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The Struggle in Defense of Baikal: the Shift of Values and Disposition of Forces IRSR INTERNATIONAL REVIEW of SOCIAL RESEARCH Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011, 33-51 International Review of Social Research The Struggle in Defense of Baikal: The Shift of Values and Disposition of Forces Oleg YANITSKY• Institute of Sociology, Russian Academy of Science Abstract: The paper is aimed at the analysis of evolution of values and disposition of forces involved in the long-term international conflict around the closure of the pulp and paper mill (P&PM) and the reconstruction of the company town of Baykalsk, both located near Lake Baikal, the biggest freshwater lake in the world. The conflict’s six phases are: construction and opening of the pulp and paper mill, P&PM (1967-84); the perestroika (1985-90); the collapse of the USSR (1991); the Russian financial crisis (1998); the struggle against the tracing of a transnational oil pipe-line near Baikal shore (2001-06); and the economic crisis (2008). In each phase, the activity of Russian environmentalists is considered under the following aspects: political opportunity structure, main actors, constituency, key values, forms of activity, kind of mobilization and resources for it, and the outcome of the struggle. The paper is focused on the evolution of the relationship between the state and the environmental movement. Keywords: disposition of forces, environmental movement (EM), mobilization, phases of conflict, political opportunity structure (POS), state, values, Russia. The Case occupies about 557,000 square km and contains about 23,000 cubickm What is the lake Baikal? It covers of water, which is about one fifth of 31,500 square km and is 636 km the world’s reserves of fresh surface- long, an average of 48 km wide, 79,4 water and over 80 percent of the fresh km at its widest point. Its water basin water in the former Soviet Union. It •e-mail: [email protected]. Professor Oleg Yanitsky is a chief researcher at the Institute of Sociology, Russian Academy of Sciences. His main areas of research are civil society, social movements, research on risk and disasters. His main publications are Russian Environmentalism. The Yanitsky Reader’(Moscow: Taus, 2010) and the articles, e.g. ‘The Shift of Environmental Debates in Russia’ (Current Sociology, 2009, 56, no. 6); ‘Sustainability and Risk. The Case of Russia’ (Innovation, 2000, 13, no. 3); ‘Environmental Movement in a Hostile Context’ (International Sociology, 1999, 14, No. 2). © University of Bucharest, October 2011 34 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011 is the biggest freshwater lake in the groups, stressing the shift from a nature world, included in the UNESCO’s protection activity to the struggle for World heritage list. The P&PM and human rights and freedoms. the company town Baykalsk were built at the Baikal shore and put into operation in 1967. It is the case of Theoretical Background the most long-lasting fight on the part of Soviet, Russian and international The conceptual resources of this environmentalists against a project of article are determined by the topic Communist industrial policy and its under discussion, namely, by the core, the military-industrial complex. long-term conflict between the This project and its implementation Russian state and environmentalists. provoked a lot of tough public debates Thus, it draws upon a number of initiated by Siberian scientists, theoretical instruments related to the scholars and writers. Some Russian analysis of relationships between authors stated that the environmental governments and social movements. movementin Siberia and the Far East These include, firstly, the concept of was launched by this conflict. political opportunity structure, POS ddThis paper analyses the shift in (Tarrow, 1988, 2005) adapted to the disposition of forces involved in the Russian conditions. Strictly speaking, long-term social and political conflict a political opportunity structure in around the construction, functioning the western sense of the term doesn’t and around projects of rehabilitation of exist in Russia, where property and the nearby area, including the company power are largely merged. Russian town of Baykalsk. This shift is traced political theorists prefer to speak of through six main phases of the above ‘system and anti-system forces’ or conflict, namely: the construction and ‘corporate state’ vs. ‘civic society’ opening, the perestroika times, the (Pivovarov, 2006; Inozemtsev, 2010). collapse of the USSR in 1991, the That is why I interpret this structure Russian financial crisis (default in 1998), as a line-up of pro- and contra- the struggle of local and international ecological forces accompanied by greens against the transnational oil by-standers and onlookers of various pipe-line nearby the Baikal, and the kinds. In stable democratic regimes struggle for the closure and against the it is methodologically justified to reopening of the P&PM in 2008. For differentiate between subjects (actors) each phase, the paper describes such and contexts. But in such critical aspects of Russian environmentalists’ and turbulent times as Russia’s campaigning as actors, their values and transformation period, the ‘subjects’ constituency, the political opportunity and ‘factors of change’, i.e. economic structure in situ and at large, kinds of and other contexts, dialectically melt mobilization involved and their mottos, one into another. For example, in the and the current results of the struggle. Soviet times, a political opportunity The article sheds light on a changing structure had been rather stable. But line-up of forces in the relationship during the democratic upsurge of between the state and various civic late 1980s, the actual political and OLEG YANITSKY The Struggle in Defense of Baikal | 35 social contexts were reshaped by the 1996; Jamison, 1996; Irwin, 2001). mushrooming social movements which, Finally, the study is further following taken together, formed a substantial a social-historical and comparative sector of the political opportunity approach to the study of movements in structure. By contrast, in mid 2000s, general and of Russian environmental the Russian state created a number movement in particular (Weiner, 1988, of ‘mass social movements’, that is, 1999; Rootes, 1999; Tilly, 2004; Lane, in fact, GONGOs, which seriously 2010). affected the political opportunity structure for Russian environmental and other movements that were labeled Methodology ‘out-of-system movements’ by the authorities. Therefore, it appears This paper is the result of a systemati- reasonable to regard the line-up of cally organized case-study research. forces in transitional periods as a From 1987 to 2009, seven sets of the component of the respective political in-depth semi-structured interviews opportunity structure (POS). with environmental activists and ddSecondly, I consider Soviet/Russian their allies and adversaries including environmental movement as a new regional and local administrators, social and semi-professional movement businessmen, scholars and scientists evolving from purely conservationist (about 150 interviews in total) were (i.e. nature protection) to human rights conducted within the framework of and social justice movement (Weiner, three international and four national 1988, 1999; Conway, Keniston and research projects1. Actually, the paper Marx, 1999; McCarthy and King, is the result of a half-a-century-long 2005). Thirdly, my reflection bears case-study aimed at the revealing the upon the resource mobilization theory key actors involved in the conflict and its recent versions (McCarthy and resources they commanded in the and King, 2005), though, following struggle around the construction and M. Diani and his collaborators (Diani operation of the P&PM. A chronicle and McAdam, 2003; Della Porta of the conflict has been built which and Diani, 2006). I am inclined to allowed to trace the changes in a regard this process as a network- disposition of pro- and contra-forces. based one rather than as the product The programs and manifestos of of a certain ‘resource industry’ (Zald various environmental leaders as well and McCarthy, 1987). Fourthly, since as the archives of key groups involved Russian environmental movement is in the conflict were also analyzed (the semi-professional, that is, following characteristic of these groups is given in their programs and action repertoire in the next section). The outcomes of the recommendations of social and each particular mobilization phase natural scientists, it seemed reasonable have been checked by content analysis to use in this study the principles of the of the Russian Green press2 and sociology of social knowledge and in internet resources related to the Baikal particular its principles of dialogue and case3. ‘following the actor’ (Irwin and Wynne, 36 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 3, October 2011 Forces and their Values: A Historical university instructors. But very soon View it became more or less independent from the patronage of both academics The struggle between pro- and contra- and the Young Communist League environmental forces is deeply rooted in (Komsomol). By the late 1980s, the Soviet ideology and culture. D.Weiner following value-oriented groups distinguished three main value- of the movement had taken shape: oriented forces: pastoralist, ecological, conservationists, alternativists, tra- and utilitarian. Pastoralists, who where ditionalists (enlighteners), civil mainly represented by natural scientists, initiatives (grassroots), ecopoliticians, emphasized that nature was valuable in ecopatriots, and
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