The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Advice to the Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities from the Threatened Species Scientific Committee (the Committee) on Amendments to the List of Key Threatening Processes under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act)

1. NAME AND DESCRIPTION OF THE THREATENING PROCESS

1.1 Title of the process

Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity

The term ‘novel biota’ refers to organisms that are new to an ecosystem whether by natural or human introduction, the latter being the primary focus of this KTP. There are a large number of terms in common use that fall within the term but the use of ‘novel biota’ is intended as an all- encompassing term.

1.2 Name Changes

The original title of the nomination was ‘The introduction of novel biota and its impact on biodiversity’. The Committee changed the name of the nomination to ‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ to reflect that the threatening process is not restricted to only the introduction of novel biota.

1.3 Description of the process

Since the arrival of the first non-Indigenous people to Australia, introduced novel biota have posed an ongoing threat to Australia’s unique environment and biodiversity. Invasive species are considered by biologists to have the second most destructive impact on native species and ecological communities after habitat destruction (Sanderlund et al., 1999, p 2; Coutts-Smith and Downey, 2006). Recognising the environmental impact of introduced species, the Convention on Biological Diversity, of which Australia is a signatory, aims in Article 8 (h) to ‘Prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species’ (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1993).

This key threatening process (KTP) ‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’, includes six major groups of novel biota that are impacting on biodiversity, as detailed below.

Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity, including: A. Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by vertebrate pests. B. Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by invertebrate pests. C. Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by terrestrial weeds. D. Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by aquatic weeds and algae. E. Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by marine pests. F. Mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by pathogens.

This KTP does not include species in domestic, agricultural and commercial forestry situations where these species remain appropriately managed. These species would only be included in this KTP if they escape or are released from managed situations and become invasive, threatening biodiversity.

This KTP does include further introductions of new genetic material of invasive species that are already present in Australia, such as buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris). Buffel grass is an important

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 1 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 agricultural pasture species in northern Australia, however the species has escaped into the environment and is considered a major environmental weed in areas where it has established and displaces native species. Similarly, further introduction of leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) a small shrub introduced for fodder and widely planted in tropical and sub tropical Australia, is covered by this KTP. Unless appropriately managed and heavily grazed it escapes into the surrounding environment and becomes an invasive weed, forming dense thickets that restrict and out-compete native species.

The KTP also includes the introduction or further cultivation of potentially weedy species for the biofuel industry. Many species promoted as quality source biofuel plants have specific qualities such as hardiness, ability to outcompete other species, need for limited water and resistance to pests and disease, qualities that also make them excellent weed species (Low and Booth, 2007). Many of the best biofuel plants such as giant reed (Arundo donax) and spartina (Spartina sp.) are listed by the World Conservation Union in the top 100 of the World’s Worst Invaders (Lowe et al., 2000; Low and Booth, 2007). If these weedy species are widely planted in Australia it is expected that they will thrive as invasive weed species.

Novel biota have an impact directly or indirectly on all of society. Economic losses and control costs to agriculture, fisheries and forestry enterprises are well documented (Pimentel, 2002; McLeod, 2004). In 2009, it was estimated that the loss from invasive vertebrate species alone was around $750 million (Gong et al., 2009) and Sinden et al., (2004) estimated the economic impact from weeds to be around $4 billion. Novel biota impact significantly on recreational values in the community, for example fire ants in Queensland potentially severely disrupt gardening and outdoor activities, and weeds prevent access to recreational areas. They also have social impacts such as effects on health and Indigenous people’s way of life. While these very important impacts are acknowledged, the purpose of the KTP is to assess the impact of invasive species on the environment and biodiversity.

This overarching KTP includes novel biota which are currently not present in Australia but that may be introduced in the future, and species already in Australia that currently are not invasive but have the potential to become so. Any current or future novel biota that fit into the six broad categories outlined in the description above are considered to be included. A flowchart representing how species are included in the KTP is at Figure 1 below.

The purpose of this KTP is to recognise the threat that all novel biota pose to the Australian environment and to highlight the vast array of different novel biota and the threats they pose. Novel biota, from introduced vertebrate species and deadly pathogens to smothering weeds both on land and in the sea, all have varying impacts on native ecosystems, but ultimately they all threaten the continued survival of the native species and ecological communities upon which they impact.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 2 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Figure 1: Flow diagram

Species entering via natural pathways

Non-invasive

Pre-border Species not currently Biosecurity present in Australia

Invasive New threat abatement measures

Specific single invasive taxa KTPs e.g. rabbits, foxes Existing threat abatement measures Novel biota and their

Potentially invasive impact on Post-border ‘sleeper’ species in biodiversity KTP Biosecurity Australia

Invasive species that are established in Australia that do not have a specific KTP

1.4 The use of the term novel biota

Not all introduced species that fit into the six categories (A—F) included in this KTP pose a threat to the environment; many introduced species have become naturalised (survives naturally through reproduction) in Australia and it is only a small subset of these that become invasive (Williamson, 1996, p 2; Phillips et al., 2010 and references therein). Such species are recognised as novel to the habitat however this KTP includes introduced species that are not only novel but also significantly impacting on biodiversity. These species are referred to as invasive (species whose introduction and spread threatens ecosystems, habitats or species with economic or environmental harm) and are a threat to native biodiversity. For the purpose of this document, the term ‘novel biota’ refers to non-native or non-Indigenous invasive species that have been introduced and naturalised in a new habitat and have a significant detrimental impact on the environment.

This KTP does not consider native species that, due to changing climate conditions or natural evolutionary change, extend their ranges into areas where they are not currently present. The extension of ranges may result in new combinations of native species that could result in changes to ecosystem functioning (Hobbs et al., 2006). This new combination of native species, while novel, is considered to be a natural change.

This KTP includes native species translocated outside their range (except where translocation was

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 3 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 for conservation purposes), that have become invasive and are adversely impacting on the environment. The Cootamundra wattle (Acacia baileyana) is an example of a native species that is now considered to be invasive after being translocated outside its range. The Cootamundra wattle is native to southern New South Wales but has been very widely planted as an ornamental. It is now naturalised in many parts of Australia and hybridises with other wattles (Morgan et al., 2002). The seeds of this small tree are spread by the spring-loaded action of its pods, and also by ants and birds. When it invades native bushland the Cootamundra wattle can replace local native shrubs and shade out native grasses and wildflowers.

1.5 Currently nationally listed KTPs

There are currently 19 KTPs listed under the EPBC Act. Fourteen1 of these describe decline in native species and/or ecological communities caused by one or more invasive taxa including cats, foxes, feral pigs, gamba grass and fire ants (DEWHA, 2009a). This KTP encompasses the 14 currently listed specific invasive taxa KTPs, as well as other novel biota that are already established in Australia and species with the potential to become invasive in the future.

There are a significant number of novel biota currently present in Australia, and of these only a very small proportion (14) are nationally listed as KTPs. Novel biota that are currently nationally listed as KTPs are considered to be some of the most detrimental species introduced into Australia and warranted being listed as a specific KTP. These 14 listed KTP species are also captured by this overarching KTP as they are considered to be invasive species and fit within the categories defined for this KTP, as detailed above. However, it is not intended that this overarching novel biota KTP will replace the existing species-specific KTPs.

It is anticipated individual novel biota KTPs will continue to be listed as stand-alone KTPs, as the novel biota they cover have a very significant detrimental impact on the Australian environment. Maintaining individual KTPs remains an effective mechanism for drawing attention to and addressing the impact of particular invasive taxa, particularly as threat abatement action is already well developed for these threatening processes.

1.6 Listing status under state and territory legislation

There are a number of KTPs listed under state legislation that recognise threats posed by one or more novel biota. These are listed below:

New South Wales

The following are listed as potentially threatening processes under the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995: • Competition and grazing by the feral European rabbit • Competition and habitat degradation by feral goats • Herbivory and environmental degradation caused by feral deer • Invasion and establishment of the cane toad • Predation and hybridisation by feral dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) • Predation by feral cats • Predation by the European red fox

1 The 14 currently listed KTPs include: Competition and land degradation by rabbits; Competition and land degradation by unmanaged goats; Dieback caused by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi); Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis; Invasion of northern Australia by Gamba Grass and other introduced grasses; Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants; Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem integrity following invasion by the Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean; Predation by European red fox; Predation by exotic rats on Australian offshore islands of less than 1000 km2 (100,000 ha); Predation by feral cats; Predation, habitat degradation, competition and disease transmission by Feral Pigs; Psittacine Circoviral (beak and feather ) Disease affecting endangered psittacine species; The biological effects, including lethal toxic ingestion, caused by Cane Toads (Bufo marinus); and The reduction in the biodiversity of Australian native fauna and flora due to the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (fire ant).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 4 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

• Predation by the plague minnow (Gambusia holbrooki) • Predation by the ship rat (Rattus rattus) on Lord Howe Island • Predation, habitat degradation, competition and disease transmission by feral pigs (Sus scrofa) • Introduction and establishment of exotic rust fungi of the order Pucciniales pathogenic on plants of the family Myrtaceae • Invasion and establishment of exotic vines and scramblers • Invasion of native plant communities by bitou bush & boneseed • Invasion of native plant communities by exotic perennial grasses • Invasion, establishment and spread of Lantana camara • Invasion of native plant communities by African olive Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata • Invasion and establishment of escaped exotic garden plants as a key threatening process • Importation of red imported fire ants into NSW • Introduction of the large earth bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) • Competition from feral honeybees • Invasion of the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) • Infection by psittacine circoviral (beak & feather) disease affecting endangered psittacine species • Infection of frogs by amphibian chytrid fungus causing the disease chytridiomycosis • Infection of native plants by Phytophthora cinnamomi.

The following is listed as potentially threatening process under the New South Wales Fisheries Management Act, 1994: • The introduction of fish to fresh waters within a river catchment outside their natural range

Victoria

The following are listed as potentially threatening processes under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988: • Introduction of live fish into waters outside their natural range within a Victorian river catchment after 1770 • Predation of native wildlife by the cat (Felis catus) • Predation of native wildlife by the introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) • Reduction in biodiversity of native vegetation by sambar (Cervus unicolor) • Reduction in biomass and biodiversity of native vegetation through grazing by the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) • Invasion of native vegetation by blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L. agg) • Invasion of native vegetation by ‘environmental weeds • Introduction and spread of Spartina to Victorian estuarine environments • Spread of Pittosporum undulatum in areas outside its natural distribution • Loss of biodiversity in native ant populations and potential ecosystem integrity following invasion by Argentine ants (Linepithema humile) • The introduction and spread of the large earth bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) into Victorian terrestrial environments • Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus, resulting in chytridiomycosis • The spread of Phytophthora cinnamomi from infected sites into parks and reserves, including roadsides, under the control of a state or local government authority • Use of Phytophthora-infected gravel in construction of roads, bridges and reservoirs • Threats to native flora and fauna arising from the use by the feral honeybee (Apis mellifera) of nesting hollows and floral resources • The introduction of exotic organisms into Victorian marine waters.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 5 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

1.7 Impacts of invasive novel biota

There are many documented environmental impacts from invasive novel biota including: predation by feral animals; soil erosion and water pollution; habitat loss; changes to hydrology; and clogging and deoxygenation of waterways.

The impact of vertebrate pests on Australian species and biodiversity is well documented (Dickman, 1996; May and Norton, 1996; Pultridge et al., 1997; Banks, 1999; Pultridge, 2002; Glen and Dickman, 2005; McKenzie et al., 2006; Fitzsimons et al., 2010; Phillips et al., 2010). Vertebrate pest species in Australia have few natural predators or disease and can reproduce rapidly. Species such as cats and foxes prey on native birds, mammals, reptiles and insects. Feral livestock, such as pigs and goats, directly and indirectly impact threatened species and ecological communities in a variety of ways such as by grazing native species, fouling waterways and damaging native vegetation. Rabbits graze heavily on native vegetation, which results in many species failing to produce seed and a loss of food source and habitat for native fauna species.

Invasive invertebrates introduced to Australia, particularly invasive ant species such as the big- headed ant (Pheidole megacephala) and Argentine ant (Linepithema humile), have had various impacts on native species such as the displacement of native ants, and potential effects on the ecological processes undertaken by the native ants (Lach and Thomas, 2008; Callan and Majer, 2009). On Christmas Island the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) is linked with the displacement of native ants and is having a major impact on the endemic Gecarcoidea natalis (red land crab) that is resulting in changes to the structure and composition of the rainforest (O’Dowd et al., 2001; Lach and Thomas, 2008). Similarly, giant centipedes (Scolopendra sp.) introduced to Christmas Island have been recorded as a possible reason for the dramatic decline in the population of Pipistrellus murrayi (Christmas Island pipistrelle) (DEWHA, 2009b).

Invasive weed species in Australia have altered the environment by changing fire regimes, as is seen with gamba grass in the Northern Territory (Rossiter et al., 2004; Fitzsimons et al., 2010). Invasive weed species have also changed hydrology by altering drainage into rivers and lakes (Levine et al., 2003), and affecting nutrient cycling (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 4). Invasive weeds degrade catchment areas (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 4), degrade habitats (Smith et al., 2007), and invade National Parks (Cowie and Werner, 1993; Stephens et al., 2008).

Aquatic weeds and algae impact on near-shore marine systems and freshwater ecosystems (Finlayson and Rea, 1999; Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 4). Aquatic weed species, including salvinia (Salvinia molesta) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), clog water ways (resulting in fouling of the water, reduction in flow, and deoxygenation of water), kill and restrict access by native species and act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes (Gopal, 1987, p 471; WoNS, 2003a). The semi-aquatic upper tidal weed common cordgrass or rice grass (Spartina anglica) clogs many Tasmanian estuaries (Kriwoken and Hedge, 2000).

Marine pests invade the habitat of native species, compete for food, and in some cases feed on native species (Buttermore et al., 1994). Invasion by marine pests, such as Asterias amurensis (Northern Pacific seastar) and Patiriella regularis (New Zealand seastar), has resulted in native species being displaced (Buttermore et al., 1994). Other species, such as European fan worm (Sabella spallanzani), can become so prolific that they smother the native species and act like a carpet which transforms the seabed, altering the marine habitat (Marine Pests, 2009).

Native species are also being impacted on by pathogens. Three pathogens are currently listed as KTPs under the EPBC Act, including: ‘Psittacine Circoviral (beak and feather) Disease affecting endangered psittacine species’; ‘Dieback caused by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi)’; and ‘Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis’. Endemic pathogens such as hydatids caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus and

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 6 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 carried by wild dogs, foxes and feral pigs, threaten small macropodids such as the vulnerable Petrogale penicillata (brush-tailed rock wallaby) (Barnes et al., 2010). Similarly, toxoplasmos,a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii and carried by feral cats (Felis catus), threatens native species including Perameles gunnii (eastern barred bandicoot) and Isoodon obesulus (southern brown bandicoot) (Henderson, 2009 and references therein).

1.8 Invasion pathways

Introduced species primarily arrive in Australia in two ways, either via accidental introduction or by deliberate introduction. Accidental introduction can be as a result of species inadvertently being transported on ships or aeroplanes. Deliberate introduction may be as a result of approved import for biological control, smuggling by people wanting to import a prohibited species, or by the escape of approved imported species into the natural environment. Figure 2 below illustrates the main invasion pathways for introduced species. Species can also enter Australia without human assistance, for example insects, seeds or spores aided by wind and vagrant birds, and weed species in the gut and on feathers of migratory birds.

Figure 2: Invasion pathways of introduced species (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 2).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 7 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Accidental introduction

Accidental or unintentional introduction means introduction of a species outside its natural range unwittingly by humans or human delivery systems. The increase in globalisation, including world trade, tourism and migration, has resulted in greater opportunities for introductions of alien species on an international scale (Sanderlund et al., 1999, p 5). Accidental introductions include introduced species entering the country in a variety of unintentional ways. Some examples of the pathways for accidental introductions are outlined below.

Contaminants of agricultural products and livestock

Many species that have arrived in Australia have been introduced unintentionally as a contaminant of agricultural products or livestock. African lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) was thought to have been introduced to Australia accidentally as a contaminant of pasture seed (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001a, p 107) and is now a declared noxious weed in many states (Cook, 2008). Bathurst burr (Xanthium spinosum), a plant native to South America, is reported to have been introduced to Australia in the 1840s by arriving in the tails of horses imported from Chile (Hocking and Liddle, 1995, p 250 and references therein) and is now a widely distributed weed in Australia.

Contaminated seed crops, nursery plants and cut flower trade

Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) is thought to have been introduced into the Tully region in Queensland in 1994 in contaminated seed from Brazil (CRC Weed Management, 2003a). Seeds of Siam weed are spread by wind and water; further spread can occur by movement of stem and root fragments. Seeds may be blown long distances and also moved in mud on machinery and recreational vehicles. Siam weed smothers native species, changing the environment and reducing habitat for native species.

Machinery, equipment, vehicles, military etc

Machinery, equipment and vehicles imported into Australia or returning from military activities overseas can hide novel biota as weed seeds. Under today’s standards, military equipment returning from service overseas is required to comply with detailed decontamination processes to remove any foreign species that may have attached to the equipment that could potentially invade Australia (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, p 88). Historically, parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), a two metre tall herb, was accidentally introduced into Australia on military equipment during World War II (Calvert, 1998). Parthenium weed can grow very rapidly, potentially maturing and setting seed in 28 days in ideal conditions (WoNS, 2009). Parthenium weed is currently found in Queensland, and the Northern Territory, where it smothers native plants, particularly native grassland ecological communities such as the endangered ‘Natural grasslands of the Queensland Central Highlands and the northern Fitzroy Basin’ (DEWHA, 2008a). The species can tolerate a wide variety of soil types and has the potential to spread widely.

Similarly, alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) was thought to have been unintentionally transported to Australia from South America in the ballast of two post World War II cargo ships (EPA/MAV, 2001). It was first noticed growing on ballast dumped in the Newcastle area in the 1940s (Julien, 1995, p 2), and can either grow on land or as a floating mass on fresh water (WoNS, 2009). It can spread to new areas in small pieces of soil in machinery and smothers native vegetation, deoxygenates waterways and degrades habitat of native species.

Stowaways

Many species arrive as hitchhikers on ships, planes and in shipping containers. Exotic rats, the black rat (Rattus rattus), the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) and the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans),

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 8 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 were common on ships in the 1800s and would have colonised Australia along with the first European settlers (Rolls, 1969, p 410; Frith, 1973, p 150). Exotic rats have had a particularly devastating impact on Australia’s offshore islands, and are listed as a KTP (DEWHA, 2006a). Exotic rats are opportunistic feeders, with their diet at any one time generally reflecting the availability of food in their environment. They eat both plant and animal matter all year round and are able to utilise a diverse range of food sources to facilitate colonisation of different environments. They are known to prey primarily on birds, small mammals, tortoises, lizards, large insects, land molluscs, plant seeds and seedlings. Exotic rats impact on threatened Australian native bird species including Cyanoramphus cookii (Norfolk Island green parrot) and Gallirallus sylvestris (Lord Howe woodhen), by preying on their eggs and young chicks (DEWHA, 2006a).

Ship ballast and hull fouling

Marine species have been spread around the world inadvertently in the ballast of ships. Ballast is used to stabilise ships while at sea and is then discarded in port before taking on new cargo (Mack, 2003, pp 11–14). In the 1800s and early 1900s ballast mainly consisted of rubble, gravel and stones found around the port of departure. This ballast often contained plants, invertebrates and pathogens that were dispersed when the ballast was discarded in the new port (Mack, 2003, pp 11–14). More recently, ships have used water as ballast and this resulted in different species being introduced as larvae of the many species that are easily sucked up into the ship hulls, with the water before being pumped out in another port (Carlton and Geller, 1993).

Hull fouling is another method of introduction of novel biota. Black striped mussel (Mytilopsis sp.) discovered in Darwin’s marina in 1999 was thought to have arrived on the hull of a boat that had not been treated with anti-foulant. Black striped mussel can grow in significant abundance on boat hulls, mooring ropes, chains and other surfaces, causing native species to be displaced (DAFF, 2007).

Deliberate introduction

Deliberate or intentional introduction refers to the purposeful movement by humans of a species outside its natural and dispersal range. This group includes species that are introduced for use as crops, ornamentals, agricultural practices, biological controls or as game species. Some examples of the pathways for deliberate introductions are provided below.

Plants introduced for agricultural, horticultural or forestry purposes

Many new plants have been introduced into Australia for use as agricultural plants and form the basis of the successful cropping industry. Most introduced crop species that remain domesticated are non-invasive and do not pose a threat to biodiversity, however there are some examples (e.g. Brassica napus) of species that have been introduced for agricultural purposes that have escaped into the environment and pose a threat to native species. A key example is the introduction of gamba grass (Andropogon gayanus) into the Northern Territory in 1987 as a feed source for cattle. Gamba grass is a large, perennial, highly productive introduced grass which forms tall (to 4 m), dense stands (Csurhes, 2005). These stands cure later than native annual grasses and provide increased fuel loads which promote intense, late, dry season fires.

Gamba grass was first introduced into Australia in 1931 by the CSIRO Division of Land Research but was not widely released as a pasture grass until 1983 when commercial quantities of the seeds became available (Csurhes, 2005). The spread of gamba grass has been accelerated by transportation of seed in hay, road maintenance activities and a succession of above average wet seasons during the mid to late 1990s. The success of gamba grass as an invader can be attributed to its ability to colonise a range of habitats from wetland margins and riparian corridors through to open woodlands and more closed forests (Flores, 1999; Flores et al., 2005).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 9 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Gamba grass invasion can increase fire frequency as land managers need to burn more frequently to reduce the large fuel loads. It also has the potential to support fires more than once per year due to its high tolerance to fire and its ability to resprout shortly after fire (Bowden, 1963). Frequent, intense, late dry-season fires have a detrimental effect on native habitats and ecosystems. Fires in gamba grass-dominated ecosystems produce flame heights that are higher than typical fires, causing canopy fires which affect the whole tree. Research has shown that these fires can lead to a 50% reduction in tree cover over 12 years (Ferdinands et al., 2006). The increased fire risk due to gamba grass has also resulted in significant economic costs associated with having fire fighters permanently stationed ready for wildfire due to gamba grass supporting fires 5–10 times more intense than those fuelled by native grasses (Setterfield, 2009).

Across the world many Pinus species have been introduced outside their natural range as important plantation timber species, many of which have become invasive (Richardson et al., 1994). In Australia, Pinus radiata is considered invasive and can invade outside of the plantation forests into threatened ecological communities including grassland and shrublands (Lindenmayer and McCarthy, 2001; Williams and Wardle, 2007; Haby et al., 2010).

Soil remediation

Tall wheat grass (Lophopyrum ponticum) is a perennial grass growing to 2.2 m high. Native to the Balkans, Black Sea, Asia Minor and southern Russia, tall wheat grass grows naturally in very salty soil. It was first introduced to Australia in 1935 for reclamation of saline soils and during the last decade has been widely planted on saline soils as a pasture species for domestic livestock (Booth et al., 2009). This has resulted in a very high propagule pressure, particularly in western Victoria. Tall wheat grass has now become a serious invasive grass in temperate Australia (Booth et al., 2009). It is a serious threat for saline and subsaline wetlands, including numerous Ramsar-listed sites (Carr et al., 1992), and also threatens estuaries, riparian environments and grasslands in south eastern Australia. Tall wheat grass can change the composition of ecological communities by out-competing and eliminating native plant species and preventing recruitment of all species; it also degrades faunal habitats and alters ecosystem functions associated with fire and potentially also with hydrology and nutrient cycling (Booth et al., 2009).

Medicinal and herbal introductions

Plant species introduced into Australia for medicinal and herbal purposes have escaped and become invasive weeds. St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) is a perennial herb native to Europe, Asia and North America (Briese et al., 2000). It was introduced into Australia for medicinal and ornamental purposes in the late 19th century and planted into gardens, from where it has escaped (Briese et al., 2000). St John’s wort crowds out native species and reduces habitat. It invades grassland, Eucalyptus and Callitris woodlands and is often found along river banks, travelling stock routes, water catchment reserves and roadsides (Briese et al., 2000).

Commonwealth Plant Introduction Scheme

Historically in Australia a number of plant introduction schemes have operated (Cook, 2008) in an attempt to introduce plants to improve Australian agriculture, increase pastoral productivity and maximise Australian human population density (Cook and Dias, 2006). One such scheme, the Commonwealth Plant Introduction (CPI) Scheme (1930s-2000) introduced 145 000 accessions of greater than 8 200 species in 70 years (Cook and Dias, 2006). During the 20th century the introductions by the CPI Scheme facilitated a continent-wide research program that, in an attempt to improve the landscape, also greatly transformed it (Cook and Dias, 2006). While some of the introductions were beneficial to Australian agriculture, many such as Nassella spp., Acacia spp. and Tamarix spp. became weeds that have had a detrimental effect on the environment (Cook and Dias, 2006).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 10 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Aquarium plants

The introduction of imported aquarium plants into Australian waters, either by accident or intentional release of species into the environment by aquarium owners, or by the intentional release of plants so they can spread and be harvested for the aquarium trade, has serious impacts for the environment. Cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana) was first recorded in Australia in 1967 after introduction from South America as an aquarium plant (Mackey, 1996). Plant fragments found their way from aquaria into open water sources, possibly through the dumping of aquarium water. The weed has spread widely, forming dense underwater thickets that result in clogging of waterways, reduced fish stocks, and reduced native plant species (WoNS, 2009). Cabomba is listed as a Weed of National Significance (WoNS), one of the 20 worst weeds in Australia.

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was introduced to Australia in the 1890s from South America as a decorative plant for fish ponds and aquaria (Calvert, 1998). Once introduced into local waterways it spread rapidly. It can block waterways, deeply shading the water, out-competing native plants and starving the water of oxygen. As a result, native species die from lack of sunlight, and fish suffocate.

The invasive seaweed caulerpa (Caulerpa taxifolia), a native to tropical and sub-tropical regions (Phillips and Price, 2002), was first identified in New South Wales waters in 2000 (Creese et al., 2004, p 110). The invasive caulerpa identified around the world and in Australia has been called the ‘aquarium strain’ as it is thought to have been a selectively bred clone for marine aquaria. This strain of caulerpa is invasive in temperate waters as it tolerates cold water, unlike tropical species (Glasby and Gibson, 2007). In areas where it has been introduced it reproduces rapidly and can cover large areas, out-competing species such as native seagrasses (I & I NSW, 2009). Additionally, all species of caulerpa produce toxic substances resulting in their avoidance by grazing species such as sea slugs, which might otherwise control them (I & I NSW, 2009).

Ornamental plants

Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) was introduced from South Africa in the 1800s as an ornamental plant. This vine was used widely in gardens and for floral arrangements. Bridal creeper is highly invasive and can be found impacting native vegetation in temperate and Mediterranean climate areas across Australia (WoNS, 2009). The plant spreads aggressively and can climb up trees three metres in height, smothering native vegetation. The vine also changes the chemical composition of the soil, inhibiting germination of native species and allowing other introduced weeds to invade the area (WoNS, 2009). The seeds are also spread to new locations by birds, foxes and rabbits, which forage on the abundant red berries.

Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) is thought to have been introduced to Australia from Europe in the 1800s, possibly as an ornament plant. It escaped from gardens and is now a major woody weed of temperate areas (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001b, pp 470-471). Scotch broom has spring loaded seed pods that spread seeds widely. In local regions where it establishes it takes over large areas. Scotch broom fixes nitrogen, and smothers and out-competes native plants while providing habitat for invasive vertebrate species such as foxes, rabbits and wild pigs (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001b, p 107).

African olive (Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidate) was introduced into Australia as a hedging plant from southern Africa in the early-mid 19th century and is now a well established invasive woody weed in New South Wales, particularly in the western Sydney and Hunter Valley regions (New South Wales Scientific Committee, 2010). African olive is long lived and forms dense canopies that shade the ground and prevent native shrubs and grasses from germinating. The subspecies is adapted to a wide range of soils and produces heavy crops of black fruit every year that are readily

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 11 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 dispersed by birds. In 2010 ‘The Invasion of Native Plant Communities by African Olive Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata’’ was listed as a KTP under New South Wales legislation (New South Wales Scientific Committee, 2010).

Prickly pear (Opuntia stricta), widely considered to be the worst invasive weed to be introduced to Australia, was first thought to have been introduced from the United States of America as an ornamental plant. Records from the early 1800s show specimens being grown in gardens in Scone, NSW, and Warwick, Qld, as it was considered to be a good fruiting hedge (Tanner, 2009). Prickly pear was thought to be a good standby feed for stock during drought and was planted in paddocks. As the popularity of the prickly pear spread, it was transported around the country. With the suitable climate and lack of natural controls the prickly pear population exploded. In 1880 it was recognised as a major weed and legislation was introduced to control it (Freeman, 1992). By the early 1900s prickly pear had taken over many parts of the landscape and people were even encouraged to kill native species, such as emus and crows that feed on the fruit, to stop the spread (Tanner, 2009). It was not until 1926 that the solution to the problem was found with the introduction of a biological control, the cactoblastis moth (Cactoblastis cactorum), whose caterpillars devour prickly pear (Freeman, 1992). Cactoblastis was an overwhelming success and is recorded as one of the greatest biological control success stories in the world.

Mammals and birds released for hunting purposes

European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and six species of deer (Axis axis, A. porcinus, Cervus elaphus, C. timorensis, C. unicolour and Dama dama) were introduced into Australia during the 1800s by Acclimatisation Societies for hunting (Frith, 1973, pp 162-173; Moriarty, 2004). Deer are now widely spread throughout Australia and occur in habitat that ranges from rainforest to arid woodland (Moriarty, 2004). In 2004 it was estimated there were 200 000 wild deer in Australia (Moriarty, 2004). Deer are impacting on the natural environment and native species by trampling and destroying plants, increasing grazing pressure and ring-barking young trees. Deer also foul waterholes, cause soil erosion and assist the spread of weeds (NSW DECCW, 2004).

Pheasants, quail, grouse, partridges and guinea fowl were introduced to Australia to address the shortage of traditional game birds (Frith, 1973, pp 182–184). Some species established wild populations however, unlike mammals, numbers decreased over time to small populations (Frith 1973, pp 182–184).

Mammals introduced for agricultural purposes

Many mammal species have been introduced into Australia as domestic livestock for agricultural purposes and have escaped or been released into the environment and established wild populations. These species include cattle, buffalo, pigs, goats, camels, horses, donkeys and ostrich.

Pigs (Sus scrofa) were brought to Australia on the first fleet for agricultural purposes for the colony but escaped into the wild, establishing in all non-arid regions in Australia (Norris et al., 2005). Feral pigs cause significant damage to the environment and adversely affect rare flora and fauna including turtle eggs, insects, frogs, geckos, birds and fish fingerlings (Norris et al., 2005). They spread weeds, destroy vegetation and disturb the ground while feeding, causing soil erosion, altered drainage and habitat. Pigs wallow in water holes, fouling them and making them unsuitable for native species. Pigs have no natural predators and breed rapidly, out-competing native species for habitat and food.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 12 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Biological Control

Thousands of cane toads (Rhinella marinus) (formerly known as Bufo marinus), a native of central and South America, were released in Queensland in the 1930s to control French's cane beetle (Lepidiota frenchi) and the greyback cane beetle (Dermolepida albohirtum). The beetle larvae eat the roots of sugar cane and kill or stunt plants, however cane toads proved to be unsuccessful in controlling cane beetles (DEWHA, 2005a). Since its introduction to Australia the cane toad has spread south and west across the continent and now occurs in Queensland, the Northern Territory, Western Australia and New South Wales (DEWHA, 2005a).

Cane toads eat a wide variety of prey, breed opportunistically, have a far greater fecundity than native species and develop rapidly, particularly where there are warmer waters. They are considered to be an extreme generalist with a tolerance for a broad range of environmental and climatic conditions and are able to potentially occupy many habitats (DEWHA, 2005a). There is considerable concern over the impact of the cane toad on native species and, in particular, invertebrate communities, through predation and competition. Most significantly, they possess highly toxic chemical predator defences and many scientific and anecdotal reports exist of deaths of native predators that have attempted to consume cane toads (DEWHA, 2005a).

The plague minnow or gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki) was introduced into the Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens from the United States of America in 1925, as part of a biological control program for mosquitoes (Pyke and White, 2000; NSW Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003). The species is now widely dispersed and occurs in most freshwater habitats in south-eastern Australia, and parts of Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Gambusia have been extremely successful invaders; they disperse over a wide area and can occupy diverse habitats and environmental conditions (NSW Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003). Internationally gambusia has been ineffective at controlling mosquitoes and its introduction has had a harmful impact on native fish worldwide. Gambusia impact on native species including frogs, fish and macroinvertebrates. They prey on some native frog species, particularly the nationally listed endangered green and gold bell frog (Litoria aurea), and are thought to be a contributing factor in the decline of this species in New South Wales (Pyke and White, 2000). There is no known effective method of control for gambusia and once introduced to an area they are almost impossible to eradicate, particularly in connected waterways (NSW Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003).

Aquaculture/mariculture and fishery releases

Fish managed in aquaculture or mariculture can escape and transfer disease into wild stocks. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) introduced into Tasmania are reported as being infected with a number of viruses that can transfer to wild populations including amoebic gill disease (AGD) caused by the amoeba Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis (Munday et al., 2001). First introduced into Tasmania with Atlantic salmon in 1986, AGD has the potential to infect wild populations if stock escape from managed farms (Munday et al., 2001).

Species imported as fishery stock that are then released have a direct impact on the environment though habitat modification, predation, competition and disease transfer. European carp (Cyprinus carpio), a native of Eastern Europe and central Asia, was introduced into Australian waterways as a sport fish in the 1800s but was contained until an introduction in the 1960s and has now invaded one million square kilometres (Koehn, 2004). European carp have been reported to achieve high biomasses of 3144 kg per ha and individual densities of up to 1000 per hectare (Koehn, 2004). European carp destroy or reduce the value of habitat for native fish by increasing water turbidity and destroying aquatic plant beds (Roberts et al., 1995; Harris and Schiller, 2001, pp 229–258), resulting in reduced photosynthetic production and inhibiting visual-feeding fish (Koehn, 2004).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 13 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

European carp out-compete native fish by being able to reproduce more rapidly, being able to spawn at lower water temperatures and having a very rapid larval growth rate (Koehn, 2004).

Similarly, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) were released into Australian waters in the 1800s for sporting purposes. Trout now successfully breed in many waterways and lakes in southern Australia and restocking regularly occurs. Trout have a negative impact on a number of native fish, frog and invertebrate species (Cadwalladar, 1996: Arlington and McKenzie, 1997), particularly the nationally listed critically endangered spotted tree frog (Litoria spenceri). This frog species breeds in upland streams and has declined particularly in streams where trout are present. Studies have demonstrated that trout fingerlings feed heavily on tadpoles of the spotted tree frog (Gillespie, 2001).

Pets escaped or released into the wild

Pets, including cats, dogs and birds, are important and widespread in Australian society, however not all pets have remained domesticated and many have escaped or been released into the wild. The first cats are thought to have arrived in Australia after swimming ashore from Dutch shipwrecks (Abbott, 2003). Feral cats prey on a wide range of native species including small mammals, birds, reptiles and rodents (Norris et al., 2005). Cats can breed rapidly with first breeding at 10 months and under good conditions can breed continuously at any time of the year, having up to three litters a year. Feral cats can be found in all environments. Males usually occupy a home range of 10 km2 but this may be larger if food supplies are scarce. Feral cats are carnivores and can survive with limited access to water as they utilise moisture from their prey (DEWHA, 2004).

Aquarium fish released into the natural environment have been a major source of introduced fish species in Australia. It is reported that 22 of the 34 alien fish species that have established in Australia are the result of people intentionally or accidentally releasing aquarium species into waterways (Lintermans, 2004).

Similarly, imported parrots such as the rose-ringed (ring-necked) parakeet (Psittacula karmeri) have been known to escape from captivity. If this species was to become established in the wild it would compete with native species for habitat and could pose a threat to the environment and agriculture, similar to impacts it has had in its native India. Additionally, imported parrots may have been the origin of the psittacine beak and feather disease in Australia that is having a large impact on native psittacine species (DEWHA, 2005b).

Escaped, released or stolen from research and exhibitor/conservation species, zoos and private collections

Exotic species kept in zoos, private collections and research institutes are a potential risk to native species from animals escaping, being stolen or intentionally released. There have been a number of recorded cases where exotic species such as squirrels, red panda and snakes have escaped from captivity (Invasive Species Council, 2003).

Illegal trade or keeping of animals

A significant threat to Australia’s biodiversity is the illegal importation and trade of exotic species such as snakes, lizards, amphibians, fish and birds prohibited in Australia. If introduced many species, particularly reptiles, could establish in Australia with disastrous effects on native species, such as preying on and out-competing them. Species such as the American corn snake (Elaphe guttata), which have been recorded as being illegally imported, could threaten native species (Frith, 1973; QDPI&F, 2007a). Snakes that are illegally imported could also harbour many exotic diseases that could have a severe impact on native species such as Inclusion Body Disease or

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 14 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Ophidian Paramyxo Virus (Jacobson, 1993).

Releases to ‘enrich’ the native flora and fauna

Many species were introduced into Australia as a result of the activities of acclimatisation societies. These societies were established in an attempt to transplant elements of Britain into the new colony (Curtin, 1997) and to increase agricultural development (Cook and Dias, 2006). In 1861, the Acclimatisation Society of Victoria was established (Gillbank, 1986) and was supported by many of the colonists who felt that the Victorian environment needed to be improved and made more like England. The society’s purpose was to import animals, plants and game of economic or recreation value from Britain and Europe and to establish them in Australia. Over a number of years the society organised the importation of cashmere goats, alpacas, pheasant, deer, hare, sparrows, larks, thrushes (Frith, 1973, p 137–195; Gillbank, 1986), starlings, Indian myna and blackbirds (Rolls, 1969, pp 302–316). The society was disbanded in the late 1860s (Gillbank, 1986), but not before doing irreversible damage to the environment.

Arrival without human-aided assistance

Species can arrive in Australia without human aided assistance, for example vagrant birds, insects, seed and spores aided by the wind and in the gut and on the feathers of migratory birds. Most vagrant birds are individuals that are lost and die or depart again posing no threat. Some bird species have invaded and become established in Australia, including the cattle egret (Ardea ibis) that fills a niche provided by grazing livestock (Maddock and Geering, 1994). Another incursion of a potentially novel biota occurred in December 2007 when four Canada geese (Branta canadensis) arrived on the south coast of NSW, probably from New Zealand where they have invaded and become a minor problem (Dawes, 2008). Canada geese in Australia would compete with native species for habitat and have also been shown to spread weeds and have the potential to hybridise with native species as has occurred in other countries (Dawes, 2008).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 15 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

2. HOW JUDGED BY THE COMMITTEE IN RELATION TO THE EPBC ACT CRITERIA Section 188(4) of the EPBC Act states:

A threatening process is eligible to be treated as a key threatening process if: a) it could cause a native species or an ecological community to become eligible for listing in any category, other than conservation dependent; or b) it could cause a listed threatened species or a listed threatened ecological community to become eligible to be listed in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment; or c) it adversely affects 2 or more listed threatened species (other than conservation dependent species) or 2 or more listed threatened ecological communities.

This section provides examples of how the threatening process is impacting on native species and ecological communities2 to address the required criteria under the EPBC Act that make it eligible for listing, as outlined above. It also provides information and examples of invasive novel biota included in this KTP. It is not a comprehensive list of all invasive novel biota in each category. Rather, the examples are representative of each category. It is difficult to provide a precise and comprehensive list of all invasive novel biota in Australia that threaten biodiversity. This KTP is an overarching KTP, which recognises there are many novel biota that currently impact on biodiversity and that there are additional species that may provide a new threat in the future.

A. Could the threatening process cause a native species or an ecological community to become eligible for listing as Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable?

There are a number of species not listed as threatened under the EPBC Act that are likely to be negatively impacted by novel biota. However, there are currently insufficient quantitative data available to enable assessment of the impacts on most of these species against this criterion. There is however, evidence that the threatening process could cause Aepyprymnus rufescens (rufous bettong), Ornithoptera richmondia (Richmond birdwing butterfly) and Bidyanus bidyanus (silver perch) to become eligible for listing as threatened under the EPBC Act.

These species’ eligibility for listing under the EPBC Act is assessed below using relevant criteria set out in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000. The species would be considered to be vulnerable if they met any one of the criteria set out in the regulations.

Aepyprymnus rufescens (rufous bettong)

The following criterion is relevant in the case of Aepyprymnus rufescens (rufous bettong): ‘It has undergone, is suspected to have undergone or is likely to undergo in the immediate future, a substantial reduction in numbers’ as a result of competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by the vertebrate pest European or red fox (Vulpes vulpes).

The rufous bettong is a small marsupial, 70–80 cm long from nose to tail, weighing about 3250 grams, with reddish-brown fur. They normally move quite slowly by placing the forelegs on the ground and bringing the hindlegs forward together, but can also hop (NSW DECCW, 2005). This species fits into the critical weight range of 35 g to 5500 g for extinctions and declines of non- flying mammals across Australia (Burbridge and Mckenzie, 1989).

2 Ecological community means the extent in nature in the Australian jurisdiction of an assemblage of native species that inhabit a particular area in nature.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 16 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

The rufous bettong inhabits grassy woodlands and forest in areas having tall native grasses and no shrub layer in northern NSW and Queensland (Seebeck and Rose, 1989). Rufous bettongs are generally active from dusk to dawn when they feed on grasses, herbs, seeds, flowers, roots, tubers, fungi and occasionally insects (NSW DECCW, 2005).

The rufous bettong was once common down the east cost of Australia but has undergone substantial population declines, particularly in the southern part of its range (Dennis and Johnston, 2008, pp 285–286). It is listed as vulnerable in New South Wales under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 and regionally extinct in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988.

The red fox was introduced into Australia for recreational hunting in 1871 and spread rapidly to become one of the widest spread invasive animals in the country (McLeod, 2004). Foxes have significantly contributed to the extinction pressures faced by many Australian species (Mahon, 2009). Foxes pose the most threat to small native mammals and generally prey upon medium- sized to small prey (e.g. possums and small marsupials). In particular, species that fall into the critical weight range are at risk of local extinction when the fox is present (May and Norton, 1996).

The rufous bettong is highly susceptible to fox predation as it is active at the times that most coincide with fox hunting and is prone to surplus killing attacks (May and Norton, 1996; Short et al., 2001). Foxes have been identified as one of the major causes of the regional extinction and declines in ground dwelling mammals including the rufous bettong in Victoria and inland NSW (Dennis and Johnston, 2008, pp 285–286; Mahon, 2009 and references therein).

The rufous bettong remains common in areas where fox and rabbit numbers remain low on both sides of the Great Dividing Range in north-eastern New South Wales and Queensland (Dennis and Johnston, 2008, pp 285–286). Fox control is vital in reducing numbers of foxes to help limit the impact on native species, although other predators such as cats have to be considered in any management plan to prevent further mesopredator release that could further endanger species like the rufous bettong (Prugh et al., 2009). If population numbers of foxes were to significantly increase, greater predation of the rufous bettong is likely to occur which would result in the species declining further.

Summary of assessment: The Committee considers that the species has undergone a substantial reduction in numbers consistent with a substantial reduction in range. The extent of occurrence of the rufous bettong has declined following the introduction and spread of the red fox particularly in southern Australia. If fox numbers continue to increase and extend in range it is expected that there would be a substantial reduction in the numbers of rufous bettong. The Committee judges that this threatening process could cause the rufous bettong to become eligible for listing under the EPBC Act.

Ornithoptera richmondia (Richmond birdwing butterfly)

The following criterion is relevant in the case of Ornithoptera richmondia (Richmond birdwing butterfly): ‘It has undergone, is suspected to have undergone or is likely to undergo in the immediate future, a substantial reduction in numbers’ as a result of competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by the terrestrial weed Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia elegans).

The Richmond birdwing butterfly is one of Australia's largest butterflies with a wingspan of up to 15 cm and is listed as vulnerable under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992. The species was once reportedly very common in Brisbane and its natural range extended from Maryborough and Gympie in Queensland to Grafton in New South Wales (Gardening Australia, 2003; Vidler, 2004; Sands, 2008). However, habitat clearing and the loss of host plants has resulted in the species now being limited to isolated areas (QLD DERM, 2007).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 17 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia elegans) is a fast growing vine originating from Brazil, which can reach up to three metres in length and has distinctive flowers that are shaped like a traditional Dutchman's pipe. The Dutchman’s pipe is a prime invader of rainforest habitat and a significant environmental weed that has naturalised in parts of Queensland and northern New South Wales. It is easily cultivated and with its attractive showy flowers has been a widely promoted ornamental plant. Dutchman’s pipe poses a particular threat to the Richmond birdwing butterfly as it is similar in appearance to the native food species. The Richmond birdwing butterfly has two specific host Pararistolochia vines (P. praevenosa and P. laheyana) and only occurs in subtropical rainforest where these vines occur (Sands and Scott, 1998).

The introduction of the Dutchman’s pipe into gardens and its subsequent spread into the environment is resulting in a decrease in the Richmond birdwing butterfly (Sands and Scott, 1998). The vine emits a substance that tricks female butterflies into laying their eggs on the vine, but when the larvae hatch they are poisoned as they begin to feed (Sands and Scott, 1998). The increased spread of the Dutchman’s pipe will continue to have a greater impact on the Richmond birdwing butterfly over time as the species is increasingly finding the weed to deposit eggs on rather than the native species, resulting in a higher loss of larvae. Additionally, the female butterflies have been shown to deposit significantly more eggs on Dutchman’s pipe than on native food plants growing nearby (Sands et al., 1997). If the spread of the Dutchman’s pipe continues it is likely that the number of Richmond birdwing butterflies will continue to decrease.

Summary of assessment: The Committee considers that the species has undergone a substantial reduction in numbers consistent with a substantial reduction in range. The species’ distribution is dictated by the distribution of its native food plant and, in future, the latter will be largely dictated by the expansion of various invasive weeds, including the Dutchman’s pipe. The survival of the butterflies that remain is also jeopardised by virtue of the fact that the leaves of the Dutchman’s pipe are poisonous to feeding Richmond birdwing butterfly larvae. Further, the decline in population size and geographic distribution may continue if the threat of invasive weed continues. The Committee considers that the Richmond birdwing butterfly is likely to undergo a substantial reduction in numbers in the immediate future. The Committee judges that this threatening process could cause the Richmond birdwing butterfly to become eligible for listing under the EPBC Act.

Bidyanus bidyanus (silver perch)

The following criterion is relevant in the case of Bidyanus bidyanus (Silver Perch): ‘It has undergone, is suspected to have undergone or is likely to undergo in the immediate future, a substantial reduction in numbers’ as a result of mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by the pathogenic Asian fish tapeworm (Bothriocephalus acheilognathi).

Silver perch are a medium to large freshwater fish that occur in lowland turbid slow flowing rivers of the Murray-Darling Basin (Lintermans, 2007). The species was once widespread across much of the Murray-Darling basin but has declined across its range; a 93 per cent decline was recorded in the Murray River between 1940 and 1990 (Lintermans, 2007). The species is listed as protected in South Australia and threatened in New South Wales and Victoria. Due to the declining numbers, all populations of silver perch are important for the species’ survival.

The Asian fish tapeworm is associated with cyprinid fish in China and was introduced to Australia with fish, particularly European carp (Cyprinius carpio) (Dove et al., 1997). The prevalence of Asian fish tapeworm throughout Australia is concomitant with the spread of carp and also gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki), which is now spread widely in Australia and has also been recorded as a host of the tapeworm (Dove et al., 1997). The tapeworm causes reduced growth and death of fish, with young fish being particularly susceptible (Dove et al., 1997; Henderson, 2009). The Asian fish tapeworm has been recorded as having a low host specificity allowing it to spread

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 18 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 into native fish species and seriously threaten their health (Dove et al., 1997).

The Asian fish tapeworm is a threat to native fish and particularly endangered native fish species (DEWHA, 2000a; Dove and Fletcher, 2000) and is recorded as a threat to the endangered Macquaria australasica (Macquarie perch) a similar species to the silver perch (DEWHA, 2000a; Lintermans, 2007). Infestation with Asian fish tapeworm could result in mortality of juvenile silver perch, causing a further decline of the species.

Summary of assessment: The Committee considers that the species has undergone a substantial reduction in numbers consistent with reduction in range. The distribution has been historically impacted on due to river regulation affecting migration and reproduction behaviour and impacts of invasive fish such as carp. The species could be further impacted on by the spread of the Asian fish tapeworm causing a further decline of species numbers. The Committee judges that this threatening process could cause the silver perch to become eligible for listing under the EPBC Act

Conclusion for Criterion A: The Committee considers that the threatening process is eligible under this criterion as the process could cause the rufous bettong, Richmond birdwing butterfly and silver perch to become eligible for listing as threatened under the EPBC Act.

B. Could the threatening process cause a listed threatened species or a listed threatened ecological community to become eligible to be listed in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment?

Novel biota, along with other processes, could cause Caretta caretta (loggerhead turtle) and the ecological community ‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’, both currently listed as endangered, to become eligible for listing as critically endangered under the EPBC Act

Caretta caretta (loggerhead turtle)

The loggerhead turtle occurs in the waters of coral and rocky reefs, seagrass beds and muddy bays throughout eastern, northern and western Australia. Nesting is concentrated in southern Queensland and from Shark Bay to the North West Cape in Western Australia, while foraging areas are more widely distributed (DEWHA, 2005c).

Loggerhead turtles are threatened by a range of activities including boat strike, fishing and animal predation. Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and dogs destroy hundreds of nests in eastern Queensland. The rise in the number of foxes has been consistent with the decline in recruitment of immature loggerhead turtles along the eastern Australian coast. It is thought that there will be reduced recruitment to the nesting adult population between 2000–2020 as a result of fox predation in the 1960s and 1970s (DEWHA, 2005c).

The red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) is a small colonial ant that is native to South America, where its natural distribution appears to be regulated by competition, endemic predators and pathogens. Fire ants are aggressive generalist foragers that occur in high densities, and workers can sting relentlessly when their mound is disturbed. They are effective at foraging and recruitment, which makes them highly competitive and very effective at resource defence. Fire ants were discovered at two separate sites in Brisbane, Queensland, in February 2001 and while currently confined to the Brisbane area, the fire ant has the potential to invade much of Australia (DEWHA, 2003).

In the United States of America where fire ants have also invaded and spread, they affect native vertebrate wildlife by consuming soft-shelled eggs, hatchlings, newborn and dependent young and occasionally adults of some species. Fire ants have been reported to attack the eggs or nestlings

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 19 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 of several species including turtles, lizards and water birds, and are associated with a decline in nesting success of some birds (DEWHA, 2003).

The impacts of fire ants on fresh and saltwater turtle species in the United States of America, particularly Chelonia mydas (green turtle) and loggerhead turtles have been well documented (Wilmers et al., 1996; Moulis, 1997; Allen et al., 2001). Fire ants have been observed invading turtle nests, feeding on egg,s and stinging, killing and subsequently feeding on hatchlings (Wilmers et al., 1996). In Australia, the loggerhead turtle nesting beaches in Queensland are located less than 400 km north of the current fire ant infestation in Brisbane (DEWHA, 2003; QDPI&F, 2007b). Hatchling success for loggerhead turtle under natural conditions is considered to be low, possibly as low as 10% (Moulis, 1997), so destruction of nests by predators (e.g. foxes and dogs), beach erosion, predation on hatchlings and human activities (Fowler, 1979) all exacerbate the low success rate of turtle hatchings. If the fire ant spreads and invades beaches used by loggerhead turtles as nest sites, this could have a significant impact on turtle numbers resulting in the species being eligible for listing under the EPBC Act in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment.

‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’

The endangered ecological community ‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’ is characterised by a very diverse flora, of which many species are endemic, priority species. Endangered flora includes Gastrolobium modestum, G. papilio, Chamelaucium roycei ms (C. sp. C Coast Plain (R.D.Royce 4872)), Dryandra nivea subsp. uliginosa, D. squarrosa subsp. argillacea, Grevillea elongata, G. maccutcheonii and Petrophile latericola ms (P. sp. Whicher Range (G.J.Keighery 11790) WA Herbarium)). The community supports a rich layer of herbaceous annuals under a dense shrub layer. The habitat of seasonally inundated massive ironstone is very rare and mostly cleared, with only 90 hectares remaining (DEWHA, 2000b).

Australia's native vegetation and its dependent biota are threatened by the plant pathogenic fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi that causes the roots of susceptible plants to rot, in many cases killing the plant. It is thought that it was introduced at some time after European settlement. It is now well established in many of Australia’s higher rainfall areas (mean annual rainfall greater than 600 mm) in a mosaic of infected and uninfected areas. Effects range from devastating to inconsequential, depending on environmental factors, which vary both within and between regions. It is estimated there are over 2 000 known plant host species (Shearer et al., 2004)

Depending upon environmental conditions and plant susceptibility, P. cinnamomi can destroy vegetation communities, and several plant taxa are at risk of extinction (Barrett et al., 2008). At least 32 species within the Phytophthora genus occur in various parts of Australia, of which 14 have been recorded in the wild. Only three species (P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea and P. megasperma) are currently known to cause significant damage in the wild and of these, P. cinnamomi has resulted in the most extensive damage in a variety of habitats (DEWHA, 2009f). Phytophthora die back also poses a threat to many native bird species in south-western Australia, including various parrots and honeyeaters, such as the western spinebill (Acanthorhynchus superciliosus), due to the loss of nectar and seeds (e.g. from various Proteaceae).

Several of the remaining patches of the ‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’ ecological community are threatened by Phytophthora cinnamomi, with many of the endemic and endangered species of plants in the community being dieback-susceptible. With only a limited area of uncleared habitat remaining, the loss of any remaining part of the community would impact on the survival of the community as a whole and could result in the community being eligible for listing under the EPBC Act in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 20 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Conclusion for Criterion B: The Committee considers that the threatening process is eligible under this criterion as the process could cause both the loggerhead turtle and ‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’ to become eligible for listing as critically endangered, a category which represents a higher degree of endangerment under the EPBC Act.

C. Does the threatening process adversely affect two or more listed threatened species (other than conservation dependent species) or two or more listed threatened ecological communities?

The majority of listed threatened species and ecological communities are threatened by one or more novel biota. In listing advices novel biota are the greatest threat facing listed species and ecological communities and is a key focus of most recovery plans. The following assessments consider novel biota in each of the six main categories identified in this KTP: • Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by vertebrate pests. • Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by invertebrate pests. • Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by terrestrial weeds. • Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by aquatic weeds and algae. • Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by marine pests. • Mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by pathogens.

For each of the categories, these assessments provide a summary of novel biota present in Australia in that group that pose a threat to native species and ecological communities and an example of how a particular novel biota in that category is adversely affecting listed threatened species and ecological communities.

Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by vertebrate pests

It has been estimated that 73 invasive vertebrate pest animal species have established wild populations in Australia, including mammals, fish, birds, reptiles and amphibians (Bromford, 2003). Intentionally-introduced species include the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), cane toad, Indian myna (Acridotheres tristis) and starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Other vertebrate species have been brought as domestic pets or stock and escaped, or been released into the wild to establish populations, such as the donkey (Equua asinus), one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius), feral cat and deer (Axis axis, A. porcinus, Cervus elaphus, C.timorensis, C. unicolour and Dama dama). Further species such as the house mouse (Mus musculus), the black or ship rat (Rattus rattus) and brown rat (R. norvegicus), arrived in Australia incidentally on ships and in imported items (Norris et al., 2005).

Seven of the invasive vertebrates in Australia are among 100 species nominated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as the world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000). These include the domestic cat (Felis catus), goat (Capra hircus), house mouse (Mus musculus), pig (Sus scrofa), rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and ship rat (Rattus rattus), the Indian myna (Acridotheres tristis), red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer), starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and the red-eared slider turtle (Trachemys scripta).

Forty-three non-native freshwater fish species have been recorded in the wild in Australia, of which 34 are reported to have established populations (Koehn and McKenzie, 2004; Lintermans, 2004). One additional species, rosy barb (Puntius conchonius) is now known to be established in northern and Western Australia (Corfield et al., 2008). Five of these freshwater species established in Australia were nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000), including carp (Cyprinus carpio), Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 21 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Seven vertebrate species are listed as KTPs under the EPBC Act (DEWHA, 2009a). These include rabbits, pigs, unmanaged goats, foxes, rats on Australian offshore Islands, cane toads and cats.

Invasive vertebrate pests impact on native species in many ways. Escaped or released domestic animals such as donkeys, camels, buffalo, pigs and horses damage the environment by grazing native plants, fouling water sources, severely damaging the aquatic ecosystems and riparian zones of waterways, causing soil erosion on river banks by destroying vegetation, out-competing native species for food and shelter and acting as vectors for disease (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, pp 4–5). Similarly, other novel biota such as cats, foxes and introduced fish prey on native species, are vectors for disease and compete for food and shelter. Other species including rats, mice and rabbits, invade the burrows of native species, out-compete them by having high reproduction rate, compete for food and are vectors for disease (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001, pp 4–5).

A number of listed threatened fish species are directly threatened by introduced species. Melanotaenia eachamensis (Lake Eacham rainbowfish) were eliminated from Lake Eacham as a result of translocations of native species (Barlow et al., 1987). The endangered Galaxias fuscus (barred galaxias) is threatened by alien salmonids (Raadik et al., 1996). Almost all of the Tasmanian galaxiids listed under the EPBC Act including the endangered Galaxias auratus (golden galaxias), Galaxias johnstoni (Clarence galaxias) and the vulnerable Galaxias parvus (swamp galaxias) are threatened by trout (and some by redfin perch (Perca fluviatilis)) (TSS, 2006). Gambusia and redfin have been implicated in the decline of the endangered Nannoperca oxleyana (Oxleyan pygmy perch) and Nannoperca obscura (Yarra pygmy perch) (Arthington, 1996; Hammer et al., 2007, p 206).

For this group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is provided as one example that further demonstrates the impact of vertebrate pests.

European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

The European rabbit was introduced into Australia as domesticated individuals with the first fleet, which were released onto a property in Geelong in 1859 by a member of the Victorian Acclimatisation Society for Christmas hunting sport (McLeod, 2004). The rate of spread of the rabbit is recorded as the fastest of any colonising animal anywhere in the world. The speed of spread was aided by the fact that rabbits used the burrows of native species and were favoured by changes to the natural environment made by agricultural practices (McLeod, 2004).

Rabbits are now one of the widest spread mammals in Australia and are found everywhere south of the tropics. The impact of rabbits on the Australian environment has been disastrous and they have significantly altered the botanical composition of extensive areas of natural habitat (Eldridge, 2000; Croft et al., 2002). Rabbits graze heavily on native plant species, killing some and preventing germination and seeding establishment of others. Rabbits transform the landscape and cause soil erosion due to the loss of vegetation (Lange and Graham, 1983; Cooke, 1987; Norris et al., 2005). This grazing reduces the amount of protective vegetation for native species. Rabbits also take over burrows and compete for food (Rolls, 1969, p 67). The presence of rabbits also attracts predatory species, such as cats and foxes that also prey on native animal species (Norris et al., 2005).

This impact can be demonstrated for Macrotis lagotis (the greater bilby), a medium size member of the marsupial family. At the time of European settlement greater bilbies were widespread throughout arid and semi-arid areas of Australia. The species is now currently restricted to small pockets in far western Queensland (Hume et al., 2004). The greater bilby relies on a constant source of invertebrates such as termites, native seeds and roots (Navnith, 2009). After the invasion of rabbits its habitat and food sources were severely restricted, as the food was being overgrazed and the vegetation destroyed. Additionally, the loss of habitat is making the greater bilby more vulnerable to attacks from feral cats and foxes (Hume et al., 2004). When reintroduced into areas

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 22 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 where rabbits, foxes and cats have been removed, greater bilbies successfully recolonise the area and breed (Mosby and O’Donnell, 2003).

Rabbits have been listed as a KTP under the EPBC Act (DEWHA, 2009a). Table 1 shows species listed as nationally threatened under the EPBC Act that have rabbits listed as a threat to their ongoing survival.

Table 1: EPBC Act listed species and ecological communities that list rabbits as a threat.

Scientific name Common name Current status Birds Acanthiza iredalei iredalei slender-billed thornbill (western) Vulnerable Amytornis barbatus barbatus grey grasswren (bulloo) Vulnerable Amytornis textilis modestus thick-billed grasswren (eastern) Vulnerable Amytornis textilis myall thick-billed grasswren (Gawler Vulnerable ranges) Anthochaera phrygia regent honeyeater Endangered

Cacatua pastinator pastinator Muir’s corella (southern), western Vulnerable long-billed corella (southern) Calyptorhynchus lathami glossy black-cockatoo (south Endangered halmaturinus Australian), glossy black-cockatoo (kangaroo island) Diomedea exulans wandering albatross Vulnerable Geophaps scripta scripta squatter pigeon (southern) Vulnerable Halobaena caerulea blue petrel Vulnerable Leipoa ocellata malleefowl Vulnerable Neophema chrysogaster orange-bellied parrot Critically endangered Pachyptila turtur subantarctica fairy prion (southern), fairy prion Vulnerable (Macquarie island) Pedionomus torquatus plains-wanderer Vulnerable Pezoporus occidentalis night parrot Endangered Poephila cincta cincta black-throated finch (southern) Endangered Polytelis alexandrae princess parrot, Alexandra’s Vulnerable parrot Pterodroma mollis soft-plumaged petrel Vulnerable Pterodroma neglecta neglecta kermadec petrel (western) Vulnerable Thalassarche chrysostoma grey-headed albatross Endangered Mammals Burramys parvus mountain pygmy-possum Endangered Dasycercus byrnei kowari Vulnerable Dasycercus cristicauda mulgara Vulnerable Dasycercus hillieri ampurta Endangered Lagorchestes hirsutus mala, rufous hare-wallaby (central Endangered unnamed subsp. mainland form) Macrotis lagotis greater bilby Vulnerable Notomys fuscus dusky hopping-mouse, wilkiniti Vulnerable Perameles gunnii unnamed eastern barred bandicoot Endangered subsp. (mainland) Petrogale lateralis lateralis black-flanked rock-wallaby Vulnerable Petrogale lateralis MacDonnell warru, black-footed rock-wallaby Vulnerable Ranges race Petrogale penicillata brush-tailed rock-wallaby Vulnerable

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 23 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Petrogale xanthopus yellow-footed rock-wallaby (SA Vulnerable xanthopus and NSW) Pseudomys australis plains rat Vulnerable Reptiles Ophidiocephalus taeniatus bronzeback snake-lizard Vulnerable Tympanocryptis pinguicolla grassland earless dragon Endangered Insects Synemon plana golden sun moth Critically endangered Plants Abutilon julianae Norfolk Island abutilon Critically endangered Acacia araneosa spidery wattle, balcanoona wattle Vulnerable Acacia awestoniana Stirling Range wattle Vulnerable Acacia carneorum needle wattle, dead finish, purple- Vulnerable wood wattle Acacia cretacea chalky wattle Endangered Acacia enterocarpa jumping-jack wattle Endangered Acacia glandulicarpa hairy-pod wattle Vulnerable Acacia insolita subsp. recurva Yornaning wattle Endangered Acacia latzii Latz’s wattle Vulnerable Acacia peuce waddy, waddi, waddy-wood, Vulnerable Birdsville wattle Acacia pickardii Vulnerable Acacia rhamphophylla Kundip wattle Endangered Acacia rhetinocarpa neat wattle, resin wattle (SA) Vulnerable Acacia subflexuosa subsp. Endangered Capillata Achyranthes margaretarum Critically endangered Asterolasia nivea Bindoon starbush Vulnerable Austrostipa nullanulla club spear-grass Vulnerable Ballantinia antipoda southern shepherd’s purse Endangered Banksia cuneata matchstick banksia, quairading Endangered banksia Banksia oligantha Wagin banksia Endangered Barbarea australis native wintercress Critically endangered Boronia capitata subsp. Endangered capitata Borya mirabilis Grampians pincushion-lily Endangered Brachyscias verecundus ironstone brachyscias Critically endangered Brachyscome muelleri Endangered Caladenia bryceana subsp. dwarf spider-orchid Endangered bryceana Caladenia amoena charming spider-orchid Endangered Caladenia argocalla white-beauty spider-orchid Endangered Caladenia audasii McIvor spider-orchid, Audas Endangered spider-orchid Caladenia busselliana Bussell’s spider-orchid Endangered Caladenia concolor crimson spider-orchid, maroon Vulnerable spider-orchid Caladenia conferta coast spider-orchid Endangered Caladenia formosa elegant spider-orchid, blood-red Vulnerable spider-orchid Caladenia gladiolata bayonet spider-orchid, clubbed Endangered

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 24 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

spider-orchid Caladenia lowanensis Wimmera spider-orchid Endangered Caladenia s macroclavia large-club spider-orchid Endangered Caladenia robinsonii Frankston spider-orchid Endangered Caladenia rosella rosella spider-orchid, little pink Endangered spider-orchid Caladenia tensa greencomb spider-orchid, rigid Endangered spider-orchid Caladenia thysanochila fringed spider-orchid Endangered Caladenia versicolor candy spider-orchid Vulnerable Caladenia xanthochila yellow-lip spider-orchid Endangered Calectasia arnoldii stilted tinsel lily Vulnerable Calonema wanosa Vulnerable Caladenia elegans Endangered Calotis glandulosa mauve burr-daisy Vulnerable Chamelaucium sp. Gingin (NG Gingin wax Endangered Marchant s.n. 4/11/1988) Chorizema humile prostrate flame pea Endangered Conostylis dielsii subsp. teres Irwin conostylis Endangered Conostylis drummondii Drummond’s conostylis Endangered Conostylis micrantha small-flowered conostylis Endangered Conostylis rogeri kulin conostylis, single-flowered Vulnerable conostylis Conostylis setigera subsp. boscabel conostylis Critically endangered Dasys Cynanchum elegans white-flowered wax plant Endangered Darwinia carnea mogumber bell Endangered Darwinia sp. Carnamah (J harlequin bell Endangered Coleby-Williams 148) Dichanthium setosum Vulnerable Drakonorchis drakeoides hinged dragon orchid Endangered Eremophila viscida varnish bush Endangered Eucalyptus cadens warby range swamp gum Vulnerable Eucalyptus gunnii subsp. miena cider gum Endangered divaricata Eucalyptus morrisbyi Morrisbys gum Endangered Frankenia parvula short-leaved frankenia Endangered Gastrolobium lehmannii Cranbrook pea Vulnerable Grevillea althoferorum split-leaved grevillea Endangered Grevillea curviloba subsp. narrow curved-leaf grevillea Endangered incurva Grevillea maccutcheonii Endangered Grevillea scapigera Corrigin grevillea Endangered Gyrostemon reticulatus net-veined gyrostemon Critically endangered Hakea aculeata column hakea Vulnerable Hakea maconochieana Vulnerable Hakea pulvinifera Endangered Hemiandra gardneri red snakebush Endangered Lepidium aschersonii spiny pepper-cress Vulnerable Lepidium hyssopifolium basalt pepper-cress Endangered Lepidium monoplocoides winged pepper-cress Endangered Lepidium peregrinum Endangered

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 25 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Minuria tridens minnie daisy Vulnerable Nematoceras dienemum windswept helmet-orchid Endangered (Macquarie island) Pterostylis despectans lowly greenhood Endangered Philotheca basistyla white-flowered philotheca Endangered Pomaderris subplicata concave pomaderris Vulnerable Prasophyllum correctum gaping leek-orchid Endangered Prasophyllum frenchii maroon leek-orchid, slaty leek- Endangered orchid, stout leek-orchid, French’s leek-orchid Prasophyllum goldsackii Goldsack’s leek-orchid Endangered Prasophyllum morganii mignonette leek-orchid, cobungra Vulnerable leek-orchid, dense leek-orchid Prasophyllum pallidum pale leek-orchid Vulnerable Prasophyllum subbisectum pomonal leek-orchid Endangered Prostanthera calycina Vulnerable Prostanthera eurybioides monarto mintbush Endangered Pterostylis arenicola sandhill greenhood orchid Vulnerable Pterostylis basaltica basalt greenhood Endangered Pterostylis bryophila Hindmarsh Valley greenhood Critically endangered Pterostylis cheraphila floodplain rustyhood Vulnerable Pterostylis gibbosa Illawarra greenhood, rufa Endangered greenhood, pouched greenhood Pterostylis sp. (Northampton) Northampton midget greenhood Endangered (SD Hopper 3349) Pterostylis sp. Halbury (R Halbury greenhood Endangered Bates 8425) Pterostylis sp. Hale (R Bates hale dwarf greenhood Endangered 21725) Pterostylis xerophila desert greenhood Vulnerable Ptilotus beckerianus Vulnerable Ptilotus fasciculatus Fitzgerald’s mulla-mulla Endangered Ranunculus anemoneus anemone buttercup Vulnerable Rulingia sp. Trigwell Bridge (R Trigwell’s rulingia Endangered Smith s.n. 20/6/1989) Rutidosis heterogama Vulnerable Senecio garlandii Vulnerable Senecio macrocarpus large-fruit fireweed, large-fruit Vulnerable groundsel Senecio megaglossus superb groundsel Vulnerable Stachystemon nematophorus three-flowered stachystemon Vulnerable Stackhousia annua annual stackhousia, annual Vulnerable candles Swainsona murrayana slender darling-pea, slender Vulnerable swainson, murray swainson-pea Swainsona pyrophila yellow swainson-pea Vulnerable Synaphea quartzitica quartz-loving synaphea Endangered Tetratheca deltoidea granite tetratheca Endangered Tetratheca gunnii shy susan Critically endangered Thelymitra cyanapicata dark-tipped sun-orchid Critically endangered Thelymitra epipactoides metallic sun-orchid Endangered Thelymitra mackibbinii brilliant sun-orchid Vulnerable

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 26 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Thomasia glabripetala sandplain thomasia Vulnerable Tribonanthes purpurea granite pink Vulnerable Verticordia fimbrilepis subsp. shy featherflower Endangered fimbrilepis Verticordia spicata subsp. scaly-leaved featherflower Endangered squamosa Verticordia staminosa var. granite featherflower Endangered cylindracea Verticordia staminosa subsp. Endangered staminosa Westringia crassifolia whipstick westringia Endangered Ecological Communities Buloke Woodlands of the Riverina and Murray-Darling Depression Endangered Bioregions Grey Box (Eucalyptus microcarpa) Grassy Woodlands and Derived Endangered Native Grasslands of South-eastern Australia Eastern Stirling Range Montane Heath and Thicket Endangered Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub of the Sydney Region Endangered Gippsland Red Gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis subsp. mediana) Critically Endangered Grassy Woodland and Associated Native Grassland Natural Grasslands of the Queensland Central Highlands and the Endangered northern Fitzroy Basin Perched Wetlands of the Wheatbelt region with extensive stands of Endangered living sheoak and paperbark across the lake floor (Toolibin Lake) Silurian Limestone Pomaderris Shrubland of the South East Corner Endangered and Australian Alps Bioregions Weeping Myall Woodlands Endangered

Summary of assessment: Invasive vertebrate pests cause decline in the population size and distribution of many threatened species, making local extinctions likely in the absence of effective control measures. In particular, rabbits are having an adverse impact on the species through direct competition and habitat destruction.

The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened species.

Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by invertebrate pests

Of the invasive invertebrates in Australia, seven are nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the world’s most invasive species. These include Argentine ant (Linepithema humile), big-headed ant (Pheidole megacephala), common wasp (Vespula vulgaris), yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes), flatworm (Platydemus manokwari), electric ant (Wasmannia auropunctata), and red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) (Lowe et al., 2000).

If introduced to Australia the Asian gypsy moth (Lymantra dispar) has the potential to have wide- ranging impacts on threatened species and ecological communities. The Asian gypsy moth has polyphagous larvae (feeds on many types of plants) and has been shown to feed on a wide variety of Australian native trees including many endemic species with restricted distributions such as the endangered Eucalyptus gunnii subsp. divaricata from Tasmania (Matsuki et al., 2003). If introduced this moth could have severe consequences on native vegetation, and fauna species’ food supply and habitat.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 27 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

The European wasp (Vespula germanica), and the English wasp (Vespula vulgaris) were first recorded in Tasmania in 1959 (Goodisman et al., 2001) and 1995 (Matthews, 2000) respectively. European and English wasps are voracious predators with selective appetites, and cause serious impacts on native species by preying on them and out-competing them for food (Matthews, 2000; Goodisman et al., 2001). Wasps also compete with insectivorous and nectivorous birds that depend on insects to feed nestlings. If wasps become established in the vicinity of the Tasmanian nesting areas of the nationally listed critically endangered Neophema chrysogaster (orange-bellied parrot) and endangered Lathamus discolor (swift parrot) they could threaten their reproductive success.

Feral honey bees (Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) have had a major impact on native bees and native Australian plants through disrupting their breeding and seeding systems and on native birds and animals, through competing for nectar and occupying tree hollows (Paton, 1996). Asian honeybees (Apis cerana) detected in Cairns in 2007, if it establishes in Australia is likely to have a significant impact on native species. Asian honey bees are recorded from other countries as hollows and nesting cavities in trees and also build up rapidly competing vigorously for nectar and pollen resources (QDPI&F, 2010).

Feral honey bees are having an impact on all obligate hollow nesting birds in south west of Western Australia (Johnstone and Kirkby, 2007). Bumblebees have naturalised in Tasmania after a suspected deliberate introduction from New Zealand for horticultural purposes (Semmens et al., 1993; Hingston, 2006). In Tasmania bumblebees are active at low temperatures and compete with native bees and nectivorous birds. If bumblebees were to be introduced to mainland Australia they would pose a threat particularly in Western Australia to the critically endangered native bee Neopasiphae simplicior as well as native bird species by competing for pollen, nectar and habitat (Hingston and McQuillan, 1998).

In Australia, ants are the dominant terrestrial invertebrate, occurring in all habitats and fulfilling a crucial role in the environment as predators, prey, pollinators, seed dispersers and soil aerators (Lach and Thomas, 2008). Invasive ant species, such as the red imported fire ant, electric ant, Argentina ant and big-headed ant, have a major impact on native ant species by displacing them and out-competing them for resources (Lach and Thomas, 2008; Callan and Majer, 2009). Replacement of native species by invasive exotic ants impacts on biodiversity by not fulfilling the roles of the native ants and changing the environment. Invasive ant species also impact on other wildlife, such as quail and turtles, by attacking them and their nests (Moloney and Vanderwoude, 2002).

Two invasive exotic ant species are listed as KTPs under the EPBC Act including ‘The reduction in the biodiversity of Australian native fauna and flora due to the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (fire ant)’ and ‘Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem integrity following invasion by the Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean'.

For this nominated group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, yellow crazy ant is provided as one example to further detail the impact of invertebrate pests.

Yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes)

The yellow crazy ant has been introduced across the tropics and subtropics as a by-product of human commerce. It invades urban, agricultural and native ecosystems where it can have catastrophic impacts. These impacts include decimation of endemic species, changed habitat structure and resource availability, loss of biodiversity and altered ecosystem processes (Abbott, 2005). The primary threatening process from the yellow crazy ant results from its propensity to establish large populations, rapid spread, association with outbreaks of scale insects, and its broad foraging range and generalist feeding habits.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 28 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

The yellow crazy ant is known to kill invertebrates, reptiles, hatchling birds and small mammals. On Christmas Island the yellow crazy ant is an environmental pest that directly threatens the conservation value of this isolated oceanic island. A number of species of endemic fauna including land crabs, mammals, birds, and reptiles are at risk either directly through predation or indirectly through habitat alteration or resource depletion (DEWHA, 2005d).

The yellow crazy ant is an aggressive opportunist species capable of invading and rapidly colonizing a wide range of both disturbed and undisturbed habitats. On Christmas Island, supercolony formation by the yellow crazy ant has resulted in the local extirpation of the endemic Gecarcoidea natalis (red land crab) (Abbott, 2005). An estimated 15–20 million red crabs have been killed since crazy ant supercolonies were first noted in 1989 (O’Dowd et al., 1999). Elimination of this keystone species from large areas of the island has resulted in a rapid shift in forest structure and composition. Mutualism between the yellow crazy ant and introduced or cryptogenic scale insects can also result in scale insect outbreaks and dieback of the forest canopy. Ant invasion causes major alterations in composition and structure of the forest.

On Christmas Island, yellow crazy ants cause a “state change” in the rainforest ecosystem. By eliminating the red land crab, which is the major seed, seedling and litter consumer in the island rainforest, the yellow crazy ant affects the rate of seedling recruitment and litter breakdown, altering the recruitment dynamics of rainforest trees and almost certainly changing patterns of nutrient availability (O’Dowd et al., 2001, pp 447–450). Outbreaks of sap-sucking scale insects associated with yellow crazy ants stress trees and lead to decreased seed production and high mortality in some canopy species. Furthermore, seed dispersal by endemic birds such as Zosterops natalis (Christmas Island white-eye), Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus (Christmas Island thrush) and Chalcophaps indica natalis (Christmas Island emerald dove), may be compromised in yellow crazy ant supercolonies.

The endemic red land crab provides ‘biotic resistance’ to a wide range of potential alien invaders. Extirpation of the red crab from the ecosystem in areas of yellow crazy ant supercolonies facilitates ‘follow-on’ invasions of the giant African land snail (Achatina fulica) and a variety of environmental weeds (O’Dowd et al., 1999; Abbott, 2005). Table 2 shows species listed as nationally threatened under the EPBC Act that have yellow crazy ant listed as a threat to their ongoing survival.

Table 2: EPBC Act listed species that list yellow crazy ants as a threat.

Scientific name Common name EPBC Act listing Accipiter hiogaster natalis Christmas Island goshawk Endangered Chalcophaps indica natalis emerald dove (Christmas Island) Endangered Chelonia mydas green turtle Vulnerable Crocidura attenuata trichura Christmas Island shrew Endangered Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Vulnerable Fregata andrewsi Christmas Island frigatebird Vulnerable Lepidodactylus listeri Christmas Island gecko Vulnerable Ninox natalis Christmas Island hawk-owl Vulnerable Papasula abbotti Abbott's booby Endangered Pipistrellus murrayi Christmas Island pipistrelle Critically Endangered Ramphotyphlops exocoeti Christmas Island blind snake Vulnerable Turdus poliocephalus island thrush (Christmas Island) Endangered erythropleurus

Summary of assessment: Invasive invertebrate pests are causes of decline in the population size and distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 29 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 likely in the absence of effective control measures. In particular, yellow crazy ants are having an adverse impact on the species and ecological communities through direct competition and habitat destruction.

The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened species.

Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by terrestrial weeds

Invasive terrestrial weeds are having major impacts on Australian native species and ecological communities. Invasive weeds change the natural environment by out-competing native species for space, nutrients and sunlight (Adair and Groves, 1998). Weeds can change fire frequency and behaviour (gamba grass), species composition and richness (camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora)), better colonise disturbed environments, smother native species (bridal creeper) and provide shelter for invasive vertebrate pests such as rabbits (blackberries (Rubus spp.)).

All of Australia’s vegetative communities have been or are subject to some level of weed invasion. It has been estimated that on a national scale exotic weed species account for 15% of flora, and of these one-quarter are either serious environmental weeds or have the potential to be serious weeds (Weeds, 2010). It is estimated that 80% of invasive plants were deliberately introduced, 65% as ornamental plants and approximately 15% for pasture or forestry (CRC Weed Management, 2003b). Further to this, a 2006 study of Australian weeds determined that approximately 2800 weed species are now naturalised in Australia, with 71 being recognised as being of national significance (Coutts-Smith and Downey, 2006).

The majority of nationally listed threatened flora species and ecological communities have weed invasion listed as a key threat to their survival. Currently one group of Northern Territory grass species, ‘Invasion of northern Australia by Gamba Grass and other introduced grasses’ is listed as a KTP under EPBC Act.

Intentionally introduced plants can also become weeds, for example murram grass (Ammophila arenaria) and sea spurge (Euphorbia parallias), which were introduced to sand dunes to provide stabilisation. Due to the success of the introduction of these species there is a complete change to the morphology and natural selection process in many of the affected upper beach and dunes area (Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania, 2003). These changes eliminate many nesting areas for species that utilise the coastal zone, such as Thinornis rubricollis rubricollis (hooded plover) and Haematopus longirostris (pied oyster catcher).

For this nominated group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, lantana (Lantana camara) is provided as one example to further detail the impact of terrestrial weeds.

Lantana (Lantana camara)

Lantana is a profusely branching, scrambling, aromatic shrub 2–4 (up to 15) m tall and wide, with square-sectioned, often prickly cane-like stems (Swarbrick et al., 1995; Swarbrick et al., 1998, p 199). Lantana is an 'aggregate species', or 'species complex' (Day et al., 2003; Sanders 2006) containing diverse varieties that have arisen from natural and horticultural hybridisation (Howard, 1969; Swarbrick et al., 1998, p 120; Parsons & Cuthbertson, 2001b).

Lantana was first recorded in Australia in 1841 from the Botanic Gardens in Adelaide, there have since been many introductions for horticultural purposes and lantana has spread rapidly (Swarbrick et al., 1998, p 121). Lantana is listed as a Weed of National Significance and has spread along the east coast of Australia, from southern New South Wales to Cape York, and from sea-level up to 600 m altitude, or less commonly to 1000 m. It has invaded at least four million hectares, mainly in

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 30 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

New South Wales and Queensland (CRC Weed Management, 2003c), and is expected to significantly increase its distribution and density within this range unless properly managed

Lantana is found in New South Wales and Queensland and is also naturalised in the Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia, on Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, on three islands in the Torres Strait and (apparently marginally) in Victoria. Lantana is not yet known to be naturalised in Tasmania, but ornamental plantings have been found in the State.

Lantana has an adverse effect on biodiversity as it suppresses native vegetation by forming dense thickets that shade seedlings, out-competes native species for nutrients, and smothers plants (Biosecurity Queensland, 2010). Lantana is also thought to be allelopathic, i.e. able to inhibit or suppress by chemical means the germination and/or growth of at least some competing plant species (Swarbrick et al., 1995; Gentle and Duggin, 1997; Day et al., 2003).

Lantana can flower and set seed all year round and its seeds are widely dispersed by many birds and mammals. Open forests and woodlands on Australia’s east coast can be readily invaded by lantana without disturbance, with lantana becoming distributed throughout these community types. Lantana also invades many other ecological communities especially after disturbance, and can become the dominant understorey species in disturbed native forests (Day et al., 2003). It can inhibit succession following a disturbance by out-competing native colonisers and preventing natural recovery. Declines in plant species richness with increasing levels of lantana infestation have been documented in dry rainforest (Fensham et al., 1994).

Lantana is one of the worst invasive weeds in Australia and has been estimated to threaten populations of more than 1 300 native plants and animals. There have been records of some native species such as bandicoots, whipbirds, quail, wrens, birdwing butterflies, and brush turkeys using lantana thickets as substitute habitat where it has replaced the natural understorey vegetation, however this is only as a substitute for native species (Biosecurity Queensland, 2010).

This impact can be demonstrated for the critically endangered ecological community ‘Littoral Rainforest and Coastal Vine Thickets of Eastern Australia’. Within Australia, littoral rainforest occurs along the coast from far eastern Victoria up the east coast through New South Wales and Queensland and across the Northern Territory and Western Australia. This ecological community is listed as critically endangered in its southern occurrences along the eastern coastline of Australia (including offshore islands) from Princess Charlotte Bay, Cape York Peninsula to, and including, eastern Victoria. The ecological community provides a range of benefits to the landscape, it is an important buffer to coastal erosion and wind damage, provides natural refugia, suitable nest sites and food resources for resident and seasonally migratory species (DEWHA, 2008b and references therein).

‘Littoral Rainforest and Coastal Vine Thickets of Eastern Australia’ once formed an archipelago of patches along the eastern coast of Australia however this has now been reduced and fragmented primarily by coastal development, sandmining and agriculture (DEWHA, 2008b and references therein). The resulting fragmentation and reduction in patch size render the ecological community more vulnerable to other threats including weed invasion, edge effects and fire. The ecological community is subject to invasion by transformer weeds, these being highly invasive taxa with the potential to seriously alter the structure and function of the ecological community. If left unchecked, such weeds will eventually take over and destroy the affected patch. Transformer weeds include lantana, bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilfera subsp. rotundata) and rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora), which are all recognised as Weeds of National Significance i.e. high impact, highly invasive species (DEWHA, 2008b and references therein).

Table 3 provides a list of species or ecological communities, listed as threatened under the EPBC Act, that are considered to be adversely affected by lantana.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 31 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Table 3: EPBC Act listed species and ecological communities that list lantana as a threat.

Species Common Name EPBC Act Plants Acronychia littoralis scented acronychia Endangered Allocasuarina portuensis Endangered Angophora robur Vulnerable Arthraxon hispidus hairy-joint grass Vulnerable Baloghia marmorata marbled balogia, jointed baloghia Vulnerable Boronia umbellate orara boronia Vulnerable Bosistoa transversa s. lat. three-leaved bosistoa, heart-leaved Vulnerable (Bosistoa selwynii & Bosistoa bosistoa, yellow satinheart, heart- transversa) leaved bonewood Bothriochloa bunyensis satin-top grass Vulnerable Clematis fawcettii stream clematis Vulnerable Corynocarpus rupestris subsp. glenugie karaka Vulnerable Rupestris Cryptocarya foetida stinking cryptocarya, stinking laurel Vulnerable Cynanchum elegans white-flowered wax plant Endangered Cyperus semifertilis Vulnerable Daphnandra johnsonii Endangered Desmodium acanthocladum thorny pea Vulnerable Diospyros mabacea red-fruited ebony, silky persimmon, Endangered ebony Diploglottis campbellii small-leaved tamarind Endangered Elaeocarpus sedentarius minyon quandong Endangered Elaeocarpus williamsianus hairy quandong Endangered Endiandra floydii Floyd’s walnut Endangered Endiandra hayesii rusty rose walnut, velvet laurel Vulnerable Eucalyptus glaucina slaty red gum Vulnerable Eucalyptus parramattensis Earp’s gum, Earp’s dirty gum Vulnerable subsp. Decadens Eucalyptus tetrapleura square-fruited ironbark Vulnerable Fontainea australis southern fontainea Vulnerable Fontainea oraria coastal fontainea Endangered Gossia fragrantissima scale myrtle, sweet myrtle Endangered Haloragis exalata subsp. velutina Vulnerable Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia monkey nut, bopple nut, red bopple, Vulnerable red bopple nut, red nut, beef nut, red apple nut, red boppel nut, ivory silky oak Irenepharsus trypherus delicate cress, Illawarra irene Endangered Isoglossa eranthemoides Endangered Marsdenia longiloba clear milkvine Vulnerable Melichrus sp. Newfoundland State Endangered Forest (P.Gilmour 7852). Melichrus sp. narrow-leaf melichrus Endangered Gibberagee (A.S.Benwelll & J.B.Williams 97239) Notelaea lloydii Vulnerable Ochrosia moorei southern ochrosia Endangered

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 32 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Owenia cepiodora onionwood, bog onion, onion cedar Vulnerable Parsonsia dorrigoensis milky silkpod Endangered Phaius australis lesser swamp-orchid Endangered Phaius tancarvilleae swamp lily, greater swamp-orchid Endangered Plectranthus nitidus nightcap plectranthus Endangered Plectranthus omissus Endangered Pterostylis gibbosa Illawarra greenhood, rufa greenhood, Endangered pouched greenhood Quassia sp. Mooney Creek (J.King Endangered s.n. 1949) Randia moorei spiny gardenia Endangered Rapanea sp. Richmond River purple-leaf muttonwood, Lismore Endangered (J.H.Maiden & J.L.Boorman NSW muttonwood 26751) = Myrsine richmondensis Rheodytes leukops Fitzroy River turtle Vulnerable Sophora fraseri Vulnerable Syzygium paniculatum magenta lilly pilly, magenta cherry, Vulnerable pocket-less brush cherry, scrub cherry, creek lilly pilly, brush cherry Tinospora tinosporoides arrow-head vine Vulnerable Triplarina imbricata Endangered Tylophora linearis Endangered Tylophora woollsii Endangered Zieria prostrata Endangered Animals Dasyornis brachypterus eastern bristlebird Endangered Elusor macrurus Mary River turtle Endangered Ecological Communities Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub of the Sydney Region Endangered Littoral Rainforest and Coastal Vine Thickets of Eastern Australia Critically Endangered Blue Gum High Forest of the Sydney Basin Bioregion Critically Endangered Semi-evergreen vine thickets of the Brigalow Belt (North and South) and Endangered Nandewar Bioregions Swamp Tea-tree (Melaleuca irbyana) Forest of South-east Queensland Critically Endangered Turpentine-Ironbark Forest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion Critically Endangered

Summary of assessment: Invasive terrestrial weeds are the cause of decline in the population size and distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions likely in the absence of effective control measures. In particular, lantana is having an adverse impact on the species and ecological communities through direct competition and habitat destruction.

The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened species.

Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by aquatic weeds and algae

Invasive aquatic weeds of inshore marine and fresh water ecosystems constitute a significant component of Australia’s weed flora and make up a third of Australia’s 20 Weeds of National

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 33 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Significance (WoNS, 2009). Another invasive aquatic weed species that is not listed as a Weed of National Significance that has been introduced to Australia, water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000). A number of semi-aquatic invasive exotic grass species, including gamba grass are listed as KTPs under the EPBC Act.

Many of Australia’s aquatic weeds were introduced and spread by the aquarium trade including water hyacinth, cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana), hydrocotyl (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides), parrot’s feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum), Caulerpa taxifolia and salvinia (Salvinia molesta). Others including olive hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis) were introduced as feed for livestock and have spread through the wetlands and some, such as arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), were escaped garden plants. Aquatic weeds fall into four groups: emergent; floating; floating leaf; and submerged weeds (Blanchard et al., 2009).

The arum lily, a native of South Africa, is an emergent weed that has stem and leaves growing above the water line and is often found growing along the edges of creeks and ponds. The arum lily is toxic to wildlife and can form dense clumps along water courses inhibiting native animals from access as well as changing the bank structure and out-competing native plant species (Blanchard et al., 2009).

Floating aquatic weeds such as salvinia and water hyacinth form thick mats on the surface of the water blocking out light and deoxygenating the water, preventing germination and smothering native flora and fauna. Other weeds, such as cabomba and leafy elodea or dense waterweed (Egeria densa), are submerged aquatic weeds and many have the potential to spread through Australia’s aquatic habitats (Schooler et al., 2006; Blanchard et al., 2009). These species also smother native species, restrict water flow, increase siltation and alter the environment for fauna, blocking pathways and making feeding difficult.

Aquatic plants intentionally introduced for beneficial environmental purposes can also become invasive and result in more problems than they remediate. The semi-aquatic upper tidal weed common cordgrass or rice grass (Spartina anglica) was introduced to Tasmania and Victoria to reclaim salt marshes and mudflats, but has successfully colonised and now clogs many Tasmanian estuaries. Cordgrass has changed the morphology of the upper tidal area that is important for spawning for many aquatic species and birds (Kriwoken and Hedge, 2000).

The diatom didymo (Didymosphenia geminata) is not currently present in Australia, but is a major pest in New Zealand (Whitton, 2009). This species has the potential to affect fish such as galaxiids through abrasion of skin and gills.

The endangered ecological community 'Assemblages of plants and invertebrate animals of tumulus (organic mound) springs of the Swan Coastal Plain' is threatened by two major wetland weed species Isolepis prolifera and Pennisetum clandestinum (DEWHA, 2007).

The endangered Epthianura crocea tunneyi (yellow chat (Alligator Rivers)) is threatened by invasion of exotic weeds such as para grass, gamba grass, and olive hymenachne, which modify the species’ habitat by increasing the density of the grass and shrub layer, smothering native grasses and increasing fuel loads which promote intense, late dry-season fires. These changes in the habitat make it unsuitable for the yellow chat (Alligator Rivers) (DEWHA, 2009a).

Summary of assessment: Invasive aquatic weeds are the cause of decline in the population size and distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions likely in the absence of effective control measures. The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened species.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 34 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by marine pests

Marine pests are any exotic marine species that may pose a threat to Australia's marine environment or industry if introduced, established or translocated. Large numbers of marine pests have been translocated into the Australian environment by a variety of means including through ships' ballast water and by attachment to ships' hulls, anchors and other structures (referred to as biofouling) (DEWHA, 2009c).

Australia has over 250 introduced marine species. Fortunately most remain relatively harmless but some crabs, mussels, seastars and seaweeds have become marine pests in various locations. The Northern Pacific seastar (Asterias amurensis) preys on native species depleting aquaculture and fishery operations, while the European fan worm (Sabella spallanzanii) forms a 'carpet' on the seabed, smothering native species for food and space and altering the marine habitat to suit itself (Marine Pests, 2009).

Three novel biota introduced to Australia, the northern Pacific seastar, wakame seaweed (Undaria pinnatifida), and European/green shore crab (Carcinus maenas), were nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000). In Tasmania the arrival and establishment of the New Zealand screw shell (Maoricolpus roseus) and the marine clam (Corbula gibba), which now occur in high population densities on some-soft bottom sediments in southern Tasmania, threaten to irreversibly change the local species composition. This could further threaten the breeding and hence survival of the endangered Brachionichthys hirsutus (spotted handfish) (Hirst et al., 2007).

Other species with the potential to become invasive if introduced to Australia include the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis), Asian shore crab (Hemigrapsus sanguineus) and the jack-knife clam (Ensis directus (syn Ensis americanus)). These species impact on native species by altering habitat, causing bank erosion, and preying on and out-competing native species (Voigt, 1999, pp 31-35; Hopkins, 2001; Brousseau and Baglivo, 2005; Rudnick et al., 2005).

For this nominated group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, two species—northern Pacific Seastar and New Zealand seastar (Patiriella regularis)—are provided as examples to further detail the impact of marine pests.

Northern Pacific seastar (Asterias amurensis) and New Zealand Seastar (Patiriella regularis)

The northern Pacific Seastar is believed to have arrived in Tasmania early in the twentieth century in ship ballast from a ship from Korea or Japan (NIMPIS, 2002). It was first recorded in Port Phillip Bay in Victoria in the early 1990s (Parry et al., 2000). Northern Pacific Seastar is recognised by the IUCN and the Global Invasive Species Programme as among 100 of the world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000). The New Zealand seastar (Patiriella regularis) was probably introduced to Tasmania in a live oyster shipment from New Zealand in the early twentieth century (Dartnall, 1969; Waters and Roy, 2004).

The northern Pacific Seastar is a voracious predator, highly fecund, has a broad diet. The species has the potential to colonise water from Perth to Sydney to a depth of 100 m. This area includes World Heritage sites, Ramsar sites and protected marine areas (Dommisse and Hough, 2004).

Seastar larvae are easily sucked up in ballast water and can grow on boat hulls (Buttermore et al., 1994). They can also travel in oyster seed trays and mussel ropes, which are often moved between areas to maximise shellfish growth. Densities of the northern Pacific seastar in the Derwent estuary in Hobart have been as high as seven per square metre—among the highest in the world. Estimates suggest the population of northern Pacific seastars in Port Phillip Bay has

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 35 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 reached 12 million in the two years since they were first observed, despite attempts to destroy the pests (Goggin, 1998).

These invasive seastars are very versatile and can out-compete native seastars and become dominant in the intertidal regions (NIMPIS, 2002). They out-compete the native species for food and habitat and also eat native species. The northern Pacific seastar feeds on a wide range of native marine animals and impacts on native shellfish populations that form a major part of the marine food chain by significantly reducing their numbers (Buttermore et al., 1994). In Australia, this invasive seastar has no native predators and flourishes due to rapid reproduction, which compounds the problem (NIMPIS, 2002).

Two native species of Tasmanian seastar listed as threatened under the EPBC Act are directly threatened by northern Pacific seastar. Patiriella vivipara (Tasmanian live-bearing seastar) is listed as vulnerable and Marginaster littoralis (Derwent River seastar) is listed as critically endangered. The northern Pacific seastar is known to prey upon the Tasmanian live-bearing seastar under controlled conditions (Prestedge, 1999) and along with the New Zealand seastar is reported to be the main threat (DEWHA, 2009d).

Similarly, the main threat to the Derwent River seastar is interspecific competition and displacement from introduced seastars, the New Zealand seastar and the northern Pacific seastar (DEWHA, 2009e). A potential threat from these introduced species is genetic swamping (hybridisation).

Materia (1994a) suggested that the Derwent River seastar may have been genetically swamped (hybridised) by the introduced New Zealand seastar. A microscopic examination that compared hybridised specimens with the Tasmanian museum specimens of the Derwent River seastar and the New Zealand seastar concluded that there was very little morphological difference between the original two species. No specimens that could be conclusively identified as the Derwent River seastar were found in a 1993 study, which may indicate the species had been subsumed by hybrids at that time, or that it had been excluded from its former range by morphological varieties of the New Zealand seastar (Materia, 1994b).

Summary of assessment: Invasive marine pests are the cause of decline in the population size and distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions likely in the absence of effective control measures. In particular, northern Pacific seastar and New Zealand seastar are having an adverse impact on the Tasmanian live-bearing seastar and Derwent River seastar through direct competition, displacement and predation.

The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened species.

Mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by pathogens

Three pathogens that impact on Australian native species are currently listed as KTPs under the EPBC Act. They are ‘Psittacine Circoviral (Beak and Feather) Disease affecting endangered psittacine species’; ‘Dieback caused by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi)’; and ‘Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis.’ Two pathogens—Frog Chytrid Fungus and Phytophthora Root Rot—were nominated by the IUCN as among 100 of the world’s most invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000).

Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (BFD) is a common and potentially deadly disease of parrots caused by a circovirus named Beak and Feather Disease Virus. The potential effects of the disease on parrot populations range from inconsequential to devastating, depending on environmental conditions and the general health of the parrots. The level of threat and distribution

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 36 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 of the virus can be altered by the movements of common parrot species, for example the recent arrival of galahs and little corellas on Kangaroo Island, where the endangered glossy black- cockatoo lives and breeds in the same habitat (DEWHA, 2005e).

Australia’s native plants and ecological communities are threatened by the introduced soil-borne plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi. Phytophthora die-back also poses a threat to many native bird species in south-western Australia, including various parrots and honeyeaters, such as the western spinebill (Acanthorhynchus superciliosus), due to the loss of nectar and seeds (e.g. from various Proteaceae) (DEWHA, 2005e). The endangered ecological community ‘Eastern Stirling Range Montane Heath and Thicket’ is adversely affected by Phytophthora die-back which is widespread in most occurrences of the community. The entire extent of the eastern Stirling Range has been infected by Phytophthora cinnamomi to some degree (Wills, 1993). The community contains a number of threatened EPBC Act listed species that are affected by Phytophthora die back including the endangered Andersonia axilliflora (giant Andersonia), Banksia montana (Stirling Range dryandra), Darwinia wittwerorum (Wittwer's mountain bell) and Lambertia fairallii (Fairalls honeysuckle).

Another pathogen, myrtle rust (Uredo rangelii) was introduced into Australia in 2010 and poses a potentially serious threat to native species in the Myrtaceae family, including Callistemon spp., Melaleuca spp. and Eucalyptus spp. (Gollnow et al., 2010). Myrtle rust produces spores on infected plants and may result in the death of highly susceptible plants. Myrtle rust cannot be eradicated, as it produces large numbers of spores that are easily spread by wind, human activity and animals. The impact on native species is currently unclear however there is the potential for the pathogen to have a devastating effect on susceptible native species (DAFF, 2011).

Native fish are threatened by a number of pathogens including goldfish ulcer disease, Asian fish tapeworm and Epizootic Haematopoietic Necrosis Virus (EHNV). Escaped aquarium fish led to the spread of the goldfish ulcer disease that was introduced into Australia via infected goldfish and which eventually spread to native fish such as Bidyanus bidyanus (silver perch) (Corfield et al., 2008). Introduced fish are also the source of the Asian fish tapeworm (Bothriocephalus acheilognathi), which has caused substantial mortalities in Hypseleotris klungzingeri (western carp gudgeon) in the Canberra region (Dove et al., 1997). Introduced redfin perch are the main host for Australia’s first recorded finfish virus, the EHNV (Langdon, 1989; Whittington and Reddacliff, 1995; Reddacliff and Whittington, 1996; Whittington et al., 1996). Epizootic Haematopoietic Necrosis Virus is highly pathogenic for a number of native species, including Macquaria australasica (Macquarie perch), Galaxias olidus (mountain galaxias) and silver perch (Langdon, 1989).

In 1995, a mass mortality of Sardinops sagax (pilchards) occurred in Australia and spread east and west from the Great Australian Bight, to cover a distance of 6 000 km from Noosa in Queensland to Geraldton in Western Australia (Griffin et al., 1997). The exact cause of the mass mortality remains unknown however the best hypothesis is that an exotic pathogen, possibly herpes-type virus (Californian herpes), infected the pilchards. The source may have been from the release of ballast water or a contaminated frozen pilchard fed to caged tuna at Port Lincoln (Griffin et al., 1997, Ward et al., 2001 and references therein). Californian herpes reduced the Australian pilchard population to less than 30% of virgin biomass and also impacted on other species such as the eastern sea garfish which underwent a serious and inadequately explained decline at the same time as the sardines (Ward et al., 2001).

The critically endangered Galaxias truttaceus hesperius (western trout minnow), a Western Australian fresh water fish, has been found to be infected with the Pseudophyllidea cestode Ligula intestinalis, a cestode known to infect numerous freshwater fish species in the northern hemisphere (Morgan, 2003). This parasite impacts host reproductive output, swimming ability and leads to increased likelihood of predation (Morgan 2003). It is likely that the cestode was introduced into Western Australia in the 1950s and 1960 during the unsuccessful brown and

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 37 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013 rainbow trout releases or by avian host migrating from south-east (or south-west) Australia (Morgan 2003).

For this nominated group of novel biota that impact on biodiversity, chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) is provided as one example to further detail the impact of pathogens.

Chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis)

Chytridiomycosis is an infectious disease affecting amphibians worldwide (Fisher and Garner, 2007 and references there in) and was first identified in Australia in 1998 (DEWHA, 2002). It is not currently known whether the fungus is exotic or native to Australia and experts differ in their opinion on the likelihood of the fungus being a novel pathogen (Rachowicz et al. 2005; Fisher and Garner, 2007 and references there in).

The disease has been recorded in four regions of Australia; east coast, south-west Western Australia; Adelaide; and central Kimberley. Chytridiomycosis is caused by the chytrid fungus, a highly virulent fungal pathogen of amphibians capable of causing sporadic deaths in some populations and 100% mortality in other populations. Surviving individuals are believed to be carriers. The inoculating dose is low, 100 zoospores able to cause clinical chytridiomycosis within four weeks. Some species appear highly susceptible to developing the disease, progressing to death, while other species appear less susceptible to disease manifestations (DEWHA, 2002).

Many attributes of chytrid fungus and the disease in the wild are unknown, including survival of chytrid fungus in the absence of amphibian populations, methods of transmission and spread, and place/s and time of origin. Until recently the reasons for death of hosts was also unknown however it has been shown that pathophysiological changes including an ionic imbalance that causes cardiac arrest, result from infection (Voyles el al., 2009). There is no known treatment once chytrid fungus is contracted. It appears fungus zoospores are contracted through contact with water when released from infected frogs. Interaction between chytrid fungus and environmental factors, such as temperature and stress, vary the impact of the disease.

The Action Plan for Australian Frogs was completed in April 1997, before discovery of the disease. It states that dramatic declines in some Australian frog species have been reported since the 1980s, and, although some declines can be associated with changes to habitat, pollution and predation, for most species the cause of decline is unknown. Disease was speculated as a possible cause of decline in 10 species.

Over 30 listed threatened frog species are affected by chytrid fungus. Table 5 provides a list of frog species, listed as threatened under the EPBC Act, that are considered to be or have been adversely affected by chytrid fungus.

Table 5: EPBC Act listed species that list chytrid fungus as a threat.

Scientific name Common name EPBC Act listing Geocrinia alba white-bellied frog Endangered Geocrinia vitellina orange-bellied frog Vulnerable Heleioporus australiacus giant burrowing frog Vulnerable Hydrocharis dubia Frogbit Vulnerable Litoria aurea green and golden bell frog Vulnerable Litoria booroolongensis Booroolong frog Endangered Litoria castanea yellow-spotted tree frog Endangered Litoria littlejohni little john’s tree frog Vulnerable

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 38 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Litoria lorica armoured mistfrog Critically Endangered Litoria nannotis waterfall frog Endangered Litoria nyakalensis mountain mistfrog Critically Endangered Litoria olongburensis wallum sedge frog Vulnerable Litoria piperata peppered tree frog Vulnerable Litoria raniformis growling grass frog, southern bell frog, Vulnerable green and golden frog, warty swamp frog Litoria rheocola common mistfrog Endangered Litoria spenceri spotted tree frog Endangered Litoria verreauxii alpina alpine tree frog Vulnerable Mixophyes balbus stuttering frog Vulnerable Mixophyes fleayi Fleay’s frog Endangered Mixophyes iteratus southern barred frog Endangered Nyctimystes dayi lace-eyed tree frog Endangered Philoria frosti Baw Baw frog Endangered Pseudophryne corroboree southern corroboree frog Endangered Pseudophryne magnificent brood frog Vulnerable covacevichae Pseudophryne pengilleyi northern corroboree frog Vulnerable Rheobatrachus silus gastric-brooding frog Extinct Rheobatrachus vitellinus Eungella gastric-brooding frog Extinct Spicospina flammocaerulea sunset frog Endangered Taudactylus acutirostris sharp-snouted day frog Extinct Taudactylus diurnus southern day frog Extinct Taudactylus eungellensis Eungella day frog Endangered Taudactylus pleione Kroombit tinker frog Vulnerable Taudactylus rheophilus tinkling frog Endangered

Summary of assessment: Pathogens are the cause of decline in the population size and distribution of many threatened species and ecological communities, with local extinctions likely in the absence of effective control measures. In particular, chytrid fungus is having an adverse impact on many frog species by causing a serious decline in species abundance.

The Committee judges that this threatening process is adversely affecting many listed threatened species and ecological communities.

Conclusion for Criterion C: The Committee considers that the threatening process is eligible under this criterion as the process is adversely affecting population numbers and geographic distribution of many listed threatened species and threatened ecological communities, primarily through competition, predation, mortality and habitat degradation.

CONCLUSION: The threatening process meets s188(4)(a)(b) and (c) of the EPBC Act and is therefore eligible to be listed as a key threatening process.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 39 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

3. THREAT ABATEMENT PLAN

3.1 Degree of threat The introduction and establishment of novel biota in Australia presents a significant risk to Australia’s environment and has resulted in adverse impacts on a number of native species from a variety of taxa, including many already listed as threatened under the EPBC Act. Novel biota are considered by biologists to have the second most destructive impact, after habitat destruction, on native species and ecological communities (Sanderlund et al., 1999, p 2; Coutts-Smith and Downey, 2006). Novel biota impact biodiversity through: predation by feral animals; soil erosion and water pollution; habitat loss; changes to hydrology, and; clogging and deoxygenation of waterways. Many native species such as the greater bilby and rufous bettong have undergone a decline in geographic distribution due to novel biota. The impacts of disease, hybridisation, competition and habitat degradation have also contributed to declines in some cases.

3.2 Potential for threatened species and ecosystems to recover The threats posed by the introduced novel biota in this threatening process can be controlled by preventing further introduction and spread into new habitats, eradicating novel biota and rehabilitating the ecosystems where these species have invaded. Many of the novel biota identified as part of this threatening process are already very well established in the Australian landscape, to the extent that they are recognised as Weeds of National Significance. For these species, the goal of management is containment rather than eradication, which is no longer feasible in many cases. As a result, the ecosystem changes induced by these already widely distributed invasive garden plants may be largely irreversible.

Threatened species have the ability to recover from the impacts of novel biota. Local eradications of buffel grass in the Epping Forest National Park in Queensland lead to the re-establishment of native grasses such as kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra). The reintroduction of greater bilbies into areas where rabbits, foxes and cats have been removed resulted in the bilbies successfully recolonising the area and breeding (Mosby and O’Donnell, 2003).

3.3 Current threat abatement actions

A number of national and state-based initiatives are in place to address invasive novel biota that have been introduced into Australia, and to prevent further potentially novel biota entering the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a national Threat Abatement Plan.

National • The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and the Quarantine Act 1908 regulate the import of live plants and animals into Australia. Under the EPBC Act, the importation of live plants and animals, excluding The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) listed plant and animal specimens, is unregulated, provided it is in accordance with the Quarantine Act. Under the Quarantine Act, plant and animal imports are regulated taking into consideration their pest potential. The Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) administer the Quarantine Act and Biosecurity Australia undertakes the import risk assessments.

• Biosecurity Australia is an Australian Government agency that develops and reviews quarantine policies to protect the environment from exotic pests and diseases. On request, Biosecurity Australia provides advice to the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) regarding these policies. These Acts are administered by the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities and AQIS respectively. Biosecurity Australia uses the Weed Risk Assessment System (WRAS) as the agreed pre-

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 40 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

entry screening method for new plant imports and this is applied to all proposals to import new plant species (seeds, nursery stock or tissue culture) which are not on the permitted list. The WRAS system assesses whether the plant proposed for import possesses certain attributes that could increase the likelihood of it becoming a weed in Australia. Plants that are already present in Australia still require assessment before importation if they are not on the permitted list. Biosecurity Australia also develops and reviews quarantine policies to protect the environment from exotic pests (including weeds) and diseases.

• Intergovernmental Agreement on Biosecurity is being negotiated between the Australian and state and territory governments. It is a principle-level agreement, including national goals and objectives, key features and attributes of the national biosecurity system and the plan for implementation. It will also commit governments to work in partnership to improve key aspects of the national biosecurity system, which was formerly part of the AusBIOSEC work.

• National Emergency Biosecurity Response Agreement (NEBRA) establishes national emergency response arrangements, including cost-sharing, for exotic pests and disease that primarily impacts the environment and/or social amenity and that are not covered under existing cost-sharing arrangements.

• The National Biosecurity Committee provides strategic leadership in managing national approaches to emerging and ongoing biosecurity policy issues across jurisdictions and sectors. All biosecurity issues, including environmental, animal and plant biosecurity issues are considered by the Committee.

• Australia’s Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010–2020 aims to ensure that biodiversity is healthy, resilient to climate change and valued for its essential contribution to human existence. It recognises invasive species as one of six main threats to biodiversity and provides a broad framework for the implementation of other national strategies.

• The Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy (NAQS) addresses quarantine risks such as the potential incursion of weeds, pests and diseases across Northern Australia. The strategy includes domestic monitoring, domestic surveys, quarantine at the border, overseas activities, and work with Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities.

• Beale review. In September 2008 this review of Australia’s quarantine and biosecurity called for a new Biosecurity Act to replace the Quarantine Act, which would coordinate Commonwealth and state legislative powers in relation to invasive species and their methods of entry into Australia (Beale et al., 2008).

State • New South Wales Invasive Species Plan 2008–2015 is an eight year plan to improve the management of invasive species in New South Wales. The Plan proposes actions to prevent, contain, and manage invasive species, including weeds, vertebrate and invertebrate animal pests, freshwater and marine aquatic pests.

• New South Wales Department of Primary Industries Biosecurity Strategy. This strategy aims to prevent new pests, diseases and weeds from entering Australia and becoming established, and to manage established pests, diseases and weeds to eradicate them where feasible or lessen their impact.

• Biosecurity Strategy for Victoria. This strategy covers threats to primary industries, the environment, social amenity and human health, across Victorian public and private land, freshwater and marine habitats, caused by: plant pests and diseases; animal pests and

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 41 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

diseases, including diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans (i.e. zoonoses); and invasive plants and animals.

• Queensland Biosecurity Strategy 2009–2014. This strategy aims to prevent exotic pests and diseases from entering, spreading or becoming established in Queensland, ensure significant pests and diseases already in Queensland are contained, suppressed or managed, and contribute to the maintenance of Australia’s favourable national and international reputation for freedom from many pests and diseases, market access for agricultural commodities, product safety and integrity, and diverse ecosystem sustainability.

• Draft Biosecurity Strategy South Australia 2009–2014. This strategy will cover threats in all biosecurity sectors, including animal health, aquatic animal health, aquatic pests, plant health, public health, social amenity pests and diseases, terrestrial vertebrate pests, weeds, wildlife health and other terrestrial environmental pests and diseases. This strategy will provide guidance to meet challenges of the future and deliver the level of biosecurity appropriate to protect South Australia's people, natural environments and primary industries.

A: Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by vertebrate pests

A number of national and state-based initiatives are in place to address invasive vertebrate pests that have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive species entering the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a national Threat Abatement Plan.

National initiatives

• The Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre creates new technologies and integrated strategies to reduce the impact of invasive animals on Australia’s economy, environment, and people. It is concentrated on developing smarter tools to prevent and detect new invasions, advanced and tactical tools to strengthen integrated management strategies of carp and other pest fish, and new tools and integrated management strategies for major pests including foxes, wild dogs, feral pigs, rats and mice, cane toads, feral cats and rabbits.

• Australian Pest Animal Strategy 2007. This strategy provides a national framework for managing the impacts of vertebrate pest animal species in Australia. The goals of the strategy are: providing leadership and coordination for management of pest animals; preventing establishment of new pest animals; and managing the impacts of established pest animals. The strategy includes measures to control the natural spread and translocation of pest animals, but not the introduction of native species outside their natural geographic distribution. A group has been established under the Vertebrate Pests Committee (VPC) to oversee implementation and review progress and effectiveness. The strategy aims to identify and develop national plans for the management of Existing Pest Animals of National Significance (EPANS) and make people aware of them. o National Feral Camel Action Plan 2010 has been developed as a plan for an EPANS under the Australian Pest Animal Strategy and aims to providing a strategic and risk based approach upon which local, regional and state based management of feral camels can be undertaken. The Plan will be implemented by Feral Camel Working Group of the Vertebrate Pests Committee

• A number of strategies have also been developed to specifically consider issues relating to fish. A Strategic Approach to the Management of Ornamental Fish in Australia 2008 provides a national framework for regulation and management of the ornamental fish industry in Australia. A key component of this is developing a communication strategy to assist in delivering the objectives, and considering a future work program to address noxious species

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 42 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

currently in the ornamental and aquaria fish trade. The National Policy for the Translocation of Live Aquatic Organisms 1999 reviews different methods of translocation and their associated risk. The National Management Strategy for Carp Control 2000–2005 is focused on the control of carp and, where possible, eradication, in the interest of the total aquatic environment and its biodiversity.

• Guidelines for the Import, Movement and Keeping of Exotic Vertebrates in Australia 2004 focus on the development of appropriate strategies to prevent the establishment of new species that pose significant risks to the environment, primary production, or public safety. The adopted approach to managing exotic vertebrates is based on the principles for vertebrate pest management now accepted across Australian jurisdictions.

National and state threat abatement actions

National • Threat abatement plan for competition and land degradation by unmanaged goats (2008) • Threat abatement plan for competition and land degradation by rabbits (2008) • Threat abatement plan for predation by European red fox (2008) • Threat abatement plan for predation by feral cats (2008) • Threat abatement plan for predation, habitat degradation, competition and disease transmission by feral pigs (2005) • Threat abatement plan to reduce the impacts of exotic rodents on biodiversity on Australian offshore islands of less than 100 000 hectares (2009) • Threat abatement plan for the biological effects, including lethal toxic ingestion, caused by cane toads • A Strategic Approach to the Management of Ornamental Fish in Australia (2007).

NSW • Predation by the plague minnow - threat abatement plan (2003) • Predation by the red fox - threat abatement plan (2001) • Control Plan for the noxious fish carp (Cyprinus carpio) (2010)

Victoria • Fox Management Strategy (2002) • Feral Pig and Feral Goat Management Strategy (2002) • Rabbit Management Strategy (2002) • Wild Dog Management Strategy (2002) • Action Statement: Introduction of live fish into waters outside their natural range within a Victorian river catchment after 1770 (2003) • Action Statement: Predation of native wildlife by the cat, Felis catus (2004) • Action Statement: Predation of native wildlife by the introduced red fox Vulpes vulpes (2002)

State and Territory Initiatives

• ACT Vertebrate Pest Management Strategy (2002) • WA Vertebrate Animal Pest Policy • SA Arid Lands Natural Resource Management Board Pest Management Strategy 2005-2010. • Several states, including New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia and South Australia, have developed translocation guidelines under the National Policy for the Translocation of Live Aquatic Organisms 1999.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 43 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

B: Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by invertebrate pests

There are a number of national and state-based initiatives in place to address invasive invertebrate pests that have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive species entering the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a national Threat Abatement Plan.

National initiatives

• The National Fire Ant Eradication Program commenced in 2002 to eradicate the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) from Queensland. The nationally coordinated program is managed by Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI&F). Red imported fire ant is an insect pest that is considered to be a threat to lifestyle, the environment and the economy.

• The National Electric Ant Eradication Program commenced in 2006 to eradicate electric ant (Wasmannia auropunctata) from Queensland. The nationally coordinated program is managed by Biosecurity Queensland, an agency of the DPI&F. Electric ant is an exotic ant species and is regarded as an environmental pest as it can cause harm to people, as well as their businesses and lifestyle.

• Yellow crazy ants in north-east Arnhem Land project aims to eradicate yellow crazy ants from the Gove Peninsula and outlying regions where it interacts with people, and to contain the remaining populations in the region to prevent their spread. To date, yellow crazy ants have been eradicated from at least 20 locations covering over 100 hectares, which is an internationally significant achievement.

• African big-headed ants and tropical fire ants on the Tiwi Islands project appears to have successfully eradicated African big-headed ant from all four known locations throughout the Tiwi Islands, and is also aiming to eradicate tropical fire ants from an additional three locations.

National and state threat abatement actions

National

• Threat abatement plan to reduce the impacts of tramp ants on biodiversity in Australia and its territories (2006)

C: Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by terrestrial weeds and D: Competition, habitat loss and degradation caused by aquatic weeds

A number of national and state-based initiatives are in place to address invasive terrestrial and aquatic weed species that have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive species entering the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a national Threat Abatement Plan.

National Initiatives • Weed Risk Assessment System (WRAS). Plants proposed to be introduced into Australia are now assessed for their potential to become weeds through the Weed Risk Assessment System (WRAS). The assessment is based on the plant’s attributes, its potential invasiveness and probability of negatively impacting on the environment.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 44 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

• Australian Weed Strategy 2007 provides guidance to all stakeholders involved in weed management and identifies priorities for weed management across Australia. The goals of the strategy are: preventing new weed problems; reducing the impact of existing priority weed problems; and enhancing Australia's capacity and commitment to solve weed problems. Under the strategy, priority is given to control and management of 20 plant species identified as Weeds of National Significance. A national strategy and a Weeds Management Guide have been produced for each Weed of National Significance. The Australian Weeds Committee, which reports to the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, supports the implementation of the Australian Weeds Strategy by facilitating and coordinating consistent national action on weed tasks. o The National Weeds Awareness Action Plan focuses on improving awareness as a prerequisite to achieving acceptable long-term management of weeds. The key outcome of the plan is a weeds awareness program that increases whole-of- community and government understanding of the invasive plant crisis. ‘Nursery and Landscape’ is one of the target groups highlighted in the plan and key stakeholders identified in the plan that would play an important role in abating the KTP include Australian National Botanic Gardens, Greening Australia, Horticulture Australia and Nursery and Garden Industry Australia. Investment under the action plan over the last decade has contributed to heightened awareness and increased capacity to manage weed issues, primarily through community group participation in the Weedbuster campaign and the development of awareness products.

• National Eradication Programs—Exotic Weeds. National eradication programs for weeds in Australia are cooperative efforts between the Australian Government and the state and territory governments. The programs are nationally coordinated by the Office of the Chief Plant Protection Officer. The state or territory government where the pest occurs is responsible for the management and operation of the program with technical assistance from the Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. National eradication programs in Australia that are currently addressing particular weeds are: o The National Siam Weed Eradication Program commenced in 1995 to eradicate siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) from Queensland. The nationally coordinated program is managed and operated by Queensland's Department of Natural Resources and Mines. Siam weed is a plant exotic to Australia and has the potential to impact on the environment and other plant primary industries. o The National Branched Broomrape Eradication Program commenced in 2000 to eradicate branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa) from South Australia. The nationally coordinated program is managed and operated by the Primary Industries and Resources South Australia. Branched broomrape is an exotic parasitic weed of a range of broadleaf crops, broadleaf weeds and native plants. o The National Four Tropical Weeds Eradication Program is a program that commenced in 2004 to eradicate the incursions of Koster’s curse (Clidemia hirta), limnocharis (Limnocharis flava), mikania vine (Mikania micrantha) and some Miconia species in Northern New South Wales and Queensland from Australia. The nationally coordinated program is managed and operated by Queensland's Department of Natural Resources and Mines. The program involves extensive community engagement to identify infested areas, targeted weed surveys and weed control, and research components.

• The National Framework for the Management and Monitoring of Australia’s Vegetation sets out a national approach to the management and monitoring of Australia's native vegetation and provides a process through which Commonwealth, state and territory commitments can be implemented to improve the quality and extent of Australia's native vegetation cover.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 45 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

National and state threat abatement actions

National • Threat Abatement Plan for the KTP Invasion of northern Australia by gamba grass and other introduced grasses (in preparation)

NSW • Invasion of native plant communities by Chrysanthemoides monilifera (bitou bush and boneseed) (2006)

State and Territory Initiatives • Victorian Pest Management: Weed Management Strategy, including Weed Alert Plan (2002) • NSW Alligator Weed Strategy (2010–2015) • NSW New Weed Incursion Plan (2009–2015) • Queensland Weeds Strategy (2002), Queensland Weed Spread Prevention Strategy (2008) • Northern Territory Weed Management Strategy • A Weed Plan for Western Australia (2001), Western Australia Environmental Weed Strategy (1999) • Weed Strategy for South Australia (1998) • Tasmanian Weed Management Strategy (2005) • Australian Capital Territory Weeds Strategy (2009–2019) • State and Territory legislative noxious/prohibited weeds lists

E: Competition, predation or herbivory and habitat degradation by marine pests

A number of national initiatives are in place to address invasive marine pests that have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive species entering the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a national Threat Abatement Plan.

National Initiatives • Australian Ballast Water Management Requirements. On 1 July 2001, Australia introduced mandatory ballast water management requirements (the requirements) to reduce the risk of introducing harmful aquatic organisms into Australia’s marine environment through ships’ ballast water. Australian Ballast Water Management Requirements are consistent with International Maritime Organization’s International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments guidelines for minimising the risk of translocation of harmful aquatic species in ships' ballast water. • The National Introduced Marine Pest Information System (NIMPIS) provides easy access to information on introduced marine pest species in Australia. NIMPIS contains detailed information on the biology, ecology and distribution of pest species known to have been introduced to Australian waters as well as potential control options for selected pests. It also provides information on species considered a high risk for future introductions. • National System for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pest Incursions. The National System aims to prevent new marine pests arriving, respond by providing effective cost efficient measures to manage the threat when a new pest does arrive and minimise the spread and impact of pests already established in Australia. The measures and arrangements under the National System are being implemented by the National Introduced Marine Pests Coordination Group (NIMPCG). NIMPCG comprises representatives of each of the government, industry and environmental partners of the National System and is chaired by the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. • Draft guidelines for the control and management of ships’ befouling to minimise the transfer of invasive aquatic species: These guidelines are currently under development by the

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 46 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

International Maritime Organization, Australia in working with the group tasked with writing the guidelines.

F: Mortality, habitat loss and degradation caused by pathogens

A number of national and state-based initiatives are in place to address invasive pathogens that have been introduced into Australia and to prevent further potentially invasive pathogens entering the country. These initiatives are listed below and are instructive when considering the need for a national Threat Abatement Plan.

National and state threat abatement actions

National • Threat abatement plan for beak and feather disease affecting endangered psittacine species (2005) • Threat abatement plan for dieback caused by the root-rot fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi (2001) • Threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis (2006) • National Myrtle Rust Coordination group is coordinating ongoing actions to respond to myrtle rust focusing on mitigating its impact on the natural environment, including threatened and endangered species, and on industries that rely on myrtaceous species.

Victoria • Victoria’s Public Land Phytophthora cinnamomi Management Strategy (2005)

Tasmania • Conservation of Tasmanian Plant Species & Communities Threatened by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Strategic Regional Plan for Tasmania (2003)

Western Australia • Integration Framework for Phytophthora Dieback Management Plans for the Northern Agricultural, Perth/Avon, South Coast and South West NRM regions 2010–2017.

CONCLUSION: The existing measures in place at national, state and territory level provide a framework for a broad range of actions for border protection and invasive species management and control. They also provide for coordination and leadership in the event of new incursions. Given these measures, the development of a national Threat Abatement Plan is not considered to be the most efficient and effective way to address this threatening process.

The Committee has prepared Threat Abatement Guidelines which provides a summary of the KTP along with advice on what additional threat abatement actions could be undertaken.

In the event that the Minister agrees with the Committee’s advice and in accordance with the legislative requirement for the review of a no-Threat Abatement Plan decision, the Committee will examine the effectiveness of this approach in five years.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 47 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

4. RECOMMENDATIONS

A. The Committee recommends that the list referred to in section 183 of the EPBC Act be amended by including in the list of Key Threatening Processes: Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity.

B. The Committee recommends that a Threat Abatement Plan is not considered a feasible, efficient or effective way to abate the process at this time.

C. The Committee’s Threat Abatement Guidelines are considered when undertaking actions in relation to this Key Threatening Process.

Professor Helene Marsh Chair, Threatened Species Scientific Committee

30 June 2011

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 48 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

References cited in the advice

Abbott I (2003). Origin and spread of the cat, Felis catus, on mainland Australia, with a discussion of the magnitude of its early impact on native fauna. Wildlife Research, 29: 51–74.

Abbott KL (2005). Supercolonies of the invasive yellow crazy ant, Anoplolepis gracilipes, on an oceanic island: Forager activity patterns, density and biomass. Insectes Sociaux, 52(3): 266–273.

Adair RJ and Groves RH (1998). Impact of environmental weeds on biodiversity: a review and development of a methodology. Environment Australia, Canberra. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weeds.gov.au/publications/books/pubs/bioimpact.pdf

Alcova PA (1987). The effects of the presence of Lantana camara on local bird populations in Brisbane Forest Park. Project Report No T(AS)99. Queensland University of Technology: Brisbane.

Allen CR, Forys EA, Rice KG and Wojcik DP (2001). Effects of Fire Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on Hatching Turtles and Prevalence of Fire Ants on Sea Turtle Nesting Beaches in Florida. The Florida Entomologist 84(2): 250–253.

Aquenal Pty Ltd (2008). National Control Plan for the Japanese seaweed or wakame Undaria pinnatifida. Available on the Internet at: http://www.marinepests.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/952569/undaria-ncp-08.pdf

Arlington A and McKenzie F (1997). Review of impacts of displaced/introduced fauna associated with inland waters. Australia: State of the Environment Technical Paper Series (Inland Waters), Department of Environment: Canberra. Available on the internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/1996/publications/technical/pubs/14fauna.pdf

Arthington AH (1996). Recovery plan for the oxleyan pygmy perch Nannoperca oxleyana. Centre for Catchment and In-Stream Research, Griffith University, Queensland.

Banks PB (1999). Predation by Introduced Foxes on Native Bush Rats in Australia: Do Foxes Take the Doomed Surplus? Journal of Applied Ecology, 36 (6): 1063–1071.

Barlow C G, Hogan AE and Rodgers LJ (1987). Implication of translocated fishes in the apparent extinction in the wild of the Lake Eacham rainbowfish, Melanotaenia eachamensis. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 38: 897–902.

Barns TS, Goldizen AW, Morton JM and Coleman GT (2008). Cystic echinococcosis in a wild population of the brush-tailed rock wallaby (Petrogale penicillata), a threatened macropodid. Parasitology 135: 715–723.

Barrett S, Shearer BL, Crane CE and Cochrane A (2008). An extinction-risk assessment tool for flora threatened by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Australian Journal of Botany 56: 477–486.

Beale R, Fairbrother J, Inglis A and Trebeck D (2008). One Biosecurity a Working Partnership. The Independent Review of Australia’s Quarantine and Biosecurity Arrangements Report to the Australian Government. Available on the Internet at:

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 49 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

http://www.daff.gov.au/quarantinebiosecurityreview/report_to_the_minister_for_agriculture _fisheries_and_forestry

Bell PJ (1998). Threatened Species Listing Statement. Ptunarra Brown Butterfly Oreixencia ptunarra Couchman 1953. Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania. Available on the Internet at: http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/internnsf/Attachments/RLIG- 5428KE/$FILE/ptunarra.pdf

Bell PJ (1999). Ptunarra Brown Butterfly Recovery Plan 1998–2003. Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Tasmania. Available on the Internet at: http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/Attachments/SJON- 5AD4PW/$FILE/PtunarraBRecPlan.pdf

Bell PJ (2009). European wasps, fire and habitat loss: monitoring threats to Tasmania’s threatened butterflies. The Combined Australian Entomological Society’s 40th AGM & scientific Conference, Society of Australian Systemic Biologists and 9th Invertebrate Biodiversity & Conservation Conference, 25–28 September, Darwin Australia: 100.

Biosecurity Queensland on behalf of the National Lantana Management Group (2010 ). Plan to Protect Environmental Assets from Lantana. Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, Yeerongpilly, Queensland. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/lantana/docs/Lantana_Plan_Final_low_res.pdf

Blanchard J, Young L, Lloyd S and Reeves A (2009). Aquatic weeds and their control. Western Australia Department of Agriculture and Food, Gardennote 372. Available on the Internet at: http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/pw/weed/decp/gn_aquaticwee ds_control.pdf

Booth C, Carr G and Low T (2009). Weedy pasture plants for salinity control: sowing the seeds of destruction. Invasive Species Council. Available on the internet at: http://www.invasives.org.au/documents/file/report_weedypastureplants.pdf

Bowden BN (1963). Studies of Andropogon gayanus Kunth. The use of Andropogon gayanus in agriculture. Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture 31: 267–273.

Briese D, Campbell M and Faithfull I (2000). Best Practice Management Guide: St John’s wort Hypericum perforatum. Best Practice management Guide for Environmental Weeds 7, Cooperative Research Centre for Weed Management Systems, Australia. Available on the internet at: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/347995/bpmg-stjohn-wort.pdf

Bromford M (2003). Risk Assessment for importing and keeping of exotic invertebrates in Australia. Available on the Internet at: http://www.feral.org.au/feral_documents/PC12803.pdf

Brousseau DJ and Baglivo JA (2005). Laboratory investigations of food selection by the Asian Shore Crab, Hemigrapsus sanguineus: Algal versus animal preferences. Journal pf Crustacean Biology 25(1): 130–134.

Burbridge AA and McKenzie (1989). Patterns in the modern decline of Western Australia’s vertebrate fauna: causes and conservation implications. Biological Conservation 50: 143– 198.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 50 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Buttermore RE, Turner E and Morrice MG (1994). The introduced northern Pacific seastar Asterias amurensis in Tasmania. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. Brisbane, 36(1): 21–25.

Cadwalladar PL (1996). Overview of the impacts of introduced Salmonids on Australian Native Fauna. Environment Australia, Canberra. Available on the internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/pubs/salmonids.pdf

Callan SK and Majer JD (2009). Impacts of an incursion of African Big-headed Ants, Pheidole megacephala (Fabricius), in urban bushland in Perth, Western Australia. Pacific Conservation Biology, 15: 102–115.

Calvert G (1998). Weeds – The Silent Invaders. Society for Growing Australian Plants' Queensland Region Conference, Townsville. Available on the Internet at: http://asgap.org.au/APOL16/dec99-2.html

Carr G, Yugovic JV and Robinson KE (1992). Environmental Weed Invasions in Victoria - Conservation and Management Implications. Victoria: Department of Conservation and Environment and Ecological Horticulture.

Carlton JT and Geller JB (1993). Ecological roulette: biological invasions and the global transport of nonindigenous marine organisms. Science, 261: 78–82.

Casas G, Scrosati R and Luz Piriz M (2004). The invasive kelp Undaria pinnatifida (Phaeophyceae, Laminariales) reduces native seaweed diversity in Nuevo Gulf (Patagonia, Argentina). Biological Invasions 6: 411.

Commonwealth of Australia and National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee (2001). Weeds of National Significance Lantana Strategic Plan. Available on the Internet at: http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/pests/weeds/wons/pdf/lantana_nsplan.pdf

Convention on Biological Diversity (1993). Text of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Available on the Internet at: http://www.cbd.int/convention/convention.shtml

Cook G (2008). Agricultural introductions as a source of weeds: what have we missed? Plant Protection Quarterly 23(2): 13–16.

Cook GD and Dias L (2006). It was no accident: deliberate plant introductions by Australian government agencies during the 20th century. Australian Journal of Botany 54: 601– 625.

Cooke BD (1987). The effect of rabbit grazing on regeneration of she-oaks, Allocasuarina verticilliata and saltwater ti-trees, Melaleuca halmaturorum, in the Coorong National Park, South Australia, Australian Journal of Ecology, 13: 11–20.

Corfield J, Diggles B, Jubb C, McDowall RM, Moore A, Richards A, and Rowe DK (2008). Review of the impacts of introduced ornamental fish species that have established wild. Prepared for the Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts.

Coutts-Smith A and Downey P (2006). Impact of weeds on threatened biodiversity in New South Wales. Technical Series no. 11, CRC for Australian Weed Management, Adelaide. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weedscrc.org.au/documents/tech_series_11.pdf

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 51 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Cowie ID and Werner PA (1993). Alien plant species invasive in Kakadu National Park, tropical northern Australia. Biological Conservation (2): 127–135.

Crawford P (2008). Lippia Management (Phyla canescens): Challengers, opportunities and strategies. National Lippia Working Group, Greenridge Press Pty Ltd, Queensland.

CRC Weed Management (2003a). Weed Management Guide: Siam weed or chromolaena (Chromolaena odorata). Available on the Internet at: http://www.weedscrc.org.au/documents/wmg_siam_weed.pdf

CRC Weed Management (2003b). Submission to Senate ECITA Committee on the Regulation, Control and Management of Invasive Species. Available on the Internet at: http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/Committee/ecita_ctte/completed_inquiries/2004- 07/invasive_species/submissions/sub22.pdf

CRC Weed Management (2003c). Weeds of National Significance. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weedscrc.org.au/publications/weed_man_guides.html

Creese RG, Davis AR and Glasby T (2004). Eradicating and preventing the spread of the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia in NSW. NSW Fisheries Final Report Series No. 64, NSW Fisheries Sydney.

Croft JD, Fleming PJS and van de Ven R (2002). The impact of rabbits on a grazing system in eastern NSW 1. Ground cover and pastures. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 42(7): 909–916.

Csurhes S (2005). An assessment of the potential impact of Andropogon gayanus (gamba grass) on the economy, environment and people of Queensland. Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Queensland Government. Brisbane. Australia.

Curiel D, Bellemo G, Marzocchi M, Scattolin M and Parisi G (1998). Distribution of introduced Japanese macroalgae Undaria pinnatifida, Sargassum muticum (Phaeophyta) and Antithamnion Pectinatum (Rhodophyta) in the Lagoon of Venice. Hydrobiologia 385: 17.

Curtin T (1997). The causes and consequences of ecological imperialism. Georeview: The Journal of GEOS: Geography, Environment, Oekumene Society. Available on the internet at: http://www.socsci.flinders.edu.au/geog/geos/PDF%20Papers/Curtin.pdf

DAFF (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry) (2007). Black-stripped mussel. Available on the internet at: http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/quarantine/pests-diseases/marine/black- striped-mussel

DAFF (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry) (2011). Myrtle Rust. Available on the internet at: http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/quarantine/pests-diseases/myrtle-rust/myrtle-rust-qa

Dartnall AJ (1969). New Zealand sea stars in Tasmania. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania. 103: 53–55.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 52 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Dawes J (2008). Canada Geese - A new incursion into Australia. Pestat Pty Ltd. Available on the internet at: http://www.feral.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/CanadaGeese0803.pdf

Day MD, Wiley CJ, Playford J, Zalucki MP (2003). Lantana: current management status and future prospects. (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra).

Dayton PK (1985). Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 16: 215–245.

Dennis AJ and Johnson PM (2008). Rufous Bettong Aepyprymnus rufescens Grey 1837. In ‘The Mammals of Australia Third Edition’ (Eds Van Dyck S and Strahan R). New Holland Publishers, Sydney.

DEWHA (2000a). Macquaria australasica — Macquarie Perch. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=66632

DEWHA (2000b). Commonwealth Listing Advice on ‘Shrublands on southern Swan Coastal Plain ironstones’. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/communities/swan-ironstone.html

DEWHA (2002). Chytridiomycosis due to the amphibian chytrid fungus KTP. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ktp/frog-fungus.html

DEWHA (2003). The reduction in the biodiversity of Australian native fauna and flora due to the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (fire ant). Threatened Species Scientific Committee. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ktp/fireant.html

DEWHA (2004). The feral cat (Felis catus). Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/cat/pubs/cat.pdf

DEWHA (2005a). Listing advice for the key threatening process: ‘The biological effects, including lethal toxic ingestion, caused by Cane Toads (Bufo marinus)’. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ktp/cane-toads.html

DEWHA (2005b). Species profile for Polytelis alexandrae — Princess Parrot, Alexandra's Parrot. Available on the Internet at http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=758

DEWHA (2005c). Species profile for Caretta caretta—Loggerhead Turtle. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=1763

DEWHA (2005d). Threat Abatement Plan for Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem integrity following invasion by the Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 53 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ktp/christmas-island-crazy- ants.html

DEWHA (2005e). Threat abatement plan for disease in natural ecosystems caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/tap/phytophthora.html

DEWHA (2006a). Predation by exotic rats on Australian offshore islands of less than 1000 km2 (100,000 ha). Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ktp/island-rats.html

DEWHA (2006b). Species profile for Brachionichthys hirsutus—Spotted Handfish, Spotted-hand Fish. Available on the Internet at: http://apps.internal.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/intranet/showspecies.pl?taxon_id=64418

DEWHA (2007). Assemblages of plants and invertebrate animals of tumulus (organic mound) springs of the Swan Coastal Plain. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/communities/tumulus-mounds.html

DEWHA (2008a). Commonwealth Listing Advice on Natural Grasslands of the Queensland Central Highlands and the northern Fitzroy Basin. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicshowcommunity.pl?id=99&status=Endangered

DEWHA (2008b). Commonwealth Listing Advice on Littoral Rainforest and Coastal Vine Thickets of Eastern Australia. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicshowcommunity.pl?id=76&status=Critically+Endangered

DEWHA (2009a). List of key threatening processes. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicgetkeythreats.pl

DEWHA (2009b) Species profile for Pipistrellus murrayi—Christmas Island Pipistrelle. Available on the Internet at: http://apps.internal.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/intranet/showspecies.pl?taxon_id=64383

DEWHA, (2009c). Intergovernmental Agreement on a National System for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pest Incursions. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/imps/publications/intergovernmental- agreement.html

DEWHA, (2009d). Threatened Species Scientific Committee (TSSC). Commonwealth Conservation Advice on Patiriella vivipara. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 54 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=66767

DEWHA, (2009e). Threatened Species Scientific Committee (TSSC) (2009as). Commonwealth Listing Advice on Marginaster littoralis. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=66762

DEWHA, (2009f). Threat abatement plan for disease in natural ecosystems caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversitythreatened/publications/tap/pubs/phytophthora. pdf

DEWHA, (2010). Camel Fact Sheet. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/pubs/camel-factsheet.pdf

Dickman C (1996). Overview of the Impacts of Feral Cats on Australian Native Fauna. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra.

Dommisse M and Hough D (2004). Controlling the Northern Pacific Seastar (Asterias amurensis) in Australia. Final report for the Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage by the Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/imps/publications/pacific-seastar/index.html

Dorfman EJ, Lamont A and Dickman CR (2001). Foraging behaviour and success of Black-necked Storks (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) in Australia: implications for management. Emu 101: 145–149.

Dove AD and Fletcher AS (2000). The distribution of the introduced tapeworm Bothriocephalus acheilognathi in Australian freshwater fishes. Journal of Helminthology 74(2): 121–127.

Dove ADM, Cribb TH, Mockler SP and Lintermans M (1997). The Asian fish tapeworm, Bothriocephalus acheilognathi in Australian freshwater fishes. Marine and Freshwater Research 48: 181–183.

DPIWE (2002). Undaria pinnatifida–Japanese Seaweed. Action Plan. Available on the Internet at: http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/ALIR- 4Z56E6?open.

Eldridge D (2000). The Impact of the European Rabbit on Diversity of Vascular Plants in Semi-Arid Woodlands. A report for WEST 2000. NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation.

Environment Australia (2001). The Mary River Cod Research and Recovery Plan. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/recovery/mary-river- cod/index.html

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 55 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

EPA/MAV (2001). Weeds and Land Management. Available on the Internet at: http://www.mav.asn.au/CA256C320013CB4B/Lookup/CaseStudyNumber10/$file/Weeds.p df

Fensham RJ, Fairfax RJ, Cannell RJ (1994). The invasion of Lantana camara L. in Forty Mile Scrub National Park, north Queensland. Australian Journal of Ecology, 19: 297–305.

Ferdinands K, Setterfield SA, Douglas MM and Barratt J (2006). Africanising the tropical woodlands: Canopy loss and tree death following gamba grass Andropogon gayanus invasion. In: Proceedings of the 15th Australian Weeds Conference (eds. Preston C, Watts JH and Crossman ND). Weed Management Society of South Australia, Adelaide: 296.

Finlayson CM and Rea N (1999). Reasons for the loss and degradation of Australian wetlands. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 7: 1–11

Fisher MC and Garner TWJ (2007). The relationship between the emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the international trade in amphibians and introduced amphibian species. Fungal Biology Reviews 21: 2-9.

Frith HJ (1973). Wildlife Conservation. Angus and Robinson, Sydney.

Fitzsimons J, Legge S, Traill B and Woinarski J (2010). Into oblivion? The disappearing native mammals of northern Australia. The Nature Conservancy, Melbourne. Available on the internet at: www.nature.org/australia

Flores T (1999). Seed biology and recruitment of the invasive grass, Gamba grass (Andropogon gayanus). Honours thesis, Northern Territory University, Darwin.

Flores T, Setterfield SA and Douglas MM (2005). Seedling recruitment of the exotic grass Andropogon gayanus (Poaceae) in northern Australia in Australian Journal of Botany, 53: 1–7.

Fowler LE (1979). Hatching Success and Nest Predation in the Green Sea Turtle, Chelonia mydas, at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Ecology 60(5): 946–955.

Freeman DB (1992). Prickly Pear Menace in Eastern Australia 1880-1940. Geographical Review, 82(4): 413–429.

Gardening Australia (2003). Fact Sheet: Richmond Birdwing Butterfly. Available on the Internet at: http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s938771.htm

Gentle CB and Duggin JA (1997). Allelopathy as a competitive strategy in persistent thickets of Lantana camara L. in three Australian forest communities. Plant Ecology, 132: 85–95.

Gillbank L (1986). The origins of the Acclimatisation Society of Victoria: Practical science in the wake of the gold rush. Historical Records of Australian Science, 6(3): 359–73.

Gillespie GR (2001). The role of introduced trout in the decline of the spotted tree frog (Litoria spenceri) in south-eastern Australia. Biological Conservation, 100(2): 187–198.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 56 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Glasby TM and Gibson PT (2007). Limited evidence for increased cold-tolerance of invasive versus native Caulerpa taxifolia. Marine Biology 152: 255–63.

Glen AS and Dickman CR (2005). Complex interactions among mammalian carnivores in Australia, and their implications for wildlife management. Biological Reviews, 80(3): 387– 401.

Goggin CL (1998). Proceedings of a meeting on the biology and management of the introduced seastar Asterias amurensis in Australian waters. Centre for Research on Introduced Marine Pests Tech Rep No. 15. CSIRO Marine Research, Hobart.

Gollnow B, Carnegie A, Horwood M and Driessen S (2010). Prime Facts. Myrtle Rust - Uredo rangelii. Available on the internet at: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/338721/Myrtle-rust-Uredo- rangelii.pdf

Goodisman MAD, Mathews RW and Crozier RW (2001). Hierarchical genetic structure of the introduced wasp Vespula germanica in Australia. Molecular Ecology, 10: 1423–1432.

Gong W, Sinden J, Braysher M and Jones R (2009). The economic impacts of vertebrate pests in Australia. Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra. Available on the Internet at: http://www.feral.org.au/feral_documents/IACRC_EconomicImpactsReport.pdf

Gopal B (1987). Water Hyacinth. In ‘Aquatic Plant Studies’. Elsevier Science Publishing Co., New York.

Griffin DA, Thompson PA, Bax NJ, Bradford RW and Hallegraeff GM (1997). The 1995 mass mortality of pilchard: no role found for physical or biological oceanographic factors in Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research, 48: 27–42.

Haby N, Tunn Y and Cameron J (2010). Application of QuickBird and aerial imagery to detect Pinus radiata in remnant vegetation. Austral Ecology 35:624–635.

Hammer M, Wedderburn S and van Weenan J (2009). Action Plan for South Australian Freshwater Fishes. Native Fish Australia (SA) Inc., Adelaide.

Harris JH and Schiller CB (2001). Native and alien fish. In: B. Young (Ed.) Rivers as Ecological Systems: The Murray-Darling Basin. The Murray-Darling Basin Commission, Canberra.

Hawke Review (2009) of the EPBC Act 1999. Available on the internet at http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/review/index.html

Henderson WR (2009). Pathogens in vertebrate Pests in Australia. Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra. Available on the Internet at: http://www.invasiveanimals.com/publications/downloads/Pathogens-in-vertebrate- pests_120909.pdf

Hingston AB (2006). Is the exotic bumblebee Bombus terrestris really invading Tasmanian native vegetation? Journal of Insect Conservation 10: 289–293.

Hingston AB and McQuillan PB (1998). Does the recently introduced bumblebee Bombus terrestris (Apidea) threaten Australian ecosystems? Australian Journal of Ecology 23: 539–549.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 57 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Hirst A, Barrett N, Meyer L and Reid C (2007). Detailed benthic faunal and introduced marine species survey of Port Davey, Bathurst Channel and Bathurst Harbour in SW Tasmania. NRM Final Report, Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute, University of Tasmania. Available on the Internet at: http://eprints.utas.edu.au/5381/1/Port_Davey_final_report.pdf

Hocking PJ and Liddle MJ (1995). Xanthium occidentale Bertol. Complex and X.spinosum L. In The Biology of Australian Weeds, Volume 1 (eds. Groves RH, Shepherd RCH and Richardson RG). RG and FJ Richardson Victoria Australia.

Hobbs RJ, Arico S, Aronson, J, Baron JS, Bridgewater P, Cramer VA, Epstein PR, Ewwl JJ, Klink CA, Lugo AE, Norton D, Ojima D, Richardson DM, Sanderson EW, Valladares F, Vila M, Zamora, R and Zobel M (2006). Novel ecosystems: the theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological world order. Global Ecology and Biogeography 15: 1–7.

Hopkins CCE (2001). Actual and potential effects of introduced marine organisms in Norwegian waters, including Svalbard. Research report 2001–1, Directorate for Nature Management.

Houston WA and Duivenvoorden LJ (2002). Replacement of littoral native vegetation with the ponded pasture grass Hymenachne amplexicaulis: effects on plant, macroinvertebrate and fish biodiversity of backwaters in the Fitzroy River, Central Queensland, Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research, 53(8): 1235–1244.

Howard RA (1969). A check list of cultivar names used in the genus lantana. Arnoldia, 29: 73–109.

Hume ID, Gibson LA and Lapidge SJ (2004). Conservation of Australia’s arid-zone marsupials. In ‘Experimental Approaches to Conservation Biology’ (eds. MS Gordon and SM Bartol). University of California Press, California, London.

I & I NSW (2009). NSW Control Plan for the noxious marine alga Caulerpa taxifolia. NSW Department of Industry and Investment. Available on the internet at: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/210712/NSW-control-plan- caulerpa-taxifolia.pdf

Invasive Species Council (2003). Feral Herald. Newsletter of the Invasive Species Council 1(5): 3. Available on the internet at: http://www.invasives.org.au/documents/file/Feral%20Herald/feralherald5.pdf

Jacobson ER, (1993). Implications of Infectious Diseases for Captive Propagation and Introduction Programs of Threatened/Endangered Reptiles. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 23(3): 245-255.

Jaensch R (2006). Wetland Management Profile. Queensland Government. Available on the Internet at: http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/wetlandinfo/resources/static/pdf/Profiles/p01869aa.pdf

Johnstone RE and Kirkby T (2007). Feral European honey bees: a major threat to cockatoos and other tree hollow users. Western Australian Naturalist 25(4): 252–254.

Julien MH (1995). Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Grideb. In The Biology of Australian Weeds, Volume 1 (eds. Groves RH, Shepherd RCH and Richardson RG). RG and FJ Richardson Victoria Australia.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 58 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Koehn JD (2004). Carp as invaders in Australia. Freshwater Biology, 49: 882–894

Koehn JD and MacKenzie RF (2004). Priority management actions for alien freshwater fish species in Australia. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 38: 457– 472.

Kriwoken LK and Hedge P (2000). Exotic species and estuaries: managing Spartina anglica in Tasmania, Australia. Ocean & Coastal Management 43(7): 573–584.

Lach L and Thomas ML (2008). Invasive ants in Australia: documented and potential ecological consequences. Australian Journal of Entomology, 47: 275–288.

Langdon JS (1989). Experimental transmission and pathogenicity of epizootic haematopoietic necrosis virus in Redfin perch, Perca fluviatilis L., and 11 other teleosts. Journal of Fish Diseases 12: 295–310.

Lange RT and Graham CR (1983). Rabbits and the failure of regeneration in Australian arid zone acacia. Australian Journal of Ecology, 8: 377–381.

Levine JM, Vila` M, D’Antonio CM, Dukes JS, Grigulis K and Lavorel S (2003). Mechanisms underlying the impacts of exotic plant invasions. Proceedings Royal Society London B 270: 775–781.

Lindenmayer D and McCarthy M (2001). The special distribution of non-native plant invaders in a pine-eucalypt landscape mosaic in south-eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 102: 77–87.

Lintermans M (2004). Human-assisted dispersal of alien freshwater fish species in Australia. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 38: 481–501.

Lintermans M (2007). Fishes of the Murray-Darling Basin: An introductory guide. MDBC Publication No. 10/07. Available on the Internet at: http://www.mdba.gov.au/files/publications/MDBA-Fish- species-book.pdf

Low T and Booth C (2007). The weedy truth about biofuels. Invasive Species Council, Melbourne. Available on the Internet at: http://www.invasives.org.au/documents/file/reports/isc_biofuels_revised_march08.pdf

Lowe S, Browne M, Boudjelas S and De Poorter M (2000). 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), International Union for Conservation of Nature.

McKenzie NL, Burbidge AA, Baynes A, Brereton RN, Dickman CR, Gordon G, Gibson LA, Menkhorst PW, Robinson AC, Williams MR and Woinarski JCZ (2006). Analysis of factors implicated in the recent decline of Australia's mammal fauna. Journal of Biogeography, 34(4): 597–611.

McLeod R (2004). Counting the Cost: Impacts of Invasive Animals in Australia. Cooperative Research Centre for Pest Animal Control. Canberra. Available on the Internet at: http://www.invasiveanimals.com/publications/downloads/Counting-The-Cost.pdf

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 59 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

McQuillan PB (2004). An overview of the Tasmanian geometrid moth fauna (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) and its conservation status. Journal of Insect Conservation 8: 209–220.

Mack RN (2003). Global Plant Dispersal, Naturalisation, and Invasion: Pathways, Modes and Circumstances. In ‘Invasive Species: Vectors and Management Strategies’ (eds. Ruiz GM and Carlton JT). Island Press, Washington DC.

Mackey AP (1996). Cabomba (Cabomba spp.) in Queensland. Queensland Government Natural Resources and Mines. Available on the Internet at: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Cabomba- PSA.pdf

Maddock, M. & D. Geering (1994). Range expansion and migration of the Cattle Egret. Ostrich. 65:191–203.

Mahon PS (2009). Targeted control of widespread exotic species for biodiversity conservation: The Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) in New South Wales, Australia. Ecological Management & Restoration 10(S1): S59–S69.

Marine Pests (2009). Available on the Internet at: http://www.marinepests.gov.au/marine_pests/pest_impacts

Masters P (1998). The mulgara Dasycercus cristicauda (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) at Uluru National Park, Northern Territory. Australian Mammalogy 20: 403–407.

Materia CJ (1994a). The Status of the Tasmanian Seastar Marginaster littoralis Dartnall, 1970. Wildlife Report 94/8, Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania and the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery.

Materia CJ (1994b). A Study of Native Asteroids in South Eastern Tasmania. Wildlife Report 94/9, Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania and the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery.

Matsuki M, Kay M, Serin J, Floyd R and Scott JK (2003). Potential risk of accidental introduction of Asian gypsy moth (Lymantra dispar) to Australasia: effects of climatic conditions and suitability of native plants. Agricultural and Forestry Entomology 3: 305–320.

Matthews RW, Goodisman MA, Austin AD and Bashford R (2000). The introduced English wasp Vespula vulgaris (L.) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) newly recorded invading native forests in Tasmania. Australian Journal of Entomology 39: 177–179.

May SA and Norton TW (1996). Influence of fragmentation and disturbance on the potential impact of feral predators on native fauna in Australian forest ecosystems. Wildlife Research, 23(4): 387–400.

MDBC (Murray Darling Basin Commission) (2007). Fish Fact Sheets – Sliver Perch. Available on the Internet at: http://www2.mdbc.gov.au/subs/fish-info/native_info/silverPerch.html

Miller IL and Wilson CG (1989). Management of Salvinia in the Northern Territory. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 29: 40–46.

Moloney S and Vanderwoude C (2002). Red Imported Fire Ants: A threat to eastern Australia’s wildlife? Ecological Management & Restoration, 3(3): 167–175.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 60 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Morgan A., Carthew SM and Sedgley M. (2002). Breeding system, reproductive efficiency and weed potential of Acacia baileyana. Australian Journal of Botany 50: 357–364.

Morgan DL (2003). Distribution and biology of Galaxias truttaceus (Galaxiidae) in south-western Australia, including first evidence of parasitism of fishes in Western Australia by Ligula intestinalis (Cestoda). Environmental Biology of Fishes 66: 155–167.

Moriarty A (2004). The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia. Wildlife Research, 31: 291–299.

Moseby KE and O’Donnell E (2003). Reintroduction of the greater bilby, Macrotis lagotis (Reid) (Marsupialia: Thylacomyidae), to northern South Australia: survival, ecology and notes on reintroduction protocols. Wildlife Research, 30(1): 15–27.

Moulis RA (1997). Predation by the Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta) on Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) Nests on Wassaw National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2(3): 433–436.

Munday BL, Zilberg D and Findlay V (2001). Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis and gill disease in marine fish. Journal of Fish Diseases 24: 497–507

Navnith M, Finlayson GR, Crowther MS and Dickman CR (2009). The diet of the re-introduced greater bilby Macrotis lagotis in the mallee woodlands of western New South Wales. Australian Zoologist 35(1): 90–95.

NIMPIS (2002). Asterias amurensis species summary. National Introduced Marine Pest Information System (eds. Hewitt CL, Martin RB, Sliwa C, McEnnulty FR, Murphy NE, Jones T and Cooper S). Available on the Internet at: http://crimp.marine.csiro.au/nimpis.

Norris A, Low T, Gordon I, Saunders G, Lapidge S, Lapidge K, Peacock T, and Pech R (2005). Review of the management of feral animals and their impact on biodiversity in the rangelands. Pest Animal Control CRC Report. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/land/publications/pubs/rangelands-feral-book-hires.pdf

NSW DECCW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (2004). Herbivory and environmental degradation caused by feral deer – key threatening process listing. Available on the Internet at: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/FeralDeerKtp.htm

NSW DECCW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (2005). Rufous Bettong– profile. Available on the Internet at: http://www.threatenedspecies.environment.nsw.gov.au/tsprofile/profile.aspx?id=10033

NSW Parks and Wildlife Service (2003). Predation by Gambusia holbrooki–The Plague Minnow. Approved NSW Threat Abatement Plan. Available on the internet at: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/ThreatAbatementPlanPlaqueMinno w.pdf

NSW Scientific Committee (2010). Final Determination: Invasion of Native Plant Communities by African Olive Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall ex G.Don Ciferri).

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 61 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

O'Dowd DJ, Green PT and Lake PS (1999). Status, impact, and recommendations for research and management of exotic invasive ants in Christmas Island National Park. Darwin, Northern Territory, Environment Australia: 50. Available on the Internet at: http://www.issg.org/database/species/reference_files/Christmas_Island_Report.pdf

O’Dowd DJ, Green, PT and Lake PS (2001). Invasional meltdown in island rainforest. In ‘Tropical ecosystems. Structure, diversity and human welfare’ (eds. Ganeshaiah KN, Shaanker RU and Bawa KS). Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.

Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania (2003). Threats Murram Grass: A Hazard to our beaches. Available on the internet at: http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/file.aspx?id=6737

Parry G, Cohen B, McArthur M and Hickman N (2000). Victorian Incursion Report 2. Asterias amurensis incursion in Port Phillip Bay: Status at May 1999. Marine and Freshwater Research Institute, Australia, international report 19: 21.

Parsons WT and Cuthbertson EG (2001a). African lovegrass. In ‘Noxious Weeds of Australia’, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne: 627–632.

Parsons WT and Cuthbertson EG (2001b). English broom, scotch broom, broom. In ‘Noxious Weeds of Australia’, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Paton DC (1996). Overview of feral and managed honeybees in Australia: Distribution, abundance, extent of interactions with native biota, evidence of impacts and future research. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra. Available on the internet at: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/bees/pubs/honeybees- overview.pdf

Phillips ML, Murray, BR, Leishman MR and Ingram R (2010). The naturalization to invasion transition: Are there indroduction-history correlates on invasiveness in exotic plants of Australia? Austral Ecology 35: 695–703.

Phillips JA and Price IR (2002). How different is Mediterranean Caulerpa taxifolia (Caulerpales: Chlorophyta) to other populations of the species? Marine Ecology Progress Series 238: 61–72

Pimentel B (2002). Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species. CRC Press LLC, Florida USA.

Prugh LR, Stoner CJ, Epps CW, Bean WT, Ripple WJ, Laliberte AS and Brashares JS (2009). The Rise of the Mesopredator. Bioscience 59(9): 779–791.

Prestedge GK (1999). Will the introduced Northern Pacific Seastar impact upon Patiriella vivipara, the rare endemic seastar? The Tasmanian Naturalist, 121: 29–32.

Pultridge R (2002). The diets of cats, foxes and dingoes in relation to prey availability in the Tanami Desert, Northern Territory. Wildlife Research, 29: 389–403.

Pultridge R, Gibson D and Edwards G (1997). Diet of feral cat (Felis catis) in Central Australia. Wildlife Research, 24: 67–76.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 62 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Pyke GH and White AW (2000). Factors influencing predation on eggs and tadpoles of the endangered green and golden bell frog Litoria aurea by the introduced plague minnow Gambusia holbrooki. Australian Zoologist, 31(3): 496–505.

QLD DERM (2007). Richmond birdwing butterfly. Available on the Internet at: http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/wildlife- ecosystems/wildlife/threatened_plants_and_animals/vulnerable/richmond_birdwing_butter fly.html

QLD Government (2001). Policy for Development and Use of Ponded Pastures. Available on the Internet at: http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/land/management/pdf/ponded_pasture.pdf

QDPI&F (2007a). American corn snake Elaphe guttata Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. Available on the internet at: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Corn-Snake- Warning.pdf

QDPI&F (2007b). Red imported fire ants: A threat to eastern Australia's wildlife? Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. Available on the internet at: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/4790_6649.htm

QDPI&F (2010). Asian Honeybee. Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. Available on the internet at: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/4790_13530.htm

Raadik TA, Saddlier SR and Koehn JD (1996). Threatened fishes of the world: Galaxias fuscus Mack, 1936 (Galaxiidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes 47: 108.

Rachowicz LJ, Hero J-M, Alford RA, Taylor JW, Morgan JAT, Vredenburg VT, Collins JP and Briggs CJ (2005). The novel and endemic pathogen hypotheses: Competing explanations for the origin of emerging infectious diseases of wildlife. Conservation Biology 19: 1441– 1448.

Reddacliff LA and Whittington RJ (1996). Pathology of epizootic haematopoietic necrosis virus (EHNV) infection in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) and redfin perch (Perca fluviatilis L). Journal of Comparative Pathology, 115: 103–15.

Richardson DM, Williams PA and Hobbs RJ (1994). Pine Invasions in the Southern Hemisphere: Determinants of Spread and Invadability. Journal of Biogeography 21: 511–527.

Roberts J, Chick A, Oswald L, Thompson P (1995). Effect of Carp, Cyprinus carpio L., an Exotic Benthivorous Fish on Aquatic Plants and Water Quality in Experimental Ponds. Marine and Freshwater Research, 46: 1171–1180.

Rolls EC (1969). They All Ran Wild. The animals and plants that plague Australia. Angus & Robinson Publishers, Australia.

Rossiter NA, Setterfield SA, Douglas MM, Hutley LB and Cook GD (2004). Exotic grass invasion in the tropical savannas of northern Australia: Ecosystem consequences. In ‘Proceedings of the 14th Australian Weeds Conference’, (eds. Sindel BM and Johnson SB). Weeds Society of New South Wales, Sydney: 168–171.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 63 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Rudnick DA, Chan V and Resh VH (2005). Morphology and Impacts of the Burrowing of the Chinese Mitten Crab, Eriocheir sinensis H. Milne Edwards (Decapoda, Grapsoidea), in South San Francisco Bay California, USA Crustaceana 78(7): 787–807.

Saalfeld WK and Edwards GP (2008). Ecology of feral camels in Australia. In Managing the impacts of feral camels in Australia : a new way of doing business (Eds Edwards et al.) Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre (Australia) & CSIRO, Alice Springs, N.T.

Sanderlund OT, Scheil PJ and Viken A (1999). Introduction: the many aspects of the invasive alien species problem. In ‘Invasive Species and Biodiversity Management’ (eds. OT Sandlund, PJ Schei and A Viken) Kluwer Academic Publishers. The Netherlands.

Sanderson JC (1990). A Preliminary Survey of the Distribution of the Introduced Macroalga, Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringer on the East Coast of Tasmania, Australia. Botanica Marina. 33 (2): 153–158.

Sands D (2008). Conserving the Richmond Birdwing Butterfly over two decades: Where to next? Ecological Management and Restoration. 9(1): 4-16. Available on the Internet at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi- bin/fulltext/119419236/PDFSTART

Sands DPA and Scott SE (1998). Conservation and Recovery of the Richmond Birdwing Butterfly, Ornithoptera richmondia and its Lowland Food Plant, Pararistolochia praevenosa. In ‘Rainforest Recovery for the New Millennium’ (eds. Boyes BR), Proceedings of the World Wide Fund for Nature 1998 South-East Queensland Rainforest Recovery Conference. WWF, Sydney.

Sands DPA, Scott SE and Moffatt R (1997). The threatened Richmond birdwing butterfly (Ornithoptera richmondia) [Gray]: a community conservation project. Memoirs of the Museum of Victoria 56: 449–453.

Schooler S, Julien M and Walsh GC (2006). Predicting the response of Cabomba caroliniana populations to biological control agent damage. Australian Journal of Entomology, 45: 327–330.

Seebeck JH and Rose RW (1989). Potoroidae. In Fauna of Australia. Volume 1B. Mammalia (eds. Walton DW and Richardson BJ). Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra: 716–739.

Semmons TD, Turner E and Buttermore R (1993). Bombus terrestris (L.) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) now established in Tasmania. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 32: 346.

Setterfield S (2009). Counting the Costs: The impact of invasion of Australia’s savannas by an introduced grass. Australian Agriculture and Resource Economics Society Annual Symposium. Australian National University Canberra 10-11 September.

Shea GM, Millgate M and Peck S (1987). A range extension for the rare skink Anomalopus mackayi. Herpetofauna 17: 16–19.

Shearer BL, Crane CE and Cochrane A (2004). Quantification of the susceptibility of the native flora of the South West Botanical Province, Western Australia, to Phytophthora cinnamomi. Australian Journal of Botany, 52(4): 435–443.

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 64 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Short J, Kinnear JE and Robley A (2001). Surplus killing by introduced predators in Australia— evidence for ineffective anti-predator adaptations in native prey species? Biological Conservation, 103(3): 283–301.

Sinden J, Jones R, Hester S, Odom D, Kalisch, James R and Cacho O (2004). The ecominic impact of weeds in Australia. CRC for Australian Weed Management Technical Series no.8, Glen Osmond, SA. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weedscrc.org.au/documents/tech_series_8.pdf

Smith CS, Howes AL, Price B and McAlpine CA (2007). Using a Bayesian belief network to predict suitable habitat of an endangered mammal–The Julia Creek dunnart (Sminthopsis douglasi). Biological Conservation, 139(3/4): 333–347.

Stephens CJ, Facelli JM and Austin AD (2008).The impact of bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) on native ground-cover plant diversity and habitat structure. Plant Protection Quarterly, 23(3): 136–143.

Swarbrick JT, Willson BW, Hannan-Jones MA (1995). The biology of Australian weeds 25. Lantana camara L. Plant Protection Quarterly 10: 82–95.

Swarbrick JT, Willson BW, Hannan-Jones MA (1998). Lantana camara L. In: The Biology of Australian weeds, Volume 2 (Eds. Panetta FD, Groves RH and Shepherd RCH), RG and FJ Richardson, Melbourne.

Tanner L (2009). Prickly Pear History. Available on the Internet at: http://www.northwestweeds.nsw.gov.au/prickly_pear_history.htm

TSS (2006). Recovery Plan: Tasmanian Galaxiidae 2006-2010. Threatened Species Section, Department of Primary Industries, Water, Hobart.

Vidler SJ (2004). Using your cute and furries: the role of threatened species in weed awareness. Proceedings of the 14th Australian Weeds Conference (eds B Sindel and S Johnson). pp. 652–658. Weed Society of New South Wales. Sydney.

Voigt M (1999). Ensis directus (Conrad, 1843). In: Exotics across the ocean. Case histories on introduced species (eds. Gollasch S, Minchin D, Rosenthal H and Voigt M), Logos Verlag, Berlin.

Voyles J, Young S, Berger L, Campbell C, Voyles WF, Dinudom A, Cook D, Webb R, Alford RA, Skerratt LF and Rick Speare R (2009). Pathogenesis of Chytridiomycosis, a Cause of Catastrophic Amphibian Declines. Science 23: 326. no. 5952: 582–585. DOI: 10.1126/science.1176765.

Ward TM, Hoedt F, McLeay L, Dimmlich WF, Kinloch M, Jackson G McGarvet R, Rogers PJ and Jones K (2001). Effects of the 1995 and 1998 mass mortality events on the spawning biomass of sardine, Sardinops sagax, in South Australian waters. Journal of Marine Science, 58: 865–875.

Weeds (2000). Hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis) Strategic Plan. Weeds of National Significance, National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, Launceston. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weeds.org.au/docs/hymstrat.pdf\

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 65 of 66 The Minister listed this as a key threatening process, effective from 26 February 2013

Weeds (2010). Impact of weeds. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weeds.gov.au/weeds/why/impact.html

Williams M and Wardle G (2005). The invasion of two native Eucalypt forests by Pinus radiata in the Blue Mountains, New South Wales, Australia. Biological Conservation 125: 55–64.

Williams M and Wardle G (2007). The special pattern of invading Pinus radiate. Proceedings of the Linnean Society NSW 128:111–122.

Williamson M (1996). Biological Invasion. Chapman and Hall, London.

Wills RT (1993). The ecological impact of Phytophthora cinnamomi in the Stirling Range National Park, Western Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 18:145–159.

Wilmers TJ, Wilmers ES, Miller M and Wells P (1996). Imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta): a growing menace to sea turtles in Key West National Wildlife Refuge. In ‘Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation’ (eds. Keinath JA, Barnard DE, Musick JA and Bell BA): 341–343.

Wittenburg R and Cock MJW (eds.) (2001). Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit on Best Prevention and Management Practices. CAB International, Wallingfor, Oxon, UK.

Whittington RJ and Reddacliff GL (1995). Influence of environmental temperature on experimental infection of redfin perch (Perca fluviatilis) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) with epizootic haematopoietic necrosis virus, an Australian iridovirus. Australian Veterinary Journal 72: 421–424.

Whittington RJ, Kearns C, Hyatt AD, Hengstberger S and Rutzou T (1996). Spread of epizootic haematopoietic necrosis virus (EHNV) in redfin perch (Perca fluviatilis) in southern Australia. Australian Veterinary Journal 73: 112–114.

WoNS, (2003a). Weeds of National Significance. Weed Management Guide Salvinia – Salvinia molesta. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weeds.gov.au/publications/guidelines/wons/pubs/s-molesta.pdf

WoNS (2003b). Weeds of National Significance Weed Management Guide Cabomba – Cabomba caroliniana. Available on the Internet at: http://www.weeds.gov.au/publications/guidelines/wons/pubs/c-caroliniana.pdf

WoNS (2009). Weeds of National Significance. Commonwealth Government. Available on the Internet at: www.weeds.org.au/wons/

‘Novel biota and their impact on biodiversity’ Listing Advice - Page 66 of 66