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l45
Vegetarianism among Quakers through History
Tomoko YAMAGUCHI
I) Introduction
Thesc days many people are becoming concerned their health, and are getting
interested in playing sports or reyiewing their life style, especially their way of eating.
Because it involves one of our most basic bodily needs, eating could be said to be one of the
most important and fundamentai matters in our daily life. One of the ways achieving a
health life style, living only on vegetables, Vegetarianism, has been practiced for many
years and continues today. Of course this practice contains several concerns such as health,
peace, preservation of animals, religious matters, and so forth. Vegetarianism was also
practiced by some Quakers in earlier days. Now they have a special pamphlet, the Friendly
Vegetarian. It seems that interest in Vegetarianisrn has come to be more popular than
bcfore among Quakers, I am interested in what QuakeTs think about their dieting life style,
as a whole, religiously as well as spiritually. Their ways of thinking on their dieting life
style is related to the idea of an ecological environment.
In this paper, I am going to discuss how Quakers have advocated the natural way ef
eating, and its connection with the histerical movement of vegetarianism. In addition, I
invcstigated how Quakers, considering their health, have tried to continue eating well.
II) The Historical Background of Quakers
The rnovement of Quakerism started in 1652, yet the ideas were first preached by George Fox in 1647. His main philosophical ideas are described in one of the Quakers'
"His cookbooks, Quaker Ftavors, A Cookbooh published by Williston Friends Meeting:
`that `Light' `Christ centrar thought was of God', a oT within' every man; that the Divine
Being epcrates directly upon the human life and the spiritual life begins when the individual
becomes aware and sets himself to obey Him." In Quakerism, this concept is oftefi
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t46 Tomoko YAMAGUCHI
"faith" "truth". described as and To practice their faith or worship, they primaTily focused
on their meetings, Their faith has been practiced in many ways for over 300 years. For
cxample, John Weelman, a tailor in New Jersey, made an attempt to free his slaves before
thc Civil War brokc out; Samuel Tuke founded the first lunatic asylum in York, showing a
real concern for the mentally ill and Elizabeth Fry is known as a pioneer of renovating
prisons in the beginning of 1800s.
As is discussed in Friend for 300 1'ears by Howard H. Brinton, Quakerism has been
"a unique because it is group mysticism," compaTed to othcr religiens. According to
"Light Brinton, these practices are based on the within" linked with four concerns;
community, equality, sirnplicity, and harmony, Focusing on these concerns, Quakcrs pursuc
their faith and truth in practice. Brinton explains the meaning of group mysticism as
"Light follows: from God streams down into the waiting group. This Light, if the way is
opcn for it, produces these results: unity, knowledge and power, ... Because of the
characteristics ef the Light of Christ, the resulting behavior can be described in a general
way by the four words, Community, Harmony, Equality and Simplicity, , . . These four
types of behavior which are closely inlerrelated, being first generatcd in the intimate circle,
became applied mere widely as its mernbers go out beyend its limits to the larger world"
III) Vegetarianism Among Quakers in Ear]y Stage
"cTeed" When I sludied the eating habits of Quakers, I found no for restrictions on
eating, Nothing has been mentioned about vegetaTianisrn in thc Quakers' daily life, nor in
their religious practice. D. Elton Trueblood discusscs two facts from this point of view:
"Quakerism, having ne set creed, is paTticularly free to learn from any new thought as it
emerges; and Quakerism rooted in certain basic cxperiences is able, at the same time, to
resist the p, ressure of contemporary inte]lectual fashiQns," She points out that the Quakers'
way of life is fairly flexible and might be improved if necessary. One possib]e explanation
is that some Quakers adopted vegetarianisrn into their daily life, although they did not show
"creed" signs of any in their testimony. Furthermore, ideas about vegetarianism have
changed as time passes,
Quakers did not start to practice vegetarianism in terms of its religious aspects. It
weuld be necessary to go back to the very beginning ef Christianity and to examine whether
or not the Bible says something about vegetarianism or restrictien on eating. Here again we
can not find any statcments prohibiting the eating of fresh meat in the Bible, The centcr
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Vegetarianism among Quakers through History 147
"Truth" piece of the Christian Bible, the Gospels, shows ideas about morality or through the
"Are behavior or examples of Jesus. Dorothy T. Samuel examines this matter in her article,
"In Vegetarians Following Jesus?," in the Friendly iiegetarian. She says: the Gospels, we
find no specific words condemning the killing, eating or abuse of anirnals,"
There have been many argurnents about whether Jesus ate fish or not, and the
statemcnts of Jesus seeking his followers net from among butchers but from among
fishermen, However, whether Jesus ate fish or not, nor preferred fishermen to butchers is
not the point, As I mentioned befere, Jesus did not show any specific testimonies of what
we should do and what we should not do on this topic, yet gave examples of his phi}osophy
through his behavior. So it could be said that vegetarianism arose from a point of yiew in
which all the creatures must be treated equally and be regarded with respect. Samuel also
"I says; think there is a harmony between Jesus' reverence for all that God has created and
the practice of vegetarianism." The vegetarians' ways of thinking seem to refer to their own
understanding of Christianity.
As we see that no testimony could be found fer restriction of eating fresh meat, the
vegetarian movement among Quakers started quite differently frorn the modern movement,
In early times the Quakers' approach toward vegetarianism was related to feelings of
consideration for animals, Many people discussed this matteT as early as the
mid-seventeenth century, Hunting and hawking werc the first targets to be judged. These
activities were condemned as too violent and against the spirit of the Quakers. Their leader,
" GcoTge Fox, also rcjccted hunting and hawking by saying; . . . being not only accountable
for our substances, but also for our time, ]et our IeisuTe be employed in seTving ouT neighbor
and not in distressing the creatures of 6od for our amusement." His idea is based on a deep
feeling ef consideration towards animals and he advocates that we should not abuse sacred
God's creatures for the sake of human interest or convenience.
"Quaker In her paper and Vegetarianism," Janet Stokes quotes another example from
"I John Woolman. According to heT staternent, VVoolman says as fellows; believe where the
]ove of God is yerily perfected and the true spirit of goveTnment watchfully attached to, a
tenderness toward all crcatuTes made subject to us will be experienced and a care felt in us
that wc do not lesson that sweetness of life in the animal creation which the great Creator
intends for thcm under our government." As another example, Howard Brinton describes
"The this philosophy clcar]y by saying: Inward Light is primary and history shows that the
Quaker type of religion is especially adapted to create sensitivity to all suffering ... A
tender is open to sympathetic awareness of suffering whether of man or beast." These
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148 Tomoko YAMAGUCHI
notions show tenderness towards animals, yet they take a yery vague position in terms of
It is interesting to note that Woolman and other Quakers who seemed to support
protection of animals did not recommend temperance in consumption of meat. Some allow
killing animals for eating if it is necessary, others even say that human beings are qualified
to and, furthermore, need to kill animals for food in order to survive. Brinton describes thc
" notions of early Quakers as follows; . . , on the whole Friends have be]ieved that it is
legitimate to kill animals for food if it is done as humanely as possible." As is clearly
shown, the approach toward vegetarianism in early times was based on benevolence or
sympathy towards animals, which was derived from testimonics of non-violence, rather than
from notions of re]igious, health, or nutrition. Because of the lack of knowledge of
nutritional science, vegetarianism was attacked, Sorne stated that the vegetarian diet could
not maintain good health, since a diet only of vegetab]cs did not contain enough nutrition.
Thus, although the vegetarian movement was rootcd in the early Quakers, their
approach was not very widespread and it was not actively introduced for practice. Their
approach was rather tentative and not comrnoniy adopted among Quakers, In sum, it was
non-violence that led some people think of the vegetarian diet as connected with their
benevolence and sympathy toward animals in the early days,
IV) Vegetarianism from the Point of View of Health Consciousness
In the nineteenth century, people were getting intercsted in their diet as a means of
taking care of their health. The relationship between Christianity and diet is narrated by
's William W, Weayer, in the introduction to ri Quaker Woman Cookbook: 7:he Domestic
Cookety ofEtizabeth Etlicott Lea. He clarifies the Quakers' conceTn for their dietary life as
"During follows: the 1840s, Fricnds were only beginning to discover the science of diet as
an extension of their larger religious concerns. Homeopathy, vegetarianism, Grahamite
cookery, and other ratienalistic systems wcrc gaining the attention of the more radical
Hicksitc wing of the Society," In this period, the Friends' PVeekly lntelligence played an
important role for the Hicksitc Quaker community and it carried much information for
heusekeeping dieting and related things, including a review of cookbooks, advertisement of
dining services, and some home recipes. This phenomena shows that thc intcrcst in the diet had grown amQng Quakers. Weaver explains the popularity of concern for food in terms ef
"food faddism,"
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Vegetarianism among Quakers threugh History 149
"foed "food The American diet was criticized as faddism." One of the faddists" was
Mary Mann, who was the author of Physiological Cookery Book. She interprets dieting
"gospel "It through her rnain idea of of the body," and discusses American diet as follow: is
a good omen that practical physiologists even now, begin to feel ashamed of ill health."
Her approacb to dieting seems biblically moral as well as Teasonable, so that Quakers
supported her ideas and became rnore and rnore interested in food.
Looking through QuakeT cookboeks, I found that the recipes introduced as Quakers
cookery do not show any segments on vegetarianism. Many dishes which contain the name
"Quaker" "Quaker are not necessarily peculiar to QuakeTs; in Central Pennsylvania, grayy"
is just dried beef grayy, in Central Pennsylvania. We never miss the section ef meat and - - sometimes that section is dividcd into smaller parts beef, pork, and poultry in their
cookbooks. In additiom those recipes de not always follow simplicity, either. Janet Stokes
"Elizabeth indicates this point, referring to Elizabeth Ellicott Lea's book as an examp]e;
Ellicott Lea's recipes, however, are far from vegetarian, and implicit reference here to
`natura] - sirnplicity is merely a hint that food should be, as noted, and good' without
drawing the inference to vegetarian diet as exemplifying these principles." Here it may be
said that food laddism in this period caused the growth of concern for vegetarianism, which
is merely a paTt of the whole faddists phenomena.
Thomas Tryon is another example of vegetarians in this period. He was a member of
the society of Friends and is known to have led an ascetic tife style. He published many
books on healthy dieting and silent meditation, for examplc, A 71reatise on Cleanness in
Meats and Drinks, of the Preparation of Food . , . and lllie Benefits of Clean Sweet Beds;
a]so of the Generation of Bugs and 71heir Cure . , , to which is added a short discourse of
Pain in the Truth, or 71Fie Good House rvijle made a Doctor,' or Uealth's Choice and Sure
Friends, and his wel] known work, the WZiy to Heatth, Long LijL] and Happiness, or
Discourse of Temperance. As the titles of his werks show, his concerns are focused on heaith of body as well as mind, He himself had a very poor education in the beginning, yet
later on, when he was engaged as an apprentice caster-maker, he became an Anabaptist,
following his master. Through devoted Teligious practices, and the study of Behmen, he
broke with the Anabaptists. He especially led a very ascetic life after awakening, He
" describes his life as follows; I betook myself to water only fer drink, and forbore eating
any kind Qf flesh or fish, cenfining myself to an abstemious self-denying life, My drink was
only water, and food only bread and sorne fruit. But afterwards I had more liberty given
me by my guide, Wisdom, viz. to eat butter and cheese." He reformed this life style and
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kept to it until his death.
"world "cleanness," "innocence He based his discipline on temperance," and of living."
"bitter, He divided things into four categeries; sweet, sour, and astringent or saltish," and
the quality of humors into four as well; choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine, and melancholy.
Then he discusses the character of each humor or characteristic, and recommends what kind
of diet is suitable to maintain the good health of each, In addition, he warns what kind of
diseases each quality is subject to, including emotional i}lness, and suggests how these
diseascs could be avoided by diet. Hc also recornrnendcd a vegetarian diet, abstaining from
tobacco and drinking brewed alcohol impropcrly. He believes that the spirit was an element
of thc body and physical qualitics huve some infiuenccs on the spirit, so that all of these
three elements affect each other. From this point of view, Tryon recommends that we kecp
our health by the proper dietary life as well as the proper way of thinking,
Thus there were two chicf Quaker attitudes toward dieting in thc ninctccnth century;
one was pTcscntcd in thc Qllakcr coekbooks, and the othcr was Thomas Tryon's, The
former focused on the moral and it refers to religious philosophy. This Quaker movement
also includcs hints on housckecping and miscellancous remarks for housewives. On the
othcr hand, Tryon's approach focused on individual hcalth, examining the relationship
between the body, humors and spirits rather than concerns about dogma. He recornmended
a diet only of vegetables and actually practiced it himself; however, he was not eagcr to
prohibit killing animals for food in terms of simplicity or non-violence. He tried to pursue
his practice in the scientific way, concerning all the elements of the body.
V) Vegetarianism in the Twentieth Century
Following thesc rnovcmcnts, there erncrged the more active approach to vegetarianism
in the twentieth century. Interest in healthy food also became one of the most pepular
concerns among Quakers as well as the general public. In teTms of vegetarianism, killing
animals, especially slaughtering them, is attacked as inhumane. From the testimonies, the
recent Quaker movement links their dieting life to peace and simplicity, There have been
many arguments and criticism among Quakers, and the matter has bcen discussed over and
over in their pamphlets and journals such as 17ie Friendly Vegetarian or Friends JournaL Emphasis has been placed especially on the slaughLer of animals for eating. George S.
"Every Arundale says: one of us is responsiblc for the miscry of the poor and helplessness
of the weak, for the helplessness of the average animal. The animal that can be kill¢ d for
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Vegetarianism among Quakers through Hislory t5i
food. He can be mutilated in the vivisection chapter for our benefit." His approach is more
than benevolence for animals. He even condemns killing animals in laboratories for the use
of medical experiments for our health, He concludes by regarding animals as the brothers
of hurnan being. His notion is moralistic rather than religious or a testimony.
Another argument was linked to the movement of vegetarianism. Scott and Helen
Nearing recommend vegetarianism from the points of view of rnoral and health cencerns,
"We They present their views as follows: regard vegetarianism as an essential part of the good life, in its ethical and humanitarian as well as health aspects. . . We cannot conceive of
kindly, considerate, aware people consuming carcasse$ of perceptive, defenseless animals
who were raised in captivity for slaughter." They strongly criticize slaughter in terms of
"It social, econemical and agricultural concerns. They emphasize the agricultural facts: is
we]1 known that breeding and feeding animal$ for slaughter uses more land than raising
vegetable crops which can be eaten directly, without passing through animals' bodies. For
kindness, common sense, cconomy, simplicity, aesthetics, and health reason, we eat nothing
that walks or wiggles." Their descriptien is based not only on moral or beneyolent reasons
but also on practical and factual reasons.
Owing to the efforts to protect animals and considerations of good dieting, 71he Friends Vlegetarian Society of North America (FVSNA) was established by some Friends in 1982,
This foundation resulted from the great efforts of Robert Heckert. At the beginning, his
efforts were net realized: he deplored that so little attention got paid to the meaning of
vegetarianism among Quakers in spite of his approach. He wrote in 7;he Friendly
"How Vegetarian as follows; many Friends in the US and Canada know that since 1902
there has existed in England a flourishing Friends Vegetarian Society Functioning within
Londan Yearly Meeting? , . . Terence Lane, the secretary, tried his best to encourage me to
move toward the formation of a similar society in this country. I did consciously take some
steps in that direction, but I was unable to find any Friends who were willing and able to
devote time to such an endeayor." He was a]so very disappointed when his concern about
slaughter was read at the Philadclphia Yearly Meeting in 1978, and nobody showed interest
in his concern or put it into practice. Heckert's principle is somewhat sirnilar to that of Scott and Helen Nearing. Heckert
first iefers to biblical reasons from Genesis, then to the body's digestive, anatomical,
nutritional and hygienic systems, exemplifying some diseases caused from the eating of
"How fresh meat and parasites, As foT nutrition, he quotes the article, Health is a
"in Vegetarian Diet?'" by Jane BTody, from Reader's Digest, where it says that recent years,
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152 Tomoko YAMAGUCHI
the meatless way of life has surged in popularity, largely because increasing evidence
indicates that a sensible vegetarian diet is better for you, than the typical meat-heavy
American one," The argument goes into further detail, explicating how vegetarian diet is
effective for the human body and what would be result from follewing a vcgetarian diet.
She takes the examples of diseases, health condition, and even the bone structure of human beings,
"providing FVSNA was founded by announcing several covenants such as an
informative news letter, supplying vegetarian recipes to the food services at Quaker
gatherings, forming support groups for vegetarians at Quaker gatherings" and so forth, It
could bc said that this foundation had played a big role in influencing the Quakers' way of
eating, FUSNA has received many letters from readers, who stated the Quaker faith and
non-yiolent testimonies, cennecting with yegetarianism. For exarnple, one testimonial letter
"The ernphasized faith and simplicity as fo}lows: unnatural meat-centered American diet is
not only demonstrably harmful to the meat eaters' health, but is wasteful of resources and
"an ecologicajly destructive." Another writer regards vegetarianism as intelligent way of
"Friends living': and thinks that should be at the forefront of a vegetarianism movcment."
As is shown in these examples, the Quakers' approach to vegetarianism has come to be a
chief concern these days.
Because of the improvement of mass media and propaganda, people are easily
influcnced by one idea or another. In a way, people are under the control of mass media,
Broadcasting and publications help people to reconsider their health and the way they eat.
Euell Gibbons is a well-known recent naturalist. He recommends natural food, and
especially after he discovered he had diabetes, he started to think seriously about health
menus, calculating all the ca]ories and controlling the amount of insulin in his body, He
"planning affirms the dieting life by saying that a gourmet meal with no rules or iimitations
would be like playing tennis without a net." He emphasizes how important it is to
reconsideT our daily lives, which we usually disregard or take for granted. His theory is
deeply based on the scientific point of view. Everything is expiained clearly by natural
laws, the environmenta) or ecological order, and so forth. He describes nature as follows:
"Mother Nature can truly be a mother will we learn net to hate, fear, and fight her but to
"Even love, cherish, and protect her"; at the worst, the hazards of nature are not nearly as
dangerous as those of this overciyilized world."
Gibbon's appToach is related to tbe love of nature and to ideas of simplicity and truth.
Dcscrjbing and applauding the diabctic regimen of his expeTiences, he refers te the digestive
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Vegetarianism among Quakers through History IS3
and hormone systems, and the inteTrelation and the balance between them. So we can
understand what is happening in our bodies and how important it is for us te control our
dieting lives.
There is another main purpose that Gibbons introduces: the way to eat wild plants. He
says that rnany people havea prejudice against wild plants for careless reasons, such as the
possibility of their having poison. Actually many people do hesitate to eat wild plants
because they worry about hygiene and poison. He condemns the corruption of the
American contemporary diet, and, furtheTmore, describes the ecological order and the
"ecology" "Science biological chain of all the lives. He defines as follows: eco]ogy means
the study of relationship between life forms, It also means togetherness in nature," He
points out that we can not suryiye if we are aware only of the world we can irnmediately see
but says that we must also recognize our dozens of relationships with others, whom we do
not usually encounter,
In the recent Friendly Vegetarian there are articles, in which vegetarianism is narrated
in the relation to religious belief as well as to environrnental concerns. This view is close
to what Gibbons advocates. Kathleen Geist and Amy Weber are rnembers of the
Environmental Working Group of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. They emphasize the
simplicity of Quaker beliefs as well as environrnental issues. They titled their conyention,
"Living "it an Environmentally Sound Life Style," and say that (Simplicity) was a
testimony against supeTficial adornments and self-indulgences . . . It was meant to help
center one's life on what was really impertant: the will of God and the equality of all,"
Their views are not only on yegetarianism but they tried to stress the preservatien of natural
"we balance and remind us that are connected to each other, to the de]icate web of life on
earth, to all the circles of nature, and to 6od, the creator of all." Thus, the concern for dieting life expands into the ecological, or biological aspects,
remaining a religious view peint at the same time. In order to follow this approach, it is not
necessary to puTsue vegetarianism, yet Quakers have made much of simplicity, peace, or
faith when they discuss their way of eating, Still many members of Friends affirm that
vegetarianism is essential in the practice of their beliefs in their life, and FVSNA supports
their movement.
VI) Conclusion
Quakers fundamentally consider each life in terms of ecology, in which natural balance
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154 Tomoko YAMAGUCHI
and the relationship between all creatures are focused on, although early Quakers were more
interested in interpreting their life by means of the Gospels. The early Quakers' focus on
equality and harmony was deeply based on their belief in the Bible. It seems that the idea of
natural balance had gradually taken the place of the ideas of equality and harmony. The idea of natural balance was rather moralistic. Later on many Quakers practiced
vegetarianism based not on their religious practice but on their morat beliefs.
In the twentieth century, the aspect of ecology became a hot topic in discussions
Tegarding food from yarious points of view including health, anatomical, nutritional and
hygienic concerns. Robert Heckert and Euell Gibbons are goed examples of such writers,
They described human beings in their concept of a natural ecosystem. tn this sense, thcir
notions aTosc frorn a scientific rather than a religious basis. In connection with this idea,
thcy also introduced the importance of nutrition. Along with economical progress, Quakers
gradually could enjoy better eating and, focusing on nutrition, they tried to eat well. Thcy
rnade more efforts on understanding how each food substance effected their body, Thus,
the Quakers' concern is definitely based on how we can maintain good dieting life
surToundcd by nature, by keeping the ecological balance,
As was discussed in this paper, the Quakers notion about vegetarianism shifted from a
religious basis to moral one, and thcn a health conscious one in connection with ecological
balance. Now their philosophy of vegetaTianism does not seem to be unique to Quakers
except their emphasis on ecology.
VII) Future Study
In this paper I havc tTied to investigate how Quakers have interpret Vegetarianism in
their spiritual and health conscious points of yiews. In the next research, I would like to
examinc how Zen Buddhism has introduced or considered Vegetarianism in their sutras.
"nature." Both Quakers and Zen Buddhism base their fundamental spirit on In the next
paper their diffcrcnccs and similarities, if any, will be examined with a focus on their
dieting life styles.
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