THE DAOIST TRADITION

LOUIS KOMJATHY 康思奇, PH.D. UNIVERSITY OF SAN DIEGO

Approaching Daoism

Ÿ Spelled Taoism in the older Wade-Giles Romanization system, but still pronounced “Daoism”

Ÿ Indigenous Chinese religion deeply rooted in traditional Chinese culture

Ÿ Dao 道, translatable as “the Way” and “a way,” as sacred and ultimate concern

Ÿ Begins as a religious community during the Warring States period (480-222 BCE)

Ÿ Western name approximates various indigenous Chinese designations, including daojia 道家 (Family of the Dao), daojiao 道教 (Teachings of the Dao), and xuanfeng 玄風 (Mysterious Movement)

Ÿ Daoists as adherents of Daoism. Those who are part of the “tradition of the Dao” (daotong 道統) and who endeavor to “transmit the Dao” (chuandao 傳道)

Ÿ Now a global religious tradition characterized by cultural, ethnic, linguistic and national diversity. “Global Daoism” as rooted in “Chinese Daoism” as source-tradition

Ÿ Like Zen Buddhism before it, Daoism is the object of various Western fictions, fabrications, and fantasies. Reliable Introductions to Daoism

Livia Kohn James Miller Russell Kirkland 2001/2004 2003/2008 2004

Livia Kohn Louis Komjathy Louis Komjathy 2008 2013 2014 ContentsContents of The Daoist Tradition

(Bloomsbury Academy,viii 2013) CONTENTS

Preface ix 12 Scripture and scripture study 225 Acknowledgments xi Conventions xiii 13 Ritual 243 Illustrations xv Charts xvi 263 Website xvii PART FIVE Place, sacred space, and material culture Map xviii 14 Temples and sacred sites 265 Brief timeline of Daoist history xix 15 Material culture 281

PART ONE Historical overview 1

1 Approaching Daoism 3 PART SIX Daoism in the modern world 301 2 The Daoist tradition 17 16 Daoism in the modern world 303

PART TWO Identity and community 37 Basic glossary 317 3 Ways to affiliation 39 Notes 325 4 Community and social organization 61 Bibliography 331 Index 353 PART THREE Worldview 81

5 Informing views and foundational concerns 83

6 Cosmogony, cosmology and theology 101

7 Views of self 123

PART FOUR Practice 143

8 Virtue, ethics and conduct guidelines 145

9 Dietetics 165 10 Health and longevity practice 187 11 Meditation 205

9781441116697_txt_print.indd 7 05/02/2013 09:20

9781441116697_txt_print.indd 8 05/02/2013 09:20 CONTENTS Contents of Daoism: A Guide for the Perplexed (Bloomsbury Academy, 2014)

Conventions viii List of Figures xi

Introduction: On guidance and perplexity 1 1 Tradition 15 2 Community 41 3 Identity 59 4 View 79 5 Personhood 105 6 Practice 131 7 Experience 161 8 Place 181 9 Modernity 201

Bibliography 227 Index 249

99781441157959_FM_Fpp_txt_prf.indd781441157959_FM_Fpp_txt_prf.indd viivii 99/17/2013/17/2013 22:58:57:58:57 PPMM BASIC INFORMATION SHEET ON DAOISM (TAOISM)

Louis Komjathy , Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Chinese Religions and Comparative Religious Studies Department of Theology and Religious Studies University of San Diego

This is an essentialized and simplified information sheet on Daoism (Taoism). It is particularly intended for non-specialist educators who teach Daoism or who are interested in deepening their understanding.

PRELIMINARY POINTS

Daoism (spelled Taoism in the older Wade-Giles romanization system) is an indigenous Chinese religious tradition in which reverence for the Dao, translatable as “the Way” and “a way,” is a matter of ultimate concern. Daoism was a religious community from the beginning, here dated to the Warring States period (480-222 BCE). As a Western category, “Daoism” may be understood as shorthand for Daoist adherents, communities and their religious expressions. With over two thousand years of history, Daoism is a diverse and complex religious tradition; it includes varied forms of religiosity that may be perplexing to those who construct “religion” in terms of founders, authoritative scriptures and “orthodox beliefs.” Throughout Chinese history Daoists have consistently focused on the Dao as sacred and ultimate concern. This is expressed in indigenous Chinese designations, including daojia (Family of the Dao), daojiao (Teachings of the Dao), daoshi (adept of the Dao), and xuanfeng (Mysterious Movement). That is, Daoists have understood themselves as those who “transmit the Dao” (chuandao ); they have seen themselves as part of the “tradition of the Dao” (daotong ). In the modern world, Daoism also has become a global religious tradition characterized by cultural diversity and multiethnicity. At the same time, like Zen Buddhism before it, Daoism is the object of various Western fantasies and fictions.

ON “DAOISM” AND “TAOISM” (ROMANIZATION)

Both “Daoism” and “Taoism” refer to the same Chinese religion; they are both pronounced with a “d” sound. “Taoism” derives from Wade-Giles romanization, an earlier way of approximating the sound of Chinese characters into alphabetic script. “Daoism” derives from the more recent Pinyin romanization system, which is the official system created by the People’s Republic of China and utilized throughout mainland China. Wade-Giles uses “Tao,” “Taoist,” and “Taoism.” If these terms were pronounced with a “t” sound, they would appear as “T’ao,” “T’aoist,” and “T’aoism.” That is, in Wade-Giles, a “t” without an apostrophe (’) is a “d” sound. Pinyin uses “Dao,” “Daoist,” and “Daoism.” The latter is the preferred form. The matter is complicated because some scholars now use Pinyin romanization, but continue to employ the Wade-Giles derived “Tao,” “Taoist,” “Taoism.” The rationales for this are varied, but none of them hold up to critical scrutiny.

Scholarly opinion differs on the origins and early history of Daoism. Nonetheless, there is consensus that the category of “philosophical Daoism” is inaccurate and outdated. It should be completely abandoned. Unfortunately, specialist research has yet to influence non-specialist discourse, both academic and popular. Every major “world religions” textbook utilizes the misleading distinction between so-called philosophical Daoism and so-called religious Daoism. The use of these categories should be taken, ipso facto, as a sign of ignorance and inaccuracy. The easiest solution to this problem is to replace “philosophical Daoism” with “classical Daoism,” and to emphasize the religious dimensions of classical Daoism, of the “early inner cultivation lineages” (Harold Roth, Brown University). These dimensions

1 COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS CONCERNING DAOISM (TAOISM)

Louis Komjathy , Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Chinese Religions and Comparative Religious Studies Department of Theology and Religious Studies University of San Diego

Popular misconceptions concerning Daoism are numerous and increasingly influential in the modern world. All of these perspectives fail to understand the religious tradition which is Daoism, a religious tradition that is complex, multifaceted, and rooted in Chinese culture. These misconceptions have their origins in traditional Confucian prejudices, European colonialism, and Christian missionary sensibilities, especially as expressed by late nineteenth-century Protestants. Most of these views are located in American designer hybrid (“New Age”) spirituality, Orientalism, Perennial Philosophy, and spiritual capitalism. They domesticate, sterilize and misrepresent Daoism. In their most developed expressions, they may best be understood as part of a new religious movement (NRM) called “Popular Western Taoism” (PWT), with Taoism pronounced with a hard “t” sound. The current state of Daoism in American may thus be compared to that of Zen Buddhism in the 1950s and 1960s (cf. Dharma Bums and Alan Watts with the Mountains and Rivers Order), although some have suggested that it more closely resembles the Euro-American understanding of Buddhism in the 1890s.

Popular Misconception Informed View Dao (Tao) is a trans-religious and universal , romanized as dao or tao, is a Chinese name for the sacred, and there are “Dao-ists” character utilized by Daoists to identify that (“Tao-ists”) who transcend the limitations of which they believe is sacred. There are the Daoist religious tradition specific, foundational Daoist views concerning the Dao, which originate in the earliest Daoist communities of the Warring States period (480-222 BCE). Daoism consists of two forms, “philosophical The distinction between so-called Daoism” and “religious Daoism” “philosophical Daoism” and “religious Daoism” is a modern Western fiction, which reflects colonialist and missionary agendas and sensibilities. From its beginnings in the Warring States period (480-222 BCE), “Daoism” consisted of religious practitioners and communities. Considered as a whole, Daoism is a complex and diverse religious tradition. It consists of various adherents, communities and movements, which cannot be reduced to a simplistic bifurcation. Its complexity may be mapped in terms of historical periodization as well as models of practice and attainment

These characterizations require reflection on the category of “religion,” including the ways in which Daoists have constructed and understood their own tradition.

1 Remedying the Received View of Daoism “Philosophical Daoism” Ÿ Based on misinterpretation of classical Daoist texts Ÿ Based on misunderstanding of defining characteristics Ÿ Daojia 道家 (tao-chia) simply means “Family of the Dao” Ÿ Early Han dynasty bibliographic and taxonomic category Ÿ Eventually used by Daoists to refer to their tradition, especially ordained Daoist priests and religious communities Ÿ Earliest Daoist religious community Ÿ Apophatic meditation and mystical union with Dao Ÿ à philosophical Daoism “Religious Daoism” Ÿ Based on assumed distinction with so-called “philosophical Daoism” Ÿ Based on misunderstanding of earlier Daoist communities Ÿ Daojiao 道教 (tao-chiao) simply means “Teachings of the Dao” Ÿ Early medieval category used to distinguish Daoism from Buddhism (fojiao 佛教) Ÿ Includes so-called daojia Ÿ Daoism was a religious tradition from the beginning Ÿ No other form of Daoism Ÿ à religious Daoism

à The Daoist tradition Ÿ Indigenous Chinese religion characterized by diversity and complexity Seven Periods and Four Divisions of Daoist History

(The Daoist Tradition, Louis Komjathy, 2013) Defining Characteristics of the Four Divisions Classical Daoism Ÿ Warring States (480-222 BCE) to Early Han (202 BCE-9 CE) Ÿ Earliest Daoist religious community Ÿ Key “movement”: Inner cultivation lineages (Harold Roth) Ÿ Primary emphasis: Apophatic meditation aimed at mystical union with the Dao

Early Organized Daoism Ÿ Later Han (25-220 CE) to Period of Disunion (220-589) Ÿ Beginning of Daoism as organized religion Ÿ Key movements: Taiping 太平(Great Peace), Tianshi 天師(Celestial Masters), Taiqing 太清 (Great Clarity), Shangqing 上清(Highest Clarity), and Lingbao 靈寶 (Numinous Treasure) Ÿ Primary emphasis: Ethics, ritual, and theocratic society

Later Organized Daoism Ÿ Tang (618-907) to Qing (1644-1911) Ÿ Emergence of monasticism as major form of Daoist social organization Ÿ Key movements: Quanzhen 全真(Complete Perfection), various internal alchemy lineages, as well as deity cults and ritual movements Ÿ Primary emphasis: Internal alchemy and ritual

Modern Daoism Ÿ 1912-present Ÿ Technically part of later organized Daoism Ÿ Primarily Zhengyi 正一(Orthodox Unity)-Quanzhen 全真 (Complete Perfection) tradition Ÿ Emergence of “global Daoism” as multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic and multi- national tradition from late 20th century to present Models of Daoist Practice and Attainment

(1) Alchemical: Transformation of self through ingestion of various substances (external) and/or through complex physiological practices (internal)

(2) Ascetic: Renunciation, perhaps even body-negation. May involve psychological purification (internal) or practices such as fasting, sleep deprivation, voluntary poverty, etc. (external)

(3) Cosmological: Emphasis on cosmological integration and seasonal attunement

(4) Dietetic: Attentiveness to consumption patterns and influences

(5) Ethical: Emphasis on morality and ethics, including precept study and application

(6) Hermeneutical: Emphasis on scripture study and interpretation, often resulting in the production of commentaries

(7) Meditative: Meditation as central, with the recognition of diverse types of meditation

(8) Quietistic: “Non-action” (wuwei 無為), involving non-interference, non-intervention, and effortless activity, as central

(9) Ritualistic: Ritual as central, with the recognition of diverse types of ritual expression and activity Towards a Cross-cultural Definition of Religion

Ÿ Dimensions (Ninian Smart): Community, doctrine, ethics, experience, materiality, narrative, and practice.

Ÿ Hierophanies (Mircea Eliade): History of religions as series of manifestations of sacred realities. Possibility that “reality” is plural, rather than singular.

Ÿ Symbol System (Clifford Geertz): Integral relationship between worldview and “reality.”

Ÿ Ultimate Concern (Paul Tillich): Concern (“sacred”) that renders all other concerns preliminary and reveals the meaning of life.

Some Comparative Categories for Religious Studies

Cosmogony: Discourse on, study of, or theories about the origins of the universe.

Cosmology: Discourse on, study of, or theories about the underlying principles and structure of the universe.

Soteriology: Discourse on, study of, or theories about the ultimate purpose of human existence. Examples include actualization, liberation, perfection, realization, salvation, and so forth.

Theology: Discourse on, study of, or theories about the sacred. Tradition- specific terms and defining characteristics. - Animistic: Gods/spirits in nature - Atheistic: No gods - Monistic: One impersonal reality (“Reality”) - Monotheistic: One personal god (“God”) - Panenhenic: Nature as sacred - Pantheistic: Sacred in the world - Panentheistic: Sacred in and beyond the world - Polytheistic: Multiple gods Comparative Categories Applied to Daoism

Cosmogony: Impersonal, spontaneous transformation. Emanation. From non-differentiation to differentiation. Manifestation without diminishment.

Cosmology: Transformative process based on yin 陰-yang 陽 interaction. Also Five Phases (wuxing 五行) and qi 氣 (ch’i; “energy”). Not specifically Daoist. Traditional Chinese culture. Amoral universe.

Soteriology: Attunement with the Dao 道. Many paths and models.

Theology: Dao 道 as sacred and ultimate concern of Daoists. - Primary: Apophatic, monistic, panentheistic, panenhenic. - Secondary: Animistic and polytheistic. Daoist Locatedness

(The Daoist Tradition, Louis Komjathy, 2013) VIEW Character for “Dao” (Tao) 道

Ancient Seal Script Modern Script Etymology of Dao 道 (Tao) 辵 首

Chuo: “To Walk” Shou: “Head” Chapter 1 of the Daode jing 道德經 (Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power)

The dao that can be spoken is not the constant Dao. The name that can be named is not the constant name. Nameless—the beginning of the heavens and earth. Named—the mother of the ten thousand beings. Thus, constantly desireless, one may observe its subtlety. Constantly desiring, one may observe its boundaries. These two emerge from sameness, but differ in name. This sameness is called “mysterious.” Mysterious and again more mysterious— The gateway to all that is wondrous.

“Dao” as Daoist Cosmological and Theological Category: Four Characteristics

1. Source of everything (yuan 元/原)

2. Unnamable mystery (xuan 玄)

3. All-pervading sacred presence (qi 氣/炁)

4. Universe as transformative process (Nature) (hua 化) Sanqing 三清 (Three Purities) Classical and Foundational Daoist Cosmogony

(The Daoist Tradition, Louis Komjathy, 2013) Classical and Foundational Daoist Cosmology (“Traditional Chinese Cosmology”) Three Primary Dimensions Ÿ Yin 陰-yang 陽: Interrelated cosmological principles and forces Ÿ Five Phases: Wood (minor yang), Fire (major yang), Earth (—), Metal (minor yin), and Water (major yin) Ÿ Qi 氣 (Ch’i): Physical respiration and subtle breath (“energy”)

Yin-Yang Ÿ Etymologically the characters depict a hill covered with shadows and sunlight, respectively

Ÿ Every being and phenomenon as combination of yin-yang, in varying degrees

Ÿ Not polar opposites or antagonistic powers. Not “good” and “evil”

Ÿ Cosmological and alchemical views

Ÿ Various relative associations - yin/feminine/earth/moon/dark/death/cold/moist/heavy/turbidity/ descent/rest/inward - yang/masculine/heavens/sun/light/life/hot/dry/light/clarity/ ascent/activity/outward Nine Foundational Daoist Principles and Values

1. Effortlessness 2. Flexibility 3. Receptivity

4. Anonymity 5. Serenity 6. Aptitude

7. Non-attachment 8. Contentment 9. Deference Practice Cosmological Attunement Dietetics Health and Longevity Practice Meditation Ritual Scripture Study Artistic Expression Experience Being & Embodiment Community Place Residency/Habitation Mystical Experience & Revelation Identity & Affiliation Daoist Religious Identity

“Daoist” Adherent of the religious tradition which is Daoism

— Affinity

Formal Affiliation

Lineage

Mystical Experience

Ordination

Revelation

Training

Transmission Daoist Ordination and Lineage: 華山 全真 Huashan LineageHUASHAN PAI of Quanzhen (Complete(Mount HuaPerfection) Lineage)

Chen Tuan Hao Datong (Xiyi ; d. 989) (Guangning ; 1140-1212)

He Zhizhen (1212-1299)

Xue Tailai (1924-2001)

Chen Yuming (b. 1969)

Louis Komjathy Kate Townsend (Xiujing ; Wanrui ; b. 1971) (Baojing ; Wanqing ; b. 1962)

Daoist Ordination and Lineage

Xue Tailai 薛泰來 (1924-2001) 24th Generation Shiye 師爺 (Master-grandfather)

Chen Yuming 陳宇明 (b. 1969) 25th Generation Shifu 師父 (Master-father)

Kang Wanrui 康萬瑞 (b. 1971) 26th Generation Huashan 華山 100-Character Lineage Poem

圓 永 勤 敬 希 養 清 嘉 沖 至 太 誕 人 郝 Yuan Yong Qin Jing Xi Yang Qing Jia Chong Zhi Tai Dan Ren Hao Complete Eternal Aid Revere Rare Nourish Clear Good Infuse Utmost Great Birthday Person Hao 滿 建 能 謹 賢 素 靜 祥 和 一 古 十 號 祖 Man Jian Neng Jiang Xian Su Jing Xiang He Yi Gu Shi Hao Zu Full Establish Able Discuss Worthy Simple Still Omen Harmony One Ancient Ten Name Patriarch 光 根 扶 規 遵 守 通 宗 德 無 廣 二 華 太 Guang Gen Fu Gui Zun Shou Tong Zong De Wu Guang Er Hua Tai Radiant Root Support Rule Venerate Guard Pervade Ancestor Virtue Without Expand Two Hua Great 華 基 世 良 祕 堅 玄 泰 正 上 寧 月 山 古 Hua Ji Shi Liang Mi Jian Xuan Tai Zheng Shang Ning Yue Shan Gu Flower Base World Good Secret Firm Mystery Great Align High Serene Month Shan Ancient 照 厚 運 善 法 志 化 宇 本 道 通 三 派 真 Zhao Hou Yun Shan Fa Zhi Hua Yu Ben Dao Tong San Pai Zhen Light Thick Revolve Good Method Will Change Cosmos Source Dao Pervade Three Lineage Perfect 玄 十 正 人 Xuan Shi Zheng Ren Mystery Ten First Person 雲 仙 積 默 慎 虛 體 萬 仁 崇 妙 日 月 山 Yun Xian Ji Mo Shen Xu Ti Wan Ren Chong Miao Ri Yue Shan Cloud Immortal Amass Silent Care Empty Body Myriad Humane Venerate Subtle Day Month Shan 天 瀛 久 功 修 靈 性 理 義 教 極 飛 初 東 Tian Ying Jiu Gong Xiu Ling Xing Li Yi Jiao Ji Fei Chu Dong Heaven Island Long Merit Cultivate Numen Nature Principle RighteousTeaching Limit Fly Begin Dong 慶 書 大 毓 保 慧 悟 復 禮 演 真 昇 三 萊 Qing Shu Da Yu Bao Hui Wu Fu Li Yan Zhen Sheng San Lai Omen Book Great Nourish Protect Wisdom Awake Return Propriety Expand Perfect Ascend Three Lai 上 盛 丹 秀 純 業 誠 元 智 全 君 日 州 Shang Ying Dan Xiu Chun Ye Cheng Yuan Zhi Quan Jun Ri Zhou High Full Elixir Flourish Pure Karma Sincere Origin Wisdom Complete Lord Day Zhou 昇 名 成 英 貞 生 明 亨 信 真 聖 府 Sheng Ming Cheng Ying Zhen Sheng Ming Heng Xin Zhen Sheng Fu Ascend Name Complete Flourish Pure Birth Light Pervade Honesty Perfect Sacred Prefect Quanzhen Monasteries Resided At

Taiqing gong 太清宮 Yuquan yuan 玉泉院 (Palace of Great Clarity) (Temple of Jade Spring) Laoshan 嶗山 Huashan 華山 (Mount Lao; near Qingdao, Shandong) (Mount Hua; near Huayin, Shaanxi) Abbot and Administrative Monks of Taiqing gong

The Three Teachings and Their Relationship Ÿ Confucianism (rujia 儒家; rujiao 儒教). Technically misnomer: Ruism. Indigenous Chinese tradition. Begins around 5th c. BCE. Emphasis on moral cultivation and cultural refinement. Also ritual. Some competition, cooperation, and cross- pollination with Daoism. Now considered “culture” and “philosophy,” not “religion.”

Ÿ Daoism (daojia 道家; daojiao 道教). Covered. Some competition, cooperation, and cross-pollination with Confucianism and Buddhism. Now one of “official five religions.”

Ÿ Buddhism (fojiao 佛教). Indian religion transmitted to China beginning in 1st and 2nd c. CE. Initially rejected as “inferior.” Then Chinese conversion and adaptation. “Reincarnation.” Sinification and Chinese schools of Mahayana Buddhism. “Chinese Buddhism” and “East Asian Buddhism.” Some competition, cooperation, and cross- pollination with Daoism. Only Asian missionary religion. Now one of “official five religions.”

Ÿ Also folk/popular religion. Pan-Chinese and/or religion of the masses. Everything that is not Confucian, Daoist, or Buddhist.

Ÿ “Chinese religion.” Syncretism. Confucian in social life; Daoist in retirement; Buddhist in death. Major disruptions after 1912, 1949, & 1966-1976, but post-1980 liberalization and revitalization