♦—TIP IP - SE NA

REVOLUTIONISM IN SHELLEY: THE MAN AND THE POET

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ATLANTA UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

BY

ELLIS L. HUNTER

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

ATLANTA UNIVERSITY ATLANTA, GEORGIA AUGUST, 1956 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter

I. REASONS FOR SHELLEY'S REVOLUTIONARY DISPOSITION $

II. MANIFESTATIONS OF SHELLEY'S REVOLUTIONISM IN HIS POETRY . 2$

III. SHELLEY'S ACHIEVEMENTS AS A REVOLUTIONARY POET U3

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1*8

ii INTRODUCTION

Through the years many brilliant studies have been made on Shelley.

His enthusiasts have approached him from scientific, religious, political, ethical, philosophical, biographical, and poetical viewpoints. The writer is somewhat loath to consider this present study uniquej yet, after consult¬ ing countless bibliographies on Shelley, no such study as this has been found. True, Shelley as a revolutionist has been discussed perhaps in most studies on himj indeed, it could hardly be omitted, for it was such a deep part of him and it affected almost everything he did. However, the writer feels safe in saying that if there are other such studies as this, they are either few or have not received wide acclaim.

The purpose of this study is to elucidate the note of revolutionism in Shelley the man and Shelley the poet. All other facts concerning him that do not directly relate to his revolutionary bent are either mentioned in passing as a background against which his revolutionism may be viewed, or they are omitted entirely. Hence, in an effort to get at the core of his revolutionary manifestations, the writer has given special consideration to, first, Shelley’s personality, habits, education, friends, influences

(political, scientific, religious), and personal convictions. Second, atten¬ tion is focused on selections from his major and minor poems. Since various prose works are discussed in the first part of this research, the last section will be primarily concerned with his poetry.

1 2

Through the years Shelley has become the subject of vituperation

and censure. To some the name '’Shelley" has become opprobious. It is to

be regretted that more freedom-loving people have not come to his rescue.

Even the severest critics cannot attack him for his benevolent intentions.

Nevertheless, more than a century has passed, and he is yet the subject of

keener debate than any of his contemporaries. The apparent reason is that

many vital facts about him are yet unknown. One critic, Robert M. Smith,

states that Shelley has been greatly harmed by his friends and enemies.

The former have presented only the best views of him, and, in doing this,

they have destroyed and distorted many vital facts about him. The latter

have presented his bad qualities, and, in doing this, they have read dis¬

torted meanings into his works and magnified trivial details about his

life to their advantage. Much of the confusion about Shelley would now

be clear if his friends had known him better, for they would have known

that he loved the truth, and sought the truth.^ Hence, my treatment of

Shelley in this paper is somewhat sympathetic in tonej this is not an

attempt to invent excuses for his behavior, but an attempt to mitigate

some of his injustices.

To better understand and appreciate Shelley, it is necessary to know something about the period in which he lived. Shelley is a product of the Romantic movement in England. This movement is somewhat difficult to define, and is perhaps best understood by referring to some of the ele¬ ments that underlay its birth.

There arose a feeling of revolt and turmoil at the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth. This feeling was

^Robert M. Smith, The Shelley Legend (New York, 19U5) , pp. 305-309 3 characteristic of many fields, not literature alone, and it extended throughout all of Europe. The chief proponent of this new spirit was

Rousseau, whose doctrine of the dignity of man and his perfectibility in an original state of nature had found adherents everywhere. Polit¬ ically, the events of the French Revolution transformed the ideals of

Rousseau into practicalities, at least for a time. The repercussions of the French Revolution, with its temporary realization of the ideals of Rousseau and his followers, were widespread. Moreover, the spread of the Industrial Revolution made wretched the lot of many of the com¬ mon people, creating a demand for reform.^

While the situation in England was not quite as serious as it was in other parts of Europe, there were still many abuses which cried out for remedies. True representative government and religious liberty were not as yet found in England. The unemployment situation was aggravated by the introduction of machinery and the subsequent decline of the ancient guild system, an organization designed to render aid to the "needy” or to those who were suffering from destitution. The masses as a whole had no repre¬ sentation in the government, and the government steadfastly opposed all reforms. The excesses of the French Revolution were partly to blame for this state of affairs, for the wealthy Tories feared that any concession to the people would result in revolution and anarchy. Nevertheless, reform slowly made its way. As a result, slave trade was abolished, the regula¬ tion of the factories was begun, trade unions were made legal, and the 2 Catholics were finally freed from civil restraint. These are merely a few

^George B. Woods, Homer A. Watt, and George K. Anderson (eds.), The Literature of England (rev. ed.j Chicago, 19ljl), II, 3-U»

^Ibid., pp. 5, 29-31j Albert C. Baugh, et al., A Literary History cf England (New York, 19U8), pp. 1122-1127* U of the social and economic changes that this new movement fostered.

Literature was also deeply influenced by this fire which was sweeping all Europe. A view of the literature written during this period reveals that there was a general revolt against authority} imagination and emotion supplanted reason; nature became the focus of poetic imagination instead of the city, and strong individualism was hailed. As a result of the emphasis on individualism, democracy received its greatest impetus. The brotherhood of man was preached and to this end, Shelley fought continually and courageously.

"*Wood, Watt, and Anderson, op. cit., pp. 1-2 CHAPTER I

REASONS FOR SHELLEY'S REVOLUTIONARY DISPOSITION

Percy Bysshe Shelley was bom August h, 1792, at Field Place in

Sussex, England, when much of Europe was suffering acutely from politi¬ cal, religious, social, and economic deficiencies.^- It is no surprise that Shelley, whose philanthropic nature manifested itself at an early age, became anxious about the confusion and unrest that eventually reached and upset England.

Shelley was tall, "slightly and delicately built . . . fair and ruddy ... with a profusion of silkly brown hair that curled naturally."

He had a pleasant, girlish face, whose features became sharp when he was in pain or angerj "his terrors were painful to see." His voice, which was usually soft and pleasant, became shrill and harsh when he was excited.^

We shall see later how his effeminate features and his susceptibility to physical and spiritual emotions affected his relationship with others.

At home Shelley was considered "a wild and wonder-loving boy."3

He enjoyed roaming the woods near his home, for nature held a wonderful

^See supra, pp. 3-1*.

^Arthur M. D. Hughes, The Nascent Mind of Shelley (Oxford, 19U7), pp. 17-18.

3 Ibid.y p# 5 6 fascination for him. His super imagination was forever at workj and he would often relate frightful tales of horror and mystery to his adoring sisters, who, like many other persons, never really knew him. This story-telling was probably the first evidence of his desire to become a poet."*"

At the age of ten Shelley entered Sion House at Brentford. While there several things happened that were to have great influence upon him in later years. First, it was at Sion House that his affinity for the occult was abetted by the romances of Anne Radcliffe, "Monk” Lewis, and particularly Charles B, Brown.2 This was not required reading, but such works had a tendency to placate his capricious fancy. Second, he became deeply interested in the wonders of science, and the lectures on chemistry and astronomy were like beautiful melodies to his ears. Third, his rebel¬ lious nature toward authority and punishment was displayed there. For instance, when he was whipped, he would roll on the floor as if he were in agony, not from pain, but from a sense of indignity.-^ Fourth, his feminine characteristics made him the center of attraction, and the boys enjoyed harassing him. To one as sensitive as Shelley, it is no surprise that this harassment created within him a sense of isolation and retaliation. “It also laid the psychological basis for that hatred of tyranny which Shelley integrated - using the Whig outlook of his family as intellectual foundation -

•^-Edmund C. Blunden, Shelley (New York, 19h7)> P* 19.

2 Eleanor Sickels, "Shelley and Charles Brockden Brown," PICA, XLV (March, 1930), 1116-1128.

^A. Clutton-Brock, Shelley: The Man and the Poet (New York, 1909), pp. 7-8. 7 into his political philosophy."-*• Generally, his stay at Sion House was not very pleasant, although he had some pleasant moments. What is really signi¬ ficant about his stay there is his intolerant attitude toward frustration and suppression, wherein the germ of revolution was developing.

Shelley entered Eton at the age of twelve. His previous experience at Sion House caused him to avoid crowds, and consequently, he kept much to himself here. His early hatred for authority prompted him to lead an insur¬ rection against the prevailing "fagging system." This "fagging system" was an old-established system at English public schools under which the older boys were empowered to exact certain duties from the younger ones. To

Shelley this was an act of tyranny, and the very idea probably infuriated him. Because his lessons were easily mastered, he devoted much of his leisure time to serious books and violent experiments, which were somewhat encouraged by a Dr. James Lind, who was a local surgeon and physician. It was also through Dr. Lind that Shelley first became acquainted with William

Godwin's Political Justice as well as other influential works. It was at

Eton also that Shelley became acquainted with Pliny's "De Deo," which is a chapter in Pliny's Natural History. After reading "De Deo," Shelley began to question certain ideas about God.

Other works which were influential in shaping his religious beliefs were Hume's Essays, Literary, Moral and Political, Volney's Ruines,

Condorcet's Esquisse, and Lucretius' De Lecum Natura. Each of these works

^Kenneth N. Cameron, The Young Shelley (New York, 1950), p. 9. 2 Hughes, op. cit., pp. 12-15» 8 is anti-Christian in tone. Because of Shelley’s rebellious nature, his

scientific experiments, and his ideas concerning God, he was called "Mad

Shelley" and "the atheist.He left Eton before his term had ended because "his unconventional spirit, penetrating, sincere, and demanding the justice of things, was found to be inconvenient."^

In 1810 he entered Oxford as an undergraduate student. The boys here were generally more mature and serious-minded. Consequently Shelley felt more relaxed here, although he was not gregarious. It was here that he met a Thomas Jefferson Hogg, with whom he formed an intimate friend¬

ship. They enjoyed discussing philosophy, literature, religion, science, and other subjects of interest. Hogg did not especially approve of

Shelley's experiments, but he loved Shelley and tolerated his peculiar habits. They both enjoyed Hume's Essays, Locke's "Essay Concerning Human

Understanding," and works by Plato and Voltaire. These works of philoso¬ phy, in conjunction with the ideas of Demosthenes, Euclid, and Aristotle

regarding logic, gave zeal to Hogg's and Shelley's rebellious dispositions.

Hence, skepticism began to permeate many of their views of life. Shelley developed a distaste for history because he felt that "between the end of the ancient world and the Renaissance there was a long period of darkness 3 in which men only made mistakes." In this connection, Shelley

took nothing upon authority? he acknowledged no validity in the customs and beliefs which past experiences had

^Clutton-Brock, op. cit., pp. 8-9.

2 Blunder, op, cit., p. UU.

^Clutton-Brock, op. cit., pp. 20-22. bequeathed to men; he must examine every conclusion anew, and accept or reject it by the light of his own limited thought and observation.!

It was probably during his Easter holidays in 1810 that Shelley fell in love with his cousin, Harriet Groves. Both families accepted the courtship and felt that Shelley and Harriet would someday marry. However,

Shelley’s strange religious beliefs, possibly in connection with other 2 unconventional beliefs, brought an end to this courtship. This disturbed him greatly, and when Harriet married someone else, he became almost hys¬ terical with anger. One author states that Shelley,

... shocked by the discovery that his search for truth resulted in estrangement from those who took their standards from society, ... returned to college in a mood of fiery indignation against the established order. It seemed to him that the bases of conventionalism, intolerance, bigotry, and tyranny, rested upon the dogmas of the established church, and that therefore faith in God, whom the priests professed to know, was the root of all error.’

These are the major ideas that led to the writing of the famous The Neces¬ sity of Atheism.

Before we discuss The Necessity of Atheism, let us examine a few other facts that underlay its birth.

Shelley ... was bom into the church of rebels; he was bom, also, gentle, loving, and fearless. The dangers to which such a natural endowment would inevitably expose him were aggravated by a misguided education, and by the temper

^George Edward Woodbury, Literary Memoirs of the Nineteenth Century (Hew York, 1921), pp. p Edward Dowden, The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley (London, 1926), p. I|6.

^Ernest Bembaum, Guide Through the Romantic Movement (New York, 19i;9), p. 2b2. 10

of that feverish and ill-regulated age in which modem reform began.-1-

Perhaps the best way to arrive at a clear understanding of Shelley's reli¬ gious beliefs is to keep in mind that although he learned very little from home regarding religion, he was always a moralist. This very fact itself should allow him to seek a better understanding of religion and God. As he viewed religious doctrines with a skeptical eye, he learned to believe that virtue itself by nature was disinterested, and "to act from fear of 2 punishment or hope of reward is never virtuous and often vicious."

Another concept of religion that was incongruent with his thinking was that if there were a Heaven and a Hell, God was a mean Creator, who got "a malicious pleasure from torturing the beings whom he has made."-' He further disagreed with the Christian's conception of God. It appeared to

Shelley that the God they worshipped could be "actuated by the basest of all human passions.Shelley felt that this was an insult to God, who should be connected only with the good and pure. These same ideas remained with Shelley until ten years before his death. One author views Shelley's untiring efforts to discover the truth regarding religion as a preparation for death.Actually, Shelley was never a true atheist, but his attack on

^Woodbury, loc. cit. p Ellsworth Barnard, Shelley's Religion (Minneapolis, 1937), p. 36.

3Ibid., p. 37* u Ibid., p. 36.

^B. P. Kurtz, The Pursuit of Death (New York, 1933), PP* xvi-xxi. Il the prevailing Christian doctrines and his continual search for the truth were interpreted as an atheistical bent.

In The Necessity of Atheism Shelley argues that belief is involun¬ tary and is neither good nor bad. He seeks to prove this on the bases of the evidence of the senses, the decision of reason (which is dependent upon the senses), and the testimony of other persons. However, none of these afforded any basis for belief in God because first, "If the Deity should appear to us, if ha should convince our senses of his existence, this revelation would necessarily command belief."3- Second, "It is easier to suppose that the universe has existed from all eternity than to conceive 2 a being capable of creating it." Third, it is also through reason that we

"can never admit the testimony of men who not only declare that they were 3 eye-witnesses of miracles but that Deity was irrational. ..." This is the gist of Shelley's tract. His purpose for writing this pamphlet was not to convert the world to atheism or to overthrow the orthodoxy. He was merely seeking the truth through reason. He indicates in the advertisement which was attached to the pamphlet that if his reasoning were wrong, he would be very grateful for correction. This advertisement never seems to mitigate the criticism of this tract.^ The title of this work is perhaps somewhat

Ipercy Bysshe Shelley, Shelley's Prose, ed. David Lee Clark Albuquerque, 195k)» p. 38, 11. £7-30. All subsequent references to Shelley's prose, unless otherwise stated are made to this edition, and are entered without the name of the author or editor.

2Ibid., 11. 6-8.

3Ibid., 11. 37-UO.

Stoger Ingpen, Shelley in England (London, 1917), PP* 21U-216. 12 misleadingj nevertheless, we must admit it is an appropriate one*

When this pamphlet reached the officials at Oxford, Shelley and

Hogg (Hogg had also contributed to this pamphlet) were summoned and ques¬ tioned about the authorship of this work. Both were expelled, not because of the publication of this tract, but for stubbornly refusing to answer questions concerning it. This is further evidence of Shelley’s rejection of authority; he would not be forced to do anything. Nevertheless, Shelley regretted his expulsion very much, for he enjoyed the privacy of his room and his friendship with Hogg immensly. However, his pride prevented him from revealing his feelings to the other residents at Oxford, and he and

Hogg left with hearts heavily laden.^

When Shelley and Hogg left Oxford, Shelley did not go home, for he knew how his father would respond to his expulsion. Consequently, he and

Hogg found residence in London. However, this sad news soon reached

Shelley’s father, Timothy, who was thoroughly disturbed and embarrassed.

From the beginning Timothy wanted Shelley to pursue a political career and felt sure that Shelley’s studies were preparing him for such. Despite

Timothy's great disappointment in Shelley, he did not lose all faith in him.

Timothy promised his continued support provided he were allowed to choose

Shelley's associates. But "to continue to receive alms from his father, to subject himself by that means to his dictation and control, was a prospect not to be faced with pleasure.” Shelley felt that there must be some other means of subsistence, and his sense of pride caused him to seek it.

^Blunder, op. cit., pp. 50-58*

^Walter Edwin Peck, Shelley: His Life and Work (Boston, 1927), I, 121. 13

Nevertheless, despite Shelley's refusal to submit to the terms which his father proposed, Shelley needed and sought his help, which finally came through the persuasion of his devoted Uncle Pilfordj and Timothy consented to give him 200 pounds a year."1"

While visiting his sisters at the school at Wandsworth, Shelley met Harriet Westbrook, whose personality and beauty pleased him very much.

He and Harriet corresponded and saw each other often. Soon, Harriet fell in love with him, but he only admired her.^ Unfortunately, Harriet was ostracized at school and reprimanded at home for her association with this

"atheist." She explained her uncomfortable situation to Shelley and placed herself under his protection. Shelley felt that the only way to rescue her

•5 from this torture was through marriage.-' Although he was adverse to the institution of marriage, he and Harriet were married and settled at Edinburgh.

This is important, because we see that Shelley would forbear a belief in order to give assistance to the oppressed, even if it meant hurting himself.

(Shelley's allowance from Timothy was stopped).

It was during Shelley's early acquaintance with Harriet Westbrook that

Pilford introduced him to a Miss Elizabeth Hitchner, who was a spinster and kept a girls' school at Hirstpierpoint. She and Shelley became friends almost immediately. They shared many common interests, but what attracted Shelley most was that she was "a woman of ardent and aspiring feelings, high intel¬ lectual powers, and resolute will, who had made her way almost unaided

1 Dowden, op. cit., pp. 58-70.

^Floyd Stovall, "Shelley’s Doctrine of Love," PMLA, XLV (March, 1930), 298-299.

3 Dowden, op. cit., p. 79. Hi toward the uplands and wide air of liberty and truth.”'*' They enjoyed many piquant conversations, and when they were apart, Shelley found great conso¬ lation in the exchange of letters between him and her. This beautiful friendship lasted until Miss Hitchner finally consented to Shelley's plea

and moved into his home. When she discovered that her presence was creating family disturbances, she quietly took her departure.

Not long after Shelley and Harriet had settled at Edinburgh, they were joined by Hogg, who secured residence in the same house. After condi¬ tions at Edinburgh proved unfavorable, all three sought lodgings at York, where many halcyon days were spent. This picture of happiness was scatters! when Shelley, in dire need of finance, left Harriet and Hogg to seek assis - tance from his father. In Shelley's absence two calamities occurred. Eli2a

Westbrook, Harriet's domineering sister, joined Harriet, and Hogg attempted to seduce Harriet. On Shelley's return he was informed of Hogg's mean act, and a few days later, Shelley, Harriet, and Eliza left York for Keswick without saying anything to Hogg.

After Shelley had made settlement at Keswick, several things of importance happened in his life. (These the writer shall merely mention in passing, elaborating only on those phases that give direct support to the design of this research). First, Timothy's allowance to Shelley was resumed along with an equal allowance from Mr. Westbrook for Harriet. Second,

Shelley met Southey, whom he immediately admired. However, this friendship ended when Shelley felt certain that Southey was responsible for certain journalistic attacks on Keats' Bndymion. (Shelley had previously met Keats and later corresponded with him). Shelley felt that these attacks had

1 Ibid., pp. 73-71*. prompted Keats’ death.^ Third, by letter Shelley made his first acquaint¬ ance with William Godwin, whose Political Justice he had cherished since his days at Eton. He soon learned that Godwin had changed since the publi¬ cation of Political Justice, or rather since the French Revolution. Fourth, and probably most important, was Shelley's increasing interest in the Irish situation. Hence, he wrote the Address to the Irish People while at Keswick and made plans to visit Dublin and offer his assistance. To this end, he and Harriet went to Dublin to offer ministration to the distressed inhabit¬ ants, who were suffering acutely from the injustices imposed by the English

Constitution. Shelley ’’believed that Catholic Emancipation and the restora-

O tion of the liberties of Ireland ... were great and important events."

The materialization of such was the immediate purpose of this pamphlet, which was followed by an explanatory speech at a big public meeting. When both pamphlet and address failed to produce results, Shelley made another effort by appealing to the educated. (This first pamphlet was written solely for the consumption of the masses or the uneducated). In his appeal to the educated, Shelley wrote Proposals for an Association of Philanthro¬ pists, which is more or less a condensed restatement of the Address.

The Proposals may be divided into two main sections: Catholic

Emancipation and a repeal of the Union Act and the proposed organization

(Association of Philanthropists). To enforce his argument, Shelley digresses and discusses at length the failure of the existing government.

In this discussion he says that

^Kenneth N. Cameron, "Shelley versus Southey," PMLA, LII (March, 191*2), 1*89-512. 16

Government can have no rights: it is a delegation for the purpose of securing them to others. Man becomes a subject of government, not that he may be in a worse, but that he may be in a better state than that of unorganized society. The strength of government is the happiness of the governed.

Shelley further states that the French Revolution occurred because "the 2 French nation was bowed to the dust by ages of uninterrupted despotism" and that "the murderers ... of the French Revolution, and the despotism which has since been established, prove that the doctrine of philanthropy and freedom were but shallowly understood."3 Next, Shelley points out flaws in the theories of Malthus, who was "an apologist for upper-class oppression, and whose arguments were based on a desire for war, a poverty to check the growth of the Irish population.Shelley felt that war was not the solution. The solution lay in the establishment of an organiza¬ tion whose practices were democratic in nature.

When Shelley returned to England, "he saw his country with new eyes, a country of social conflict and predatory war, of cynical dictator- ship and rising protest, of arrogant suppression and courageous resistance."

His return, therefore, was not prompted by his failure in Ireland} it was this grave situation in England that drew him back. He immediately saw that

•^Shelley's Prose, p. 6U, 11. 33-39*

2Ibid., p. 67, 11. 37-39.

3Ibid., 11. 19-23.

^Cameron, op. cit., pp. Uj.8-152.

^Ibid. 17 his talent and energy would prove most helpful through propaganda, through which he hoped to reveal the cause and possible solutions to the existing problems.^"

His first important work prompted by the problems of England was probably A Letter to Lord Ellenborough. Lord Ellenborough had passed a sentence on David Issac Eaton, who was a liberal book-seller and publisher, for printing the third chapter of Paine’s The Age of Reason. This chapter expresses free views on religion which are somewhat deistical in tone. To this end, Shelley came to Eaton's rescue by stating that when one expresses himself orally or through the press he has not violated any moral or legal principle. Moreover, "policy and morality ought to be deemed synonymous in a court of justice, and he whose conduct has been regulated by the latter principle is not justly amenable to any penal law for a supposed violation 2 of the former." In A Letter to Lord Ellenborough Shelley's entire argument centers around the necessity of respecting individual opinions, emphasizing liberty of the press.

Shelley's mind was nearly always filled with thoughts concerning the betterment of society, and soon his interest in vegetarianism, which was begun at Oxford, increased. He felt that many of the ills of society were caused by man's dièt. To this end, he advocated simplicity of diet and abstention from alcohol. His ideas regarding vegetarianism were proba¬ bly influenced by Monboddo, Ritson, Trotter, and Newton. However,

The fountainhead of the vegetarian creed was Plutarch,

^Baugh, et al; op. cit., p. 1230.

2 Shelley's Prose, p. 73» 11. 23-28. 18

his argument becoming its articles of foundation: (a) the human body is constructed for vegetable eatingj ... meat eating is unnatural for man; (b) cruelty is involved in slaughter of animalsj (c) overindulgence in food and acceptance of animal slaughter respectively bring about, in the human being, all sorts of luxury and expensiveness and hardness of heart towards his fellows.

Generally these are the ideas embodied in Shelley's A Vindication of

Natural Diet and On the Vegetable System of Diet.

The problems of society did not occupy all of Shelley's time for there were personal activities and problems that required his attention, too. Among these were the birth of his children, Harriet's growing impatience with him, which doubtlessly influenced their separation, his friendship with Peacock, who influenced his studies in Greek literature, 2 his waning enthusiasm regarding Miss Hitchner, his acquaintance with the

Godwins, the Newtons, and the Boinvilles, and his infatuation with Mary

Godwin.

"When a man rejects his family, or is rejected by it, he inclines, if he be an enthusiast, to found a family of his own, for enthusiasts need sympathy."^ Shelley was an enthusiast, and when he was expelled from

Oxford, he knew he would find no sympathy at home. Consequently, he sought it in the persons of Hogg, Miss Hitchner, and Harriet. Likewise, when

Shelley no longer found sympathy in Harriet, they eventually separated, and the enthusiast sought sympathy and understanding elsewhere. This time he found it in the person of Mary Godwin, daughter of William Godwin. Mary

■^Cameron, op. cit., pp. 223-225* 2 See supra, pp. 13-llr*

■s ueorge Gordon, Shelley and the Oppressors of Mankind (London, 1922), p. 8. 19 and Shelley soon grew fond of each other. What Shelley especially admired about Mary was her "precision of intellect, firmness of will, and quietude of manner."^ Soon their love increased, and later, they eloped without an immediate marriage. Mary did not mind this elopement, for it was in accord¬ ance with her father's expressions on marriage in Political Justice. How¬ ever, during the time of this elopement, Godwin's attitude toward marriage, as well as many other previous beliefs, was changed. Consequently, this unexpected elopement disturbed him greatly.

After this elopement many important things occurred in the life of

Shelley - important only in that they were to influence him greatly; actually, these events produced almost nothing but distress and grief.

First, old Sir Bysshe died, making Shelley an immediate heir. (This fos¬ tered happiness and grief.) Second, Shelley lost his first child by Mary.

Third, Mary's half-sister, Fanny committed suicide. Fourth, Shelley's first wife Harriet committed suicide. Fifth, because of social pressure,

Shelley and Mary married. Sixth, Shelley tried to get his and Harriet's children from the Westbrook's only to be refused because of his unconven¬ tional convictions. These foregoing calamities were aggravated by the presence of Clara Clairmont, daughter of the second Mrs. Godwin by her first marriage. Clara had been accepted into the Shelleys' home and was a constant traveling companion of theirs. However, Clara's secret love affair with Byron, whose friendship Shelley cherished for a while, had left her with child. Now, the presence of the unwed Clara and her little daugh¬ ter, Allegra, created an unpleasant situation. Later, Clara placed Allegra in Byron's care and sought residence elsewhere. Nevertheless, she visited

Dowden, op. cit., p. 229» 20 the Shelleys’ often. During most of this time Shelley was in poor health and often took laudanum to relieve his pains. For his general health he traveled a good deal in search of a favorable climate. Unfortunately, before a year had passed, Shelley and Mary witnessed the death of their two children, Clara, and later, William. As if this were not enough,

William Godwin began to trouble Shelley for money to extricate him from debt.

Although Shelley's life was filled with continual misery, he had some pleasant moments. He continued to give advice and assistance to the unfortunate; he continued his reading and writing; he was proud of the birth of his last child, Percy Florence, and he enjoyed his old friends,

Byron and Peacock, as well as the new acquaintances of Trelawny, Hunt and

Edward Williams. It was with Williams that Shelley met his death in the gulf of Spezia on a return visit from Leghorn, where they were to greet the arrival of Hunt from England.

Now that the life of Shelley has been hurriedly sketched, let us examine more closely his political influences and development. Politically speaking, the ruling passion of his soul was

... to defecate life of its misery and its evil; ... he dedicated to it every power of his mind, every pulsation of his heart. He looked on political freedom as the direct agent to effect the happiness of mankind. .. .

This statement may be better understood as we trace the develop¬ ment of Shelley’s political thought and influences. He came from a family of Whigs who were liberals, and who advocated ’’reform of Parliament ...

■^Cameron, op. cit., p. 37» quoted from an excerpt of Mary Shelley's "Preface to Shelley's Collected Poems," Works (London, 1839)» I» xi. 21

Catholic Emancipation ... and peace with France.” These ideas form the core of the Whigs' political doctrines. We have seen these effects on

Shelley in his assistance to the Irish problems and in his sympathetic attitude toward France. However, his efforts to aid man did not wane when the Whigs became idle. Actually, his concern for man never ceased.

So, when the Whig party became inactive, he became affiliated with the

Republican Party, which advocated many of the democratic practices of the old or inactive, Whig Party. The difference between the two parties was this:- "The republicans were revolutionaries, not retired, radicals engaged in the intellectual dissection of societyj their theory came hot from the 2 firing line and was enunciated with vigor and passion." In short, they proposed to make government serviceable to society. Echoes to this effect are heard in Shelley's Address, Proposals, and the Letter. The most influ¬ ential works during this period were Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason and

The Rights of Man. In the latter work Paine attempted to justify revolu¬ tion*

...on the ground that no generation can bind its successors, and ... by the argument that the social contract must be embodied in a formal constitution: where such did not exist, a mere - tyranny prevailed, which had no basis in right.

Cameron, op. cit., p. h3«

2 Ibid., p. 55*

C. W. Prévité-Orton, "Political Writers and Speakers," Cambridge History of English Literature, eds. A. W. Ward and A. R. Waller. (New York, 19110, id, 5U. 22

Although Paine's two works had great influence on Shelley, it was probably Godwin's Political Justice that influenced Shelley more than any single work. Since this particular work had such a tremendous influence on him, let us briefly examine it.

Political Justice may be divided into four sections: social and political theories, economic analysis, the future state, and methods of achieving the future state. Godwin's social and political theories embrace two assumptions: "That national morality is rooted in the politi¬ cal structure and that a higher morality can be achieved only by changing t that structure as a whole arid not by a moral or religious education for their own sake. ..."^ The other assumption concerns the perfectibility of man. Godwin says "that man has a capacity for progress and not — as is 2 frequently assumed — that man can become 'perfect."' The other politi¬ cal theories of Godwin are similar to those of Paine. Among those in which they are similar are the denunciation of monarchy and aristocracy in favor of a democracy and the minimizing of government. Shelley's A

Letter to Lord Ellenborough is reminiscent of those ideas. Godwin states in his economic analysis that "inequality of property, resulting in the exploitation of the man of the mass of the poor by a rich minority, breeds 3 class conflict." Moreover, the poor are oppressed by the rich who control political and judicial systems. As a result, trade unions are destroyed.

1 Cameron, op. cit., p. 62.

^Ibid., p. 63.

3 Ibid., p. 6U. 23 For the future state Godwin felt that a democratic form of government and

economic equality were indispensable. Under these conditions "mankind,

aided by science, would progress to heights hitherto undreamed of.""*" His

, methods in achieving this future state involved "a society of small agri¬

cultural and manufacturing units, privately owned and of equal value, with 2 a common sharing of produce and a minimum of governmental direction.”

This would be achieved through "Necessity” which is dependent upon those

"laws operating in the physical universe, in history, and in the human mind

which ... [would make] for consistent and unalterable patterns of movement •a in all three realms.In this same work Godwin expresses his views on

marriage, punishment, and freedom and force. Most of these have either

been expressed in Shelley's work or his life. However, Shelley not only

puts most of Godwin's ideas into practice, but he also went beyond Godwin's

ideas. He felt that "the improvement of mankind ... [warranted] a suffi-

cient number of men LtoJr , be educated in the principles of pure philanthropy." k

This was perhaps the guiding principle of his life.

As we may recall, Shelley's interest in science was begun at Sion

House. This interest remained with him throughout his life, for he felt

that through science he could arrive at philosophic truths, which would

prove helpful in the enlightening and improvement of mankind. Those scientific

^Ibid., p. 66.

2 Ibid., p. 6£.

^Ibid., p. 67.

Carl Grabo, The Magic Plant (Chapel Hill, 1936), pp. 2-3. 2b ideas and theories that especially interested him were Darwin’s general scientific ideas and theory of evolution, Newton’s metaphysical conception of matter, Herschel's cosmic evolution, and Davy's electrical theory of matter."*- Shelley was not a scientist, but he displays his vast knowledge of science in such works as Prometheus Unbound and Queen Mab.

As we look back over the various stages through which Shelley passed, we see that ’’once he emerged from his ’votary of romance' stage, his thinking began to fall into a consistently radical pattern, a pattern given unity by the dominant concept of assisting the progress of humanity."^

In this we see him change from a materialistic reformer into a poet, who was less insistent upon immediate revolutionary actions. This change was probably influenced by his continual state of misfortune, grief, and remorse. Later, he began to respond to nature's beauty with a feeling closely akin to religion. Because of his continued poor health, his views on vegetarianism were changed. Despite these changes, his aims throughout life did not change. If there were any changes, they we re "in strategy, 3 not in aim."

To this point we have traced the development of Shelley's radical mind, noting its early development and its expression in religious, politi¬ cal, and scientific matters. The following chapter is devoted solely to the revolutionary element in Shelley's poetry.

*"Carl Grabo, A Newton Among Poets (Chapel Hill, 1930), pp. 30-101*.

2 Cameron, op. cit., p. 82.

3 Baugh, et al, op. cit., p. 1230. CHAPTER II

MANIFESTATIONS OF SHELLEY'S REVOLUTIONISM IN HIS POETRY

Throughout Shelley's poetry there is the element of revolutionism, varying only in form and degree. One critic succinctly describes it thus:

The core of Shelley's poetry is his philosophy of social revolution. This philosophy takes many forms. Sometimes it centers around the theme of the ascent of humanity, as in Queen Mab or Prometheus Unbound or The Triumph of Life; sometimes it manifests itself in more or less subtle forms of social protest, as in Adonais or The Cenci or Charles I; sometimes it directly takes political shape, as in The Mask of Anarchy or Swellfoot the Tyrant; sometimes, as in Hellas or The Revolt of Islam or the 'Ode to Liberty,' it expends itself in panoramic surveys of a passing through the birth pangs of war and revolution! it weaves its way, sometimes directly, sometimes indi¬ rectly, into the personal poems, ... [as in] 'Ode to the West Wind' ... and 'To a Skylark."1 ,

Beyond the generalizations given in the preceding paragraph regard¬

ing the revolutionary element in Shélley's poetry, the writer has observed that Shelley attacks specifically such men as kings and priests, since it is they who represent political, social and religious tyranny. The veiy

idea of tyranny prompted his immediate disgust and revolt, for tyranny was

in direct opposition to love, equality, and freedom, the three qualities for which he untiringly fought. Thus, we see him in constant revolt against

conventional modes of thought and behavior. Consequently, the church and the state (religion and politics), the very source and authority of much of

1 Cameron, op ext., P. 37.

25 26 the evil in the world, are continually attacked. All of Shelley’s attacks on what he considered the evils of society may be attributed to his love for mankind and his desire for new world order.

Shelley’s choice of images and his diction help him to express his radical ideas with strength and vigor. With reference to his linages, one notices his constant use of the images of wind, fire, leaves, clouds, storms, et cetera. In the first place, such images represent vigorous move- mentj second, such images represent unalterable freedom and gaityj and third, these images represent unconquerable, uncontrollable strength. Such images lend themselves well to the expression of radical ideas. Beyond the imagery, one notes his very pertinent, effective diction. He continually uses such words as mutability, transformation, fleeting, passing, transient, metamorphosis, et cetera. These words are well chosen, for they convey the idea of changej indeed, revolution means change, whether it be gradual or swift.

In Queen Mab, one of Shelley’s early poems, we note certain expres¬ sions of revolutionism, as the poet surveys the evils of the past and the present. As one might suspect, Shelley sees evil in the world as a result of political and religious tyranny. Hence, he attacks kings and priests, and looks toward the future with optimistic eyes. In short, he sees in the world the necessity of a reformation) and, in his own mind, this is what the poem achieves. In that this is one of early works it must be remembered that he believes that evil exists less in human character than in human institutions. As he matured, this idea, along with many of his other ideas, was modified.

In this poem, in addition to tyranny, Shelley also attacks custom, 27 venality, cupidity, selfishness, priesthood, and institutionalized Christi¬ anity. ^ As regards custom, he says that ”... the unconquered powers / of precedent and custom interpose / Between a king and virtue,” Here Shelley is saying that because the authority of kings has gone unchallenged, the world continues to suffer from political despotism. And relative to venal¬ ity, cupidity, and selfishness, he observes that ”... mean lust / Has bound its chains so tight around the earth, / That all within it but the virtuous man / is venal: gold or fame will surely reach / The price prefixed by selfishness, to all / But him of resolute and unchanging will. . .."^ These qualities are necessarily attacked because they are detrimental to one of the ideals for which Shelley continually fought - the necessity of love.

Finally, Shelley attacks priesthood and institutionalized Christi¬ anity. He rejects priesthood because it represents a kind of tyranny

(religious), which attempts to direct and control man's beliefs and pas¬ sions. Perhaps Shelley himself makes clear his attitude toward Christianity in his "Notes to Queen Mab." He says that

Christianity, like all other religions, rests upon miracles, prophecies, and martyrdoms. No religion ever existed which had not its prophets, its attested voters who would bear patiently the most horrible tortures to prove its authenticity. It should appear that in no

^"Carlos Baker, Shelley's Major Poetry: The Fabric of a Vision (Princeton, 19b8), pp. 26-27»

2 Percy Bysshe Shelley, Poetical Works of Shelley, ed. Edward Dowden (London, 192b), p- 10, Canto III, 11. 20-22. All subsequent references to Shelley's poetry, unless otherwise stated, are made to this edition, and are entered as Poetical Works. 3 Poetical Works: Queen Mab, p. 19, Canto V, 11. 18-23. 28

case can a discriminating mind subscribe to the genuineness of a miracle.1

Just as he points out the fallacies in the beliefs regarding miracles, he likewise points out the fallacies and absurdities of prophecies and martyr¬ doms j he rejects all on the basis of reason and common sense.

Beyond these attacks Shelley’s spirit of revolt can be seen in several of the themes in the poem. For instance, one notes the themes of the ascent of humanity, Love versus Tyranny, and Death and Sleep versus

Power. In conjunction with such themes one also notes his continual use of his favorite images - wind, clouds, water, et cetera. Each suggests a kind of strength and a kind of freedom that tyranny cannot control.

Perhaps the element of revolutionism can be seen better in The

Revolt of Islam. Indeed, the very title of the poem expresses the note of revolutionism; and, true to its title, the poem is concerned with revolt with emphasis on benign leadership. The writer stresses the word benign, for Shelley would frown on any other kind of leadership. Such an emphasis on leadership shows that his radical mind was undergoing a change. Previ¬ ously, as seen in earlier works, he expresses the idea that good would eventually supersede the evil in the world by the very laws of external nature; consequently, his revolt was mild. However, here we note a rather violent revolt. And, whereas tyrants were using leadership for malign purposes, Shelley was using it for benign purposes. To quote an old saying, he was "fighting fire with fire."

In his "Preface" to this poem, Shelley states that "The poem ...

1 Ibid. ("Notes to Queen Mab"), p. 56. 29 with the exception of the first canto ... is narrative, not didactic.

The writer does not agree with this statement, for he has observed that the didactic note permeates rather strongly the entire work. Perhaps his intent was to free himself from didacticism; nevertheless, his general purpose in writing this poem was to make certain revelations; and, in the process of making these revelations, he consciously or unconsciously sought to instruct. Although he would probably disagree with this, the element of didacticism is too strong to pass unnoticed. Actually, to instigate change, the very essence of revolutionism itself, warrants some kind of instruction.

Helative to the content of the poem itself, there is something of a revolutionary note early in the poem as we observe the fight between the

Eagle (Evil) and the Serpent (Good). Beyond this fight, which reveals a revolutionary tendency, we also note a constant revolt against conventional modes of thought. For example, the eagle is usually associated with quali¬ ties of good (strength, et cetera), whereas the serpent is associated with evil (deception, et cetera). Nevertheless, Shelley's shifting the objects of good and evil is quite effective, for the strength of the eagle serves well to represent the prevailing strength of evil. Hence, with Evil's grand victory, the poem is given depth and motivation. Other examples of his revolt against conventional modes of thought and behavior may be seen constantly in his works as he fights bravely against political and religious doctrines.

As seen in the story of the poem, there are three main characters.

Laon and Cythna represent Justice, Love, Freedom, instigators of Human Will,

1 Poetical Works (Preface to The Revolt of Islam"), p. 95» 30

and Leadership} Othrnan represents Tyranny and Corrupt Institutions. The

very nature of these characters suggests discordj the element of revolt

is evoked when they meet.

The general story of the poem reveals the evils of the world, such

as hatred, pride, and lust. Those persons attacked outrightly are the

kings and priests; and, as Shelley attacks kings, he attacks the state;

when he attacks priests, he attacks the church. Again we see him attacking

tyranny, and he uses the words power and faith with mocking contempt.

Through the leadership of Laon and Cythna, the people of Islam are

led to see, believe, and desire love, truth, freedom, and equality.

Although Laon and Cythna are finally burned, they have effected a change on

earth. One speaker, who probably represents the voice of the changing

world, states:

These [Laon and Cythna] perish as the good and great of yore Have perished, and their murderers will repent* Yes, vain and barren tears shall flow before Yon smoke has faded from the firmament, — Even for this cause, that ye, who must lament The death of those that made this world so fair, Cannot recall them now; but there is lent To man the wisdom of a high despair When such can die, and he live and linger here.

This sentiment did not develop overnight; it was a gradual development which began with the revelations and leadership of Laon and Cythna. Note

the similarity to a statement made previously.

The good and mighty of departed ages Are in their graves, the innocent and free, Heroes, and Poets, and prevailing Sages,

Poetical Works: The Revolt of Islam, p. 20ij., Canto XU, Stanza XXVIEL 31

Who leave the vesture of their majesty To adorn and clothe this naked worldj - and we Are like to them - such perish, but they leave All hope or love or truth or liberty Whose forms their mighty spirits could conceive, To be a rule and law to ages that survive.

Throughout the poem we note the gradual development of a change which is a sign of revolutionism. Specifically, we note the downfall of

tyranny and evil as seen in the persons of kings and priests, and the rise

of good as seen in man's cognizance of the necessity of love, freedom and

equality.

The little poem entitled "Ozymandias" carries a revolutionary note,

as it reflects Shelley’s idea regarding the future state of tyrants. Speci¬

fically, we see the fallen remains of the statue of an old cruel tyrant,

Ozymandias. To indicate the complete downfall of tyranny, Shelley places this "trunkless legs of stone" in a desertj this suggests barreness and

ineffectuality. And, with mocking contempt, he reads the words on the

pedestal: "My name is Ozymandias, king of kings: / Look on my works ye p mighty, and despair!" In short, Shelley has looked into the future and

seen a world free from tyranny. Except for a few pieces of scattered

stones, tyranny has passed into a state of abject oblivion.

The revolutionary note is best seen in "Ode to the West Wind" by

carefully following the development of thought in each stanza. In the

first stanza, Shelley describes the wind blowing the leaves in the forest.

~*~Ibid., p. 182, Canto IX, Stanza XXVII.

^Poetical Works: "Ozymandias," p. %06, 11. 10-11. 32

The second stanza describes the action of the wind in the sky,” where

"Loose clouds like earth's decaying leaves are shed."3- The third stanza describes the wind on the sea. The fourth stanza does several things.

First, it summarizes the first three stanzas; second, it gives strength to the fifth Stanza, and third, it makes clear the significance that

Shelley attaches to the sustained wind image as it reacts vigorously and uncontrollably on the images of leaves, waves, and clouds. He says: ''.Oh lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud! / I fall on the thorns of life! I bleed!" Now the revolutionary note becomes clearer, for we begin to see that Shelley desires a change in the universe; this desire for change, as usual, is prompted by his deep love for mankind. This note1 of revolution¬ ism is even clearer when we reach the fifth stanza in which he asks the wind to make him its lyre. He wishes fiercely to be one with the wind, to scatter his thoughts over the universe among mankind. He concludes with the moving lines: "Be through my lips to unawakened earth / The trumpet of a prophecy! Oh wind, / If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?"3 Even in this personal poem we note the element of revolutionism; although it is perhaps subtle and somewhat indirect, it is nevertheless present.

The revolutionary note is also rather subtle and indirect in "The

Cloud," yet it can be seen. From the constant use of "I" in such a poem, it is evident that the poet is identifying himself with the cloud, one of his favorite images. While identifying himself with the cloud, he tells of the many functions he has in nature. The cloud brings the dew, the hail,

^Poetical Works: "Ode to the West Wind," p. 526, Stanza II, 1. 2.

2Ibid., p. 527, Stanza IV, 11. 11-12.

3Ibid., p. 527, Stanza V, 11. 12-lli. 33 and the rainj the sun and the moon ride on his hack. Then, in lyrical measures of surpassing harmony, he speaks of the transformation of the cloud into water and then through evaporation once more into a clouds MI pass through the pores of ocean and shores; / I change, but I 1 cannot die.” Such a passage as this perhaps best reveals why Shelley chose such an image as the cloud. The cloud may assume various shapes and various functions, but it is everlasting; the poet wanted his ideas to become immortal.

On the surface such a poem appears to say little beyond the function of the cloud in nature. However, this peom has more depth than it appears at first. Here we see that Shelley is the cloud, or rather, he wishes to function like the cloud. It is perhaps here that the element of revolutionism can best be seen. As the cloud brings showers from seas and streams to nourish plants, so does Shelley bring sage advice from his experiences and observations of human nature from which mankind may benefit.

Thus, the note of revolutionism manifests itself in the poet's deep concern for humanity.

Shelley wrote two poems entitled "Mutability." One was written in l8lli and the other was written in 1821, the year before his death. Let us now note the difference between the two poems.

In Shelley's earlier poem the writer notes three varying attitudes toward mutability. First, there is present an attitude closely akin to fascination. The poet says: "We are as clouds that veil the midnight moon; / How restlessly they speed, and gleam, and quiver, / Streaking the 2 darkness radiantly I" As he continues, we note something of sorrows "— Yet

^Poetical Works: "The Cloud," p. £i*3* 11. 9-10, Column II,

^Poetical Works: "Mutability," p. Î+87, 11. 1-3. 34 soon / Night closes round, and they are lost forever. . He closes with a different attitude toward mutability, as there seems to be a mixture of mild grief and, at the same time, a fondness of the durability of muta¬ bility. He says: "For, be it joy or sorrow, / The path of its [Mutability's] departure is still free: / Man's yesterday may ne'er be like his sorrow; /

Nought may endure but Mutability."

In the later poem Shelley views Mutability consistently with grief.

Indeed, he begins: "The flower that smiles today / Tomorrow dies; / All that we wish to stay / Tempts and then flees." Such expressions are the result of Shelley's bitter experiences; he has seen through the years much of the good changing into evil, rather than the evil turning into good.

This doubtlessly accounts for the element of pessimism. Thus, he ruminates on the mutability of everything we wish to remain permanent. Virtue, friend¬ ship, love and the beauties of nature undergo change which we survive. We should therefore "make glad the day, "while skies are blue and bright."

Even beyond the expressions of mutability in these poems, Shelley was always obsessed with the idea of mutability; it is found throughout his poetry. Actually, mutability and change are merely expressions of revolu¬ tionism.

The poem, The Mask of Anarchy, shows evidences of revolutionism, whose emphasis is on the desire for liberty. Early in the poem we are

l

1Ibid., p. 487, 11. 3-4.

2Ibid., p. 487, H. 13-16.

^Poetical Works: "Mutability," p. 571, 11. 1-4» 35 acquainted with certain personified evils. Among them are Murder, Fraud,

Hypocrisy, Destruction, and finally, Anarchy. With reference to Anarchy, we know that Shelley is attacking political tyranny. We sense this from

the words, "he wore a kingly crown.” Moreover, as the title of the poem

suggests, we see that a state of lawlessness exists and that it is hiding

behind something. The poem makes clear that thissomething” is the king-

ship.

With the advent of Hope and Shape (probably representing Intellec¬

tual Enlightenment), Tyranny (Anarchy) is destroyed. After the death of

Tyranny the poet defines and illustrates slavery in all its ugliness, and

presents freedom in all its loveliness. Referring to slavery, he says:

” His to work and have such pay / As just keeps life from day to day / In your limbs, as in a cell / For the tyrant’s use to dwell. ..."^ And of

freedom, he says: ”Thou art Peace - never by thee / Would blood and treas¬ ure wasted be / As tyrants wasted them, when all / Leagued to quench thy

flame in Gaul."2

In the poem Shelley tells mankind to resist oppression, but he does not suggest violence. Indeed, he says: "Stand ye calm and resolute, / Like

a forest close and mute, / With folded arms and looks which are / Weapons 3 of unvanquished war. ...”

Shelley ends this poem in an imperative, inciting manner. He says:

^Poetical Works: The Masque of Anarchy, p. 35>Oj Stanza XL.

2Ibid. , p. 351, Stanza LIX. 3 Ibid., p. 3ï>2, Stanza LXXIX. 36

"Rise like lions after slumber / In unvanquishable number - / Shake your

chains to earth like dew / Which in sleep had fallen on you - / Ye are many - they are few."'*'

In "Hymn to Intellectual Beauty" the revolutionary note manifests itself through the power of beauty. Critics agree that Shelley’s concep¬ tion of beauty shows the influence of Plato, who felt that beauty is an ideal not to be seen in any tangible object, but it is expressed in beauti¬ ful forms.

The poem begins with the statement that the shadow of an unseen

Power is present. It is unseen but its presence is felt, and it is dearer to us for all its mystery. The poet asks why the spirit of Beauty should pass away and leave us vacant and desolate, for Beauty alone gives grace and truth to life’s unquiet dream. Life, therefore, is a dream, in Shelley's conception, and eternity is the reality. He further states that Beauty would make man immortal and omnipotent. "Depart not - '* says Shelley, "lest

/ 2 the grave should be, / Like life and fear, a dark reality."

As a boy, the poet sought this mystery, but found it not. Suddenly

Beauty’s shadow fell on him; he shrieked in ecstacy. He recalls his vow to dedicate his life to Beauty and expresses the hope that the "awful Loveli¬ ness" will free the world from its dark slavery. He closes by asking beauty to remain with him through life, and states that She has made him fear him¬

self and love all human kind.

~*Tbid., p. 353» Stanza XCI.

2 Poetical Works: "Hymn to Intellectual Beauty," p. h92t Stanza IV, 11. 11-12. 37

In Prometheus Unbound Shelley sings the triumph of love over tyranny. In short, this work relates Prometheus1 (man’s) struggle on earth; he is chained to a rock by Zeus (Tyranny). However, Asia (Nature and Love) and Demogorgon (Spirit of Necessity) come to Prometheus’ rescue.

Shelley expresses disgust for tyranny in this manners

I curse theeJ let a sufferer's curse Clasp thee, his torturer, like remorse; Till thine Infinity shall be A robe of envenomed agony; And thine Omnipotence a crown of pain, .. To cling like burning gold round thy dissolving brain.

Despite the power of tyranny, love has more power; and, when tyranny

(Jupiter) is overthrown, Shelley sees a change.

Bright clouds float in heaven, Dew-stars gleam on earth, Waves assemble on ocean, They are gathered and driven - By the storm of delight, by the panic of glee!

In this passage, Shelley is really saying that as soon as tyranny is over¬ thrown, all will be peaceful and happy again. This is another expression relative to the fact that man needs no government by which to be ruled.

The note of revolutionism is very strong throughout this poem, and many critics, along with Shelley himself, think this is perhaps Shelley's greatest work. Note the effectiveness of the closing stanza of this work; it summarizes very expressively the main points that the poet expounded in this lyrical drama. He says:

^Poetical Works: Prometheus Unbound, p. 2^3, Act I, 11. 286-292.

2Ibid., p. 281i, 11. hO-hh» 38

To suffer woes which Hope thinks infinite; To forgive wrongs darker than death or night; To defy Power, which seems omnipotent; To love, and bear; to hope till Hope creates From its own wreck the thing it contemplates; Neither to change, nor falter, nor repent; This, like thy glory, Titan, is to be Good, great and joyous, beautiful and free; ^ This is alone Life, Joy, Empire, and Victory*

Although "Adonais" is an elegy on the death of John Keats, one can see even a revolutionary strain in it. The element of revolutionism here manifests itself in the form of social protest, which was prompted by the many attacks on Keat's poetry by critics. Shelley felt that these adverse criticisms had caused Keat’s health to suffer, thereby causing his death.

Shelley begins this poem by lamenting the loss of Adonais (Keats) and predicts that his fate and future fame will be "an echo and a light 2 unto eternity.” Deeply buried within this idea is the fact that poets are the true leaders and teachers of society, and after death their works afford continual guidance. Within this same idea we note perhaps that

Shelley is thinking about himself and his works, too.

As the poem progresses we note that everything that Keats loved and moulded into thought is called to his bier to weep his death. Later, while censuring the critics, Shelley says: ”Our Adonais has drunk poison - oh, / What deaf and viperous murderer could crown / Life’s early cup with 3 such a draught of woe?” Again, we note the ideas that poets are teachers in Shelley’s use here of the word deaf. He is really saying that those who

1Ibid., p. 293, Act IV, 11. 570-^78. t ^Poetical Works: "Adonais,” p. 1*20, Canto I, 11, 8-9.

3 Ibid., p. 1*26, Canto XXXVI, 11. 1-3. 39 criticized Keats severely apparently could not hear or understand the wisdom that issued from Keats’ work. Yet, Shelley seems to feel that Adonais has conquered something in death. "He has out soared the shadow of our night j /

Envy and calummy and hate and pain, / And that unrest which men miscall delight, / Can touch him not and torture not again."'*' Moreover, ”He is made one with Nature. ... He is a portion of the loveliness / Which once 2 he made more lovely. ...” Here, Shelley is expressing a Platonic concept, as he is saying that Adonais was a poet of nature while he livedj now,

Nature has taken him up and made him an .immortal instrument for spreading her beauty. Within this idea we note Shelley’s revolutionism. First,

Shelley is in agreement here with Keats’ famous line, ’’Beauty is Truth,

Truth Beauty,” which means that one can be led to truth by contemplating on the beauty of nature. Second, as discussed in ’’Hymn to Intellectual

Beauty,” Shelley felt that the "awful loveliness” (Beauty) would free the world from its dark slavery.-*

In Hellas Shelley is inspired by the Greek struggle for freedom and predicts that a new and greater Greece will, like the Phoenix, rise from its own ashes. Again, in this poem as in many others, the poet clears the way for love and freedom by attacking tyranny wherever it appears. There is little unique here relative to the element of revolutionism. However, there is a different approach to the final victory of freedom over tyranny

“Sbid., p. 1*27, Canto XL, 11. 1-1*.

2 Ibid., Canto XLII, 1. lj Canto XLIII, 11. 1-2. 3 See supra, p. 36. Uo and oppression. Note a section of this drama near the end. Shelley says»

Darkness has dawned in the East On the noon of time; The death-birds descend to their feast, From the hungry clime. Let Freedom and Peace flee far To a sunnier strand, And follow Love's folding star To the Evening landJi

Here we see Shelley (Freedom and Peace) running to a safer land, a new Athens, lest Tyranny oiiu. max

One critic has given the gist of this work in the following terms, and it will be noted that he stressed a point that the writer overlooked.

... Its [Hellas'3 aims are three. The first is funda¬ mentally political: to celebrate the Greek War against the Turks 'as a portion of the cause of civilization and moral improvement.' The second is ethical: to hold up as an exemplum for the modern world the wonder¬ ful achievement of Athens in the fifth century, B. C., and to envision, as a lofty ideal towards which the world ought to move, a new Athens, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the spread of brotherly love. [It is the first part of this second point that the writer had overlooked.] The third is metaphysical: to assert that thought is the sole reality and that all else in the world is a shadow and a dream. ^

The winter is naturally interested in this very penetrating inter¬ pretation of the main points in Hellas for two reasons. First, it can be seen that each of these points relates in one way or another to Shelley's revolutionism. This has been pointed out all through the discussion of '

Shelley's poetry. Second, the writer is interested in such an interpreta¬ tion because it blends beautifully with his own interpretation.

Poetical Works: Hellas, p. 1;E>1, 11* 1023-1030. 2 Baker, op. cit., p. 182. In MSong to the Men of England” Shelley’s revolutionism can be

seen as he views with disgust the injustices that the laboring men of

England are receiving. He cries to them: ”Sow seed, - but let no tyrant reap, / Find wealth, - let no imposter heapj/Weave robes, - let not the idler wear; / Forge arms, - in your defence to bear.”'*' Here Shelley is telling the men of England to stop nourishing tyranny and to work for themselves. To do this with any degree of success, it is necessary to arm themselves as a means of protection against tyranny and evil.

It is appropriate to end this discussion of Shelley's works with one of the poet's very famous poems - "To a Skylark." In this poem the poet praises the skylark because it is free and happy; thus, the note of revolutionism appears. He begins his praise of this bird in this way?

"Hail to thee blithe spirit!"^ Note the diction here; "blithe spirit" suggests for Shelley unalterable freedom and happiness - or, to use a phrase from this same work, "blithe spirit" to Shelley represents "an unbodied joy." He continues his praise of the bird by calling it other names that suggest freedom and gaity, such as a "cloud of fire" and a "star of heaven." Later, he compares the skylark's singing unseen to the hymns of the poet, to the song of a lovelorn maiden in a tower, to the gleam of the glow-worm, the scent of a hidden rose, and to rain drops. He wonders what are the subjects of its songs and then compares its state with that of humanity, to the skylark's advantage. The skylark, unlike man,

Poetical Works: "Song to the Men of England," p. 522, Stanza VI.

2 Poetical Works: "To a Skylark," p. $k3, 1. 1. h2 never knows satiety in love; it knows the secrets of immortality; it is not concerned with past or future or the unattainable. Here, although rather indirectly and subtly, we can discern traces of Shelley’s revolu¬ tionism; it is best seen in this comparison, for as the skylark possesses a happiness, a freedom, and a knowledge that is beyond mankind, Shelley looks on this bird with mixed admiration and envy. The emphasis relative to the revolutionary note is on the poet’s deep concern for mankind - his happiness and freedom. Finally, Shelley wishes desperately that he could match, even in part, the songs of the skylark, for then the world would listen to him. He knew he had a lot to offer the world but his problem now seemed to be one of attracting the attention of the world.

Again, for the sake of emphasis by way of a summary, the writer should like to point out that the root of all of Shelley's revolutionary impulses was grounded deeply in his love and sympathy for mankind. Through¬ out his life and his works we see him attacking evil, for it was evil that inhibited freedom, love, and equality among mankind. Evil, as is evident throughout the previous discussion, was most often represented in the persons of kings and priests, whose very names Shelley used with utter contempt. He was always a poet of revolt; wherever evil lurked, there he attacked, hoping to annihilate evil, thereby preparing the world for universal peace and brotherhood. CHAPTER III

SHELLEY ' S ACHIEVEMENTS AS A REVOLUTIONARY POET

Though the Romantic era is often called the age of Wordsworth, it is perhaps Shelley who is the most beloved poet of the period. For sheer genius and inspired creation he is unsurpassed, and he was the only poet in his circle to retain his faith in revolutionary principles. Because of his revolutionary bent, he was at first morally condemned} later, it was this same constant note of revolutionism in his poetry that drew attention and admiration. This is really not so strange as it appears at first, for such a person as Shelley was naturally subject to attacks for his radical thinking. The society for which he fought courageously was not democratic - minded. England was still suffering from political, social, and religious despotism} and, unfortunately, 'the majority of the people had suffered so long from dictatorial rule, they were afraid to challenge it. Hence, in an effort to free society from dictatorial rule, not only did Shelley have the powerful sway of despots against him, he also had the cowardice of the majority of the people against him.

Though long after his death, Shelley’s works became popular with the rise and spread of democracy. Indeed, his revolutionary attitude may be viewed in terms of his desire for democracy among mankind. Those persons who were competent to judge viewed him in terms of his benevolent intentions and agreed that his impulses were noble, and that a purer

U3 bh spirit never breathed. Although his life was filled with misery as a result of his efforts to aid mankind, he never gave up the fight. One critic sajrs that

Shelley’s main ideas and emotions changed but little in the course of his life. Growth and experience only gave him a greater power of expressing them. From first to last his mind was filled with a fierce impatience of our present inperfection and a vast desire and hope for a perfection to be. He always conceived of our imperfec¬ tion, not as a process of growth, but as something imposed upon us by a malignant external power, upon the fall of which we should all at once become perfect.

Just as the critic who made the preceding statement emphasized the fact that Shelley was seeking perfection in man, another critic offers a slightly different explanation} yet, note the general agreement or similar¬ ity.

Shelley’s life was one of passionate devotion to intellect, and this ardour explains how his ideas were transmuted into poetiy. However, this intel¬ lectual stamp is too strongly marked upon him, for one to neglect the doctrine which he embraced, and to which he gave himself with a true and deep zeal. Here again, one can witness a process of change, a progress of many-sidedness and in flexibility; but one perceives no serious deviation, and unity pré¬ dominât es. ^

Apart from Shelley's seeking perfection and his devotion to the intellect, other critics say that he sought love, freedom, equality, and fraternity. Each critic in his way is right, but the whole picture of what Shelley sought is a combination of all these various observations.

The element of revolutionism, which was prompted by Shelley's

1 ! Clutton-Brock, op. cit., p. 8£.

2 Emile Legouis and Louis Cazamian, A History of English Literature (New York, 1929), II, 300. desire for a world of love, fraternity, equality, and liberty is a unifying principle throughout the body of his work. This persistent revolt has given rise to a literature that is vigorous, fiery, and bold. His genuis as a poet of revolt lies in his expression, which is filled with superb imagery and well-chosen diction. One critic whose observations on Shelley

seem objective enough says that "as a poet, Shelley contributed a new quality to English literature - a quality of ideality, freedom, and audacity.

This is true, for the poetry attests such. Yet, Mathew Arnold, a Victorian critic and poet, could not see this.

... Mathew Arnold called him 'a beautiful ineffectual angel, beating in the void his luminous wings in vain.1 But beauty such as Shelley's verse embodies cannot be ineffectual; and his passionate plea for freedom, for justice, and for loving-kindness has never ceased to be potent in the deepening earnestness of this century's search after social betterment.2

The limitations of Arnold's intelligence could scarcely better be intimated than by a phrase so inept. Yet, it is hard to believe that

Arnold was very serious in making such a statement, for he was considered a good critic and a noteworthy poet. The only explanation that the writer can offer is that such a statement was probably prompted by Arnold's aversion for the romantics, as he believed that the poet should not express his individuality. This was one of the tenets by which he judged litera¬ ture, maintaining that such self-expression made for temporary fame.

Although there is yet much controversy about Shelley, fortunately,

Arnold's expression regarding him has begun to lose much of its punch.

Symonds, op. cit., p. 181*.

^William Vaughn Moody and Robert Morss Lovett, A History of English Literature (New York, 1918), p. 312. U6

Shelley is no longer regarded as the beautiful outcast, the anarchist of literature, the prophet of atheism and communism, and other "isms" of the days when these bogeys were habitually conjured up by the narrow-minded to affright the public intelligence.

There is, however, much that is crude in Shelley's thought and the expression of that thought, in his earlier workj and naturally, for it was the work of a youth whom life had not disciplined, and whose circumstances were altogether exceptionally unique. But it would not be fair to judge him by his youthful work, for his true genius is seen in his mature work.

In the mature years of his brief life he was a poet of revolt j but his was a reasoned and controlled revolt of the intellect and the spirit, against the evil forces of the world, and the gross dominion of materialism, not the hysteric outcry of a youth against beliefs and conventions, at best but vaguely apprehended.

Shelley's rightful place as a thinker will not soon or readily be accorded him. Historians of literature and critics will go on for a long * time repeating traditional absurdities without examining the origins of them or studying Shelley anew without prejudice. Yet, in time, a new understanding of a great poet must be effected. His poetry is too beauti¬ ful and its thought too deep for permanent neglect. Perhaps even the gossip and scandal which so largely animates the biographies of Shelley will in time be diminished. Shelley's conduct already seems less scandalous to an age which is accustomed to easy divorce and extra-marital sex relation¬ ships. When any newspaper can report episodes more titillating than those to be found in his life, Shelley conceivably will come to be valued for what he wrote, and the facts of his life will be allowed to fall into their kl subordinate and due place. It makes little difference what Shelley's history was provided we can understand what he wrote. His mistakes and misfortunes were his own and should be buried with him. His work remains as a gift to mankind. It was bought at a considerable cost in pain. It is well, no doubt, to remember what the cost was and so better appreciate the value of the gift. But it was his thoughts which Shelley wished might be blown like dead leaves among mankind, sparks from an unextinguished hearth. It is they that live for us, and it is they which should be our study.

To say more regarding Shelley as a revolutionary poet would almost necessitate a repetition of ideas expounded in this research. Yet, the writer cannot emphasize too strongly the fact that through the efforts of such men as Shelley democracy perhaps received its greatest impetus. For such a worthy cause he fought bravely. The intensity of his efforts bums brightly throughout his poetry. His work is filled with flame - a wild and wandering flame at times - but more often with the fire of prophecy, of noble aspiration, of lofty ideals, and an unconquerable faith in the spiritual destiny of the human race. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Editions of Shelley*s Works

Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Shelley’s Prose. Edited by David Lee Clark. Alburquerque: The University of New Mexico Press, 1951^.

. Poetical Works. Edited by Edward Dowden. Boston; Houghton Mifflin Company, 1901.

Biographical Works

Dowden, Edward. The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley. New edition. Londons Kegan Paul, French, Trubner and Company, 1926.

Ingpen, Roger. Shelley in England. London; Kegan Paul, French, Trubner and Company, 1917»

Peck, Walter Edwin. Shelley; His Life and Work. 2 vols. Bostons Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927.

Critical and Expository Works

Baker, Carlos. Shelley’s Major Poetry: The Fabric of A Vision. Princeton; Princeton University Press, 19U8»

Barnard, Ellsworth. Shelley’s Religion. Minneapolis; The University of Minnesota Press, 1937*

Baugh, Albert C., et al. A Literary History of England. New York; Appleton-Century-Crofts, Incorporated, 19U3.

Bembaum, Ernest. Guide Through the Romantic Movement. Second edition. New York; The Ronald Press Company, 19U9»

Blunden, Edmund Charles. Shelley. New York; The Viking Press, 19U7»

Cameron, Kenneth N. ’’Shelley versus Southey,” PMLA, LIII (March, 19U2), 1*89-512.

. The Young Shelley. New York; The Macmillan Company, 1950. U9

Clutton-Brock, Arthur. Shelley. Fourth edition. New York! E. P. Dutton and Company, Incorporated, 1929.

Gordon, George. Shelley and the Oppressors of Mankind. Londons Oxford University Press, 1922.

Grabo, Carl. A Newton Among Poets. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1930»

. The Magic Plant. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1936.

Herford, C. H. "Shelley,” Cambridge History of English Literature. Edited by A. W. Ward and A. R. Walker, Vol. XII. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932.

Hughes, Arthur M. D. The Nascent Mind of Shelley. Oxford: The Claredon Press, 19li7«

Kurtz, B. P. The Pursuit of Death. New York: Oxford University Press, 1933.

Legouis, Emile and Cazamian, Louis. A History of English Literature. 2 vols. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1929»

Moody, William Vaughn and Lovett, Robert Morss. A History of English Literature. Revised edition. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 19l8.

Previté-Orton, C. W. "Political Writers and Speakers," Cambridge History of English Literature. Edited by A. W. Ward and A. R. Waller. Vol. XI. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 19lU«

Sickels, Eleanor. "Shelley and Charles Brockden Brown," PMLA, XLV (March, 1930), 1116-1128.

Smith, Robert. The Shelley Legend. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916-

Stovall, Floyd. "Shelley's Doctrine of Love," PMLA, XLV (March, 1930), 298-299.

Symonds, John Addington. Shelley. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1879.

Woodberry, George Edward. Literary Memoirs of the Nineteenth Century. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921.

Woods, George B., Watt, Homer A., and Anderson, George K., eds. The Literature of England. 2 vols. Revised editions. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 19hl«