A Comparison of Pilot Scanning Patterns Based on the Type of Cockpit

A Comparison of Pilot Scanning Patterns Based on the Type of Cockpit Sravan Pingali Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology Melbourne, Australia Abstract An aircraft’s cockpit contains flight instruments that can be displayed in two different types. The traditional method of displaying the instruments is by using analogue dials and needles. This type of cockpit is also known as an ‘analogue cockpit’. The modern cockpit, on the other hand, takes advantage of computerised screens to digitally display the instruments. This type of cockpit is also known as a ‘glass cockpit’. The differences between the two types of cockpit are in the instrument display and information layout. Another difference between the two types of cockpit lies in how pilots scan and acquire information from the flight instruments. As a result, a pilot’s performance can differ when flying in an aircraft with a different type of cockpit. This difference can raise several challenges, particularly from a human factors point of view. Hence, it is important to research and understand the issues that might arise in the cockpit types, to help in the training of pilots who are making a transition from one type of cockpit to another. Traditionally, a pilot made a transition from an analogue cockpit to a glass cockpit. Previous studies researched the human factors challenges that originated as a result of this transition. The results of such research made the transition safer. In the past decade, a transition from a glass cockpit to an analogue cockpit has become more common. Little research has been undertaken into the challenges that arise from such a transition, and there is limited human factors research that studies the effects of this transition. Furthermore, there are no studies that collect objective data on the subject. This thesis fills the literature gap by ii conducting a series of experiments in different cockpit types, utilising flight simulators and an eye tracking device. The aim of the thesis was to compare pilot scanning patterns based on the type of cockpit. Licensed pilots were recruited to participate in the experiments. Each subject flew a simulated route in a glass cockpit and an analogue cockpit. The experiments were conducted in visual and instrument flying conditions, and in normal and abnormal situations. This data assessed pilot scanning patterns while flying in a glass cockpit and an analogue cockpit. The results of the study show that there were differences in scanning patterns between a glass cockpit and an analogue cockpit in normal daytime visual flying conditions. However, as the circumstances changed, so did the scanning patterns. In other words, if poor visibility conditions were experienced or an abnormal situation was encountered, then the pilots’ scanning patterns were modified to cope with the condition or situation. This modification reduced the number of differences between cockpit types to just a few or almost zero, based on the circumstance encountered. The safety implications of the results are discussed, and recommendations are made to assist any pilot who will be making a transition between a glass cockpit and an analogue cockpit. One of the most important recommendations is the importance of transition training. Offering such training will help in reducing error and assist in maintaining safety. iii Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge the following academics and industry experts for their advice and support provided during my PhD candidature: Associate Professor David Newman – This PhD would not have been successfully completed without David’s supervision. His knowledge in the area of Aviation Human Factors is extensive. His expertise is demonstrated through his portfolio of publications and the positions he holds in the industry. I would like to thank David for his guidance and encouragement throughout my candidature. I am more than grateful to have had him as my primary supervisor. I also look forward to continuing working together in the future. Captain Terry McMahon – I would like to thank Terry for the assistance he provided me while I was preparing and planning the experiments. Terry is an experienced pilot, with thousands of hours of flying experience. While I was designing the flight plans for my experiments, I was able to get expert advice from Terry. Based on his advice, I was able to modify my flight plans to meet industry standards. Dr Chrystal Zhang – Finally, I would like to thank Chrystal for being willing to become my main supervisor from Swinburne University, upon David’s resignation. Chrystal’s readiness to accept me as an additional student meant that I was not left stranded. iv Declaration by Candidate I declare that this thesis: - is my own work and is original. - does not contain any material that I have submitted and been accepted for an award of any other degree. If such material does exist, then I have made due reference to the material. - to the best of my knowledge, does not contain any material that has been previously published or written by another person. If such material does exist, then I have made due reference to the material. - is not part of any joint research or publications. - has been edited and proofread in compliance with the Institute of Professional Editors (IPEd) guidelines. Sravan Pingali v Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgement iv Declaration by Candidate v Table of Contents vi List of Figures xi List of Tables xv Chapter 1 – Introduction and Background Introduction 3 Brief History of the Aviation Industry 3 Pilot Training in the Aviation Industry 6 Employment Opportunities after Obtaining Commercial Pilot Licence 10 Purpose of this Thesis 13 Thesis Structure 15 Chapter 2 – Literature Review Introduction to the Cockpit 19 Description of the Main Instruments in the Cockpit 20 Different Types of Cockpit 35 vi Cockpit Evolution 46 Importance of Aviation Human Factors 70 Situational Awareness 72 Decision Making 77 Workload 82 Automation Technology 88 Normal vs Emergency 93 Aviation Accidents 96 Human Error 106 Cockpit Transition 111 Human Factors Issues Arising Due to Cockpit Transition 115 Summary 138 Hypothetical Examples of Transition from a Glass Cockpit to an Analogue Cockpit 138 Literature Gap 142 Chapter 3 – Flight Simulator Overview and Usage Introduction to Simulators 147 Examples of Simulators 150 Simulators in the Transportation Industry 153 Types of Simulators used in the Aviation Industry 154 Usage of Simulators in the Aviation Industry 167 Research Applications of Flight Simulators 171 Flight Simulators Used in this Research 178 Redbird FMX Fight Simulator 179 FlyIt Professional Helicopter Simulator 185 vii Chapter 4 – Eye Tracker Overview and Usage Introduction to Eye Trackers 193 Human Senses 193 Types of Eye Trackers 197 Eye Tracker Usage 200 Research Applications of Eye Trackers 203 Eye Tracker Used in this Research 218 Arrington Research Eye Frame Scene Camera Systems 218 Chapter 5 – Visual Flight Rules Study Introduction 228 Method 230 Subjects 230 Equipment 232 Procedure 233 Statistical Analysis 239 Results 242 Discussion 253 Chapter 6 – Instrument Flight Rules Study Introduction 262 Method 264 Subjects 264 Equipment 265 Procedure 265 Statistical Analysis 269 Results 270 viii Discussion 280 Chapter 7 – Unusual Attitude Recovery and Failed Instrument Detection Study Introduction 287 Method 289 Subjects 289 Equipment 290 Procedure 290 Statistical Analysis 294 Results 295 Discussion 302 Chapter 8 – Rotary Wing Aircraft versus Fixed-Wing Aircraft Study Introduction 309 Method 311 Subjects 311 Equipment 312 Procedure 313 Statistical Analysis 313 Results 314 Discussion 324 Chapter 9 – Overall Discussion Discussion 331 Transition Training Recommendation 341 Additional Recommendations 344 Limitations 346 ix Sample Size 346 Recent Experience 348 Rotary Wing Study 348 Workload Questionnaire 349 Transition Training Hours 349 Further study 350 Real World vs Simulator Study 350 Backup Instruments in the Glass Cockpit Study 352 Transition Training Hours 353 Eye and Head Movement Tracking Study 353 Larger Aircraft Study 354 Chapter 10 – Conclusion Conclusion 356 References and Appendices Reference List 359 Appendix A – Email Advertisement Used for Recruiting Subjects 387 Appendix B – Fixed-Wing Experiment Ethics Email 388 Appendix C – Fixed-Wing Experiment Forms 389 Appendix D – Rotary Wing Experiment Ethics Email 391 Appendix E – Rotary Wing Experiment Forms 392 Appendix F – Frequencies and Charts Given to Each Subject 394 Appendix G – YMEN ILS 26 397 Appendix H – YMML ILS 16 398 Appendix I – Demographic Questionnaire 399 Appendix J – NASA TLX 400 x List of Figures Fig. 1: Airspeed indicator in a Cessna 172 22 Fig. 2: Attitude indicator in a Cessna 172 23 Fig. 3: Altitude indicator in a Cessna 172 24 Fig. 4: Heading indicator in a Cessna 172 25 Fig. 5: Turn and bank indicator in a Cessna 172 26 Fig. 6: Vertical speed indicator in a Cessna 172 27 Fig. 7: RPM indicator in a Cessna 172 28 Fig. 8: Fuel quantity indicator in a Cessna 172 29 Fig. 9: Fuel flow and exhaust gas temperature indicator in a Cessna 172 29 Fig. 10: Oil pressure and oil temperature indicator in a Cessna 172 30 Fig. 11: Radio stack in a Cessna 172 32 Fig. 12: Navigational information instruments in a Cessna 172 33 Fig. 13: Global positioning system in a Cessna 172 34 Fig. 14: Analogue cockpit in a Cessna 172 36 Fig. 15: The six primary flight instruments, also known as the six pack 36 Fig. 16: Glass cockpit in a Cessna 172 consisting of the PFD and MFD 37 Fig. 17: Additional information in the primary flight display 38 Fig. 18: Multi-function display in a Cessna 172 39 Fig. 19: Engine instruments in the glass cockpit of a Cessna 172 40 Fig. 20: Backup Flight Instruments in a Cessna 172 42 Fig. 21: Failed heading indicator in an analogue cockpit 43 Fig.

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