/ .

• ? Eth·nic American Food Today

~ I VOLUM E l:A - K I

# .Edited by LUCY M. LONG Ethnic American Food Today A Cultural Encyclopedia

Volume I: A-K

EDITED BY Lucy M. LONG

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ethnic American food today : a cultural encyclopedia I edited by Lucy M. Long. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4422-2730-9 (cloth : alk. paper) - ISBN 978-1-4422-273 1-6 (electronic) 1. Cooking, American-Encyclopedias. 2. International cooking­ Encyclopedias. I. Long, Lucy M., 1956- TX349.E86 2015 641.59-dc23 2015000433

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BAHAMAS city of Miami, Florida. The collapse of the Ba­ (Americas-Caribbean) Bahamian American hamian economy and the truck farming system Food that paid labor in commodities rather than cash See also: Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago. led to an influx of black Bahamian migrants to In 1646, a company called Eleutheran Ad­ South Florida to work in these farms. By the ventures was founded in London, England, with time that Miami was officially incorporated as the intent of establishing a colony in what is a city, 40 percent of the area's black residents ·· now known as the Bahamas; shortly afterward, were Bahamians. Captain William Sayle landed there with a group In South Florida, Bahamians established en­ of English settlers. The colony became a haven claves in Lemon City, Cutler, Overtown, and for those seeking greater religious freedom than Coconut Grove. Coconut Grove now serves what was available in England, and it later at­ as the center of the Bahamian community in tracted revolutionaries and other English defec­ South Florida and hosts the popular Goombay tors. Many of the early English settlers to the Festival in June, a traditional Bahamian car­ Bahamas were Cockney and involved in the fish­ nival that has been celebrated there since the ing trade, making a livelihood from the capture late 1800s and features masked and costumed and sale of turtles and conch, the latter becom­ dancers and traditional junkanoo music. Today ing a nickname by which white Bahamians were it serves as a showcase of Bahamian and Carib­ · known. The colony also offered a safe haven for bean culture and has become an institution not runaway slaves from plantations in other parts only for the Bahamian community but for the of the West Indies, and when Britain abolished larger local black community as well. slavery in 1807, the human cargo of intercepted Immigration to the United States slowed slave ships was brought to the Bahamas, further around 1917 and then picked up again around ..••... adding to the colony's black population. 1943 when over five thousand Bahamians were In the 1800s, a few Conchs (white Baha­ employed as temporary workers on US farms mians) decided to establish pineapple planta- in the northern United States. Most came to ..tions in the Florida Keys, with the largest on the United States with the intent to save money Elliott Key and Key Largo, and they employed and move back to the Bahamas, which many large numbers of black Bahamians as labor­ did following improved economic conditions ers. By 1875, these Bahamian-owned planta­ in the colony and greater involvement of blacks tions shipped a million crates of fruit annually in Bahamian politics in the 1950s and 1960s. markets in the northeastern United States. Following full independence from British rule after, the crops died due to overuse of in 1973, emigration from the Bahamas greatly land, and the Conchs were put out of busi­ slowed, and by 1980 no more than nine thou­ Around that time, white American farm­ sand Bahamian nationals lived in the United were beginning to arrive in the area around States, and over five thousand of them had be­ Biscayne Bay, which would later become the come US citizens.

47 There are currently an estimated 48,043 peo­ garlic, onions, cilantro, and chilies in savory ple in the United States who claim Bahamian dishes and cinnamon, coconut, and rum in ancestry. While South Florida is host to the ma­ sweet dishes. Tropical fruits including mango, jority of Bahamians and Bahamian Americans, pineapple, guava, soursop, sapodilla, and pa­ many also immigrated to New York City and paya are also regularly consumed as is or in settled in Harlem, where they established the beverages or desserts. Nassau Bahamas Association of New York in Bahamian cuisine is perhaps most famous 1912, which was later rebranded in 2002 as the for its preparations of conch, a large mollusk Bahamian American Association Incorporated with a spiral shell. The variety consumed in (BAAI). New York is also home to a Bahamian the Bahamas is the queen conch, and it must consulate, and together with the BAAI, they be tenderized or "cracked" before consuming organize cultural programs for the community. by pounding it. The two favorite preparations are conch fritters, in which the meat is finely Foodways diced and mixed into a seasoned batter with In 1889, L. D. Poules wrote an account of the onions and herbs before being fried in small colony of the Bahamas and noted that meat, balls, and conch salad, in which it is chopped peaches, apples, and pears seemed to all be and mixed with citrus juice and chopped veg­ imported from the United States. However, ba­ etables. Conch also features in stews, soups, nanas, watermelon, potatoes, and onions were and a popular chowder. Grouper is the most abundant, and fish, grits, sugarcane, and or­ popular fish and can be served fried or grilled, anges appeared to play central roles in the local although it is most popular boiled and served diet. Not much has changed in that regard in with grits as a breakfast dish. Also popular for over one hundred years. The size of the Baha­ breakfast is johnnycake, consisting of wheat mian islands prohibits extensive agriculture or flour, butter, milk, sugar, and baking powder livestock production. As a result, many prod­ baked in a large, round pan and sliced. Pork ucts are still imported from the United States, chops, oxtails, and goat also make appearances and this has had an influence on the local cui­ on the Bahamian table. Popular side dishes in­ sine, with many American dishes becoming clude a mayonnaise-based potato salad, baked rooted in Bahamian foodways . macaroni and cheese, and fried sweet plantains. Nevertheless, Bahamian cuisine does retain Cornmeal pudding and bread pudding are its own character. There are similarities be­ popular desserts, but perhaps the most distinc­ tween it and other Anglo-Caribbean cuisines, tive Bahamian sweet dish is the guava duff, a although flavors can be subtler, and there is not type of dumpling made from wheat flour dough as much of an Indian culinary influence as is filled with guava pulp and served with a sweet seen in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago: Sea­ rum sauce. This dessert features prominently food features prominently in the cuisine and is during celebrations like Bahamian Indepen­ a staple, especially fish and conch, for which the dence Day. Jams are also made from a variety of Bahamas is famous, but also crab and a claw­ tropical fruit, including "goombay" marmalade less breed of spiny lobster native to the Carib­ made with papaya, pineapple, and green ginger. bean. Rice, as well as grits (ground corn), make Nonalcoholic beverages include tropical fruit up most of the starches in Bahamian meals. drinks, a sweetened malt beverage, and swit­ Potatoes also feature sporadically. Pigeon peas cha, a drink made from a local variety of limes, are the preferred legume and are often cooked sugar, and water. Favorite alcoholic drinks in­ together with rice. Seasonings include allspice, clude the national lager, Kalik, and sky water

48 Ethnic American Food Today (or sky juice), a combination of coconut water, hot cross buns, and baked ham is repeated on condensed milk, and gin. Easter Sunday.

conch Salad Place in American Culture 1 pound chopped raw conch meat The significant role that conch plays in Ba­ 1 cup chopped white onion hamian cuisine has made the mollusk almost 1 cup chopped green bell pepper synonymous with the Bahamas in the minds 1h cup chopped celery of many Americans. Because of the Bahamas' 1h cup peeled and chopped tomato proximity to Florida, and the city of Miami hav­ 1h cup lime juice ing one of the largest commercial cruise ports 'l{i cup olive oil (optional) in the world, the Caribbean nation is a popular 1 tablespoon Worcestershire wauce cruise destination, and conch dishes are one of salt, pepper, hot sauce to taste the most sought-out culinary attractions when passengers arrive at port. Combine all ingredients in a large bowl. Let Conch dishes are also popular dishes marinade for at least 3 hours, but preferably throughout Florida, where Bahamian cuisine overnight. This keeps in the refrigerator for 4 has had the most influence in the United States to 5 days. and where the same types of seafood are avail­ able. In South Florida and the Florida Keys, Holiday and Festive Foods especially, conch fritters, cracked conch, and The majority of Bahamians are Protestant, and conch salad feature prominently on many res­ Christmas is the most important festive holi­ taurant menus, particularly those that special­ day in the Bahamian calendar. It is typically ize in seafood. Kalik beer is available in many, celebrated with a breakfast of boiled fish, a dish if not most, grocery stores in South Florida. Of simmered grouper, snapper, mahi mahi, or particular interest is the influence that Baha­ .> cod with sliced potatoes, onions, and celery mian cuisine has had on South Floridian black ,' and a subtle seasoning of salt and black pep­ American cuisine (soul food). Many Bahamian \ per so as to preserve the flavor of the fish. descendants have assimilated into the general ;,.Christmas dinner is consumed later in the eve- black American community, and there has 1,ning and traditionally consists of European- been an interchange of foodways to the point . or American-influenced dishes like roasted that many black American restaurants, such ~;turkey, baked ham with pineapple rings and as People's Bar-B-Que in Overtown, feature tmaraschino cherries, and side dishes of baked conch salad along with black American staples. } macaroni and cheese, potato salad, and rice 'eooked with green pigeon peas. Junkanoo is Notable Restaurants and Chefs celebrated the day after Christmas on Decem - Most of the Bahamian restaurants in the United 'tber 26and again on New Year's Eve. The cel­ States are located in South Florida. Bahamian ;:~~ebration includes costumed dancers, parades, Connection Grill in Miami was originally ;Sand carnivals throughout the islands. Typical founded in Broward County in 1978 and is n;;Bahamian favorites like conch fritters, cracked one of the most prominent Bahamian estab­ ','.conch, and conch salad are consumed during lishments in the region. In addition to serv­ \~,lunkanoo, as well as alcoholic beverages like ing favorite native dishes, the restaurant also

:1'frsky water and fruit daiquiris. Good Friday sees serves as a nightclub and hosts a weekly Fri­ i;;the consumption of another European dish, day night Junkanoo rush-out party, as well as

Ethnic American Food Today 49 other Bahamian-themed events. Other Baha­ connected by a causeway to Saudi Arabia, and mian restaurants in Miami include Bahamian it is in close proximity to Iran and Qatar. Islarn Pot Restaurant, Conch Heavens, and Take Me was established there in the seventh century Three Bahamian Restaurant. Spread out north (AD 628). It has been ruled by Arabs, Bedouins, of Miami in Broward County are Lynn's Baha­ Portuguese ( 1521-1602), and Persians; then it mian Kitchen in West Park, Bahamian Flavors became British Protectorate in late 1880s until in Hollywood, Bahamian Conch Shell Restau - 1971 when it declared independence. The offi­ rant in Fort Lauderdale, and Bahamian Reef cial language is Arabic, and the economy, based Seafood Restaurant in Sunrise. primarily banking and tourism, supports a high Bahama Breeze is a popular chain of casual quality of life and students attending American restaurants owned by the Darden restaurant universities. Very few Bahrainis have immi­ group and founded in Orlando, Florida, in 1996. grated permanently to the United States, and Despite making reference to the Bahamas, the they are not identified in the US census. Most restaurant has used the archipelago and popu­ are professionals and generally have not main­ lar American perceptions of it as an inspiration tained distinctive Bahraini food traditions. for their Caribbean- and Latin American­ Bahraini food culture is similar to that of themed restaurant that features Americanized Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries, but it interpretations of foods and beverages from also makes heavy use of the fish and seafood throughout the region, with few traditional Ba­ from the surrounding waters. It also relies on hamian dishes appearing on the menu. rice, meat (beef and chicken), dates, and the spices usually found in this region-cardamom, Further Reading saffron, cloves, black pepper, and cinnamon. Beard, Kathryn. "Bahamian Immigrants:' In Mul­ ticultural America: An Encyclopedia of the New­ Further Reading est Americans, 79. Edited by Ronald H. Bayor. Bahrain Embassy. http://www.bahrainembassy.org. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011. Dunn, Marvin. Black Miami in the Twentieth Cen­ LucyM. Long tury. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997. BANGLADESH Johnson, Howard. "Bahamian Labor Migration (Southern Asia) Bangladeshi American Food, to Florida in the Late Nineteenth and Early Bengali American Food Twentieth Centuries:' International Migration See also: India. Review 22 (1988): 84-103. Mohl, Raymond A. "Black Immigrants: Bahamians Background in Early Twentieth-Century Miami:' Florida His­ Bangladesh, the country of the Bengali lan­ torical Quarterly 65, no. 3 (1987): 271-97. guage, has a rich culinary culture that it shares with the state of West Bengal in India. Accord­ Carlos C. Olaechea ing to the US Census in 2010, the approximate population of Bangladeshis in the United States BAHRAIN is 142,080. New York City, particularly Jackson (Western Asia) (Bahraini American) Heights in Queens, has the largest settlement See also: Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait, United of Bangladeshis in the United States followed Arab Emirates, Qatar. by New Jersey. Most immigration from Ban­ The Kingdom of Bahrain is an archipelago of gladesh to the United States started in the early thirty-three arid islands in the Persian Gulf. It is 1970s, gradually increasing in the 1980s and _,''-''------·ml 50 Ethnic American Food Today ·------

H

their former colonizer, France, as well as other Haitian American former colonies such as Quebec. Additionally, many Haitians also crossed the border into neighboring Dominican Republic to work in ackground agriculture. Haitian immigration to the United e Haitian community in the United States States was minimal until the late 1950s, with an ares many cultural and gastronomic similari- estimated five hundred Haitians immigrating es with other Caribbean immigrant groups, permanently to the United States a year. After rticularly in its close cultural ties to West 1957, when dictator Frarn;:ois "Papa Doc" Du­ frica. Nevertheless, the history of Haitian valier came into power, this number increased mmigration to the United States has unique exponentially to nearly seven thousand immi­ lements and is reflective of not only US im­ grants per year, mostly to New York City, Bos­ igration policies but also how those policies ton, and Chicago. elate to immigrants' race and how negative The first case of Haitian refugees arriving edia portrayal of a particular ethnic group by boat to South Florida is reported to have an affect the group's reception and assimila­ occurred in 1963, followed by another one in ·on into mainstream American society. 1973. Starting in 1977, Haitian refugees began The Republic of Haiti was officially founded to arrive by boat to the United States with 1804 after it achieved independence from regularity, and by 1990 the US Census counted ranee in a violent slave rebellion, making the nearly three hundred thousand Haitians resid­ untry the first free black republic in history ing in the United States. The most recent figures d the second independent state in the Ameri­ from the US Census's 2012 American Commu­ s after the United States. However, records of nity Survey put the total ethnic Haitian popula­ igration to the United States occurred long tion in the United States at 927,038. efore the colony of Saint-Domingue became Following the rise to power of Duvalier in resent-day Haiti. Jean Baptiste Point du Sa­ 1957, as well as throughout subsequent regimes le, a mixed-race African and white man from in Haiti, the reception of Haitians in the United aint-Domingue, became the first nonindig­ States has been fraught with controversy over ous settler in the city of Chicago, Illinois, their status as political refugees versus economic nd in 1968 the city declared him the founder immigrants. In spite of personal accounts of f modern-day Chicago. During the Haitian atrocities in their homeland and threats to their evolution, as well as its aftermath, many of the lives if they return, the stance of the Immi­ hite French landowners and mixed-race free gration and Naturalization Service (INS) has eople of color (Gens de Couleur Libres) also leaned heavily toward the latter view, with few Haitians being granted political asylum. The at­ Postrevolution, migration out of Haiti was titudes of the INS toward the overwhelmingly ased mostly on linguistic and cultural ties to black Haitian immigrants (over 96 percent ac-

255 cording to 2012 American Community Survey Haitian-owned businesses. There is a smaller data) have consequently made the government population of Haitians living in Queens who organization the target of accusations of racism are generally considered to be from the middle and prejudicial policies. to upper-middle classes of Haitian society. In Few immigrant groups to the United States South Florida, which has the second-largest have been as maligned as Haitians have over the population of Haitians, the community has es­ past forty years. The Centers for Disease Control tablished an enclave in the Little River/Lemon (CDC) has repeatedly identified the population City area of Miami, which has been deemed as a health threat starting with tuberculosis in Little Haiti and is the heart of the Haitian com. the 1970s and then AIDS in the 1980s, with the munity in Florida and arguably the United Food and Drug Administration (FDA) refus­ States. Haitians have also settled in North Mi­ ing to accept blood donations from anyone of ami, North Miami Beach, Fort Lauderdale, and Haitian descent at that time. The CDC and FDA Delray Beach. Boston, Massachusetts, also has decisions influenced the general population's a significant population of Haitian Americans. attitudes toward Haitians, and subsequently The community is most prominent in the Mat­ many were discriminated against. American tapan area, particularly along Blue Hill Avenue, popular culture's misrepresentations of Vodou which is considered the "Haitian Downtown." (also popularly spelled as Voodoo) religious There is also a smaller population of Haitians practices and their association with Haiti also that established themselves in Cambridge in the led to further alienation of the Haitian commu­ 1960s and 1970s. nity in the United States. Furthermore, many Haitians find themselves linguistically isolated, Foodways speaking a language, Haitian Creole, which is Haitian cuisine shares many characteristics unique to their homeland. As a result, many with other Caribbean cuisines, particularly in Haitians have attempted to mask their identity its use of tropical vegetables. Its culinary influ­ and assimilate into mainstream African Ameri­ ences primarily come from West Africa and the can culture- Anglicizing their names, refusing Arawak people who originally inhabited the to speak their native tongue, eliminating their island, as well as some influences from France accent, and eschewing all aspects of Haitian and the Middle East. The cuisine favo rs spicy, culture, including the cuisine. There have even bold flavors. Many dishes are seasoned with been cases of youths committing suicide after cloves and scotch bonnet peppers, as well as having been outed as Haitian. garlic, scallions, green peppers, and thyme. To­ While vestiges of this attitude continue to mato paste is a staple in preparing most sauces, persist, many Haitians are beginning to feel and monosodium glutamate (MSG) is present more comfortable publicly expressing their as a flavor enhancer in either its pure form or ethnic identity and culture. Recently, there in bouillon cubes. A seasoning unique to Haiti have been more efforts to develop Haitian en­ is djon djon, commonly referred to as Haitian claves in such places as Miami, Florida, where black mushrooms, which are dried and soaked a HaitiaM. Cultural Arts Center as well as a in water to procure a black liquid that is used to Haitian market inspired by the iron market in flavor rice and other dishes. Tri tri, tiny dried Port au Prince, the capital of Haiti, have been shrimp, are also used to flavor rice dishes, and established. raw cashews are used as a luxurious embellish­ The largest population of Haitians in the ment to many foods. United States is in New York City, particularly Long grain rice is the most popular grain in Brooklyn where there is a concentration of and accompanies most meals, with a prefer-

2 5 6 Ethnic American Food Today

I I ence for jasmine rice and occasional use of cally know as taso. Fritay also includes fried basmati rice in the United States. Cornmeal chicken and fried root vegetables and fritters. porridge, called mayi moulen, bulgur wheat, All fritay is typically accompanied by a fiery and millet are also popular and provide va­ slaw called pikliz made of shredded cabbage, riety. Rice, in particular, is typically either carrots, and other vegetables preserved in vin­ cooked with seasoned red or black beans in egar and seasoned with scotch bonnet chiles. a dish called diri kale or served with pureed Stewed dishes, which are typically called nan beans known as sos pwa. Grains are often sos (in sauce), are cooked in a tomato-based supplemented with other starches such as sauce seasoned with many of the spices used in plantains, malanga, white yams, potatoes, and the epis. A particularly significant stew is called ·breadfruit. Popular vegetables include egg­ legim and consists of a medley of vegetables plant, watercress, cabbage, spinach, okra, cha- that include most, if not all, of those mentioned yote squash, carrots, peas, beets, celery, and above with any meat that is available. bell peppers. Most Haitian meals include at Breakfast is an important meal for many least one animal protein, such as pork, beef, Haitians and is very hearty. Cornmeal porridge chicken, hen, goat, turkey, guinea hen, fish, and a plantain porridge made with evaporated blue crab, conch, salted cod, smoked herring, milk called labouyi bannann are popular. Salted canned sardines, or spiny lobster. Oxtails are a cod or beef liver in a spicy tomato sauce are delicacy, as are beef trotters, which are used in also common breakfast dishes, as well as a a dish called ragou. dish of spaghetti with chopped hot dogs that Haitians have a particular multistep method came about during the US occupation of Haiti of preparing meat to season, tenderize, and and remains a beloved breakfast staple. Creole preserve it. It begins with washing the meat bread, which is denser and softer than a French everal times to remove excess blood, scrub­ baguette, is also popular with breakfast along bing it with salt and citrus juice, and then with sweetened coffee and milk. Puff pastries scalding it with boiling water. It is then rubbed stuffed with spiced beef, chicken, salted cod, or with a wet spice mixture called epis, which typ­ smoked herring are very common snack foods ically contains parsley, scallions, citrus juice, and are known as pate. garlic, cloves, thyme, salt, and scotch bonnet chiles. Traditionally, epis is made in a large, Haitian Spaghetti and Hot Dogs ooden mortar and pestle, but most cooks in This is an adaptation of a typical Haitian break­ e United States use a blender. The majority fast dish. You can omit the hot dogs or replace of the cooking in both the private and public them with smoked herring or shrimp. pheres is done by women, and each has her own particular method of preparing meat, as Ingredients: Well as her own recipe for epis. After the meat 1 teaspoon fresh minced garlic is prepared, it is left to marinade and can ei­ Vz cup finely diced onion ther become part of a stew or braised and then 4 whole cloves, crushed eep fried in what is collectively classified as 1 small bay leaf ritay. Most cooking is typically done in cast Vz teaspoon fresh thyme luminum pots called chodye. 1 tablespoon tomato paste The most popular fritay, called griyo, is 1 tablespoon ketchup ade of pork and is considered by many to 2 teaspoons hot sauce e the national dish of Haiti. Fritay of other 2 tablespoons vegetable oil eats such as goat, beef, or turkey is typi- 4 hot dogs, sliced

Ethnic American Food Today 2 5 7 Yz pound spaghetti (around half a package) made with corn flour and milk and seasoned 1 cup pasta water with spices and vanilla, is a favorite at breakfast optional: bouillon cube time. Haitians are particularly proud of their national rum, Barbancourt, and will drink it 1. Boil pasta in salted water and cook until straight or in mixed drinks. Kleren, a type of al dente; drain and set aside, reserving at moonshine that can be flavored with tropical least 1 cup of the pasta water. fruit, is popular especially during the pre-Lent 2. Add oil to a frying pan and set heat to carnival season. Prestige is the national lager medium. and features at parties and other events. 3. Add cloves and bay leaf and fry until fragrant. Festival Meals 4. Add sliced hot dogs and cook until they The majority of Haitians practice Christian­ turn crispy and begin to brown. ity, and many of the holidays observed revolve 5. Add onions, garlic, and thyme and fry around the Christian liturgical calendar. Christ­ until the garlic just starts to turn golden, mas is celebrated with diri djon djon, a rice being careful to constantly stir the ingre­ dish made with djon djon, cashews, tri tri, and dients so that they do not burn. lima beans or peas. Kremas, a thick rum punch 6. Now add tomato paste, ketchup, and hot made from condensed and coconut milks, is sauce along with Yz cup of pasta water a necessity at Christmas. A potato salad made and stir to create a sauce. with mayonnaise and chopped beats, as well a 7. Add salt and pepper to taste. You can macaroni gratin and stewed guinea hen, also also crumble in about a % teaspoon of feature at important occasions. New Year's bouillon cube or more to taste, if you Day, which is also Haitian Independence Day, prefer. is celebrated with soup joumou, a soup contain­ 8. Add the al dente pasta and stir until all ing beef, noodles, calabaza pumpkin, and other the pasta is coated in sauce. vegetables that was reportedly prohibited to 9. Simmer for a few minutes until the pasta the slaves. Many Haitian rites of passage, such absorbs most of the sauce. as birthdays, christenings, and weddings, typi­ cally feature Haitian-style yellow cake. Vodou Haitian confectionary is typically very sweet. (Voodoo) practitioners observe the feast days of Tablette, a ginger-laced brittle made with pea­ particular deities, or lwa, with lavish food offer­ nuts, cashews, or coconut, is found at most ings that vary across deities and are dictated by Haitian bakeries in the United States along with oral tradition. pate and creole bread. Desserts such as pen pa­ Because many of the fresh ingredients re­ tat, dous, and blan manje use tropical products quired in Haitian cuisine are also used in other such as yams and coconut. Yellow cake scented Caribbean cuisines, most Haitian communities with almond essence and covered in butter­ have easy access to their foodstuffs in larger cos­ cream is another popular dessert, as are tropical mopolitan cities. In places like South Florida, fruit ice creams. many Haitian immigrants also grow produce in Nonalcoholic drinks feature prominently their home gardens, including medicinal herbs. with Haitian meals. Lime, grapefruit, passion Djon djon is readily found in most groceries fruit, soursop, or other tropical juices are typi­ where there is a significant Haitian population cally mixed with water, a generous amount of and is regularly imported from Haiti, although sugar, and either vanilla or almond extract to some Haitians use djon djon-flavored bouillon make a refreshing drink. Akasan, a hot beverage cubes made by the German company, Maggi.

2 5 8 Ethnic American Food Today few adaptations have been made in the United as many of the neighborhoods that abut Hai­ tates to the cuisine, except perhaps the use of tian communities begin to gentrify and more ome processed foods to supplement fresh prod­ non-Haitian residents move in. Their curios­ cts, such as lemonade powder instead of fresh ity leads them to sample Haitian cuisine and emon juice. Additionally, Haitian cooks in the become fluent in Haitian culinary terminol­ nited States will add their own seasonings to ogy. Additionally, with the increased self-pride merican dishes to make them more palatable. in many Haitian communities, young Haitian American entrepreneurs are beginning to start lace in American Culture small food businesses doing upscale catering aiti has had an indirect influence on Ameri­ that combines Haitian flavors with American an cuisine for the past several hundred years. fine dining presentations or marketing their eychaud's bitters, for instance, which is a cock­ own line of seasonings such as epis to non­ il mainstay in New Orleans, was invented by Haitians. There recently have been food festi­ Creole from the colony of Saint-Domingue vals in cities such as North Miami, Florida, and ho resettled in Louisiana. It has also been ar­ Somerville, Massachusetts, that not only fea­ ed that the method for American barbecue, ture local Haitian restaurants but also promote s well as the word, derived from the Haitian Haitian agricultural exports such as fair trade reole boukanen, although this claim has not coffee. Furthermore, culinary travel show hosts et been authenticated. For much of the main­ such as Anthony Bourdain, Andrew Zimmern, ream American population, however, Haitian and Guy Pieri have showcased Haitian res­ uisine still remains relatively unknown, even taurants and even done entire shows in Haiti, cities with significant Haitian populations. bringing mainstream American attention to e previously mentioned health risks attrib­ Haitian cuisine. ted to Haitians have made many outsiders bivalent toward sampling the cuisine. Media Restaurants rtrayal of the poverty experienced in Haiti South Florida has a high concentration of Hai­ d the pathetic state of refugees arriving by tian restaurants. Perhaps the most famous and at, as well as the association with voodoo, accessible to non-Haitians is Tap Tap in Miami ve added to the popular imagination that Beach, which is owned by a white American itian food is unsafe to eat or not worth eat­ couple who became enamored with Haitian g. In the 1980s and 1990s, and persisting to a culture. It features toned-down renditions of ser extent today, there was even a rumor in Haitian classics in a colorful, touristic style res­ iami that Haitians ate stray cats. taurant that is often host to cultural presenta­ Because of the negative portrayal of Haitians tions and live music, and the restaurant also d their subsequent desire for invisibility, features tropical cocktails made with Barban­ any Haitian restaurants and food purveyors court rum. Other Haitian restaurants include ve refrained from overtly branding them­ Chez Le Bebe in Little Haiti, which was featured lves as Haitian, preferring to use words such on Andrew Zimmern's Bizarre Eats, as well as island, Caribbean, or tropical instead. Ad­ Chez Madame Johns Restaurant in North Mi­ tionally, many business names are given in ami. There is also the popular chain of restau­ ench or English to further deflect any nega­ rants specializing in seafood called Chef Creole. \re attention. Nevertheless, attitudes toward Popular bakeries include New Florida Bakery aitians and Haitian cuisine are changing in and Ca yard's Bakery. ties with significant enclaves. This can be es­ In New York, restaurants such as Yo Yo Frit­ cially seen in Miami-Dade County, Florida, aille in Brooklyn and Creole Bagelry are favor-

Ethnic American Food Today 2 5 9 ites, as well as Kombit Bar and Restaurant and two thousand miles away from any continental Le Soleil Restaurant, among many others. La landmass, the Hawaiian Islands are the most Caye Restaurant and Bar is unique as it offers geographically remote archipelago on earth. more elegant presentations of Haitian cuisine There are over one million people living in in a fine dining atmosphere and is a favorite Hawaii, with the majority in Honolulu. The among non-Haitians, serving as an introduc­ biggest island, Hawaii Island, also known as tion to the cuisine. Many of Boston's Haitian the Big Island, has a population of over 180,0oo restaurants are located in Mattapan, like the people. There are also large Hawaiian com­ popular bakery Au Beurre Chaud. Other res­ munities in California, Washington, Texas taurants are located in Somerville, such as Florida, and Nevada. In the 2010 US Census ' ' Highland Creole Cuisine and Sunrise Cuisine. about 1.2 million people identified themselves Camie's Bakery and Restaurant in Cambridge is as Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. one of the older Haitian restaurants in Boston Most of the residents of Hawaii are people from and provides the Haitian community with cre­ various ethnicities such as Japanese, Chinese, ole bread, pate, and tablette, as well as a concise Filipino, Portuguese, Korean, Samoan, Mar­ menu offritay and stews. shallese, and other groups.

Further Reading Foodways Jonah, Janty Louis. Haiti Cherie Cooking Recipes. Pre-Contact foods included traditional Hawai­ Bloomington, IN: Booktango, 2013. ian foods that are eaten raw or steamed such as Menager, Mona Cassion. Fine Haitian Cuisine. poi (from steamed taro corms that have been Pompano Beach: Educa Vision, 2005. smashed and diluted with water), 'ulu (bread­ Stepick, Alex. Pride against Prejudice: Haitians fruit), 'uala (sweet potato), limu (seaweed), kalo in the United States. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, (taro) leaves, hoio edible ferns, and meat includ­ 1998. ing seafood, chicken, and pork. Post-Contact, Yurnet-Thomas, Mirta. A Taste of Haiti. New when venereal diseases and other afflictions York: Hippocrene Books, 2003. resulted in the devastating loss of countless Native Hawaiians, agricultural production of Carlos C. Olaechea such staples as taro and sweet potatoes also de­ creased as there were fewer people left to till it. HAWAIIAN Whaling ships and early sailors introduced (USA, North America) Hawaiian Foodways salted fish, which resulted in the dish, lomi See also: Polynesia. lomi salmon (raw salmon marinated in toma­ toes, green onions, chili peppers, and salt). The Background arrival of the Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, The importance of food in the Hawaiian belief Puerto Ricans, and later Filipinos to work in system can be seen in the following proverb, I the formerly taro-producing plantations and ala no ke kino i ka mii'ona o ka 'opu (The body the rise of the sugar industry in the 1850s enjoys health when the stomach is well filled). led to the establishment of plantation camps, In 1959, the Hawaiian Archipelago consist­ where workers of all ethnicities lived and min­ ing of eight major islands (Ni'ihau, Kaua'i, gled with one another. Sugar continued until O'ahu, Moloka'i, Lana'i, Kaho'olawe, Mau'i, it was supplanted by rice, which was phased and the island of Hawai'i) and hundreds of out in the 1950s. Once again, some fields were little isles was officially designated as part of the converted back to growing taro as lo 'i. For United States of America. Located more than example, in the 1980s, taro was once again

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