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The South Pacifrc Regional Environrnent Programme authorises the reproduction of tbis matsrial, whole or in part, in any form provided appropriate acknowledgement is given.

Original Text; English

Published in Apil 1991

Soulh Pocific Regionol Environmenl Progromme P.O. Box 240 Apio, Western Somoo

Prinled by: Commerciol Prinlers Aplo, Weslern Somoo

P 49/93 - _C

USP Cetaloguing-in-Publicetion Detr Prepored ond prinfed wilh finonciol ossislonce from Conodlon Inhmcrlionql Wells. S. Agency Environmental guidelines for coral harvesting Drvelopmcnl (crDA) operations / by Sue Wells, Pau.l Holthus and Jim Maragos. - Apia, Western Sarnoa: SPREP, 1994.

iii,50p : ill. ; 2l cm. - (SPREPRcports and Studies i no. /D'

ISBN: 982-04-0085-G

1. Coral fisheries - Environmentalpolicy 2- Corals ' Environmental aspects I. Holthus, Paul II. I\laragos, Jim

sI{339.C6W46 639.736

Co ra I Ha rvesti ng C u idel i nes Enair onmental Gui deline s fo r

Reef Coral Harvesting Operations W, &'

bV SueWells, Paul Holthus and Published in Apdl l9?4, lint Maragos in Apio, Western Somoo

Co ra I Ha rvest I ng G u ldel i nes Acknowledgements lVe are very grateful to the follon'ing individuals who have provided valuable comments, advice and information for these guidelines: T..Adams, B. Carlson, R. Grigg, P. Hunnam, W. Jaap, P. Joannot, J. Kirby, S. Nash, C. Nozawa, A.J. Smith, E. Tarrfyd, B. Vallejo, J. Veron, E. Wood, and H. Yap. We also acknowledge the generous funding of the Canadian International Develop- ment Agency

Co ra I Ha rvestl ng G u tdel i nes Contents Acknorvledgements ....'...... ,... ii

Introduction ....'.... I

part l: background information on coral harvesting, management and legislation...... ,...... 3 1. Uses of corals ...."...... '.,...... + Types of coral ...... '...... 7

2. Damage caused by coral hawesting '.'..,.'...... '...'.... 12 3. lrlanagement approaches ...... '.'., l+ 4. Legislation...... '...' l9

part 2: guideliries for erraluating and managing coral hanresting 22 l. Evaluating coral harvesting proposals ...... '. 23 2. Developing coral hawesting policy and legislation...... ".... 2{ 3. Areas for coral harvesting ...... '...... 26 4. Types and sizes of corals to be harvested ...... ,...... '...' l6 5. Determining the amount of coral to be harvested...... '...' 28 6. Methods for minimising coral damage during collecting, handing and packing ...... 29 7. Permits for harvesting and export ..'.'. 3t 8. lrlonitoring...... '...... 32 9. Coral transplantation ...... ,..,...... ,.. 32

References .....'..'. 33 Useful addresses ...... 36

Co ra I Ha rvest i ng G u idel ines nl lv Cora I Ha rvest i ng Gu idel i nes lntroduction

Healthy coral reefs play a mqior role Coral harvesting, unless carried out in the economies of coastal and in a sustainable manner, can exert an island countries, providing fish and additional pressure. It will always other food for local people and damage the coral reef habitat, and visitors and recreation for tourists inappropriate removal of corals is and SCUBA divers. Coral reefs form likely to substantially degrade reefs. natural breakwaters that protect the So before starting a coral harvesting shore from erosion by waves and programme, the benefits of reefs storms. must be fully considered and Through the breakdown of the weighed against the projected calcareous skeletons of plants, benefits of a coral haruesting corals, molluscs and other animals operation. If coral harvesting is to that make up reefs, they provide occur, it should not jeopardise other sand which makes and replenishes vital functions of a reef or increase white sand beaches. Reefs will the risk of damaging reef health. therefore have an increasingly The income from ornamental corals important role in protecting lon' for the curio trade or for marine lying islands from sea level rise if aquaria may be insignificant com- the predicted effects of global pared to the value of reefs lost to warming take place. fisheries, the tourist industry and protection of coasts and low-lying Threats to the health of reefs are islands. many. Even without the impact of humans, these ecosystems suffer Corals are harvested for many many stresses, such as cyclones and purposes. These guidelines do not storms, outbreaks of coral predators cover the harvesting or mining of like the Crown-of-Thorns starfish, coral sand for construction and for and disease. use in aquaria, or the harvesting of precious and semi-precious (black) In the past, reefs were able to corals. They also do not cover the recover from such impacts, but many forms of coral and coral reef nearby human habitation and other extraction that occur on a larger, impacts now intervene to slow or more industrial scale. These include halt the recovery process. Siltation, mining and dredging coral reefs and sewage pollution, badly planned the removal of live coral heads or coastal development and tourism, reef rock for building materials and damaging fishing methods and over- aggregates. These extractive activi- exploitation of fish and other reef ties are enormously destructive to resources all have degraded coral coral communities and reefs, reefs. coral

Cora I Ha rvestl ng Gu ldell nes If such activities must be under- lines therefore emphasise the precau- taken, guidelines on hotv to tionary approach. I{anagement must minimise damage are provided in the be conservative and capable of SPREP environmental impact assess- immediate modification if problems ment manual: How to Assess Erwiron- start to arise, an approach called ntental lmpacts on Tropical lslands adapttve management, (Carpenter and Coastal Areas and If it is decided that regulated har- Irlaragos, 1989), n'hich is available vesting may take place, the Guide- from the East-lVest Center and the lines explain horv harvesting can be .Asian Development Bank. Guidelines carried out in a sustainable manner to Erpirorunental ltnpact .{ssesstnent r+ith the least environmental dam- in the Sonth Pacilic, is also available age. The Guidelines do not provide from SPREP. A recent revierv of all the information needed for every coastal construction impacts and potential coral harvesting situation, guidelines on coral reefs is found in but aim to advise government Irlaragos (1993). departments of the important These Guidelines address operations, considerations if coral hawesting is or proposals for operations, rvhich allorved. involve the direct removal of indi- Part I of these Guidelines gives vidual coral colonies for marine background information on coral curios, aquaria, medicinal uses, harvesting, biology and the manage- production traditional lime and ment options norv available. Part 2 research. The Guidelines have been has specific guidelines for consider- mainly rvritten for Pacific island ing proposals for and (possibly) countries, but could also be of use in implementing programmes to other developing countries rt'here sustainabl)/ han,cst corals. many of the same issues arise. Good scientific knorvledge on grotrth and reproductive rates is still lacking for most coral species, so scientifi- cally based management plans cannot yet be prepared. The Guide-

2 Co ra I Ha rvest i ng G u idel i nes part l:

Background information on coral harvesting, management and legislation

Uses of Corals World trade in corals for marine l. curios increased rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s, and has fluctuated tvildly l.r. Marine Curios since then. An estimated 1.2-f .5 million pieces and an additional 500 .A rvide variety of reef corals are tonnes of coral n'ere involved in the collected, dried and sold locally or ornamental coral trade in 1990. and exported as marine curios; others illegal exports from the Philippines are exported dead to decorate could make these figures higher. marine aquaria. The most PoPular account- genera include Acropora, Fungia, USA is the main consumer, ing for 70 to 90% of imports. Other Pocillopor a, Heliopor a, T ubiPora, coral imPorters are Sry{ophora, Seriatopora, Pectinia and significant and US Pavona. European countries JaPan. imports in 1988 $'ere a record l{56 In the Philippines, over 30 sPecies tonnes (a small proportion of which are collected for curios. In Fiii, 56 is probably coral sand), having risen species are collected, but 7096 of the from an annual average of about 200 corals taken are in the genus tonnes in the 1960s. Acropora; 90% of the species taken was one of the main are fast-growing branching forms. The Philippines legislation since In contrast, in Australia, few species suppliers, despite 1977 banning collection and export are harvested and 7CI6 of the harvest (apart periods I986 and (for local sale) is Pocillopora from brief in damicornis. 1992 rvhen the ban rvas temporarily lifted). Irluch recent Filipino trade

Cora I Ha rvesti ng G u idel I nes has been carried out using forged corals in l99l and 1992 through a permits (Mulliken and Nash, 1993). New Zealand company, but this In 1988, USA illegally imported about operation has also ceased. A small 600 tonnes from Philippines (illegal amount of blue coral, Heliopora, was under Philippine law and under the exported from Kiribati to the US by a US Lacey Act - see section 4 - Legisla- Fiji exporter, as this species is not tion). found in Fiji. Statistics show that The other mqior supplier is Indone- Kiribati exported over 12,000 pieces coral sia. US imports from this country of in 1990. The Marshall rose from negligible amounts in the Islands exported l8 tonnes in 1990, early 1980s to nearly 480 tonnes in and the Solomon Islands exported 1988 (Wood and Wells, 1988; Wells about six tonnes to the US in 1991. and Wood, 1989). By 1990 over one There have also been some exports million pieces of coral were exported. from Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia, and Tonga. Fiji is the only regular supplier of probably coral from the Pacific. The mqjority Small-scale harvesting takes place Pacific of Fiji's exports are destined for USA in most island countries supply local tourist for decorating aquaria. US imports to some from Fiji increased from 54 tonnes in demand. On islands, corals 1985 to 133 tonnes in 1988. In are imported for sale to tourists. For example, 1991, 70,895 pieces were imported most coral on sale in into USA from Fiji. Hawaii and Fiji comes from the Philippines and Indonesia. Nerv Caledonia was a major supplier in the late lg80s, exporting brain corals (Faviidae) that had been shaped on a lathe as art objects or lamp bases. However, exports of corals as marine curios dropped from 120 tonnes in 1989 to zero in 1991, largely because the only exporter left the country. Several other countries in the Pacific have temporarily exported coral for this market. Commercial hawesting started in Western Samoa in the late 1980s (about eight tonnes were exported to the US in 1989) but this has now ceased. \tanuatu exported

4 Co ra I Ha rvesti ng G u idel i nes 1.2 Live corals and live This material provides a more rock for marine natural environment for reef ani- aquaria mals, is decorative, and has an important role in mini-reef tanks as Dead corals have been used for a natural filtering system (Carlson, many yearc to decorate private and 1987; Wheaton, 1989). It is collected public aquaria. Recently, however, in large quantities in Florida, where there has been a dramatic increase in nearly 390 tonnes was harvested in the use of live corals pur- for this 1992, but USA is also reported to pose. This is because of new, simple import live rock from other coun- technology to maintain tropical tries. organisms or "mini-reefs" in tanks. The main corals used are It should be noted that despite the enthusiasm Catalaphyllia, Euphy4lia, G oniopora of aquarium hobbyists and Fayites (Carlson, 1987; Adey and for keeping live corals and live rock, Loveland, 1991). there is now a wide variety of artificial corals, made from a range The main suppliers of live coral are of materials. available to decorate Indonesia, follorved by Haiti, the tanks. Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Tairvan. Fiji exported over 12 1.3 Medicinal uses thousand pieces of live coral in 1991, Tonga exported nearly 6 Reef corals are used in bone graft tonnes that year, and Kiribati ex- operations to replace sections of ported just over 2,000 pieces of live damaged bone. In time, new bone coral in 1990. Other Pacific island grows over the template provided by countries have been approached by the coral. The advantage of coral prospective importers. implants over bone implants, which USA and European countries are the is the technique usually used, is that mqior importers, USA importing over the human immune system does not 345,000 pieces of live coral in lg9l, seem to recognise coral as foreign compared with only 40,000 pieces in material and so does not reject the 1988. By 1991, live coral was one implant. third of the total US coral imports This technique has been used in (Mulliken and Nash, 1993). Europe and Asia since 1982. Thou- Trade in "live rocl{ has also growr sands of people have had such dramatically in recent years. Live operations for severe bone fractures, rock is loose coral rubble or chis- cancer of the bone and other prob- elled-off pieces of coral limestone lems (Hodgson, 1989). with marine organisms attached.

Co rq I Ha rvest i ng Gu idel i nes 5 Several biomedical companies used by an average betel nut con- import corals for this purpose, sumer each week, The total demand notably from New Caledonia and, in in the state has been calculated at 1988, from Tonga. The most useful 130 tons a year (Maragos, 1990). genera are Goniopora and Afueopora, and species which form massive 1.5. Research rounded hrads from which blocks can be cut. New Caledonia exports Many coral reef scientists need to Acropora, Porites and Lobophyllia for remove specimens of live coral for this purpose. Only small quantities further studies in laboratories and of coral are required - New Caledonia universities. The amounts of exported less than one tonne in harvested coral are usually small, 1992. and the removal should always be conducted using required proce- Ilany reef animals may contain dures, The results of the research potential biomedical substances of may bring long-term benefits to all growing number of interest. A those dependent on reefs; a better pharma- research institutions and understanding of the biology of ceutical companies are looking at corals will enable better management Most potential appropriate species. strategies for the reef. lies with sea fans, soft corals and sea whips, rvith lesser interest in stony corals. Holever, work carried out in Australia on the pigments in coral tissues that protect the animals from intense UV radiation suggests that these could have applications in sun creams for humans.

1.4. Lime production for trdditional uses

In Pacific island countries such as Papua New Guinea, Palau and the Federated States of lvlicronesia. stony corals are harvested and burnt to make lime for cherrrng with betel nut. Whole coral skeletons, often of Acropora, are burnt in kilns or ovens. For example, on l'ap, up to one pound (half a kilo) of lime is

Cora I Harvesting Gu ldelines Box I Types of Coral

The word "coral" is loosely applied The order Sclenctinia contains most to a range of different animals in the of the reef-building corals. The phyllum or group of animal called orders Coenothecalia and Stolonifera Coelenterata (or sometimes each contain only one reef-building Cnidaria). species, blue coral and organpipe Hard or stony corals are the main coral respectively. reef-builders. These form the basic The order Athecata has many coral framework of a coral reef. They species, but most of these do not have hard external skeletons of have the appe:uance of stony corals, calcium carbonate, which are formed and so are not traded. Exceptions by the many tiny coral animals, or are the fire cords Millepora, which polyps, that form a coral colony. are true reef-builders, and the lace Reef building, or hermagpiq corals corals Stylaster and Distichopora, have symbiotic algae, or zooxanthel- Two types of coral are used exten- lae, in their bodies which allow them sively for jewellery, but they are not to grow faster than other stony discussed as they do not form a corals living in reefs. structural part of the reef. Black There are about 700 species of reef- corals (order Antipatharia) grow in associated corals. They are grouped tropical waters, often on reefs. They under these scientific names: have a flexible, internal skeleton Order Scleractinia - stony corals. made of a horny non-calcareous material which can be polished to Order - Coenothecalia blue coral, look like a fine gemstone. The e.g. Heliopora coerulea. beautiful pink and red "precious" Order Athecata corals are in the order Gorgonacea. Family Milleporidae - fire They are not found on reefs but occur cooler, corals, e,g. Millepora spp. in mostly deeper waters, in large beds on the sea Family S\4asteridae - lace bottom or attached to rocks. corals, e.g. .ftylaster sprp and Distichopora spp. Many other animals that live on coral reefs go by the name of corals, such Order Stolonifera as the soft corals and false corals, Family Tubiporidae - but these are rarely collected and are organpipe coral, T ubipor a not discussed here. musica.

Co ra I Ha rvestl ng G u idel i nes 7 Order Scleractinia Family Fungiidae Fungia spp.

(appror 22 species) Common name: Mushroom coral

Single, central mouth

IIany hrge, conspicuttus septa ratlidlitrg from mouth

Order Scleractinia Family Faviidae Platygyra spp.

(26 nominal species - needs revision) Common name: Brain coral Columell,t formed from tdngled extensions of lhe sepld

8 Co ra I Ha rvesti ng Gu idel i nes Branching produces 2 or more equal branches wfth no clear central axis. I.

Branches covered in small bumps Order Scleratinia Familly Pocilloporidae

Pocillopora spp.

(7-10 species) Common name: Browu Stem coml

Septa absent or poorty developed. Corallites resemble empty pits.

Order Helioporacea Family Helioporidae Heliopora coerulea

(There is only'one species of lleliopora) Common name: Blue coral

Surface covered in small pits of different sizes.

Broken surface Is blue.

Co ra I Ha rvesti ng G u idel I nes I Order Milleporina Family fUilepbridae Millepora spp.

(about l0 species) Common name: Fire coral

Red skeleton composed of vertical tubes and horizontal sheets.

Order Stolonifera Family Tubiporidae Tubipora mustca

(Ihere is only one species rn Tubiwral Common name: Organ Pipe colal l0 Co ra I Ha rvest i ng G u idel i nes 2. Damage caused hy Thorns starfish. Careless use of crowbars and other pieces of equip- coral harvesting ment can also break or kill non- target animals. Damage to reef 2.1 2.2. Over-exploitation of framework coral populations Stony corals are the main reef- Corals usually grow very slowly, builders and form the basic struc- although there are distinct differ- tural framework of a coral reef. ences betrveen species. In general, Coral harvesting, therefore, removes corals that form branching colonies the living animals responsible for grow more quickly than those forming the reef, and reduces the forming massive rounded colonies. reefs ability to recover from cy- Species of branching Acropora may clones, pollution, ship groundings, grow at 10 to 20 cm per year, while tourist pressure, and coastal devel- massive corals such as lfontastrea opment. Damage to a reef that and Platygyra may grow only 0.4 to forms a natural breakwater may lead 2.0 cm per year (Buddemeier and to more coastal erosion, and deterio- Kinzie, 1986). ration of the aesthetic qualities of the reef may affect its value to the Corals also take several years to tourist industry. decades to colonise and re-establish new adult colonies and mature Reduction in coral abundance and communities (Grigg and lr{aragos, live rock, which is essentially the 1974; Pearson, l98l). Anylong basis ofthe reef. also reduces the range management schemes for the habitat available for fish and other harvesting of corals from specific reef anirnals, many of which are reef sites must account for the important for local or commercial normally slow rate of colonisation fisheries. Carpenter et al. (1981) and recovery of coral colonies. found that, in the Philippines, there were more fish where there was a These factors, combined with their greater cover of live stony coral. immobile nature and their restriction to shallow waters, means that corals Unless great care is taken while are vulnerable to over-collection. On harvesting corals, other non-target a Philippine reef subject to coral coral and other organisms may be collection, colonies of species that damaged. Standing on and touching were harvested were less abundant corals can harm the live tissue of a and smaller than on an a{acent reef colony. This further weakens the where there was no collection (Ross, animals and may encourage the 1984). Six more commonly-collected spread of disease and attract coral species declined in abundance (in predators such as the Crown-of-

Coral Ha rvesting Gu ldelines ll colony density and % reef cover) by 2.3 Mortality of live corals over 70%. Long-term collection of in aquaria immature colonies may have ex- plained the near absence of one Live corals can be very difficult to genus (Seriatopora) and the low keep in captivity, and there have abundance of another (Fungia). been strong recommendations that they should not be harvested for the In New Caledonia, harvesting mas- home aquarium trade because of corals (Faviidae) the late sive in wastage. lt is thought that 50% of 1980s was estimated to be twelve the corals collected may die between times the sustainable yield. It was collection and reaching retail shops found that an exploited area of reef (Wood, 1992; Vallejo, pers. comm.). did not start to recover for five years Unfortunately, comparatively (Joannot, 1990; Joannot and Bour, little 1988). Massive species such as brain research has been camied out on the corals are particularly wlnerable to species involved in the aquarium collection because of their slorv trade and the results that have been growth or colonisation rates. obtained to date often appear confusing. A study of 30 aquaria Coral harvesting is, however, un- ranging in size from 33 to 180 likely to easily cause many species gallons (125 to 680 litres) showed extinctions. Corals often have a that most corals, particularly stony wide and may found distribution be corals, survived for only a few days, the on reefs over large areas of to a maximum of six months Indian and Pacific oceans. Neverthe- (Bacquero, l99l). However, marine quite less, some species have biologists and experienced private restricted distributions, or occur in and public aquarists have main- populations. very small scattered tained corals in tanks over longer Some coral species are endemic to periods, provided appropriate particular (e,g. reefs around islands conditions, particularly water quality are Harvaii); others found in a and light intensity, are maintained restricted area such as some eastern (Carlson, 1987; Adey and Loveland, Pacific species. 1991). species small Collection of with The species that appear to be best obviously poses a greater ranges adapted to aquaria are those col- Costa risk; the coral trade in Rica lected from back-reef areas, lagoons could be a threat to some of the or deep fore-reef environments well (Guzman, eastern Pacific species below the effects of surf, i.e. from 1991). Since the full distribution of calm waters that most closely match many species unknown, particular is the artificial conditions of an care is needed when collecting aquarium. In some instances, corals species that appear to be rare. taken from disturbed nearshore A

12 Co ra I Ha rvesti ng G u idel i nes reefs, where the environmental conditions are already stressed, seem to grow best. Corals with large polyps - e.g. G oni oryr a, PIer o gW a, Helio fung ia, and Catalaphlllfa - survive better than those with small polyps, as do free living species such as Fungia and the "polyp balls" produced by Goniopora (Carlson, 1987; Yates and Carlson, in press). Some aquarists have found that some species of Acropora survive well, perhaps because tbey break up easily (Yates and Carlson, in press), but others have found that it is difficult to maintain in tanks, particularly if Caribbean species are used (Jaap in ffff., 1993).

Coral Hawestlng Gu lde,lnes t3 3. Management number of countries have now legislated to ban the collection and approaches export of corals (see section .4 - Legislationl. 3.1. No haxvesting 3.2 Sustainable yields Little detailed information on factors possible such as coral growth and It is to estimate sustainable yields (Grigg, colonisation rates, species distribu- for corals 1984), if tions, and aquarium survival rates is certain basic data are available. available. This is needed to develop Both maximum sustainable yields sustainable coral harvesting and optimum yields have been programmes. without this informa- calculated for the precious corals tion, a precautionary approach is and black corals in Harvaii, and for precious essential. corals in other areas. These studies could provide valuable Until sustainable methods for models for stony corals, as they exploitation - methods that give both have similar life histories to pre- a sustainable yields and also do not cious corals, being slow-growing, - damage the habitat can be demon- long-lived and having low rates of strated, a ban on coral exploitation recruitment and mortality. should be considered, particularly on coral harvesting for certain pur- Grigg used the Beverton and Holt poses. Fishery Model (Beverton and Holt, 1957). For any species, this model The ornamental curio trade services needs information on distribution purely a luxury market, unlike many and abundance, growth rate, and other forms of reef exploitation. rates of mortality and recruitment; people Many buy corals as cheap age at reproductive maturity is also souvenirs - bought on a whim and useful. Unfortunately, this informa- discarded as rapidly - or as expen- tion is available for very few stony sive objefs d'art, and are unarvare of corals in very few areas. the animal origins of corals. Grigg (1984) showed that the model good As mentioned above, artificial could be used to predict levels of corals, replicating actual species, are maximum sustained yield for the now available for aquarium hobby- stony coral Pocillopora verrucosa in ists which should replace some the Philippines. The minimum size demand for live corals. However, for of a colony for harvest was calcu- those keeping mini-reefs, a mqjor lated to be l8 cm height - about six goal is to maintain live corals as part years old. This is the generally of the reef ecosystem.

l4 Cora I Ha rvesti ng G u idel i nes preferred size for Philippine collec- This figure is very similar to the tors. Generally, colonies of l2 to 50 actual amounts taken by Australian cm (5 to 20 inches) diameter are collectors, and no further manage- preferred in the marine curio trade. ment action has been taken on the There may be other ecological Great Barrier Reef. reasons for implementing size limits. ln New Caledonia, a maximum Some species, such as blue coral and sustainable yield of 15.5 tonnes a several brain corals, develop large year has been calculated for faviid colonies. If they develop in shallow species on a reef covering 1,300 ha. water, these are sometimes called This is markedly lower than the yield microatolls, as they form rings of calculated for the fast-growing living coral. These may play a very branching species in Australia (one important structural role on the reef. tonne per c. 800,000 sq m, compared A ma,ximum size limit on collection with one tonne per 500 sq m), This for these species may ensure that the clearly shows how important it is to largest colonies are left in place. carry out specific site and species Other species may benefit from studies. minimum size limits. Colonies of Coral harvesting in New Caledonia is Pocillopora, Fungia, and some limited to a section of the back area species of Acropora may never grow of only one reef, and is operated very large, and would benefit from under a permit syst€m and moni- restrictions on the collection of tored by the Aquarium of Noumea. smaller colonies. However. further However, actual hawest rates in the work is needed to develop firm late 1980s were calculated to be guidelines. twelve times greater than the sus- The amount of coral that could be tainable yield Uoannot and Bour, taken sustainably from reefs on the 1988). Creat Barrier Reef has been esti- Better information is needed for mated, using information obtained in several basic aspects of coral biology the Galapagos for the branching - such as larval and adult recruit- coral Pocillopora damicornis (Glynn ment, settlement, growth and natural et aI.,19791. It was assumed that mortality - before management natural coral cover on the Great strategies based on sustainable Barrier Reef is 10%, which led to the yields can be developed for most estimation that eight tonnes of coral reefs. However, where there is could be taken annually from an area enough funding and technical of reef 4000 sq m - just under 0.5 expenise is available, this is clearly (Oliver hectare and McGinnity, 1985). the prefered approach if coral is to be harvested.

Co ral Ha rvestl ng Gu ldel t nes l5 3.3 Regulatedharvesting maximum annual quota of 100,000 pieces a year, which is not reached at With little information on sustain- present. Exporters must supply a yields, able the best approach may full list of the species exported. be to establish conservative guidelines that exert maximum control. Collectors in FUi are required to use The system in Fiji is a good example outer fringing reefs and inner lagoon of this, where harvesting is carried reefs rather than inshore reefs which out under a set of voluntary guide- are more affected by run-off and are lines approved by the Cabinet, likely to regenerate more slowly. although exports need CITES per- Collecting is spread out and does not mits. Annual field monitoring has focus on one site, and exporters are shon'n that less than 5% of live coral encouraged to shift areas as often as cover is removed by harvesting possible. operations. The concept of rotating fishing and It is recommended that if live coral harvesting areas fore non-coral species, popula- cover is reduced by more than 5%, to allorv exploited harvesting should be reduced (Lewis, tions to recover, has been a custom- 1985; Viala, 1988). The guidelines in ary practice in some parts of the Part 2 of this document drarv heavilv Pacific for many years, and is a on this system. standard procedure in the management of the precious coral fishery Management needs for particular (Crigg, 1984). collecting areas in Fiji are deter- mined through discussions between However, on the Great Barrier Reef, the collector and the Fisheries collecting reef resources is permitted Division. Baseline surveys are on only a few reefs. This philosophy carried out before any new area is is based on collectors having an harvested. The exporter trains incentive to maintain the health of villagers to recognise the desired the reef as they have the rights to species. Coral colonies are removed exploit the reef and so will be less using a steel bar about 2 cm in likely to damage or over-harvest the diameter and 0.75 m long, sharp- resoutces. ened to a chisel point at one end. In FUi, the use of SCUBA gear is After drying, the corals are selected forbidden by collectors. This is by species, measured, recorded and largely to ensure that collectors from packed, using old newspapers, into villages over a wide area can partici- pate, probably wooden crates (50 x 50 x 75 cm). and who can only Exporters - currently there is only afford to invest in a mask and one - must have a permit. There is a snorkel. Commercial divers could easily out-compete villagers and the

t6 Co ra I Ha rvesti ng Gu ldell nes industry would rapidly become large- to increase the coral's value. Sales scale. should first be local so that profits go Under some circumstances, SCUBA directly to the community. gear may be better as it may limit Exported corals with minimum damage to target and non-target 'working' have the lorvest value. If specimens. However, it could also corals are haryested, it may be more increase damage to non-target profitable to develop a handicraft organisms through careless use of industry based around these and equipment and collection of other other sustainably harvested prod- resources, especially species in ucts. deeper water that were previously inaccessible. 3,5 Farming corals and restoring reefs 3.4 Reducing wastdge and maximising economic Corals reproduce sexually by returns c spawning - the release of eggs and sperm into the ocean One important factor in sound where fertilisation takes management of coral harvesting is to place - or brooding; and, minimise damage to non-target corals and other reef organisms . asexually by brtdding and during collection, and to minimise fragmenfadon - the forma- breakage and damage of specimens tion of a nerv colony from during collection, transportation and the old one. export. The guidelines in Part 2 Although some public aquaria have advise on how it is possible to induced coral spawning in tanks, minimise this damage. this is still difficult to achieve in I It is also important to maximise private aquaria. Fragmentation is economic returns to the local people, easier, but the slorv groMh of most I who need the additional species means that farming corals I income. In Fiji, traditional custodians of the for the marine curio trade is unlikelv reef are involved to the maximum ever to be feasible. extent practicable. For example, the However, research in public aquaria exporting company must use villag- suggests that it might eventually be ers to do all collecting. By moving feasible to supply the live coral trade the collecting area regularly and thus with cultured corals, particularly soft using different fishing rights areas, corals such as Sarcophytonand different village collectors can Xenia, and fast-growing Acropora. benefit. Corals should be processed locally, focusing on local production

Co ra I Ha rvest i ng G u idel i nes 17 Colonies would have to be grown on 3,6. Marine protected areas easily recognisable artificial sub- marine strates or within designated plots to Many countries have Pro- collecting any prove that they had not been col- tected areas where including corals, is lected in the wild. living organisms, banned. These areas protect breed- If successful, this could lead to the ing populations of corals and other phasing out of wild-harvested organisms which can replenish areas specimens for aquaria, and research that are depleted by hawesting. into this should therefore be encour- Establishing marine protected areas aged. Several other reef species is important for any marine resource popular for aquaria, such as the management programme. Guide- 'false' corals Rhodactis and lines and information on their Actinodiscus, reproduce well in establishment and management are captivity and would be suitable for given in Salm and Clark (1984), culture. Trials are also underway in Kenchington and Hudson (1988), Florida to culture live rock, using Carpenter and Maragos (1989), fossil coral or cement substrate on Roberts and Polunin (1991) and to which benthic fauna and flora Kelleher and Kenchington (1991). settles. It is possible, however, to sPeed uP the regeneration of an exploited reef and improve maintenance of coral populations by planting small pieces or "cuttings" of corals. Depending on species and location, transplant- ing small pieces of stony coral can give 50-100% success rates (Maragos, 1992: Harriott and Fisk, 1988; YaP t and Gomez, 1988; Guzman, 1991; Yap et al., 1992). Transplantation is perhaps potentially most useful in aiding reef recovery from local impacts such as ship gloundings, but it may be of some value in haruesting corals. Since results are highly variable with different species, more studies are needed.

l8 Co ra I Ha rvest i ng Gu idel i nes 4. Legislation Import and export permits are issued by the CITES Management Authority of the country concerned. CITES 4.1. lnternational legislation regulations apply to scientific as well as commercial specimens, unless the All stony corals (Orders Scleractinia scientists or scientific organisations and Coenothecalia, families have been registered for non-com- Milleporidae, Stylasteridae and mercial exchange of specimens by Tubiporidae) are listed in Appendix II the CITES Management Authority of of CITES (the Conventioh on Interna- their own country. Permits are also tional Trade in Endangered Species required for the export of souvenirs of Wild Fauna and Flora). by tourists, if purchased in the Although many of the listed species country of origin. Some countries, are very abundant and widespread, such as all European Union member all reef corals are listed because states, have stricter measures and individual species are extremely require an import permit as well as difficult to identify. This would an export permit before an import present customs officers with major can take place. problems in idenfying individual At the time of publication, Papua species. New Guinea, Vanuatu and some of Appendix ll listing does not ban the overseas territories of USA and trade. Rather, it means that coun- European countries are the only tries that are party to clTEs may pafties to CITES in the Pacific only accept imported reef corals if islands region. Nevertheless, coun- they are accompanied by a valid tries that are not party to CITES may export permit from the country of still be required to issue appropriate origin, or a re-export certificate if not permits. For more information on coming from the country of origin. CITES and its role in controlling These regulations allow the monitor- trade in marine species, consult ing of the international trade Wells and Barzdo (1991) and MCS (r9e2). through a permit system, and oblige importing countries to honour national legislation such as export 4.2 National legislation bans in exporting countries. CITES Collecting and exporting reef corals export permits for corals should not is now prohibited or restricted in be issued in countries where coral some 30 countries worldwide. collection and export is prohibited. A few Pacific countries have legislation which specifically mentions corals:

Co ra I Ha rvest i ng C u ldel i nes l9 Australia New Caledonia Collection in the Great Barrier Reef Commercial coral collection is Marine Park is regulated bY both authorised on Tetembia reef onlY. Commonrvealth and State legislation; Fourteen genera and the family it is restricted to licensed areas of Faviidae may be collected under the reef front (about .100 m long). permit. Exploiting other corals here, Additional permits are required from and in other areas is prohibited. the Great Barrier Reef lvlarine Park There is an annual quota of 30 Authority if the licensed areas fall tonnes for the family Faviidae, and within zoned sections of the Park; for these corals, colonies of less commercial collecting is only than 25 cm diameter may not be allor+'ed in zones designated for taken. general use. Coral hawesting of all species is prohibited between lst October and Federated Stafes of Micronesia 3lst December. Non-commercial In Kosrae State, draft regulations coral harvesting is permitted for the have been drarvn up and should genera Acropora and Funglia only; soon be approved. They state that fragments of Acropora must not live coral ma)'not be collected exceed 300 gm in weight. without written authorisation from the Director of the DePartment of Philipplnes Conservation and Development, Collection and export has been banned since 1977. This prohibition Guam has been periodically lifted for a few Live coral may not be removed from months at a time. depths of less than 10 fathoms, and corals may be collected only with an USA appropriate permit. (This is in addition to specific infor' mation the US Pacific areas listed Hawaii for separate$,) Harvesting of live corals in the order Madreporaria and anY rock with Corals are listed on the Lacey Act, a prohibiting the marine life attached is prohibited Federal Law import or under state larv, unless a scientific of listed wildlife illegally collected permit is issued. exported from its country of origin. State laws cover the harvesting of marine resources within state waters, usually up to 3 nautical miles from the coast.

x) Co ra I Ha rvest i ng G u ldel i nes Vanuatu Coral trade is regulated by the Part 2 of these Guidelines Fisheries Act 1982 and subsequent includes outlines for Fisheries Regulations order No. 49 1983. No person shall take more the contents of approprtate than three pieces of living coral in Ieglslatlon that could be drafted any period of 24 hours, except with to regulate coral haruesting. the permission of the Director of Fisheries. No coral may be exported t I without the written permission of the Minister of Fisheries.

Co ra I Ha rvestt ng Gu ldel I nes 2l part 2:

Guidelines for evaluating and managing coral harvesting

These Guidelines provide steps for The Guidelines consist of: proposals, possibly evaluating and Section 1: Describes how to programmes, implementing to evaluate whether a proposal harvest corals. Overall, it is strongly should go ahead. recommended that coral hawesting not be allowed. Coral harvesting Section 2: Outlines issues to be policy must be considered in the context of covered when and legisla- the general management of tropical tion is developed and drawn up to marine resources. General marine prohibit or regulate coral harvest- resource management guidelines are ing. found in Kenchington and Hudson Sectiotu 3,4,5: Describe how coral (1989), Carpenter and Maragos harvesting can be regulated. t' (f989) and Salm and Clark (1984). Section 6: Describes collecting and The specific ecological and socio- handling methods that are economic conditions of the country appropriate and cause minimal and island for coral haruesting environmental damage. should also be considered. Section 7: Describes the points to These Guidelines cannot provide all be considered in setting up a the information and answers needed permitting system. for every potential situation, but Section 8: Outlines monitoring they aim advise government to methods that should be used to on the important issues departments follow any changes on reefs that when proposals to to be considered could be due to coral harvesting. harvest corals are made.

z2 Cora I Ha rvest i ng Gu idel i nes l. Evaluating coral harvesting proposals

1.1 Evaluate the purpose of the proposed coral hartest 1.1.1 Do NOT allow live coral harvesting for: . construction materials; and, o production of Iime for commercial uses. 1.1.2 Limited, regulated and sustainable haryesting of live coral and live rock may be considered for: . local processing, sale and export as marine curios, . local processing and export for medicinal purposes, . export of live corals and live rock for aquaria, and o production of lime for traditional uses (e.g. for chewing with betel nut). 1.2 Assess the value and viability of the proposed coral hartest, accounting for environmental, economic and social costs and benefits to the local community. 1.2.1 Environmental costs and benefits. For example, will coral harvesting: . reduce the ability of the reef structure to withstand storms, re- spond to sea level rise and produce sediments which create beaches? 1.2.2 Economic costs and benefits. For example, will coral harvesting: o provide jobs for a wide range of local people (collectors, packers, village-level handicraft processors) and increase their income? or, o provide income to only a few individuals, or to middlemen and firms based outside the local area or abroad? o generat€ local tax revenue? o interfere with fishing activities or reduce catches of commercial or subsistence fish, shellfish and other reef resources by degrading the habitat? o reduce tourist income by making the reefs less attractive? o require capital investment in expensive equipment such as special holding tanks and packing facilities for the live coral trade?

Cora I Harvestl ng Gu ldelines 23 1.2.3 Social costs and benefits. For example, will coral harvesting: . conflict with other conservation measures that the government is tryrng to introduce? o give a bad imagc, for example, to tourists? . result in social unrest due to unevpn distribution of the proceeds if some villages have access to reefs that are better collecting grounds?

2. Developing coral harvesting policy and legislation

2.1 HoId public meetings with local communities and resource users ' to explain the issues and the areas proposed. for coral hawesting, and ask for input and comments from those affeded. 2.2 Incorporate public comments and suggestions, holding fur-ther public meetings as necessary. 2.3 Seek scientiftc advice; help can be obtained ftom a number of instrtutr'ons in the region including the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme Mestern Samoa), University of the South Pacific (FiJi), East-West Center (Hawaii), the University of Guam, and Universite Francalse du Pacifique (Tahiti).

2.4 lf coral hawesting and/or uqort is to be prohibite* 2.4.1 Consider whether there should be exceptions to a harvesting ban, e.g. for traditional purposes, medicinal use or research. 2.4.2 Consider whether there should be exceptions to an export ban, e.g. for medicinal use, research or live corals for public aquaria. 2.4.3 Ensure that any exceptions will not provide loopholes for unregu- lated harvesting. 2.4.4 Inform the CITES Secretariat of any bans. Parties to CITES will then be notified that the country has enacted stricter controls than those

24 Co ra I Ha rvest i ng G u idel i nes required under CITES and parties n'ill be requested to take account of this rvhen authorising imports.

2.5 lf limited, regulated coral hawesn'ng t's to be allowed: 2.5.I ldentify the lead agency responsible for managing the programme, and any other agencies involved, clearly establishing their roles in issuing permits, monitoring, and so on. 2.5.2 Set up a joint venture agreement between the prospective coral harvester or exporter and local owners, companies and the government, to ensure that economic benefits accrue locally. 2.5.3 Establish a budget through for training, developing necessary infrastructure, enforcement, etc. 2.5.4 Seek scientific advice for developing the programme, carrying out the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and monitoring harvesting. 2.5.5 Decide how harvesting will be regulated. Controls may be imposed by restriction of one or more of these: r total area or number of areas where corals may be harvested (Section 3); . species and sizes of colonies to be harvested (Section -{); . amount - i.e. numbers or weight of colonies - to be harvested, by a quota system (Section 5); and, . number of collectors and exporters, limiting entry into the local market (Section 7.2).

2.6 Once the decision has been made on whether to ban or allow regulated coral hamesting, approprlate legislation must be drafred, Where limlteil regulatedhante*ing Is to be permitte4 legislation must:, e specify the responsible agencies; . require an EtA to be carried out before haruesting is approved; o require joint venture or local ownership, and account for customary tenure of reefs; . reguire a permit for harvesting and export, and establish fines and penalties for violation; o identify the areas or types of areas where hawesting is permanently banned;

Coral Ha rvesti ng Gu ldelines 25 . specify the species, sizes, rveight and numbers of colonies to be harvested; r specify the harvesting methods to be used; and, . require regular monitoring.

3. Areas for coral harvesting

3.1 Undertake a preliminary freld suney of proposed hartrest areas, t and obtain detailed information on their characteristics, especially coral abundance and the size class distribution of colonies (i.e the numbers of colonies in different slze groups for each species). 3.2 llndertake q suwey of marine resource use in proposed harvest areas and obtain information on existing and potential uses, e.g. fisheries and tourism. 3,3 Corry out public and community reviews of proposed han'est areas, including any alternative sites suggested during the evaluation. 3.4 Do NOT permit hawesting in these areas: r existing or proposed marine protected areas; o unique or critical coral reef habitats (e.9. reef fish spawning areas' and turtle nesting or feeding areas); . reefs with unusually low coral cover for the area; r existing or proposed sites for tourist use (e.g. for diving' snorkelling, or glass-bottom boat tours); I o traditional fishing areas if the owners object to coral harvesting; . areas associated with myths, legends or traditions; ' o reef areas already subject to human and natural stress (e.g' nearshore fringing reefs near ports, sources of run-off and outfalls); and, . outer ocean slopes during periods of potentially dangerous wave action,

26 Co ra I Ha rvest i ng 6 u i del i nes 3.5 Areas to be considered. for harvesting include: . reef areas that, follorr4ng an EIA, are to be legally dredged, re- claimed or otherwise altered or destroyed; . areas rvith a high cover of live hard coral; . reefs where larval recruitment is expected to be good (e.g. down- current from a protected coral reeO; . outer fringing reef, lagoon patch reefs and lagoon slope barrier reefs; and, . outer ocean reef slopes without potentially dangerous wave action. 3.6 If har-vesting must be regulated by limiting the number of permitted areas, identtfy these and designate the boundaries ' hawesting areas should be of a size to enable them to be suweyed and monitored using local resources. 3,7 Consider establishing a marine protected area where coral hawesting is speciftcally prohibited up-curcent of any proposed coral hartesting area to encourage coral recraitment. 3.8 If information is available on the spawning time of the corals to be harvested, prohibit exploitation during this period (e.g. In Nelv Caledonia, the reproductive period is at the beginning of the austral sunlmer, and so harvesting is prohibited from I October to 3l December).

4. Types and sizes of corals to be harvested t | 4.1 Seek scientifrc advice on specles that are particularly rare in the country, and prohibit their harll,esf.. 4.2 Restrict hanre*ing to species which are abundant o in the general area; and, o in the specified harvesting site.

4.3 Restrdct harr,test to the species, genera, growth forms and sizes prefewed by the companies proposlng coral hawestlng, accountlng for restrtdions In 4.7 and 4.2 above: 4.3.1 For marine curios, robust species are required - fast growing species with rapid recruitment are prefered, as their populations will recover more quickly.

Co ra I Ha rvesti ng Gu idel i nes 27 4.3.2 For live aquarium coral, species that can survive transport and aquarium life are required - these may include free-living species (e.g. mushroom corals Fungial and species with unattached colonies (e.g. Goniopora polyp balls), large polyps (e.9. PlerogDra) or which fragment easily (e.9. lndo-Pacific species of Acropora). 4.3.3 For other uses of harvested coral (e.g. medicinal and traditional) there will be specific requirements which should be identified. 4.3.4 Encourage harvesting of diseased or recently killed corals (e.g. due to bleaching or predation by Crown-of-Thorns) if these are acceptable to the company and purpose concerned. 4.3.5 Depending on the species, do not allow harvesting of undersize or very large mature corals. Scientific advice will be required to specify the size classes to be collected for different species, as size at reproductive maturity depends on the species, and colonies of pafiicular sizes may have important ecological roles on the reef. The trade in live corals generally prefers colonies of 5 to l0 cm diameter or length, as these surive handling and transport better: 3 cm diameter is the minimum size that should be taken. Colonies of l2 to 50 cm diameter are preferred in the curio trade. 4.4 Drav' up a list of the corals that are preferred for hartesting and that are ecologlcally suitable for hantest, giving common local/ vernacular, English names and scientific names.

5. Determining the amount of coral to be harvested

5.I. Detertnine the amount of coral required by the companles involved-

5.2. If hawesting ts to be regulated by a quota and If sufficient data are availablg the quota should be set on the basts ofr . target species and growth forms; r reef habitat types; o percentage coral cover; and, o relative abundance of target corals.

28 Coral Harvesting Gu ldelines 5.3. If hanesting is to be regulated through a quota on either number or weight of coral, but scientiftc d,ata are not available, use guidelines that have been prepared for similar situations (e.g. FUi has a quota of 100,000 pieces of coral a year; on the Great Barrier Reef, sustainable yield for branching corals is estimated at one tonne / 500 square meters / year; in New Caledonia, sustainable fleld has been estimated for massive corals at one tonne ,/ 800,000 square meters / year.)

6. Methods for minimising coral damage during collecting, handling and packing

6.7 Train collectors in appropriate methods (and ensure that these are specifted on permits), as follows: 6.1.1 Non-target species, sizes or growth forms of corals should never be removed from the reef; 6.1.2 Corals should be removed with a hammer and chisel or pointed instrument (e.g. steel bar sharpened to a chisel edge or point) by sharp blows to the base of the coral colony; take already broken fragments where possible. 6.1.3 Corals should NOT be removed if they are so close to other corals and organisms that these will be damaged during collection. 6.1.4 Collectors must avoid brushing against and disturbing non-target corals and other marine life, unduly stirring up reef sediments and standing or walking on corals. 6.1.5 Collecting should NOT take place under wave and surge conditions which prevent the collector from being in complete control at all times. 6.1.6 Collectors must carefully handle all corals collected to minimise breakage and waste of harvested colonies. 6.1.7 Collectors should minimise touching the living tissue of corals collected for live export. Colonies should be placed in plastic bags while still unden'vater, and the bags then placed in a plastic container to ensure minimal damage as they are passed into the boat.

Coral Harvestlng Gu ldel ines 4' 6.1 .8 SCUBA equipment should only be used if both of the requirements below are met: o harvesting is to be carried out by professional divers or by local people rvhere it is already in widespread use; and, e divers can be rigorously monitored to check that other organisms are not being taken illegally. 6.2 Provide collectors witk o photographs, drawings, and samples of the coral species and sizes to be harvested; . a list of identification guides (given in the bibliography); and, . copies of Dollinger (r9S4 / 86) and Coffey (199f ) to provide identification information on corals involved in trade. 6.3 Establish suitable transport and handling procedures: 6.3.1 Boats transporting corals should return to shore with minimal delay and should move carefully, especially through rough waters, to minimise unnecessary coral breakage. 6.3.2 The water around live corals must be changed frequently (once an hour if possible), and their containers must not be placed in full sunlight. 6.3.3 Corals for the marine curio trade should be laid carefully on the bottom of the boat or in containers but not stacked on each other' They should be kept moist because if they dry before all the tissue has been removed, they will have unsightly blotches and unpleasant odours which will reduce their value.

6.4 Establish suitable processing and packing procedures: 6.4.1 Corals for the marine curio trade should be fully immersed for one day in containers on land in a mixture of half strength bleach and freshwater. On each of the next two days they should be immersed in containers of freshwater to rinse them. A moderate pressure hose can be used if available, taking care on the more delicate portions of the corals. The used bleach and freshwater rinsings should be disposed of at a suitable site on-land; they should never be discharged onto the reef or into the sea.

30 Co ra I Ha rvest i ng Cu idel i nes Repeated rinsings with freshrvater can achieve the same effect and is cheaper than using bleach, but it does rcquire more time and effort to obtain a commercially acceptable result. Colonies should be laid out to dry in the open air on racks or mats for l-2 days. Clean dried corals should be wrapped in paper or other packaging and packed in rvell-labelled wooden crates; care must be taken if newspaper is to be used as this may blacken the corals. Water with bleach should be disposed of properly. 6.4.2 Live corals should be held in oxygenated holding tanks on shore, in the shade, until shipping. The containers should then be wrapped in plastic strips and placed in individual containers. The containers should be filled rvith seawater to immerse the corals and then drained leaving a ferv millimeters of water. They should then be filled n,ith oxygen, sealed with a tightly fitting lid and packed in a rvell-labelled stvrofoam container.

7. Permits for harvesting and expoft

7.1 Collecting permits must specifrr o the harvest area (a map should be included); . kinds, sizes and amount (numbers or weights) of coral that may be taken; r collection, handling, transport, processing and packaging methods to be used; and, o actions to be taken to avoid or mitigate other environmental t damage from harvesting, and to comply with local customs. 7.2 Export permits must conform with CITES requirements and require exporters to notify authorities of; . amount of coral to be exported - either numbers or weight of corals; . types of coral to be exported; . value of coral to be exported; and, o planned dates of export. Exporters should be required to assist in verification and inspection of shipments.

7.3 If coral hawestlng Is to be regulated through limited enry, establish the modmum number of colledors and estporters to be Issued with permlts.

Co ra I Ha rvest i ng G u ldel i nes 3l 7.4 Charge fees for collecting and for the esryort permits to help cover costs of management, enforcement and monitoring of the programme.

7.5 Coral haryesting and exponing mast stop immediately if permit condittons are violated, and a fine or other penalties should be imposed

7.6 Custoras and fisheries officers must be trained to inspect pertnits and to recognise the corals that are hartested and exported. Customs officers should be provtded with the coral section of the t CITES ldentification Manual No.4 (Dollinger 1984/86); Coffey (1991) is another useful guide.

8. Monitoring

8.1 Obtaln scientific advice on approprtate surlrey methods (see bibliography) and train officers in the relevant agency in these methods. 8.2 Install perrnanent monitoring stations, using reef markers, at the colleaing sites and at reference or control sites. 8.3 Document reef conditions before hartesting starts, and then at regular Intentals (at least twice a year) afrer hantesting ls under.way.

8.4 Keep records of the amount of coral haruested and. carry out spot checks to ensure that har:v.esters are providlng the correct Infortnation and ustng the correct collecting methods.

8.5. Halt hawesting Immediately if monltoring reveals serlous reef degradation, from over-collectlng or other factors.

9. Coral transplantation

9.1. If coral transplantatton ls to be attemptet o seek scientific advice before starting; and, o corry out a pilot study to determine the value of the prcrject.

32 Coral Ha rvestlng Gu idelines References

I. Coral identification Kelleher, G. and Kenchington, R. guides 1991. Guidelines for Establishiryg Marine hotected Areas. A Marine Coffey, M. 1991. Guide to lndian Conservation and Development and Pacific Corals Commoninthe Report. IUCN, Gland, Switzer- Wildlife Trade. US Fish and land. 79 pp. Wildlife Service. Kenchington, R.A. and Hudson, Dollinger, P. (Ed.) t984/86. CITES B.E.T. 1988. CoralReef Manage- Identifrcation Manual Vol. 4. ment Handbook UNESCO Re- Parts and Derivatives 1. CITES gional Office of Science and Secretariat, Switzerland. Technology for South-east Asia. Veron, J.E.N. f 986. Corals of Austra- Jakarta. 2nd Edition. 321 pp. Iia and the lndoPacrli'c. Angus Roberts, C.M. and Polunin, N.V.C. and Robertson Publishers, 1991, Are marine reserves Australia. effective in management of reef Wood, E.M. 1983. Corals of the fisheries? Rev. Fish. Biol. and World. TFH Publications Inc., Fisheries l: 65-91. Ltd,, USA. Salm, R.V. and Clark, J.R. f 984. (lf these guidelines are being Marine and Coastal Pr"ltecfted applied in the Caribbean, a good Areas: a Guide for Planners and coral guide is: Humann, p. lgg3. Managers. IUCN, Gland, Switzer- Reef Coral ldentification: Florida, land. Caribbean, Bahamas. New World SPREP. 1993. A Guide to Environmen- Publications Inc.) tal Impact Assessment in the South Pacific. South Pacific 2. General mqnagement Regional Environment of coral reefs Programme, Apia, Western Samoa. Carpenter, R.A. and Maragos, J.E. 1989. How to Assess Etwironmen- tal lmpacts on Tropical Islands 3. Coral biology and and Coastal Areas. SpREp hawesting Training Manual, East-West Adey, W.H. and Loveland, K. 1991. Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. Dynamic Aquaria: Building LtviryS Ecosystems. Academic Press Inc., 643 pp.

Cora I Ha rvestl ng G u ldel t nes 3it Bacquero, J. 1991. Scleractinians or Harriott, V.J. and Fisk, D.A. 1988. stony corals and the aquarium Coral transplantation as a reef trade. Part I. Seall'ind5(2)' management option. Proc. 6th Int. Coral Reef SYtntrr,, Auslrulia 2: Beverton, R.J.H. and Holt, S.V. 1957' 3 75-3 79. On the dynamics of exPloited fish populations. Ffsh. Irwest. ilffnist. Hodgson, G. 1989. Coral fills the .lgric. Fish. Food (G.8.) Ser. II, 19: gap in bone surgery. AsiaTech- l -553. nology Dec 89: 2l'23. Buddemeier. R.lV. and Kinzie, R'A. Joannot, P. 1990. Etude d'un recif 1976. Coral grorvth. Oceanogr. exploite pour son corail: le recif tlar. BioI. Ann. Rev.14: 183-225. Tetembia, Nouvelle-Caledonie. Thesis, Universite D'Aix-lvlarseille. Carlson, B.A. 1987. Aquarium systems for living corals. Int. Zoo Joannot, P. and Bour, W. 1988' l'earbook 26: l-9. Assessment of the biomass of corals of the Faviidae familY on a Carpenter, K.E., Irliclat, R.I., commercially exploited reef in Albaladejo, V.D. and CorPuz, V.T. Nerv Caledonia. WorkshoP on 198I. The influence of substrate Pacific Inshore Fishery Resources, on the local abundance and South Pacific Commission, diversity of Philippine reef fishes. Noumea, New Caledonia. Proc. lth Int. Coral Reef SlmP.2: 497-502. Lewis, A.D. (Ed.) 1985. Fishery Resource Profiles: information for Glynn, P.W., Wellington, G.M. and development planning. FUi Birkeland, C. 1979. Coral reef Fisheries Division, 90 pp.(ChaP. 6 growth in the GalaPagos: limita- - Ornamental Coral (lase)). tion by sea urchins. Science2O3: 47-49. Maragos, J.E. 1990. WorkshoPs on Environmental Procedures for Grigg, R.!V. 198'1. Resource manage- Coastal Construction. 2-14 Oct ment of Precious corals: a review 1990. Federated States of and application to shallorv reef- lr{icronesia. After Action Report building corals. lrlarine EcoIogY to SPREP. 5(l): 57-74. Maragos, J.E. f 992. Restoration of Grigg, R.W. and Maragos, J.E. 1974. Pacific coral reefs. ln: Thayer, Recolonization of hermatYPic G.W. (Ed.). Restoring the Nation's corals on submerged lava florvs in Itarine Ewironment. Nlaryland Hawaii. EcoIogY 55: 387-395. Sea Grant College, Pub. UM-SG-TS' Guzman, H.M. 1991. Restoration of 92-06. coral reefs in Pacific Costa Rica' Cons. BioI. 52: 189-195.

34 Co ra I Ha rvesti ng Gu idel i nes Ivlaragos, J.E. I993. Impact of coastal lVells, S. and lVood, E. 1989. A constructiou on coral reefs in the strong case for hard corals in U.S. affiliated Pacific islands. CITES. T.RAFFIC Bulletin IO(3/4): Coastal fifanagemenr 2l: 235-269. 40-4-1. MCS Coral Reef Conservation Team Wheaton, J.L. 1989. The marine life 1991. The lrlarine Curio Trade: fishery for 'live rock': biological conseryation guidelines and and ecological assessment of the legislation. Irlarine Conservation product and implications for Society, Ross-on-Wye, UK. 23 pp. harvest. Florida Ir{arine Research Mulliken, T.A. and Nash, S.V. 1993. Institute Report, l8 pp. The recent trade in Philippine Wood, E.lU. 1992. Trade in tropical corals. TRAFFIC Bulletin I3(3): marine fish and invertebrates for 97-105. aquaria: proposed guidelines and Oliver, J. and lrlcGinnity, P. f 985. labelling scheme. Report for the Commercial coral collecting on IUarine Conservation Society. the Great Barrier reef. proc.Sth Wood, E.M. and Wells, S.M. 1988. Int. Coral Reef S)rnp.Iahrlj 5: The Marine Curio Trade: conser- 563-567. vation issues. Marine Conserva- Pearson, R.G. 1981. Recovery and tion Society, Ross-on-Wye, UK. recolonization of coral reefs. Yap, H.T. and Gomez, E.D. 1988. l,Iarine Ecol. Progresr Series (4): Aspects of benthic recruitment on I 05-t 22. a northern Philippine reef. proc. Ross,lV.A. 1984. .4 quantitative 6th lnt. Coral Reef Slnnp., Austra- study of the stony coral fishery in lia2:279-283. Cebu, Philippines. rrfar. Ecol. S(l): Yap, H.T., Alino, P.lvt. and Gomez, 75-91. E.D. 1992. Trends in growth and Viala, F, 1988. An assessment of mortality of three coral species (Anthozoa: coral exploitation in FUi. SpC/ Scleractinia), including Inshore Fish. Res./Bp 91, Work- effects of transplantation. .&far. shop on Inshore Fishery Re- Ecol. Prog. Ser. 83: 9l-101. pacific sources, South Commis- Yates, K.R. and Carlson, B.A. in sion, Noumea, New Caledonia. press. Corals in aquariums: how to use selective collecting Wells, S.M. and Barzdo, J.c. 199f . and International trade in marine innovative husbandry to promote species - is CITES a useful control reef conservation. koc. 7th lnt. mechanism? Coastal ltanage- Coral Reef S)nnposium, Guam. ment I9i 135-154.

Cora I Ha rvesti ng G u ldel i nes 3!t 4. Monitoring Useful Addresses

Dahl. A.L. Coral Reef tuIonitoring SPREP, Handbook- Published a) bY South P.O. Box 240, Pacific Commission, Noumea, Apia, Western Samoa. New Caledonia (1981); and b) as Tel. (685) 21929 Reference Methods for Marine Fax: (685) 20 23r. Pollution Studies 25, UNEP (f 984). East-West Center, Monitoring coral reefs for global 1777 East-West Road, cha4ge. Published a) as Reference Honolulu, Hawaii 96848. Methods for Marine Pollution USA Studies 61, UNEP (1993); and b) Fax (1-808) 944 7970. by IUCN, Gland, Switzerland as a Marine Conservation and DeveloP- University of the South Paciffc, ment RePort (f 993). Institute of Marine Resources, UNESCO, 1984. ComParing coral reef PO Box 1168 sulvey methods. UNESCO RePts Suva, F\ii. Mar. Sci.2l. Fax (679) 301 305.

CITES Secretarlat, 6 rue de Maupas, Case postale 78, CH-l000 Lausanne 9, Switzerland.

TRAFFIC Oceanla, P.O. Box 528, Sydney NSW 2000, Australia. Far (61-2) 247 4579.

TRAFFIC Internadonal, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, UK. Fax (44) 223 277237.

36 Co rq I Ha rvest i ng G u ldel i nes