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SALT MARSH ARCHITECTURE Catalogue, technology and typological development of early medieval turf buildings in the northern coastal area of the Netherlands. D. Postma Master thesis University of Groningen 2010 For Spruit WORD OF THANKS This Master thesis concludes my education in the archaeology of Northwest Europe at the University of Groningen (NLD). Many people have been of great support to me over the years, but I would like to thank the following people in particular. First and foremost my dear wife, Brigitte Postma, and cats, Mabel and Puck. Furthermore Johan Nicolay, for his enthusiasm and guidance, and my family, in particular Hans & Joyce Postma, Leonie & Clare Miller, Piet & José Saan, my fellow students, in particular Richard Fens, Michèl de Jong, Marloes Bergmans and Meinte van Egmond. I would also like to thank Erwin Bolhuis, Julie Bond and the Viking Unst team, Jurjen Bos, Dries Bosma, Alan Braby, Frank Dalmeijer, Jean-Marc Delpierre, Jennica Einebrandt-Svensson, Frans Geubel, Henny Groenendijk, Magnus Hellqvist, André van Holk, Robert Hughson, Egge Knol, Piet Kooi, Robert Kosters, Gilles de Langen, Jan Lanting, David Leask, Annet Nieuwhof, Guðmundur Ólafsson, Alice Overmeer, Wietske Prummel, Daan Raemaekers, Reinder Reinders, Anna Lísa Rúnarsdóttir, Jan and Duncan Sandison, Sigríður Sigurðardóttir, Eymundur Sigurðsson, Helgi Sigurðsson, Andrew Magnie Thomson, Sander Tiebackx, Luuk Tol, Sierd Jan Tuinstra, the people of Unst (Shetland), Haije Veenstra, Lutz Volmer, Jan Vonk, Yardeni Vorst, Bruce Walker, Brian Wilkinson and Bryndís Zoëga. “There must have been reasons, therefore, beyond ignorance, to uphold such a persistent tradition of turf building.” R. Ross Noble, 1984. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION & 2.8.1.1 Introduction to the site ...........................50 BACKGROUND INFORMATION .............................11 2.8.1.2 Roman Iron Age buildings 9 and 10 .....51 1.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................11 2.8.1.3 Roman Iron Age building 11 .................52 1.1.1 Prelude...................................................................11 2.8.1.4 Early medieval building 7 ......................52 1.1.2 Surprising research potential ...............................11 2.8.2 Den Helder ............................................................52 1.2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION........................................12 2.8.2.1 Introduction to the site ...........................52 1.2.1 Setup and contents................................................12 2.8.2.2 Building 1................................................53 1.2.2 Physical geography and terp concept ..................13 2.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON DATASET...........................54 1.3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ...........................................14 2.9.1 Representativeness................................................54 1.3.1 Research area ........................................................14 2.9.2 Visibility and reliability .......................................54 1.3.2 Analogies ..............................................................16 1.3.2.1 The Netherlands (outside research area) ...........................17 3 THE TECHNOLOGY OF A 1.3.2.2 Iceland.....................................................18 COASTAL BUILDING TRADITION........................57 1.3.2.3 Scotland...................................................20 3.1 TURF WALLS ...................................................................58 1.3.2.4 Other countries .......................................23 3.1.1 Confusing terminology (turf vs. sod) ..................58 3.1.2 Sources and properties .........................................59 3.1.2.1 Sources and properties ...........................59 2 CATALOGUE OF TURF BUILDINGS......................25 3.1.2.2 Test wall (incl. permeability and load 2.1 EZINGE ............................................................................26 bearing capacity).....................................62 2.1.1 Introduction to the site .........................................26 3.1.3 Wall construction..................................................64 2.1.2 Building 70............................................................27 3.1.3.1 Wall dimensions .....................................64 2.1.3 Building 71............................................................27 3.1.3.2 Interior partitions....................................66 2.1.4 Building 72............................................................28 3.1.3.3 Wall faces................................................67 2.2 FOUDGUM .......................................................................28 3.1.3.4 Technical details.....................................68 2.2.1 Introduction to the site .........................................28 3.1.3.5 Maintenance (incl. life span and 2.2.2 Main building........................................................29 recycling) ................................................69 2.2.3 Long narrow outbuilding .....................................30 3.1.4 Living conditions..................................................74 2.3 HALLUM..........................................................................30 3.2 PRIMARY TIMBER STRUCTURE.......................................75 2.3.1 Introduction to the site .........................................30 3.2.1 Timber ...................................................................75 2.3.2 Building 1..............................................................31 3.2.1.1 Species.....................................................75 2.3.3 Building 3..............................................................31 3.2.1.2 Secondary use (incl. ship’s timber) .......75 2.3.4 Buildings 4 and 5..................................................32 3.2.1.3 Shapes and sizes .....................................77 2.3.5 Building 6..............................................................32 3.2.2 Post arrangements and superstructures ...............78 2.3.6 Building 7..............................................................32 3.2.2.1 Footings (incl. pad stones) .....................78 2.3.7 Building 11............................................................33 3.2.2.2 Post arrangements...................................79 2.3.8 Building 13............................................................34 3.2.2.3 Lofts.........................................................80 2.3.9 Building 17............................................................34 3.2.2.4 Tied vertical posts or Celtic cuppills? ...80 2.4 HEVESKESKLOOSTER .....................................................34 3.2.2.5 Roof structures (incl. overhanging 2.4.1 Introduction to the site .........................................34 eaves).......................................................87 2.4.2 Period I-phase 1 ....................................................35 3.3 SECONDARY TIMBER STRUCTURES................................90 2.4.3 Period I-phase 3 ....................................................35 3.3.1 Timber ...................................................................90 2.4.4 Period II-building 1 ..............................................36 3.3.2 Post arrangements.................................................90 2.4.5 Period II-building 2 ..............................................36 3.3.2.1 Wall facings (incl. wall height) .............90 2.4.6 Period II-building 3 ..............................................37 3.3.2.2 Interior partitions....................................92 2.5 LEENS..............................................................................37 3.3.2.3 Cattle boxes.............................................92 2.5.1 Introduction to the site .........................................37 3.3.2.4 Entrances.................................................92 2.5.2 Location 1 .............................................................37 3.4 REMAINING FEATURES ...................................................92 2.5.3 Location 2 .............................................................41 3.4.1 Floors.....................................................................92 2.5.4 Building 3c............................................................41 3.4.2 Fire places .............................................................94 2.5.5 Location 4 .............................................................41 3.4.3 Byres (incl. asymmetrical layout)........................95 2.5.6 Building 5..............................................................42 3.4.4 Gables....................................................................96 2.5.7 Building 6..............................................................43 3.4.5 Thatch (incl. materials, pitch and life span)........99 2.5.8 Location 7 .............................................................43 3.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ......................................106 2.6 LEEUWARDEN.................................................................44 3.5.1 Turf walls ............................................................106 2.6.1 Introduction to the site .........................................44 3.5.2 Primary timber structure ....................................107 2.6.2 Building 7..............................................................45 3.5.3 Secondary timber structures...............................109 2.6.3 Building 41............................................................46 3.5.4 Remaining features.............................................109