Integrated Electric Circuit Transistors Resistors Capacitors
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Our world is full of Integrated Circuits The History of Computing: The Integrated Circuit We can find them everywhere Ira Heifets Alexander Eidenzon Integrated electric circuit Transistors • Operates like a switch • Turns electricity on or off • Amplifies current • Used in computers to store • Just a very advanced electric circuit. information, or to amplify signals • Made from different electrical components: transistors, resistors, capacitors and diodes, connected to each other in different ways. Resistors Capacitors • Collects electricity and releases it • Limits the flow of electricity and allows to control the current all in one quick burst • Used, among other things, to • Ex: in cameras where a tiny battery control the volume in television can provide enough energy to fire sets or radios the flashbulb 1 Diodes Vacuum Tubes • Stops electricity under some conditions and allows it to pass under another • Ex.: broken light bean in photocells triggers the diode to stop electricity from flowing • Controls movement of electrons in evacuated space to amplify, switch or modify signal • Critical devices in electronics technology: radio broadcasting, television, telephone, analog and digital computers • Still used as display device in television sets and computer monitors Vacuum Tubes in Complex Circuits Transistor vs. Vacuum Tube • Engineers quickly became aware of vacuum tube limitations in complex VT circuits. • Like a light bulb • First digital computer ENIAC weighed over thirty tons, consumed 200 kilowatts of electrical power. • Generates a lot of heat and • It had around 18,000 constantly burning out vacuum tubes – very burns out unreliable. • Slow, big and bulky Transistor • Invented in 1947, considered a revolution. • Small, fast, reliable, effective • Quickly replaced vacuum tube 1946-55 1947 Tyranny of Numbers On the way to IC • Advanced circuits contained many components and connections • Problems: Size & Speed • Virtually impossible to build • Large computer components • This problem was known as the tyranny of numbers and long connecting wires • Had to construct circuits by hand, soldering components in place, • Signals traveled too slow connecting with metal wires through the circuit, making the computer ineffective 2 The birth of the IC Jack Kilby (1923-2005) • Summer 1958, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments • Precursor idea to IC: creating small ceramic solved miniaturization problem. squares (wafers), each containing single miniaturized component. • Made all components and the chip out of the • Components could then be integrated into a two- or three- dimensional compact grid. same block of semiconductor material. • Circuits could be made smaller, manufacturing process could be automated. The first integrated circuits Kilby received the Nobel Prize in were manufactured Physics in 2000 for the invention independently by two of the IC. scientists Jack Kilby Robert Noyce 1959-61 1958 Robert Noyce (1927-1990) Mayor of Silicon Valley • Robert Noyce, general manager of • Robert Noyce also was one of the co- Fairchild Semiconductor, had his founders of Intel in 1968. own idea for IC. • Intel is one of the largest manufacturers of • Solved Kilby’s circuit problems, integrated circuits in the world. interconnecting all components on • Robert Noyce’ nickname was “Mayor of the chip. Silicon Valley” • Added metal as final layer, then removed some of it to form wires for components connecting. 1961 IC: some details Layout and Fabrication • Depletion region in reverse Integrated Circuit Layout voltage as electrical isolation Colored rectangles for different layers R.Noyce: The integrated circuit accomplishes the separation and interconnection of transistors and other circuit elements electrically rather than physically. The separation is • Photolithography used in microfabrication to selectively accomplished by introducing PN diodes which allow current to remove parts of bulk of substrate flow in only one direction. • Uses light to transfer geometric pattern from photomask to light-sensitive photoresist on the substrate 3 Small-Scale Integration Apollo Guidance Computer • First IC contained only a few • Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) was first transistors. modern embedded system • Called "Small-Scale Integration" (SSI), used circuits containing • Used in real-time by astronaut pilots to transistors numbering in tens. collect and provide flight information and • SSI circuits were crucial to early control navigational functions of spacecraft aerospace projects. • Apollo program needed lightweight • Developed by the MIT Instrumentation digital computers for its inertially- Laboratory guided flight computers 1960-63 1969 AGC Description AGC in Apollo • Block I version used 4,100 ICs and Block II used 5,600 Each flight to the moon had two IC’s. AGCs, one each in the command • The computer's RAM was magnetic core memory (4K) module (the spacecraft itself) and the and ROM was implemented as core rope memory (32K). lunar module (the lander portion). Both had cycle times of 12 microseconds. • Core frequency of 0.78125Hz to 51.2 kHz (17 stages) AGC in Command Module was at the centre of spacecraft's guidance & navigation system (G&C). AGC in Lunar Module ran its Primary Guidance, Navigation and Control System, called PGNCS (pronounced "pings"). 1969 1969 The Mainframe Era Punch Cards • Paper containing digital info represented by presence / absence of holes in • Large mechanical assembly that predefined positions. held the central processor and • First used around 1725 in textile industry. input/output complex. • Early computers used punched cards for input of programs and data. • In the 1960s, most mainframes • In 1896 Tabulating Machine Company was founded to develop punch cards had no interactive interface. data processing (later merged into IBM). • Accepted decks of punch cards, operated in batch mode to support back office functions. • Teletype devices were also common, especially for system operators. 1960s 4 Batch Mode Processing Time Sharing & Teletype Devices • Time sharing: • Computer gives full attention to your program. - Way to interact with mainframe in • Had to prepare program off-line on a key punch machine. round-robin fashion. - Perhaps 100 users were logged on, IBM Key Punch machine: each typing on a teletype. - Firstly implemented in 1957, on IBM - operates as a typewriter 704, later on IBM 7090. - produces punched cards • Teletype: rather than printed sheet - motorized typewriter of paper - transmitted keystrokes to mainframe - printed computer's response on roll of paper. IBM and the Seven Dwarfs International Business Machines Corporation •IBM • Multinational computer technology •Burroughs •UNIVAC corporation, headquartered in Armonk, •NCR New York, USA. •Control Data • Largest of 8 major computer •Honeywell companies at the 1960s. • General Electric •RCA • In the 1950s, became chief contractor for developing computers for US Air IBM's dominance grew out of their 700/7000 Force's. series and 360 series mainframes. • Gained access to crucial research at MIT, working on first real-time digital computer. IBM 700/7000 series IBM 704 • Series of LS computer systems made in the 1950s and early 1960s. • First mass-produced computer with • Included several incompatible processor floating point arithmetic hardware, architectures. introduced in 1954. • The 700's used vacuum tube logic and were replaced by the transistorized 7000s. • IBM 704 Manual of operation: • The 7000s were replaced by System/360, The type 704 Electronic Data- announced in 1964. Processing Machine is a large-scale, high-speed electronic calculator controlled by an internally stored program of the single address type. • FORTRAN and LISP were first IBM 7090's at NASA's Project developed for the 704. Mercury, 1962. -1964 1954 5 IBM Mainframe family tree IBM System/360 • Mainframe computer system family announced in 1964. • First computers family separating architecture from implementation • Allowed release of compatible designs at different price points. • One of the most successful computers ever, influencing computer design for many years. 1952-64 1964 General Electric GE-200 • Had extensive line of general • Family of medium large computers purpose and special purpose computers. • Optional features were: • Among them were: - Floating Point - General purpose computers: - Decimal arithmetic GE 200, GE 400, GE 600 series - Real-Time clock - Move command - Real time process control • Technology was solid-state (diodes computers: and transistors). GE 4010, GE 4020, GE 4060 • 8K words system contained 1,000 circuit boards, 10,000 transistors, 20,000 diodes and 186,000 magnetic - Message switching computer: cores. Datanet 30 1960s Burroughs Control Data Corporation • The Burroughs Corporation developed highly • For most of the 1960s, built the innovative architectures, based on the design fastest computers in the world philosophy of "language directed design". • In 1964, CDC 6600, outperformed • Large systems machines starting with the B5000 in everything by roughly ten times. 1961 were stack machines designed to be • Considered to be the first programmed in an extended Algol 60. successful supercomputer • Included virtual memory and support for • CPU with multiple asynchronous multiprogramming and multiprocessing. functional units, used 10 logical, • The B2000 or "medium systems" computers aimed external I/O processors to offload primarily at the business world, architected to execute common tasks. COBOL efficiently. • CPU only processed data, other controllers