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Threats to and Protection of Coral Reefs (Gefährdung Und Schutz Von Korallenriffen) VO 859403

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Threats to and Protection of Coral Reefs (Gefährdung Und Schutz Von Korallenriffen) VO 859403 Antonius 1/70 Lecture (SS 2000) Threats to and protection of coral reefs (gefährdung und schutz von korallenriffen) VO 859403 given by dr. Arnfried Antonius University of Vienna (script compiled by P.Madl) Part I Definition………………………………………….. 2 Part III Reef zonation……………………………………. 23 Reef building organisms.……...…………………... 2 Deep fore reef, ….……………….……… 24 Characteristics of organic reefs……………………. 3 Reef slope, reef front, reef terrace, …….. 25 Structure of coral reefs……..…………...…………. 4 Fore reef, reef crest……………………... 26 Constructive Components of Reef………………… 4 Reef flat, living coral sub-zone...……….. 27 Coral reef development…..……………………….. 5 Coral sub zone, lagoon; cay, shore……… 28 Taxonomy of cnidaria…..……………………….… 5 Reef Communities………………………………. 29 Development of coelenterata..………………. 6 Protozoa and the food web……………… 30 Acnidaria (ctenophora).……………………… 6 The flora of reefs………………...…………... 32 Cnidaria……………………………………… 6 Chlorophyta..……………………………. 32 Morphology of cnidaria……………………… 6 Phaeophyta……………………………… 32 Alternation of generation in cnidaria………… 7 Rhodophyta……………………………... 33 class Scyphozoa..……….....…….…………... 7 Cyanobacteria…………………………… 33 order Stauromedusae……………………. 7 Angiospermia…………………………… 33 order Coronatae…………………………. 8 The fauna of reefs………..……….….………. 34 order Semaeostomae………………….… 8 Porifera………………………………….. 34 order Rhizostomae……………………..... 8 Mollusca………………………………… 36 Order Cubozoa…………………….……. 8 Annelida………………………………… 38 class Hydrozoa…………..………………...... 8 Arthropoda……………………………… 41 order Trachylina and Siphonophora…….. 9 Echinodermata…………………………... 42 order Hydroida (Athecata and Thecata)… 9 Other reeffauna………………………….. 45 class Hydrocorallina……..……..…………... 9 Chordata……………………..………………. 46 order Milleporina…………………...…… 10 Tunicates………………………………... 46 order Stylasterina…………………...…… 10 Chondrichthyes…………………………. 46 class Anthozoa……………………………… 10 Osteichthyes…………………………….. 48 subclass Octocorallia………..…………… 10 Fish in the reef ecosystem…..…………... 51 order Telestacea…………………….…… 10 Reptiles………………………………….. 52 order Alcyonacea……………………..…. 10 Mammalia………………………………. 53 order Stolonifera……………………….... 11 order Gorgonaceae…………………….... 11 Part IV Environmental parameters………………………. 55 order Pennatulacea……………………… 12 Reef degradation…………………………...….… 55 order Helioporaceae……………….……. 12 Destruction of the reef - abiotic factors....….…… 56 subclass Hexacorallia………..………..….. 12 Chemical factors………………………… 56 order Actinaria…………………………... 12 Physical factors…………………………. 57 order Antipatharia.……………………… 12 Destruction of the reef - biotic factors….….…… 58 order Ceriantharia.……………….……… 13 Coral diseases…………………………………… 60 order Corallimorpharia.…………….…… 13 Disease working without a pathogen………... 60 order Zoanthidae.……………….………. 13 TBL, WBD…………………………..….. 60 order Scleractinia (madreporina).……….. 13 Disease working witht a pathogen…………... 60 BBD; 61 Part II Scleractinian coral reproduction and growth……... 14 RBD, BOC, BAB, BI…….……………... 62 Sexual reproduct. (brooders, broadcasters)….. 14 FI, LOD, YBD, DSD…..……………….. 63 Asexual reproduction……………………...… 16 SDR, SEB, PEY……………………….... 64 Anthocaulus, anthocyathus in Fungiidae.…… 17 Diseases involving a combination…………… 64 Growth rates…………………………………. 17 WS………………………………………. 64 Morphology of scleractinian corals.….………...…. 18 Mutations and other tissue abnormalities..….. 65 Corallite structure and their elements.………. 19 Hyperplasia, neoplasia………………….. 65 Colony growth , forms, and shapes………….. 20 Future outlook…………………………………… 65 Physiology of scleractinian corals...………...…...... 21 Part V References on the web.…………………..……… 67 http://www.sbg.ac.at/ipk/avstudio/pierofun/funpage.htm Antonius 2/70 PART I - Definitions: Riff1: ein riff ist eine massgeblich von lebenden organismen aufgebaute, meist bankförmige struktur, die vom meeresboden bis zur wasser-oberfläche reicht. Es kann die fysikalischen und ökologischen eigenheiten ihrer umgebung beeinflussen. Die konsistenz ist fest, um den kräften im wasser zu widerstehen und bildet somit einen gegliederten raum für angepasste bewohner (Schuhmacher 1976). riffe anorganische riffe organische riffe andere organismen korallenriffe (siehe “Biologie Rezenter Riffe“ - Velimrov2) Riffbildende organismen: Algen, insbesondere kalkproduzierende rotalgen der familie Corallinacea tragen massgeblich zum aufbau von korallenriffen bei. Fädige blaualgen, bilden polster die in weiterer folge durch sedimentation “verkleben“ und letzendlich versteinern; anhäufungen solcher blöcke bilden riffe; seit dem präkambrium sind die cyanobakterien als baumeister der sogenannten Stromatolithen-riffe bekannt, die in heutiger form in der Shark Bay, vor der westaustralischen küste aktiv tätig sind. Seegräser in verbindung mit riffen ist eher als eine missbräuchliche begriffsverwendung für sogenannte “sedimentfallen” zu verstehen (lt. Moliet und Picard); die sedimentverfestigung wird durch das wurzelwerk des seegrases gefördert - sind daher erst durch die einwirkung mehrerer faktoren in der lage riffähnliche gebilde hervorzubringen; bislang wurden derartige verfestigungen mit 10m mächtigkeit vermessen; da algen und seegräser in den tropen immer anzutreffen sind vermutet man daher nicht zu unrecht dass sandstein-bänke aus seegras-beständen hervorgegangen sein müssen. Polychaeten-riffe3), vertreter einiger gattungen (z.b. Sabellaria und Phragmatopoma) bilden mächtige ansammlungen, welche durchaus die bezeichnung "riff" verdienen. So bildet Phragmatopoma lapidosa in der brandungszone der ostküste Florida’s bis zu 1m hohe riffe, welche sich mit unterbrechungen über eine länge von mehr als 300km erstrecken. Deren wohnröhren sind mit sand ausgekleidet die durch bioaktivitat der würmer verkrusten. Unter den Sabellariidae sind weiters auch jene vertreter der gattung Sabellarida florensis und S.vulgaris als riffbauer bekannt. Serpulliden-riffe4, zu den riffbildenden würmern zählen auch die borstenwürmer der familie Serpulidae; treten sie in massen auf, so können ihre röhren zu einer kompakten kalkstruktur verbacken. Spirobranchus giganteus ist in massen vor Texas und Florida zu finden (siehe auch fig.1). Gastropoden (vermitiden)-riffe4, rezente und fossile riffe dieser art finden sich nicht nur vor Florida’s küste, sondern auch im östlichen Mittelmeer; Vermetus nigricans baut riffe indem die freischwimmenden larven sich am hartsubstrat festsetzen und gewundene kalkröhren anlegen die sie mit benachbarten individuen verzementieren (siehe auch fig.1) . Bivalvia, wie z.b. austern (Ostrea edulis) und miesmuscheln (Mytilus edulis) bilden ebenso grossflächige muschelbänke, sind aber durchwegs auf gemässigte breiten beschränkt. Korallen, zu den wichtigste riffbildnern zählen jene zu den nesseltieren (Cnidaria) gehörenden steinkorallen (Madreporaria), und andere hermatypische (riffbildendene) korallen, wie z.b. feuerkorallen (familie Milleporidae) als auch hornkorallen (familie Gorgoniidae) sowie weitere vertreter anderer familien. Mithilfe der kalksynthese scheidet der korallenpolypen kalk ab. Die zur kalkbildung nötigen kalzium- 2+ ionen (Ca ) und kohlendioxid (CO2) werden im meereswasser oder im korallenpolypen, von den skelett- aufbauenden zellen zur verfügung gestellt. Daraus wird kalziumkarbonat (CaCO3) gebildet. Dies kann jedoch nur in gewissen massen produziert werden, da das produkt durch massenwirkungs-gesetze - teilweise wieder in lösung geht. Wird aus dem reaktionssystem kohlensäure (HCO3 ) entzogen, kann vermehrt kalk synthetisiert werden. Die zooxanthellen übernehmen diese funktion, sie “saugen” CO2 vom stoffwechsel der korallen und verwenden es für ihre fotosynthese. Mit hilfe der zooxanthellen können korallen ihre kalkproduktion um ein vielfaches erhöhen (see p22 figure 41a). Kurz einige begriffe aus der paläontologie die in der riffbildung eine rolle spielen: BIOHERM = a mound, dome, or reef-like mass of rock that is composed almost exclusively of the remains of sedentary marine organisms and is embedded in rock of different physical character (riffartig die hügelförmig oder linsenförmig ist - streng organisch entstanden; durch einlagerung organischer strukturen ins gestein). BIOSTROM = refers to a flat bed of often in-situ skeletal organisms without significant relief; riffbildung die ausschliesslich durch sedimentäre organismen herrührt; streng genommen handelt es sich dabei um eine geschichtete struktur (z.b. durch muscheln bewerkstelligt) die nicht hügel- oder linsenförmig aufgeschichtet ist. http://www.sbg.ac.at/ipk/avstudio/pierofun/funpage.htm Antonius 3/70 The map (adapted from Jaap &Hallock, 1990) shows the different kinds of reefs in Florida and their locations. It must be noted that the habitat distribution is very patchy in each area. In southwestern Florida, the Vermetids are mainly located in the Ten Thousand Islands area but also extend intermittently along the western coast of Florida as far as Sarasota. However, they are not found in Florida Bay or the Keys, but a small colony has been reported on the old coaling piers at Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas. Some researchers have reported in the literature that they consider the species that is found in the “Ten Thousand Islands” area are extinct, as the reefs were formed during the last interglacial period that drowned the beach ridges that make up the present-day islands. Foraminiferen-riffe5 sind überwiegend azoo- Fig. 1 Serpulid- and Vermitid-reefs4 xanthellaten und daher auf tiefere gewässer beschränkt; lediglich Marginopora vertebralis ist als eine der wenigen vertreter auch in der eufotischen zone zu finden und wird durch die
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