faut bien avouer d’ailleurs Clément; CD = Claudio Dalvit; CG = Christian summer of the following year. The impact fac- que, quand ils sont compétents, ils ne le Griesinger; CS = Charles Slichter; DR = David tor of a journal is calculated based on a rolling cherchent guère. Les scientifiques de haut Ruben; EH = Erwin Hahn; EJ = Eric Jolly; FM two-year period. It can be viewed as the aver- niveau recherchent plus le pouvoir symbo- = Frédéric Merkt; RF = Ray Freeman; GB = age number of citations in a year given to those lique que le pouvoir politique, qui est trop Geoffrey Bodenhausen; GMo = Gareth Morris; papers in a journal that were published during souvent abandonné aux médiocres. GMa = Giorgio Magaritondo; GO = Gottfried the two preceding years. For example, the 2003 Otting; HH = Hashim El-Hashimi; IS = Ionel impact factor of a journal would be calculated Solomon; KG = Karl Gademann; KW = Kurt as follows: if A = the number of times articles Wüthrich; LM = Luciano Müller; MMo = published in 2001 and 2002 were cited (by in- Recovery in Sight? La sortie du Manfred Morari; MMu = Manfred Mutter; dexed journals) during 2003, and B = the total tunnel? MR = Mark Rance; OS = Ole Sorensen; PG number of ‘citable items’ published in 2001 = Peter Gölitz; PM = Pascal Miéville; PP = and 2002. (‘Citable items’ are usually articles, There is a glimmer of hope. If our tu- Philippe Pelupessy; RE = Richard Ernst; RS = reviews, proceedings, or notes; not editorials telles were really serious about h-factors Riddhiman Sarkar; SCo = Stuart Cole; SCa = or Letters-to-the-Editor), then the 2003 impact 88 CHIMIA 2010, 64, No. 1/2 Note

factor is determined to be IF = A/B. (Note that [1] See abbreviations at the end of the article. 41, 526. 2003 Impact factors are actually published in [2] The initials are given in the section [22] M. F. Bishop, A. W. Overhauser, ‘Theory of 2004; it cannot be calculated until all of the ‘Acknowledgements and Initials’. electron-phason scattering and the low-tem- 2003 publications had been received by the in- [3] Ce n’est pas le moindre mérite de l’associa- perature resistivity of potassium’, Phys. Rev. B tion ‘Sauvons la recherche’ que d’avoir fourni 23 dexing agency.) A convenient way of thinking 1981, , 3638. un condensé du point de vue du président de la [23] I. Burghardt, R. Konrat, G. Bodenhausen, about it is that a journal that is cited once per République française sur les chercheurs. Ceux- ‘Measurement of cross-correlation of fluc- year, on average, for each article published has ci refuseraient d’être évalués, se contenteraient tuations of dipolar couplings and anisotropic an IF of 1 in the expression above. There are d’un confort douillet («Il y a de la lumière, c’est chemical shifts by selective spin-locking’, Mol. some nuances to this: ISI excludes certain arti- chauffé») et seraient largement improductifs, Phys. 1992, 75, 467. cle types (so-called ‘front-matter’ such as news sauf peut-être les mathématiciens et les physi- [24] L. Emsley, G. Bodenhausen, ‘Phase shifts in- items, correspondence, and errata) from the de- ciens qui sont «l’arbre qui cache la forêt.» voir duced by transient Bloch-Siegert effects in nominator. Thomson Scientific does not have a («Réponse à la provocation présidentielle du NMR’, Chem. Phys. Lett. 1990, 168, 297. fixed rule for which types of articles are consid- 22 janvier 2009»; voir http://www.sauvonslare- [25] G. Bodenhausen, G. Wagner, M. Rance, cherche.fr/spip.php?article2373. ered ‘citable’ and which front-matter.’ (source: O. W. Soren­sen, K. Wüthrich, R. R. Ernst, [4] On notera tout le mépris que ce mot exprime: ‘Longitudinal two-spin order in 2D exchange Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.) on «met sous tutelle» un vieillard gâteux, un dé- spectroscopy (NOESY)’, J. Magn. Reson. 1984, ment et un laboratoire de recherche… 59, 542. ANNEX 2 [5] A. W. Overhauser, ‘Encyclopedia of Magnetic [26] L. Emsley, I. Burghardt, G. Bodenhausen, ‘The h-index is an index that attempts to Resonance’, Eds. D. M. Grant, R. K. Harris, ‘Doubly selective inversion in NMR and multi- measure both the scientific productivity and vol. I, 513–516, 1996. ple quantum effects in coupled spin systems’, J. the apparent scientific impact of a scientist. [6] A. W. Overhauser, ‘Polarization of nuclei in Magn. Reson. 1990, 90, 214, corrigendum: ibid. The index is based on the set of the scientist’s metals’, Phys. Rev. 1953, 92, 411. 1991, 94, 448. most cited papers and the number of citations [7] T. R. Carver, C. P. Slichter, ‘Polarization of nu- [27] L’utilisation de la bibliométrie dans les sci- that they have received in other people’s pub- clear spins in metals’, Phys. Rev. 1953, 92, 212. ences sociales et les humanités [‘The Use of lications. The index can also be applied to the [8] All numbers of citation (abbreviated ‘NC’ in Bibliometrics in the Social Sciences and the productivity and impact of a group of scientists, this paper) refer to the interval between the date Humanities’], Science-Metrix, Rapport final of publication and August 2009. préparé pour le Conseil de recherches en sci- such as a department or university or country. [9] I. Solomon, ‘Relaxation processes in a system ences humaines du Canada (CRSH) [Final The index was suggested by Jorge E. Hirsch, of 2 spins’, Phys. Rev. 1955, 99, 559. report prepared for the Canadian Research a physicist at UCSD, as a tool for determin- [10] D. Neuhaus, M. P. Williamson, ‘The Council in Human Sciences (CRSH)]: http:// ing theoretical physicists’ relative quality and Nuclear Overhauser Effect in Structural and www.science-metrix.com. E. Archambault, is sometimes called the Hirsch index or Hirsch Conformational Analysis’, 2nd ed., Wiley, New E. Gagne (dir.), 2004. number. Hirsch suggested that, for physicists, York, 2000. [28] D. Hicks, ‘The difficulty of achieving full cover- a value for h of about 10–12 might be a useful [11] G. Bodenhausen, D. J. Ruben, ‘Natural abun- age of international social science literature and guideline for tenure decisions at major research dance nitrogen-15 NMR by enhanced hetero- the bibliometric consequences’, Scientometrics universities. A value of about 18 could mean nuclear spectroscopy’, Chem. Phys. Lett. 1980, 1999, 44, 193. 69, 185. [29] http://www.science-metrix.com/pdf/Science- a full professorship, 15–20 could mean a fel- [12] A. A. Maudsley, R. R. Ernst, ‘Indirect detec- Metrix_Utilisation_bibliometrie_SSH.pdf. lowship in the American Physical Society, and tion of magnetic resonance by heteronuclear [30] Acta Sociologica pa den internationale aréna, 45 or higher could mean membership in the 2-dimensional spectroscopy’, Chem. Phys. Lett. Dansk Sociologi, 1996, 7, 72; H. Andersen, United States National Academy of Sciences 1977, 50, 368. ‘Influence and reputation in the social sciences (sic). The h-index was intended to address the [13] G. A. Morris, R. Freeman, ‘Enhancement of nu- - how much do researchers agree?’, Journal of main disadvantages of other bibliometric indi- clear magnetic resonance signals by polarization Documentation 2000, 56, 674. cators, such as total number of papers or total transfer’, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1979, 101, 760. [31] http://www.science-metrix.com/pdf/Science- number of citations. Total number of papers [14] L. Müller, ‘Sensitivity enhanced detection of Metrix_Utilisation_bibliometrie_SSH.pdf does not account for the quality of scientific weak nuclei using heteronuclear multiple quan- [32] Les citations de ce chapitre proviennent de tum coherence’, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1979, 101, ‘Révolution numérique et évaluation bibli- publications, while total number of citations 4481. ométrique dans les sciences humaines et so- can be disproportionately affected by participa- [15] U. Piantini, O. W. Sorensen, R. R. Ernst, ciales’, Ch. Kosmopoulos et D. Pumain, Revue tion in a single publication of major influence. ‘Multiple quantum filters for elucidating NMR européenne des sciences sociales, (Cahiers The h-index is intended to measure simultane- coupling networks’, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1982, Vilfredo Pareto), 2008, XLVI, n°141, 73. Pour ously the quality and sustainability of scientific 104, 6800. la version en anglais voir « Citation, Citation, output, as well as, to some extent, the diversity [16] A. J. Shaka, R. Freeman, ‘Simplification of NMR Citation: Bibliometrics, the web and the Social of scientific research. The h-index is much less spectra by filtration through multiple quantum Sciences and Humanities », Cybergeo, Science affected by methodological papers proposing coherence’, J. Magn. Reson. 1983, 51, 169. et Toile, article 411, mis en ligne le 17 décembre successful new techniques, methods or approx- [17] M. Rance, O. W. Sorensen, G. Bodenhausen, G. 2007, modifié le 01 juillet 2009. URL: http:// Wagner, R. R. Ernst, K. Wüthrich, ‘Improved www.cybergeo.eu/index15463.html. imations, which can be extremely highly cited. spectral resolution in COSY 1H NMR spec- [33] One can easily guess which publisher sent this For example, one of the most cited condensed tra of proteins via double quantum filtering’, material as unsolicited advertisement by elec- matter theorists, John P. Perdew, has been very Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1983, 117, tronic mail. successful in devising new approximations 479. [34] Agence pour l’Evaluation de la Recherche within the widely used density functional the- [18] J. Jeener, B. H. Meier, P. Bachmann, R. R. Scientifique (AERES), in ‘Critères d’identi- ory. He has published three papers cited more Ernst, ‘Investigation of exchange processes by fication des chercheurs et enseignants-cher- than 5000 times and two cited more than 4000 2-dimensional NMR spectroscopy’, J. Chem. cheurs «publiants»’ (octobre 2008), chapitre times. Several thousand papers utilizing the Phys. 1979, 71, 4546. ‘Quelques remarques permettant de tenir density functional theory are published every [19] A. Kumar, R. R. Ernst, K. Wüthrich, ‘A two- compte du domaine et du contexte’, p. 3: “Dans dimensional nuclear Overhauser enhancement le secteur des Sciences de la Vie, de la Santé year, most of them citing at least one paper of (2D NOE) experiment for the elucidation of et de l’Environnement, l’AERES est sensible à J.P. Perdew. His total citation count is close complete proton-proton cross-relaxation net- la notion de prise de risque dans la recherche, to 39 000, while his h-index is large, 51, but works in biological macromolecules’, Biochem. et analysera chaque cas ne répondant pas aux not unique. In contrast, the condensed-matter Biophys. Res. Commun. 1980, 95, 1. critères. Ainsi, alors que trois publications dans theorist with the highest h-index (94), Marvin [20] A. Kumar, G. Wagner, R. R. Ernst, K. Wüthrich, des journaux d’impact moyen suffisent pour une L. Cohen, has a lower citation count of 35 000. ‘Buildup rates of the nuclear Overhauser effect activité standard [sic], une publication dans One can argue that in this case the h-index re- measured by two-dimensional proton magnetic Nature, Cell ou Science [en quatre ans] va flects the broader impact of Cohen’s papers in resonance spectroscopy – implications for stud- suffire à cataloguer le chercher ou enseignant- solid-state physics due to his larger number of ies of protein conformation’, J. Am. Chem. Soc. chercheur comme publiant. De même, la place 1981, 103, 3654. en premier auteur dans un article d’audience highly-cited papers.’ (source: Wikipedia, the [21] A. Kumar, ‘Two-dimensional nuclear Over­ importante (J. Biol. Chem., Nature, Science, free encyclopedia.) hauser effect experiment in a protein: the first EMBO J., …) peut suffire à classer le chercheur Received: November 14, 2009 NOESY (1979-89)’, Magn. Reson. 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