People are hungry for stories. It’s part of our very being. Storytelling is a form of history, of immortality too. It goes from one generation to another.

– Louis “Studs” Terkel, author, historian, actor, and broadcaster

The ideas that have been discussed in this section are tools that you can add to your repertoire as an artist. In Chapter Two you will be asked to use storytelling as a medium to explore the ideas related to culture, heritage and history.

86 87 46 - 50 000 years ago 20 - 30 000 years ago 22- 25 000 years ago Humans entered Europe. Most Central Asians moved west Humans crossed Beringia, PEOPLING EARTH The Origin of Man and the Animals Europeans today can trace their towards Europe and east the land bridge that connected ancestry to mtDNA lines that appeared towards Beringia Siberia and Alaska A long time ago during a blizzard, a handsome young between 50 000 and 13 000 years ago man entered an igloo. He was welcomed into the bed and slept with the entire family. The next morning when the family awoke, the young man was gone. Seeing only animal tracks outside, the father proclaimed that they had been deceived, and that the young man had been the lead dog disguised as a man. His daughter became 40 000 years ago pregnant and the father was ashamed of what kind of Humans from the East- 15-19 000 years ago children she might have. He took her in a kayak to a Asian coast moved Artefacts and tools found in c along the silk road o Pennsylvania give evidence small island, where he abandoned her. The lead dog kept a s that humans had migrated t 40 000 years ago a the girl alive by swimming to the island and giving her l into the Americas before the

Humans trekked north from ro Ice Age tender meat. The girl gave birth to six young. Three of u Pakistan up the Indus River t e them were Inuit children, but the other three had bigger and into Central Asia ears and noses like snouts. The young mother sewed some seal skins into a large slipper, placed the three strange children inside, and pushed them off towards the south. 80 000 years ago Some say all white men and Indians are descended from A group of humans those three dog children. travelled through the Image by Gilbert Hay Southern Arabia Peninsula towards India. 70 000 years ago Later the father went in a umiak with some men to All non-African people Humans crossed from She tried again, and he cut off her hands, which became take his daughter off the island. A storm arose and the African origins descended from this group Timor to Australia boatmen were afraid that the overloaded boat would the walruses. She made one last attempt, and he cut off Over 150 000 years ago her forearms, which became the whales. She sank to the modern humans - our 120 000 years ago 75 000 years ago capsize. To lighten the load, they threw the daughter Modern Humans moved bottom of the ocean and became Sedna, or Taluliyuk, mtDNA ancestors - A group of humans 12 500 years ago overboard. When she tried to climb back into the boat, lived in Africa travelled northward east from India into the woman who controls all the sea beasts. Evidence of human habitation the father cut off her fingers. These became the seals. through Egypt and Southeast Asia and China and artefacts found, Monte Israel but died out Verde, Chile 90 000 years ago Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 TOPIC 2.1 Adapted from information provided in Out of Eden by Stephen Oppenheimer

Let’s start at the beginning. How did humankind populate Earth? There are many theories about this. Most cultures have creation stories or beliefs Experiencing The Arts that suggest humans are the product of intelligent design. Other people Part of the craft of storytelling is preserving the experiences In this series of exercises, you will need to use your tools of our ancestors. Stories from the past are sometimes as an artist (and historian) to construct a story about a use scientific data to help explain thatHomo sapiens (humans) first evolved fictional, while others are more factual. Often, there is a part of your past that you wish to explore. By the end blending of both. Either way, they provide insight into the of the chapter, you will be asked to share that story with in Africa about 200 000 years ago and then spread around the world. past. close family or friends as part of the private tradition of If we accept the second explanation, a question then that “… [at] the close of the fifteenth century … there storytelling. Much of this section of the chapter is about the distant arises: How did humans get from Africa to the Americas, were two huge groups of people, on two vast landmasses past. What we know of this period is limited. It is difficult For this exercise, compile a list of questions about your which are surrounded by water? One theory is that … entirely separated from one another and developing to conduct a detailed understanding of the distant past personal past that you would like to have answered. Keep people migrated across a land bridge called Beringia side-by-side, oblivious to the existence of each other.” because there is a limited amount of archaeological the list in a convenient place so that you can add to it (Fig. 2.2). This land bridge, which is now under water, Europeans would later refer to these two “worlds” as information available. when you get an idea. (Remember, inspiration can come connected Siberia to Alaska at some point during the last the “Old World” (the parts of the world then known to at any time or in any place.) ice age – sometime between 9000 and 50 000 years ago. Europeans, Asians, and Africans) and the “New World” The same is often true about our own personal histories. It is speculated that these people then spread across the (the Americas and Oceania). We most likely know a fair bit about our parents or Americas, including Newfoundland and Labrador, and guardians, but know less about our grandparents, and less again about our great-grandparents. Much of what we do diversified into many culturally distinct groups. These are Eurocentric labels. Before contact, Europeans had no idea that the Americas existed. know has likely been passed on through family stories. Once Beringia disappeared beneath the sea, the Americas were again isolated from the rest of the world. As historian and writer Peter Watson notes, this meant

88 89 Statistics for this period are approximations. Historians’ figures can vary widely– particularly for Africa and the Americas. The data given above is based largely on the work of Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, and William Denevan.

x

Fig. 2.3

Although most of the people in the Americas in the 15th century lived an agrarian lifestyle, there were also larger, sophisticated centres of civilization such as the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan (in Mexico) and the Inca city of Machu Picchu (in Peru). Shown here are the ruins of Machu Picchu. Built in approximately 1430 it was designated a World Heritage Site in 1983 for being “an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique testimony to the Inca civilization”.

This illustration of various Aboriginal groups of the Americas first appeared in Fig. 2.5 the Swedish encyclopedia Nordisk Familjebok in 1904. Population Distribution At the close of the fifteenth century, there were any European city at the time. In the other parts of the approximately 40-60 million people living in the Americas (especially modern-day Brazil, Canada, and the Americas (although estimates vary widely on this United States), the population consisted mostly of hunter- number). The most densely settled parts of the gatherer societies. Americas were the modern-day sites of Mexico and Peru. These areas were largely agrarian with a few It has been estimated that a hunter-gatherer in the large centres, such as the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan Americas needed about ten square kilometres of land to (Mexico City). In 1500, approximately 250 000 provide him with enough resources to survive. Once the people lived in Tenochtitlan, making it larger than population density exceeded this, some of the hunter- gatherers had to move to find new resources. This, along with conflict between different groups and changes in environmental conditions, may explain why groups spread out across the Americas.

Although some farming was practised in North America prior to European contact, much of North America’s population belonged to hunter-gatherer societies. There was an extensive trade network between many of the groups. Trade allowed these groups to acquire resources not found in their own environment and to build alliances with neighbouring groups. Goods traded included food (such as dried fish, maize, and beans), raw materials

Fig. 2.4 A Labrador Archaic arrowhead

90 Fig. 2.6 91 Trade Patterns in North America

A.K.A. Ramah chert This painting, The View of Kalchreut, by artist Albrecht Durer in 1500, shows an example of a European village at the turn of the 16th century.

Fig. 2.8 Questions:

1. The area of Newfoundland and Labrador 3. Describe the pattern of distribution of is 405 720 square kilometres. Based on the cities throughout the world c. 1500. What Questionsinformation in the text, how many people inferences can be made, based on the could survive in modern day Newfoundland distribution for each continent? and Labrador as hunter-gatherers? Is this a realistic figure, given the geography of the 4. What would be the relative advantages and province? Explain. challenges of living in: a. A hunter-gatherer society versus an 2. Assuming that humans migrated into the agrarian society? Americas via Beringia, why do you think b. A rural area versus an urban area? BCE - Before Common Era most peoples continued the migration south? CE-Common Era Why might some have stayed in the north? EC - European Contact What was traded from Newfoundland and Labrador? How far was it traded? Why do you suppose this was traded over such distances? Source: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis People by John Roberts Fig. 2.7 In the 16th century, most of the world’s largest and grandest cities lay in Asia. This diorama shows Peking (now known as Beijing) in the late 15th century. It is believed that Peking was the largest city in the world from 1425 to 1650. Fig. 2.9 After agriculture, the fisheries employed the most people in medieval Europe.

(such as obsidian, chert, and shells), and manufactured and Asia practised farming and had some domesticated items (such as pottery, knives, and needles). The map animals. Experts suggest that in 1500 only about one out above shows some of the known established trading of every ten Europeans lived in a town with a population networks. Archaeologists have been able to learn about over 5000. these trading routes through the discovery of artifacts in sites other than those from which they originated. For At this time Europe was experiencing population growth. instance, projectile points made from minerals found in By the beginning of the sixteenth century, the population Labrador have been found in the St. Lawrence Valley. density was approximately 70 people per square kilometre. An increasing population meant a need for larger food Meanwhile, across the ocean, there were approximately supplies. To meet this demand, more lands were used for 80-100 million people living in Europe. Although agricultural purposes. Nevertheless, there still remained a population distribution varied throughout the region, it need for inexpensive sources of protein to feed the masses. was largely rural and agrarian. Most groups in Europe Europe began to look outward for resources.

92 93 TOPIC 2.2

While Aboriginal people assert they have always been here, archaeologists Paleo-Americans estimate that the first human residents in our province arrived about According to many archaeologists, Paleo-Americans each of these groups. In some cases, a group may have are the descendants of the people who migrated across died out because of a lack of food resources. It is also 7000 BCE in Labrador. Several thousands of years later, they were the Beringia land bridge that connected Siberia to possible that one group evolved into another. followed by other groups – some of which lived here for only a few hundred years Alaska during the last ice age. There have been several different cultural groups of Paleo-Americans who settled before disappearing. Who were these people? Where did they live? While we in Newfoundland and Labrador prior to contact with cannot answer all of these questions, we know that there were several waves Europeans. These include Labrador Archaic, Maritime Archaic, Intermediate Indians, and Recent Indians. It is of migrations in Newfoundland and Labrador by different groups of Paleo- not known what happened to cause the disappearance of These bird-shaped pebbles were found in a Maritime Archaic Fig. 2.10 Americans and Paleo-Eskimos. These groups were later followed by the cemetery in Port au Choix. They may have had a religious Thule and the Norse. Some of the groups probably interacted and this may function or have been used simply for decoration or as toys. have affected where certain groups settled.

Pre-Dorset Dorset Paleo-Eskimo Paleo-Eskimo

Intermediate Indian Recent Indians

Maritime Archaic

LABRADOR Groswater Paleo-Eskimo

Labrador Archaic Thule NEWFOUNDLAND

7000 BCE 6000 BCE 5000 BCE 4000 BCE 3000 BCE 2000 BCE 1000 BCE 0 1000 CE 1400 CE

Recent Indians Maritime Archaic Groswater Paleo-Eskimo Norse were here for Source: Lisa Rankin in A Short History of Newfoundland and Labrador Dorset Paleo-Eskimo a decade c. 1000 CE

MEANWHILE ELSEWHERE IN THE WORLD...

8000 BCE 4500 BCE 3100 BCE 2150 BCE 776 BCE 51 BCE 0 225 CE 868 CE Earliest permanent farming Plow is introduced in Europe Work begins on earliest phase Work begins on the first pyramid First Olympic Games held Cleopatra becomes the ruler Approximate date given as Early form of gunpowder First known printed book, villages in Fertile Crescent of Stonehenge (the Step Pyramid at Saqqara) in Greece of Eygpt birth of Christ invented in China the Diamond Sutra

Fig. 2.11

94 95 EVIDENCE In order to construct an understanding of the past you need Fig. 2.15 information. Information becomes evidence when used for a particular purpose, such as answering a question, supporting a oldest known position or interpreting the past.

Evidence can be from either a primary source or a secondary source. grave Primary sources are “first-hand” accounts of an experience. These in north america would include oral reports, photographs, documents or other artifacts. Secondary sources are accounts of an experience that The oldest known grave in the are created from primary sources. These would include textbooks, Americas, and possibly the movies about the past, lectures, and other “re-creations” of the world, is a 7500 year-old Labrador Archaic burial mound located original experience. in L’Anse Amour, Labrador. A Labrador Archaic adolescent was The degree to which a question can be answered, or a position buried at this site in a ceremonial supported by evidence, is a function of the quantity and quality of manner. The body was wrapped the information available. In order to construct an interpretation and placed facedown in a pit and of a past event it is useful to have many sources. Each source needs then a large flat stone was placed to be examined in terms of its quality, as well. For example, some on the lower back. Evidence sources may be biased and provide a limited or even distorted indicates that food was cooked account of an event – intentionally or not. on fires that were lit around the body. Weapons and tools were If there is a lack of either quantity and/or quality of information, placed in the grave, possibly as it may be appropriate to say that you do not have sufficient offerings, and then it was covered with a large mound of rocks. The information to answer a question, make an inference, or draw a manner in which this youth was Artist William B. Ritchie’s conception of House 55, a Dorset Paleo-Eskimo Fig. 2.12 conclusion. buried suggests that he/she may structure located at Phillip’s Garden, Port au Choix. The reconstructed archaeological have had an important role within site of this Dorset house can be seen at Port au Choix National Historic Site. the tribe or that his/her death had migration Patterns a special significance. in Eastern North America Paleo-Eskimos Thule About 2100 BCE a new people, Paleo-Eskimos, moved About 600 years ago, a people known as Thule reached into northern Labrador – perhaps from Greenland or northern Labrador and migrated as far south as Sandwich the high Arctic. (“Paleo-Eskimo” literally means “old Bay. This group originally came from northern Alaska and Eskimo.”) These people were culturally different from ultimately spread across the Canadian Arctic and Greenland. the Paleo-Americans. The first group of Paleo-Eskimos, As Thule adapted their lifestyle to fit the Labrador known as “Pre-Dorset”, tended to live in sheltered inner environment, they became a distinct cultural group known as areas along the North Labrador coast. This group “Labrador Inuit”. (Archaeologists tend to use the term “Thule” seems to have experienced a population decline starting for this group until about 1550 CE.) Thus, Thule are the around 1500 BCE. By 800 BCE, a new group called direct ancestors of the Inuit in Labrador today. the “Groswater Paleo-Eskimo” was living at various sites throughout our province. They resided here until about 100 BCE in Labrador and 100 CE in Newfoundland. About 500 BCE a new culture, the Dorset Paleo-Eskimo, arrived in Labrador from the north. At the beginning of the common era, Dorset sites were distributed along the entire Labrador coast and on the island of Newfoundland. Fig. 2.16 By 900 CE the Dorset had disappeared from the island of Newfoundland, and by 1300 CE had mostly disappeared Shown above are some of the items found in the grave: a whistle made from bird from Labrador. As with (Left) A handle and circular blade from a Thule knife known as an ulu, c. 1550. bone; a whetstone used for sharpening the early Paleo-Americans, tools; a worked walrus tusk; and an antler Learn about another side of artist (Above) A polar bear tooth that was likely we can only hypothesize pestle, which was possibly used William B. Ritchie on page 156 and worn as a Thule amulet or for decoration. why the different groups look for other images of early peoples for grinding graphite to mix with red ochre to make paint. disappeared. in this chapter by this artist. Based on information from Historical Atlas of Canada – From the Beginning to 1800, Vol. 1 by Cole R. Harris Fig. 2.14 96 Fig. 2.13 97 Prehistoric technologies working with The early peoples of Newfoundland and Labrador were killed, there was little waste. In addition to eating Groswater Paleo-Eskimo knives and scrapers. Archaeological developed technologies, some quite sophisticated, to the meat from an animal, needles and other tools were These tools were shaped from chert. The scrapers had a be able to survive in their environment. The tools they made from the bones, and clothing was made from the converse edge for scraping hides and other materials. The Evidence developed were made with materials they found at hide. ridges on the edges were probably used to make grooves Archaeology is the study of hand – stone, wood, or animal products. When animals in bones and antler. The knives were attached to wooden the past cultural behaviour of handles with sinew. While it is rare for wooden artifacts to humans through the material survive from this far back, wooden handles could be preserved by remains, or artifacts, that people Fig. 2.17 permafrost conditions. leave behind. Once an artifact has been discovered, an archaeologist uses scientific techniques and Maritime Archaic toggling harpoon This represents the ultimate in sea-mammal hunting analysis to attempt to reconstruct technology. A line would attach the tip to the shaft. Once the tip entered the animal, it separated from the shaft how the artifact was used. and twisted, or “toggled”, in the wound as the line tightened, making it virtually impossible for the animal to escape. Thousands of years after these were used by Maritime Archaic, American whalers reinvented the same technology. This reconstruction of the past is hampered by the fact that objects made from organic material, such as animal hides or wood, often decompose before they are found. This is especially true in Fig. 2.18 the acidic soils found in much Fig. 2.21 of Newfoundland and Labrador. Maritime Archaic needles inside carrying case These bird-bone needles have eyes of less than Thus many objects of daily life in one millimetre wide, indicating they were probably used for fine needlework. Eight such needles were found in this the past – such as tents, clothing, needle case, made from a caribou bone, at a Maritime Archaic cemetery in Port au Choix. and baskets – have not survived.

Despite this, archaeologists look at other clues to help reconstruct These were used both Dorset soapstone pots the past. How objects were for heat and for cooking. The replica set up below shows grouped when they were found how the pots were used. can provide insight into their use. For instance, shells found in a line might indicate that they were used Fig. 2.19 as buttons on clothing that has since disintegrated. the process for making “Manufacturing” tools provide clues soapstone pots about the materials used to make them 1. The weathered and how the tools were shaped. The surface of the Questions: Maritime Archaic soapstone cliff 2. The outside 1. Between 7000 BCE and 1000 CE, Newfoundland and stone axe head is an was removed of the pot Labrador was inhabited by several groups of people. example of this. It by pounding it was shaped a. How many groups inhabited Labrador? indicates these people with large cobble by carving a b. How many groups inhabited the island of cut down trees and cut hammerstones. groove in the Newfoundland? large wooden pieces cliff face. c. Give two reasons that might explain this into more manageable difference. sizes, such as would d. What might be some implications of multiple have been used groups inhabiting the same area at the same time? for firewood or perhaps 3. The pot 4. The inside canoe making. shape was was hollowed 2. Considering site and situation, what would have been then removed out and finished three advantages and three challenges of: from the cliff with scrapers and a. living in Labrador c. 100 CE? by chiselling smoothing tools. b. living on the island of Newfoundland c.100 CE? and prying. 3. Which of the prehistoric technologies illustrated do you think shows the most ingenuity? Explain. Fig. 2.20 Fig. 2.22

98 99 FIRST NATIONS and inuit The mid 1600s

TOPIC 2.3 Portage on the Moisie by William Hind Fig. 2.23

Between 1000 and 1500 CE the inhabitants of Newfoundland and Labrador continued to change. As the lives of early people were so closely tied to the land, even a small variation in an ecosystem or competition with other groups could result in a group’s migration or even extinction. Prior to the arrival of Zuan Caboto (John Cabot) in 1497, Written records by Europeans also shed some light on it appears that Inuit, Innu, Beothuk and possibly Mi’kmaq the lifestyles of indigenous peoples after contact with were established in Newfoundland and Labrador. What Europeans. we know about these groups before European contact comes from archaeological evidence and oral history.

1497: Zuan Caboto (John Cabot) “discovers” Newfoundland for England Thule Labrador Inuit

Recent Indians Innu

LAB. 1400 CE 1450 CE 1500 CE 1550 CE 1600 CE 1650 CE 1700 CE NFLD.

Recent Indians Mi’kmaq Beothuk

The last Beothuk dies in 1829 100 Fig. 2.24 101 INNU Innu oral tradition says that Innu have always been in North America. Archaeological evidence is less clear. Many anthropologists believe the immediate forebearers of Innu were the Point Revenge people who lived along parts of the Labrador coast. About 1400 CE, Innu moved into the interior of Labrador as Thule appeared along WHEN IS INFORMATION EVIDENCE? the coast. When information is used to support an argument, it becomes “evidence”. In the Like our knowledge of other peoples who inhabited excerpt below, Daniel Ashini disputes what Newfoundland and Labrador at this time, much of what we some archaeologists cite as evidence. Ashini know about Innu life comes from oral tradition, interactions suggests that the information can be interpreted with Europeans and archaeological findings. differently depending on one’s viewpoint. Innu relied on caribou as a primary resource – using it as Innu are using the opportunity created by mining exploration a main source of food, clothing and shelter. Consequently to further explore their history. They are looking for new they followed the caribou migration. Innu supplemented archaeological data to help provide a more complete their diet with fish and small game like beaver. As part of understanding of their past. their seasonal round, some Innu returned to the coast in Innu researchers dig the summer. Innu travelled by canoe in summer and snowshoe and into their history toboggan in winter. Because they moved from place to Fig. 2.25 (Excerpted from an article by Camille Fouillard, 2000.) place, Innu lived in kapminaute (also referred to as Tshishtuekan-patshuianitshuap) that could be erected “This is important work but I have problems with quickly. These were made of bent alders, covered in Whale Hunting Near Nassaujak, 1976. Stencil Print by Jeetaloo Akulukjuk and Tommy Evvik. Umiat, which can carry up to 20 people, the way archaeologists label different things and were used for transportation and for hunting whales. Whales provided Inuit with meat and oil, which could be used in soapstone with some of the terms they use,” says Ashini. “For birch bark and caribou hide. Innu took the caribou hides lamps. In addition, whalebones were used to make tools and as the framework for skin tents. example, they have given our ancestors different with them and built a new kapminaute frame at their names like Maritime Archaic Indians, Intermediate next location. Period Indians and Point Revenge Indians. These archaeologists only identify a clear tie between the last group and the Innu, as if we were all different Shown here is an Inuit child’s This lithograph entitled Nasquapees: Otelne and Arkaskhe is INUIT leather boot, circa sixteenth to and distinct peoples.” based on a watercolour done by William Hind in 1861. Fig. 2.28 Labrador Inuit are descendants of Thule. Much of what we seventeenth century. Labrador know about Inuit lifestyle before contact with Europeans is Inuit made their clothing from Archaeologists claim the evidence is inconclusive and based on oral tradition and archaeological evidence. the skins and furs of the animals use these different names to interpret information they hunted. Sewing skills were to suit their needs, says Ashini. This is a problem important as warm, water-resistant for the Innu during land rights negotiations when Inuit lifestyle involved a seasonal round, with groups clothing was essential to survival in governments cite archaeological research to say that moving to pursue resources such as seals, whales, and the north. the Innu have not been in Labrador for at least the caribou. Inuit used umiat, large open skin-covered last 8,000 years. But Ashini says the archaeologists’ boats, for transportation and to hunt large mammals theories don’t hold up. such as whales. They also used one-person kajait for transportation and for the caribou hunt. In the winter, “We know these people are our ancestors and just dog teams pulled large sleds called kamutet to assist because they used different tools and set up their travel across the land and ice. campsites a little differently, in my opinion that doesn’t make them different peoples,” says Ashini. Housing was seasonally adapted. Inuit had summer and winter camps in locations they returned to year after “A people develops and evolves over time from contact with other peoples and adapts itself to different year. Typically people lived in single family dwellings. Fig. 2.26 circumstances. Because European people use cars An Innu spike and Winter houses were earthen huts banked by sods with a instead of horse and buggy, because they live in different thimble game, early roof supported by whale ribs and shoulder blades. The kinds of houses, use tractors instead of manual ploughs, twentieth century. entrance was a long tunnel. These houses were well they are not different peoples from their ancestors.” Fig. 2.29 insulated and efficiently heated with soapstone lamps. In the summer, Inuit lived in skin tents with whalebone Ashini added that some archaeologists like Stephen Fig. 2.30 frameworks. These were light and relatively easy to set up Loring (of the Smithsonian Institute) are beginning and take down for travel. to see that the labels may be incorrect and don’t tell A miniature A model of an Innu tent, or kapminaute, the whole picture. They have begun to reassess their circa early twentieth century. Each Inuit ivory male interpretations… figurine, circa early kapminaute had a hearth near the twentieth century. When this article was written, Daniel Ashini was serving as Director of entrance with a fire in it that was kept continually lit. Fig. 2.27 Innu Rights and Environment for the Innu Nation. He has also been involved in archaeological work. 102 103 MI’KMAQ Mi’kmaq ancestral homelands of Mi’kma’ki stretched In the fall, many Mi’kmaq moved inland, where they across much of what is today Atlantic Canada. The name stayed for the colder months. There they hunted large for the Newfoundland part of this territory, Ktaqamkuk, animals like bears and caribou, fished from rivers, and means “land across the water”. While Newfoundland trapped small game like beavers and partridges. Mi’kmaw oral tradition maintains they lived in Ktaqamkuk prior to European contact, the first evidence of Mi’kmaq In summer, Mi’kmaq used birch bark canoes. They presence in Newfoundland dates from 1602. ranged from 5.5 to 9 metres (18-30 ft) in length and were lightweight, making them easy to portage. In winter, Among the most striking Beothuk Mi’kmaq life followed a seasonal round. Most of their snowshoes were used for walking and toboggans were artifacts are carved bone pieces. They Beothuk projectile food came from the sea. Consequently, Mi’kmaq spent used to transport heavy goods. have been found in bundles, sewn to from early spring until fall near the shores – harvesting clothing, or strung as a necklace. Some points. resources of the sea and land as they came into season. of these carvings can be identified as Fig. 2.31 stylized animals or parts thereof and This included fish which they took with hook and line, may have been used as amulets. Fig. 2.32 weirs, and spears. A short distance inland, they hunted caribou in their spring migration. This is the adjective form of Mi’kmaq. BEOTHUK At the time Europeans arrived in Newfoundland and Labrador, between 500 and 700 Beothuk are believed to Shown here is artist William B. Ritchie’s interpretation of a pre-history Mi’kmaw dwelling. have inhabited the island of Newfoundland. As the direct descendants of one of the prehistoric populations that are collectively referred to by archaeologists as “Recent Indians”, the Beothuk represent the historic period of this native culture. Lists of Beothuk words, obtained from Fig. 2.32a Fig. 2.35 captives, in combination with archaeological findings, have allowed scientists to propose a relationship of Beothuk Gaming pieces decorated on one side and plain on the other were tossed in (i.e., the language) with the Algonquian language family. the air. Complex scores based on the numbers that landed face up or face down were kept, probably using bead counters. Because Beothuk had few interactions with Europeans, our knowledge about their culture is limited. What we know about Beothuk lifestyle, social organization, opportunities for socializing, storytelling, teaching, and language, and religion is based on contemporary sharing songs. At the end of the winter, they celebrated documents, information obtained from captives, and the ochring ceremony, a ten day feast at which every archaeological findings. member of the assembled group received a new coat of red ochre. During the summer season small Beothuk family groups Fig. 2.36 or bands roamed along stretches of the coast, harvesting The ochre was considered to be a mark of identity and Fig. 2.34 a variety of marine resources, as well as birds and their the first coat, applied in infancy, a sign of initiation. This These Mi’kmaw boots are made from tanned caribou eggs. In fall they met with other families inland for the big tradition was unique to Beothuk. skins that have been stitched together with thread made caribou drive which supplied them with large quantities from deer or caribou sinew. of meat for the winter. In pursuit of their seasonal round, Like other native groups, Beothuk used the resources of Beothuk travelled throughout the island employing a their immediate environment for all their needs. Tools, variety of hunting and fishing techniques and several arrowheads, bows and arrows, and cooking pots were methods to preserve surplus food stuff. Several families made from stone, bone, wood, or bark. Clothing was or bands overwintered together and thereby created made from caribou and other animal skins. Summer Questions: shelters, known as mamateeks, were constructed from wooden poles bound together and covered with birch bark. 1. What are the main sources of knowledge 2. Use a chart to compare the way of life of Winter mamateeks were more elaborate structures, being about the lifestyle of First Nations and Inuit, Innu, Beothuk and Mi’kmaq in surrounded by berms and covered with many layers Questions Inuit who lived in our province prior to terms of food, shelter, and travel at the of sods for better insulation. Birch bark canoes allowed European arrival? end of the 15th century. What similarities Beothuk to travel on lakes, rivers and the ocean. For winter and differences do you note? travel they employed sleds and snowshoes, the latter made of wood and rawhide strips.

The construction of a mamateek Fig. 2.33 104 105 TOPIC 2.4 Spain and Portugal EUROPEAN POPULATION Mariners thought occupy the Iberian 1400-1800 CE (data in millions) Japan was here Peninsula

140 120 100 80

millions 60 40 20 0 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 years Fig. 2.38

mathematics to navigation early in the 1500s allowed mariners to calculate their position when out of sight of land. Prior to this time, extended voyages were virtually impossible to undertake. Combined with improvements in shipbuilding, this development encouraged European governments to find a new path to Asia. The compass shown is from Italy and was made c. 1570. “The discovery of America was important Mariner’s Astrolabe from Isle aux intellectually for Europeans because the new lands Fig. 2.39 Morts shipwreck mid 1600s. This brass astrolabe was made in 1628, and peoples challenged traditional ideas... Africa likely in Portugal by Joas Dyas. and Asia, though distant and unfamiliar for most The globe as depicted by Martin Behaim in 1492. Behaim people, had always been known about. America was a German navigator and geographer to the King of Portugal. Note how the globe shows only islands between was entirely unexpected...” Europe and Japan: The existence of North America was – Peter Watson in Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud not even suspected. Fig. 2.37 Fig. This illustration by modern artist Antar Dayal shows how some Europeans likely perceived the world across the ocean in the late 1400s. The idea of venturing out into the Atlantic terrified many European mariners of the time – some even believed they would sail over the edge of the world. They were a superstitious lot, who believed in sea monsters, giant whirlpools that swallowed ships, and strange lands prowled by man-eating demons. In the 1500s, Western Europe was changing: its population was increasing, it was Experiencing The Arts becoming wealthy, and it was making advances in technologies that encouraged In the previous exercise (page 89), you created a list of perspective on the question you are researching, (ii) gain questions about your personal past that you would like additional information, and (iii) verify the accuracy of details exploration. These factors led to the establishment of colonies throughout the to have answered. Select one question (or several related from other sources. world. The Newfoundland fishery was a product of this expansion. questions) to explore. Keep your research information organized. Be sure to add In this exercise, you need to identify sources of information jot notes for additional information. As you research, you Changes in Europe that you can use to help you construct your story. While oral may find new questions to answer. If this happens, you may Since the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE, Western universities were established. This resulted in a gradual history research will most likely be a primary means to gather be able to include these questions in your current research. Europe had become a rather stagnated part of the world. increase of knowledge, and eventually created an the main information that you want, you should also consult If not, you may want to follow up on them after your main other sources. (This includes talking to other people, looking at story has been completed. Between 500 and 1200 there was little innovation– life environment where new ideas emerged and spread. family photographs and memorabilia, reading newspapers of continued practically unchanged from year to year. This time period, etc.) is sometimes referred to as a traditional economy, By the 1400s, Western Europe was “rethinking” ideas where people use their resources in the same way as related to many aspects of life, including travel and Consulting other sources allows you to: (i) gain another previous generations. However, between 1200 and 1400 navigation. New adaptations would help transform travel Europe began to change in subtle ways. In particular, by sea. In particular, the application of astronomy and

106 107 Some spices, such as pepper, were used to help mask the foul odour of decaying food, making it easier to eat. For centuries, Western Europeans had traded with Asia to demand for resources, coupled with improvements in Based on information from the obtain resources such as silk and spices. The rise to power of navigation, which motivated some governments in Historical Atlas of Canada – From the Beginning to 1800, Vol. 1 the Ottoman Turks in the Middle East created a difficult and Europe to fund the voyages of people such as Christoffa by Cole R. Harris hostile trading environment. This led to a search for new routes Corombo (Christopher Columbus) and Zuan Caboto. to the east, pioneered by the Portuguese and the Spanish. Both were looking for a route to Cathay (China) when they “stumbled” upon the Americas. As new ideas and innovations improved the lifestyle of Western Europeans, the population increased. This created a demand for more resources. It was this

main centres of , fishing and whaling Fig. 2.41 16th century

A very fanciful French illustration of d’Haussonville’s capture of St. John’s, 27 June 1762

EARLY TRADE ROUTES Medieval commerce stretched across many thousands of kilometres. This allowed the transport of goods such as Fig. 2.40 silk, spices and perfumes to Europe from Asia, and also facilitated the exchange of social, religious and technological ideas. By the medieval period, sea routes began to reduce the importance of central Asian routes, but all were vulnerable to thieves, changeable weather, and the whims of rulers. The Value of Fish When Caboto sailed into waters near Newfoundland and Catholics and Protestants on Fridays and during obligatory Labrador, he was amazed at the sea teeming with cod fast-days in Lent. Consequently an abundant supply of fish. While King Henry VII was probably disappointed fish was important to most European governments, and that Caboto did not have spices with him on his return, they encouraged the growth of new fisheries. he recognized the fact that fish could also be valuable. As 1665 Dutch attack St. John’s news of the “discovery” spread, other European nations The transatlantic fishery further helped the European 1673 Dutch attack Placentia and Ferryland began visiting Newfoundland and Labrador’s waters to economy by creating jobs for workers directly and 1692 English fire on Placentia exploit its resources. Early in the 1500s, Portuguese and indirectly involved in the harvesting of fish. Alongside 1693 English fire on Placentia French vessels began crossing the Atlantic annually to fish the thousands of people who worked as fishers, there 1694 French attack Ferryland and St. John’s for the summer. Later, England and Spain joined in. were many more who either mined salt, or manufactured 1696-7 French devastate English settlements on Avalon Peninsula nets, hooks, barrels, and other goods associated with 1702-4 French attack English settlements Fish in those days nearly always meant salt cod. The the catching, processing, and packaging of fish. Other 1702-4 English attack French settlements demand for salt fish was high for several reasons. Salt fish workers found employment with merchant firms selling 1705 French destroy St. John’s was an inexpensive source of protein. It had a long shelf cod to domestic and foreign markets. In addition to its 1706 English attack French settlements life if thoroughly cured and, due to its light weight and economic benefits, the migratory cod fishery also became 1708 French take and burn St. John’s small size, was easily transported. Also, salt fish could be attractive to the French and English governments as a 1709 English attack French fishing fleet stored for use through the winter when meat was scarce. means of training and recruiting skilled seamen for their 1762 French take St. John’s, Carbonear Island, and Trinity These qualities made salt fish well-suited for crews on navies. These navies were needed to fight in the various 1762 English retake St. John’s overseas voyages, armies on the march, and a growing European conflicts, which often extended beyond Fig. 2.42 urban population. In addition, salt fish was consumed by European boundaries. 108 109 TRADE ROUTES of the North Atlantic- 17th & 18th Centuries

Fig. 2.45 The Spanish fishery was much reduced by 1600, owing to wars with England and English attacks on the Spanish fleet. The Spanish Armada was destroyed by the English in 1588. Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 8 August 1588 by Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, painted 1796 depicts the Battle of Gravelines A New Pattern Emerges This time of exploration and change was marked by civil wars in France between Catholics and Protestants Part of the Global Economy Fig. 2.43 conflict within and between countries in Europe. Strong from 1562 to 1598 disrupted the French fishery and Newfoundland fish formed part of a triangle of Europe for gold, silver, and other goods, which were monarchies arose in some countries, which battled with gave English merchants an opportunity to sell fish in trade between England, southern Europe and the then shipped to England. Beginning in the 17th century, other countries for power and prestige. The effects of France. Similarly, by 1600, wars between Spain and Americas. England traded food and clothing with Newfoundland fish was also shipped to the West Indies European wars were also felt in Newfoundland and England reduced the Spanish fishery in Newfoundland Spain in exchange for salt. This salt was then shipped to feed plantations in exchange for cargoes of rum, Labrador, as its location and its fisheries were important and Labrador. However, the demand for fish in Spain to Newfoundland to be used in “making fish.” Salt fish molasses and sugar. and worth fighting about. These conflicts at home and remained high. Consequently, Spain also became a produced in Newfoundland was traded in southern away affected the Newfoundland fishery by changing market for fish caught by the English in the waters of the balance of power between the countries involved Newfoundland and Labrador. By the beginning of the – mainly England, France and Spain. It was, in fact, 1600s this left England and France as the two major Being on an island, England always looked to the sea as a source of food. To augment the religious turmoil in France that first brought England participants in the Newfoundland fishery. local fishery, fishermen from the northeast coast into the Newfoundland fishery in a large way. Repeated of England had engaged in a migratory fishery Iceland near Iceland since the fifteenth century. When the Newfoundland and Labrador fishery opened up, English merchants wanted to exploit those cod Questions: East stocks, as well. Anglia Kings Lynn The pattern of the Icelandic migratory fishery 1. What innovations enabled Western Europeans 4. Although England and France knew of the Lowestoft North Sea also worked for the fishery of Newfoundland and Harwich to explore eastwards in the late 15th century? discovery of the “New World” in the late 1490s, Labrador. However, the situation of the seaports in it would be over 100 years before either country southwest England, in the area known as the West Questions Bristol 2. Why did European governments fund voyages took steps to encourage settlement. What might England Country, better suited the trip across the Atlantic Poole than the seaports along the east coast that engaged looking for new routes to Asia? account for this? Plymouth in the Icelandic fishery. Consequently, the economy Newfoundland West Country of these western seaports increased. 3. Why was the migratory fishery important 5. Why did the peoples of the Americas not “discover” to European countries? What was the most Europe? Fig. 2.44 significant reason? Fig. 2.44 110 111 TOPIC 2.5 Treaty Of Utrecht 1713: Article 13 This model from The Ryan Premises in Bonavista shows a French The island called Newfoundland, with the adjacent A “barvel” was the fisherman handlining for cod islands, shall, from this time forward, belong of traditional garment from the deck of a greenfishing Think of the fishery and the right wholly to Great Britain; and to that end the worn by early fishers. ship in the late 1700s. town and fortress of Placentia, and whatever other It was made of Grand Banks probably spring places in the said island, are in the possession of the sheepskin with the to mind. However, despite the French, shall be yielded and given up…Moreover wool facing inside. renown of the Grand Banks, it shall not be lawful for the subjects of France to The outside was fortify any place in the said island of Newfoundland, coated with tar. It fishing off Newfoundland and or to erect any buildings there, besides stages is the predecessor

made of boards, and huts necessary and usual for of oil skins. Labrador has been conducted fishing and drying of fish…it shall be allowed to in shallow inshore waters as the subjects of France, to catch fish, and to dry them on land…which much as in deeper waters stretches from the place offshore. The Newfoundland called Cape Bonavista… as far as the place called fishery began as an inshore Point Riche.”

fishery. The banks fishery The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) recognized English sovereignty over the became important later. Whether island of Newfoundland. Under this caught inshore or offshore, cod agreement, the French agreed to leave Plaisance and move their fishing from the was the only important species south coast to the new French Treaty Shore between Cape Bonavista and Pointe Riche. for all nations in earlier centuries. Fig. 2.47

NEWFOUNDLAND showing areas of French and British interest Fig. 2.48 Fig. 2.49

Original English Shore French Shore in 1713 Le petit nord (French) 1713-1783 Le petit nord French Shore 1783-1904

Fig. 2.46 la morue séche This copper engraving, done in 1719 by Allain Manesson (The French Fishery in Newfoundland) Mallet, shows the French fishing on the Grand Banks. The French fishery on the Grand Banks lasted for most While the French fished mainly on the banks, they also of the year. French ships would set sail for Newfoundland fished inshore. Initially they fished on the south coast, and Labrador as early as January in order to provide a near the French capital at Plaisance (Placentia). Later the supply of fish for Lent, and then make a second voyage French began fishing along the north and west coasts of in the summer. Once on the fishing grounds, these the island, which became known as the French Treaty banking ships seldom came to shore except to shelter Shore. The fish produced from these areas was dry cured from storms. Fish were caught from platforms on the and intended for markets in southern France and Spain. ships using hooks and lines. The fish were preserved in The boundaries of the French Treaty Shore changed heavy salt until they could be taken home. over time and became a thorn in the side of colonial governments. la cote du Preserving fish this way was sometimes called the “green fishery” because the Chapeau Rouge fish were not dried before salting. 112 113 Fig. 2.52 The Maner of Catching and makeing drie fishe in Newland. This document was written in 1676 by John Downing, a prominent planter of Newfoundland. At the time of its writing, he lived in St. John’s.

In Each boate goes 3 men with foresayle and maynesayle in both 30 yards of Canvace., 1 Roade of 60 fathom & oares made in the Countrey.

A drift of[f] the shoare the boates goe for to catch herrings with 4 or 5 netts fastened to the A Newfoundland fishing station, circa 1690, by Gerard Edema. This Dutch artist visited Newfoundland in the 1690s. This painting is one of the Fig. 2.50 boats sterne post[.] there netts must be in the earliest surviving illustrations of settlement on the Avalon Peninsula. water to doe well before sunn sett and Remaine if herrings Enough be not taken[,] Stormes and Wind not hindering[,] till Sunn riseing[.] The English Inshore Fishery Some nights by reason of winds and current The English migratory fishery is sometimes called the the trip had previously left a winter crew to prepare for – the first ships to reach market got the best price. It also to prevent driveing on shoare or of[f] to[o] farr shore fishery. Ships carried crews and equipment across the season, the first tasks upon arrival were to repair and meant the merchants got paid sooner. Once the fish was from shoare they hall there netts tenn times in a the Atlantic. Once arrived, the ships were moored. Fishing rebuild stages, flakes, and buildings, and then to gather sold, the ships returned to their home ports in England to night Rowing to gett againe the shoare or to gett was then conducted from small boats close to the shore. bait. be readied for the next year’s fishery. of[f] from it many times herrings being scarce they drive Everie night Although the shore fishery lasted only from June to August, Once the cod struck inshore as they followed the capelin, preparations for the voyage began in winter. Ships were there followed a hectic fishing season until the end of Each boates crewe from Sunday night to refitted and provisioned with food, fishing tackle, and August. Fishing was conducted in small, open boats with Cod fishing on shoal grounds Saturday night resting onlie in ther beds onlie clothing for both the crews and for any resident fishermen crews of three to five men using lines with baited hooks. Saturday night Some rest not it: the dayes the merchant supplied. Initially crews were paid a share Fish were landed daily to be cured by separate shore Except Sundayes they atend Cod Catching[.] of the season’s catch. However, by the eighteenth century, crews. Once landed, the shore crews headed, gutted, split, this toils is preformed in St. Johns and severall they were usually paid wages. washed, lightly salted, and laid the fish to dry on flakes. other harbors if the caplein Taken in saynes[.] ... Each fisher boate most dayes bringing in one The ships sailed west by the end of March in order to reach This ‘dry’ cure using little salt fetched a better price thousand fishe per daye[.] … Newfoundland and Labrador before the fishing season than the more heavily salted cures because it was better began. Too early an arrival might mean that the ice had preserved and lasted longer. It also suited the English who, not yet retreated. Too late a departure meant missing part having no natural supply of salt at home, had to purchase of the fishing season, as well as finding the best mooring salt from other countries. In the fall, the last fish were

places (or “rooms”) taken, as they were allotted on a first- cured and sent to market. Early arrival at market, like This occurred in mid-June on the east coast. come, first-served basis. Unless the merchant financing early arrival at the fishing grounds, was most profitable 114 Fig. 2.51 115 Basque whaling Fig. 2.52a Basque whalers used harpoons to kill their prey. This harpoon was found during the excavation of the wreck of the Basque whaling ship, San Juan, in Red Bay Harbour.

The Basques, who had previously hunted whales towed ashore. The blubber was cut from the whales and in their home waters, conducted a whaling industry heated in large cauldrons which transformed it into oil. at Labrador in the 1500s and early 1600s. They had The oil was shipped back to Europe in barrels and was heard of the large numbers of whales off Labrador used for lighting, lubrication, and in manufacturing. from the French and Spanish fishing in Newfoundland The whales’ baleen, also known as whalebone, had a and Labrador’s waters. variety of industrial uses.

The Basques began whaling at southern Labrador in It is unclear why Basque whaling ended. Foreign the 1530s and took bowhead whales and right whales competition, pirates, conflict with Inuit, and troubles in as they migrated through the Strait of Belle Isle. They Spain have been suggested as partial causes. A decline used at least a dozen whaling sites on the Labrador in the numbers of whales due to over-hunting was coast, the best known of which is at Red Bay, the scene most likely a major factor. In any event, the Basque of extensive archaeological work. At its peak, in the whaling industry was almost over by the early 1580s – mid-1500s, the whaling employed about 600 men and by which time the ships were coming home only half 15 ships per year. full. However, a few ships continued to come to North America up to the 1630s to hunt whales. The ships, as in the cod fishery, were used for transport. The whales were harpooned from small boats and then

Fig. 2.54 Illustration of 17th Century whaling methods. From John Churchill, A Collection of Voyages and Travels, Some now first printed from Original Manuscripts. Others Translated out of Foreign Languages, and now First Published in English. To Which are added some few that have formerly appeared in English, but do now for their Excellency and Scarceness deserve to be Reprinted. Volume IV (London: Awnsham and John Churchill, 1704) Experiencing The Arts It is time to construct your story, being mindful of the ideas on these types of decisions. Another is to put yourself in presented in the storytelling section of this book. To do this, the place of the subject of your story. If someone were you will need to sift through your information. You may talking about you, what would you want him or her to find you have some difficult decisions to make, such as: say? Although it is usually okay to have some good-natured humour in your story, you should avoid disrespectful or • what to do with conflicting or contradictory belittling comments. information • what to do if you do not have enough information Once you have finalized your story, share it with close family Rendering fat from blubber. • how to deal with sensitive or embarrassing or friends as part of the private tradition of storytelling. Model of a Basque information whaler at Red Bay. There are several ways to deal with these issues. One way is to consult an individual whom you feel has good judgement

Fig. 2.53 116 117 Translation of a shipping company act: is outfitting and sending to Grande- On this day of March 18, 1735, Baye [the coast of Labrador] under appearing before the Lieutenant-General the command of Sieur des Cerisier is Nicollas Gallien, Sieur de Baspré, a Lepelley. The party appearing today has merchant residing in this city who is part named the following people as partners: owner of Le Marc, a new vessel from Saint-Malo of about 205 tons that he 2/32 Sieur Quinette de Préville for two thirty-seconds 1/32 Captain Peter Easton, a once-loyal English seaman Sieur de Cerisier Lepeley for one thirty-second who turned to piracy in Newfoundland and Labrador 2/32 waters in 1612, is said to have done over £20 000 Sieur Hernopoue two thirty-seconds of damage to the fishing fleets here. He attacked both 1/32 Sieur Étienne Ribart one thirty-second English and foreign ships alike. Easton’s headquarters 2/32 were in Harbour Grace, but his raids also took him to Jeanne du Val two thirty-seconds St. John’s and Ferryland. Picture of Easton from a 1/32 Fig. 2.57 detail of a painting by Newfoundland and Labrador Sieur de la Cité Roce one thirty-second artist Odell Archibald.

Excerpt from the register of acts of new companies and statement of interest in ships. This illustrates how multiple investors could help share the risk associated with the migratory fishery. Risk Management Filling a Niche Fig. 2.55 There were some steps that merchants could take to A third class of fisherman, midway between visitors The Economics of the Fishery lower risks. One was to exercise strict supervision – and settlers, arose late in the 1600s and became most The fishery was always an unpredictable industry and was war or outbreaks of disease. Fish might be scarce in the fishing masters had a reputation for being hard drivers. numerous in the 1700s. These were called byeboat- only sometimes profitable. The most successful merchants summer, or poor weather might make curing difficult. Another was to employ relatives in senior positions, such keepers. These individuals owned small inshore fishing became wealthy – some owning 15-20 ships and large On top of this, exchange rates could change abruptly. as captains and overseers, as they could be trusted to look boats which they transported to Newfoundland and properties. However, bankruptcies were also frequent This could turn a potentially profitable voyage into a after the merchants’ interests. Risks could also be shared Labrador and left them ‘bye’ in the winter while travelling because of the risks involved in the trade. To prepare losing one while the ships were still on the high seas. One with the crew by paying them a share of the value of the back and forth as passengers on fishing ships. for the voyage, merchants had to spend large sums of historian noted: “The merchants lived from season to fish they caught instead of a set wage. money that they could not recoup until the fish were sold. season in a state of incessant panic, so their well known air Byeboat-keepers sold their fish to sack ships that Delays in selling were frequent and could spell ruin for of pessimism was surely not surprising.” A contemporary Eventually it became difficult to find men transported fish from the shore fishery back to Europe. The advantages of this system were that the byeboat- merchants. Ships might be wrecked, or seized by pirates in the 1790s described them as “a very discontented body who were willing to work in the fishery without keeper avoided the cost of buying a ship, found it easier or enemy ships in wartime. Markets could be closed by of men”. guaranteed payment. After 1700, most English to get the small crews required, and could produce fish ships paid their crews wages. more cheaply. The cod fishery was a risky business. It was generally Another way for merchants to minimize risks emerged accepted that fishing voyages to Newfoundland and Labrador claimed the life of one man in fifty. during this time period. Merchants began a practice of Frequently, byeboat-keepers hired men to overwinter to outfitting the small resident population with supplies on protect their gear. Initially, those who did overwinter Painting of The Cod Fishery (1754) credit and accepted their fish as payment after the season seldom remained for more than one or two seasons. Detail of an oil painting by A. Louis Garneray, 1832 had ended. The advantage to the merchant was that he However, later in the 1700s this practice did contribute to could acquire a supply of fish without the expense of the emergence of permanent settlement. outfitting his own crews.

A sketch by Edward Barlow of the sack ship Real Friendship in 1668. Barlow was a mariner aboard this vessel on a voyage from London to Tenerife. The following year, while loading fish in Newfoundland and Labrador, the vessel caught fire and was lost. From Edward Barlow, Barlow’s Journal of His Life at Sea in King’s Ships, East & West Indiamen & Other Merchantmen from 1659 to 1703.

Fig. 2.56 Fig. 2.58 118 119 Governing the Fishery The fishery at Newfoundland and Labrador was more than three hundred years old when self-government was first granted in 1832. Prior to this, the British government used various arrangements to attempt to bring some measure of order to the territory. The British government was faced with a dilemma in this regard. As increased administration of Newfoundland and Labrador would mean extra expense, the desire was for Newfoundland and Labrador to remain a seasonal fishing station rather than become a colony. In their day, fishing admirals However, without any local government, keeping sometimes had the reputation of being corrupt and of being more order in the fishery was difficult. interested in their own fishing activities than justice. This image - a back-lashing from a Many men yeerely… unlawfully convey cat-o’-nine-tails and typical of punishment in the 1700s - is away other man’s fishing boats…take one person’s idea of punishment away other men’s salt…rip and take away carried out by a fishing admiral. time and rayles (rails) from stages… Archival evidence, however, does not support the idea that this –Captain Richard Whitbourne from Exmouth, Devon reporting on the state type of justice was common of anarchy in the Newfoundland fishery in 1615 practice by fishing admirals.

Intense competition in the Newfoundland fishery for the best harbours and fishing spots often led to conflict. In the absence of formal authority, certain procedures arose to bring order. By custom, the captain of the first ship to enter a harbour was responsible for enforcing the laws there for that season. This captain was often referred to as a fishing admiral. He held courts to settle disputes about contracts, the use of shore space, and other civil matters, and pass judgment on minor criminal cases. Fishing admirals lived in Newfoundland and Labrador only in the summer. In the winter, after Fig. 2.60 the ships had left, there was no law at all. The legal system that governed Newfoundland and after his departure. Newfoundland and Labrador, The exceptions to this were the few formal colonies Labrador prior to 1815 was relatively stable and therefore, had a form of dual authority- naval and civil. with governors established in Newfoundland under effective. A customary system of governance that met Fishing admirals contested the authority of the governor, royal charters – Guy’s colony at Cupids and Baltimore’s the needs of those in power was developed. Starting in but by 1750 they were no longer an independent force. at Ferryland. There was also firm royal authority in the 1729, the commodore of the naval squadron served as Naval government lasted for almost a century, but as the French colony of Plaisance. governor of the region for the summer and appointed resident population of Newfoundland and Labrador civilian justices to settle criminal matters in the winter rose, the need for increased civil government was felt. In 1634, Charles I passed the Western Charter (see pages 122-123). This was the first ruling to put all Newfoundland and Labrador under English law. It guaranteed the right of the English to fish in Newfoundland and Labrador waters and formalized the Questions: traditional position of fishing admiral as decision maker. 1. Using a Venn diagram, compare the French, The Charter provided a basic set of laws to help This charter was followed by King William’s Act English, and Basque fisheries. manage fishing activity. (Newfoundland Act) of 1699. This act formed the basis Questions a. Given that the island of Newfoundland of Newfoundland and Labrador’s written law until 2. The migratory fishery was a risky venture. was a frontier region, speculate as to the the late 18th century. It confirmed the power of the a. What were the risks for merchants? types of issues that this legislation would fishing admirals and permitted land grants to settlers b. What were the risks for fishers? need to address. with pre-1685 claims. It also authorized the practice c. Given the risks for both merchants and b. After you complete this question, turn the whereby commanders of naval warships stationed fishers, why did both parties continue page and read the Western Charter. Compare at Newfoundland and Labrador acted as appeal this practice? your list from (a) above with what was A painting of King Charles I (1636) judges, setting the stage for the entrenchment of naval The French equivalent of this was called a prud’homme. This role noted in the Charter. What is similar? by Antoon van Dyck. King Charles government in Newfoundland and Labrador. passed the first legislation to apply supposedly persisted to the end of French Treaty Shore in 1904. 3. The migratory fishery was just over 100 years What is different? British law to all of Newfoundland. old when the Western Charter was introduced.

120 Fig. 2.59 121 the prejudice of o thers next cominge, And that any that are possessed of severall places in severall Harbours with intent to keepe them all before they can resolve upon which of them to choose, shalbe bound to resolve, and send advise to such after comers in those places as expect his resolucon, And that within forty eight howers if the weather so serve, that the said after comers may likewise choose their places, and so none receiue p'iudice by others delayes.

Fiftly,* [sic] That noe person cut out, deface, or anyway alter or change the markes of any Boates or Trayne fattes whereby to defraud the right owners, and that noe person convert to his owne vse the said Boates or Traynfattes so belonginge to others w'hout their consentes, nor remove nor take them from the places where they bee left by the Owners, Escept in case of necessitie, And then to give Charles by the grace of God Kinge of England Scotland ffraunce and Ireland Defendor of the faith. To all to whome these pntes shall notice thereof to the Admirall, and others whereby the right owners may knowe what is become of them. come Greetinge Whereas the Region of Country called Newfoundland hath beene acquired to the Dominion of our Progenitors which Sixtly * [sic] That noe person doe diminish, take away, purloine, or steale any of the fishe on Trayne, or Salt which is put in wee hould and our people have many Yeares resorted to those partes where, and in the Coastes adioyninge, they imployed themselves in Caskes, Travne fattes or Cooke-rome* [sicl or other house in any of the Harbours of fishinge places of the country, or any fishing whereby a greate number of our people have been set on worke, and the Navigation, and Marriners of our Realme hath ben much other provision belongings to the fishinge trade, or the Shippes. increased, AND our Subjects resorting thither on by the other,*[sic] and the Natives of those partes, were orderlie and gentilie intreated* [sic] vntill of late some of our Subjectes of the Realme of England plantinge themselves in that Country, and there residinge, and inhabitinge, Seaventhly That noe person set fire in any of the woodes of the Country or worke any detriment or destruction to the same, by vpon conceipt, that for wronge or Iniuries done there, either on the Shoare, or in the Sea adioyninge, they cannot be here impeached, and Ryndings of the Trees, either for the seelinge of Shippes, houldes, or for Roomes on Shoare, or for any other vses, Except for the coverings the rather for that wee, or our Progenitors have not highervnto given lawes to the Inhabitantes there; and by that example our Subjectes of the Roofes for Cookeroomes to dresse their meate in, and those Roomes not to extend above sixteene foote in length at the most. resortinge thither iniure one another, and vse all manner of excesse, to the greate hinderance of the voyage, and comon damage of this Realme ffor preventinge such inconveniencies hereafter, wee doe hereby declare in what manner our people in Newfoundland, and vpon Eightlie, * [sic] That noe man cast Anchor or ought else hurtfull, wch may breede annoyance, or hinder the haleinge of Seanes * [sic] for the Sea adioyninge, and the Bayes, Creekes, or freshe Rivers there shalbe guided and governed Doe make and ordeyne the lawes followings baite in places accustomed therevnto. in the thinge after specified, comaundinge that the same bee obeyed and put in execution. Nynthlie, That noe p'son robb the Nettes of others out of any drifte boate, or drover for baite by night, nor take away any baite First if any man on the land there shall kill another, or if any shall secretly or forceablie steale the goodes of any other to the value of out of their fishing boates by their Shipps sides, nor robb or steale any of their Nettes, or anie parte thereof. fforty shillinges, hee shalbe forthwith apprehended and arrested, detayned and brought Prisoner into England, and the cryme committed Tenthly That noe person doe set vp any Taverne for sellinge of wyne Beere, or stronge waters Cyder or Tobacco, to entertayne the by him, shalbe made knowne to the Earle Marshall of England for the tyme beinge to whom the deliquent shalbe delivered as Prisoner, fishermen, because it is found that by such meanes they are debauched, neglectinge thar labors and poore illgoverned men not only spend And the said Earle Marshall shall take Cognizance of the cause, And if hee shall finde by the Testimonie of two witnesses or most part of their shares before they come home, vpon wch the life and maintenance of their wife and Children depende but are likewise more that the partie had killed a man not beinge at that tyme first assaulted, by the party slayne, or that the killing were by hurtfull in divers other waies, as by neglectinge and makinge themselves vnfit for their labour by purloyninge and stealinge from their misadventure, or had stolen such goodes, the deliquent shall suffer paine of death, and all the company shall endeavor to apprhend owners, and by makinge vnlawfull shiftes to supply their disorders and which disorders they frequently followe since those occons have such malefactors. presented themselves. Secondly, That noe Ballast, Prestones, or any thinge els hurtefull to the Harbours bee throen out, to the preiudice of the said Harbours, but Lastly That upon the Sondaies the Company assemble in meete places and have devine service to bee said by some of the Masters of the that it bee carried ashoare, and layed where it may not doe annoyance. Shippes or some others, which prayers shalbe such as are in the Booke of Comon Prayer. And because that speedie punishment may bee inflicted vpon the Offendors against those lawes and Constitucons, Wee doe ordaine, that everie of the Maiors of Southampton Weymouth Thirdly That noe person whatsoever either ffishermen or Inhabitantes doe destroy, deface, or any way worke any spoyle or detriment to and Melcombe Regis, Lyme, Plymouth, Dartmouth, Eastlowe, ffoye, and Barnestaple for the tyme beinge may take cognizans of all any Stage Cooke-roome, fflakes, Spikes, Nayles or any thinge else, that belongeth to the States whatsoever, either at the ende of the voyage complayntes, made by any offender against anie of these Ordinances vpon the land, and by oath of witnesses examine the truth thereof, when he hath done and is to departe the Country, or to any such Stages as he shall fall w'hall at his cominge into the Country, but that hee award amendes to the parties greeved, and punishe the delinquentes by fine imprisonment, or either of them, and of their goodes found in or they content themselves with such Stage or Stages only as shalbe needeful for them, And that for the repayringe of such Stages as hee the partes of Newfoundland, or in the Sea, cause satisfaction thereof to bee made by warrantee vnder their handes and Seales. or they take, they shall fetch Tymber out of the Woodes, and not to doe it with the ruininge, or tearinge downe of other Stages. And the Viceadmiralles in our Countries of Southampton, Dorsett, Devon and Dornewall vpon complaints made of any of the premisses Fowerthly that accordinge to the auncient custom everie Shipp or ffisher that first entreth a Harbour in behalf of the shipp, bee Admirall committed vpon the Sea shall speedily and effectually proceeds against the Offendors. of the said Harbour wherein for the time beinge hee shall reserve only so much Beach and fflakes or both as is needefull for the number of Boates that he shall vse with an overplus only for one Boate more then hee needeth as a priviledge for his first cominge, And that Also wee will and ordeyne, that these lawes and ordinances shall stand in force, and be put in due execution, vntill wee shall other-wise everie Shipp cominge after, content himselfe with what hee shall have necessarie vse for, without keepinge or deteyninge any more, to provide and ordaine. And wee doe require the Admirall in everie harbour in this next Season ensuinge callings together, such as shalbee in that Harborough* [sic] publiquelie to proclayme these presentes, And that they also pro-clayme the same on the Shore.

Fig. 2.60a

122 123 TOPIC 2.6 The “The island of Newfoundland has been considered, in all former times, as a great ship moored near the Banks M yth Europeans have been coming to Newfoundland and Labrador to fish since the early 1500s, but it was nearly 300 years before a European resident during the fishing season, for the of Illegal convenience of the English fishery….” population of any size developed. Why was this so? Settlement The short answer is that it wasn’t necessary to set up a During this time period, many European countries --Comment made by British politician, William Knox, in 1793. colony to run a summer fishery. Also, there was no work “conquered” territories throughout the world. Typically, For many years it was believed that here for people in the winter. While there was some they would take the natural resources of the area and use Fig. 2.62 the English government discouraged speculation that there were other resources to be exploited them for their own benefit, often at the expense of the Portuguese ship. An ocean-going vessel, settlement in Newfoundland and in Newfoundland and Labrador, these industries had yet territory. This same pattern occurred in Newfoundland and likely similar to other Portuguese ships Labrador. According to this theory, to be established. Financially, it made more sense for Labrador. Consequently, there was little “accumulation of which visited the Grand Banks during English merchants, worried that the 16th century. fishers to go back to England and France to find other capital” here – the wealth derived from the resources of settlement would hurt their profits, sources of employment during the fishing off-season than Newfoundland and Labrador was transferred back to the pressured the English government to to settle here. This established annual “commuting” as a mother countries, leaving little behind with which to build introduce policy to prevent it. pattern of living for many people for several centuries. infrastructure. Learn about other stories that are part Although historical records do not of our tradition on page 164 as you support this interpretation, the read the stories written by storyteller myth has become part of what most Ted Russell. Newfoundlanders and Labradorians Although during the 1500s and 1600s Newfoundland and Labrador was little more than a seasonal have been taught about their own fishing station, a few European family names date to this time period. past. Historians now point out that merchants realized there was a profit to be made transporting fishers to Newfoundland and Labrador and selling them supplies when they stayed. The English government also realized English settlers helped to keep the French out of the area. However, it would take until the late 1700s before economic factors favoured widespread permanent settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador.

Shambler Davies Hefford Marshall Adams Martin Smith Andrews Davis Hibbs Hill Matthews Snow Atkins Dawe Spingle Downing Hinds May Holloway Miller Stephens Badcock Stone Earl Holwell Moores Bailey Mugford Swain Baker Edwards Hopen Hopkins Batten Elliott Talbot England Horton Newell Boone Newman Tavernor Bradley Evans Howard Hunt Taylor Burt Thistle Butler Feild Jewer Parsons Thoms Butt Fillier Tilley Ford Johnson Pearce Pearcey Tucker Caines French Keyes Pollard Carter Wallis Gabriel King Poole Fig. 2.64 Cole Powell Warren Collins Garland Kirk Knight Pynn Webb Colleen Lynch Cooke Genge Welshman Gifford Island Corbin Robbins Windsor Cotton Godfrey Land Sculpture Good Lee Roberts Cox Rolands Yard Fig. 2.63 Crewes Gregory Curtis Guy Maddox The colonial powers saw the “New World” as territory to exploit for the benefit of Mahon Sergeant Fig. 2.61 the mother countries. This map entitled The English Empire in America, Newfoundland, Canada, Hudson’s Bay &c in plans was created by Herman Moll in 1701. 124 125 Most people who overwintered seldom remained for more than a few years before either returning to Europe or continuing to Planters Nova Scotia or New England. The Eventually, a small number of people began to overwinter “ ... if there bee an orderly Plantation settled in in Newfoundland. Some merchants hired workers to remain behind to protect fishing gear or to reserve a New-found-land, the trade to that Coutnrey by your fishing station for the next year. Also, there were a few Maiesties Subiects, and other places thereby, may attempts by some fishers or fishing masters, known as yeerely be so beneficiall to your Maiestie and your planters, to settle here and make a living through the Highnesse other Kingdomes, as the West Indies are PERSPECTIVE NEW “shore” fishery rather than commuting back and forth now yeerely worth to the King of Spaine.” across the Atlantic. While it is impossible to know the The concept of perspective centres on how people view an event, idea, issue or trend. The challenge is to suspend one’s ENGLAND exact number of early settlers, the first census in 1675 – Richard Whitbourne in own frame of reference and instead view the matter at hand indicates there were 1655 English settlers from Cape de A Discourse and Discovery of New-Founde-Land (1620) Razo (Cape Race) to Bonavista. in terms of other points of view. The event of European CONNECTION settlement is an excellent example. In order to make their return voyage cheaper, occasionally fishing captains Europeans mistook the coastal lands used by the Beothuks as abandoned the fishers they had brought Extensive excavation work at the site of the Colony of Avalon has provided us with empty, and migratory fishers felt free to leave fishing premises over to Newfoundland and Labrador. The a good idea of how the Colony was laid out. This painting by artist David Webber unprotected at the end of the fishing season. From the Beothuk shows the Avalon waterfront with a stone sea wall bordering the harbour and a majority of abandoned fishers moved on to large warehouse. perspective, they could gather from abandoned fishing premises each New England. This began a long association winter the metal goods that made their lives easier. The Beothuks between Newfoundland and Labrador and did not see the premises as private property but rather as something New England. The West Country merchants abandoned and therefore free to take … although their scavenging who founded the English Newfoundland eventually earned them a reputation as thieves. fishery were also active in fishing off New England. From the late 1600s to the – Sean Cadigan, Newfoundland and Labrador: A History American Revolution in 1776, New England became a major supplier of food, livestock, How should we view this experience? Were Europeans and rum to Newfoundland and Labrador. moving into an “empty” land? Were Beothuk taking items New England also became a destination for that had been “abandoned”? later generations of Newfoundlanders and Labradorians. Records as early as 1701 show This is a complex matter. As you continue your exploration that many of those who did not prosper in of this topic in Chapter Three you will acquire more Newfoundland or Labrador simply moved information that you can use to help with your assessment. on to New England.

An excerpt from Sketch I by Shanawdithit (the last known Beothuk). This depicts “Captain Buchan’s visit to the Red Indians in 1810-11, when the two marines were killed.”

Fig. 2.66 Questions: 1. By the mid 1700s, there was very little permanent settlement by Fig. 2.65 Europeans in Newfoundland and Labrador. What factors accounted Sponsored Settlement Questionsfor this? Which factor might have been the most significant? After England’s war with Spain in 1604, overseas Cupids has had an English presence since 1610, although 2. What would be some of the challenges faced by European investment increased. The English sponsored colonies it may have been only seasonally occupied for a few years planters, colonists or others who might overwinter on the island on the Avalon Peninsula, of which the best known are in the late 17th century. of Newfoundland in the 17th century? Which of these challenges John Guy’s charter colony at Cupids (established 1610) might be the most difficult to address? and Lord Baltimore’s proprietary Colony of Avalon at The French also had a royal colony in Newfoundland and Ferryland (established 1621). Although these investments Labrador – the garrison-town of Plaisance (Placentia), 3. Today, despite risks and hardship, many people choose to work in failed, sponsored settlement did contribute to founded by King Louis XIV. While this colony failed to frontier regions. What factors encourage people to do this? Would permanent settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador. make profits, it was continuously occupied by the French any of these reasons be similar for those who worked in the migratory Ferryland has been continuously inhabited since 1621, from 1662 to 1713, when the Treaty of Utrecht no longer fishery during the 16th to 18th centuries? Explain. Fig. 2.67 except for a few months after the French raid of 1696; allowed the French to build anywhere on the island. 126 127 Fishing servants Little is known about the life of visiting fishing servants, their vessels were filled with cod. Once fishers unloaded although it is likely that it was laborious. The fishing their catch onto the stage, members of the shore crew season was short and the best use had to be made of processed it. Headers removed the cod’s head and guts, it. Those who worked for merchants lived in barracks splitters cut out the backbone, and salters covered the fish (called cookrooms) on their employers’ premises. They with salt for curing – a process that could take weeks. were paid a small wage and given their keep. Those who worked for planters and byeboat-keepers usually boarded with their employers. New Opportunities Over time, fishers who overwintered developed new When they were at Newfoundland and Labrador, the industries. This encouraged some settlement. Two migratory fishers’ lives revolved around their occupation. supplementary occupations that arose in the late 1600s Workers spent most of their waking hours catching were fur trapping and salmon fishing. These were recorded and curing fish, which left them with little leisure in Bonavista district in the 1670s. More important to time. Immediately after arriving in the spring or early settlement than either of these occupations, however, was summer, workers had to first spend much time and sealing from the land, which began early in the 1700s (the energy cutting timber and building the infrastructure offshore hunt came at the end of the century). Sealing, of the fishery – stages, flakes, cookrooms and the like. like trapping and salmon fishing, was largely a northern After the construction phase, fishing servants spent the pursuit. Small-scale farming was rare in the 1700s except remainder of the season catching cod and processing it around St. John’s and other large towns. for sale. Workers rowed to fishing grounds in small open boats early each morning and returned to shore when

Questions:

1. Summarize the tasks of the fishing servants. Would 2. What new industries developed in the late 17th you like this lifestyle? Why do you think people century? How did the growth of these industries Questions became fishing servants? affect settlement?

Fig. 2.69 Lester-Garland fishing premises and the banking establishment on the eastern side of Trinity Harbour, then called The Northside. This oil painting was originally owned by the Lester-Garland family. Artist and date are unknown.

Fig. 2.68 TOPIC 2.7

Until late in the eighteenth century, Newfoundland and Labrador “communities” were quite unlike the traditional outports we think of today. They were more like seasonal work camps, populated mostly by young, single men who were present only for the summer. English and French areas were alike in this respect. The few permanent residents that did exist kept up their links to Europe with visits and exchanges of family members between Newfoundland and Labrador and England or France.

128 129 Innu Innu were one of the first Aboriginal peoples in North caribou, beaver, porcupine, ptarmigan, and other game America to encounter European explorers – the Norse in the Labrador-Quebec interior before visiting coastal around 1000 CE, and later the Portuguese, Basques, areas to catch fish and sea birds. While marine resources French, Dutch, and British. Yet Innu remained relatively were important in season, these resources did not have unknown because they spent most of the year inland the same significance as they did for Inuit. For Innu, and less time in coastal areas. caribou was particularly important as it provided food, clothing, and other materials and also played a central TOPIC 2.8 Although European nations were using Newfoundland role in many spiritual beliefs and rituals. and Labrador as a migratory fishing station by the early Fig. 2.72 1500s, their presence did not greatly alter Innu life. Innu families maintained a seasonal round. Innu gathered Fig. 2.70 berries in the fall. During the colder months, Innu hunted This picture entitled Skirmish at During the time that a migratory fishery operated in North West River by Artist William B. Ritchie shows what an encounter Newfoundland and Labrador, First Nations and Inuit, for the between the Norse and Innu may most part, came into little contact with colonial authorities. One have looked like. reason for this lack of contact was that European governments were much more interested in Newfoundland and Labrador’s rich cod stocks than they were in land resources and establishing permanent settlements. As was common elsewhere in North America, this made it unnecessary to negotiate treaties with indigenous groups. However, First Nations and Inuit did have some informal encounters with European fishers when accessing marine resources. Sometimes these encounters were peaceful; at other times there was conflict. In either case these interactions

resulted in change. View the sculptures of Michael Massie on page 148 as he explores Inuit his mixed ancestry by combining Inuit of Labrador began having contact modern and traditional elements with Europeans during the 1500s. It is in his work. difficult to determine if the earliest exchanges were peaceful or not, but records suggest that by the last half of the 1500s Inuit were involved in skirmishes with European fishers and whalers. By the early 1600s relations were still generally hostile, especially in southern Labrador where French and Spanish fishers had established shore stations. When the French and Spanish left these stations it provided Inuit with a supply of boats and equipment, including iron nails, which they obtained by burning fishing stages. When European fishers returned the following summer, they would retaliate by attacking Inuit who ventured near their stations.

There are, however, accounts of peaceful trade relations developing towards the end of the 1600s. By this time, Inuit had acquired many objects manufactured in Europe – including wooden boats with sails, barrels, screws and nails, knives, and some European clothing. In 1743, a trading post was established in North West River by Louis Fornel, a French merchant and

explorer. This led to a regular pattern of trade. The main 2.71 Fig. product traded by Inuit was baleen. Baleen was used in Europe This is possibly the first European depiction of Inuit. It is a 1567 to make brushes and corsets, for which people were willing to woodcut of what is likely an advertisement for the exhibition of an pay high prices. Inuit woman and her child in the German city of Augsburg.

130 131 Beothuk Prior to the establishment of the migratory fishery, Bay and shared a meal with them. However, a planned Beothuk occupied Newfoundland and travelled second meeting miscarried when a passing ship “let throughout the island and to the coast of southern fly their shott” at the assembled Beothuk. In revenge Labrador. The arrival of European fishers not only Beothuk are said to have taken or destroyed gear from disrupted Beothuk travel patterns but also their resource- seasonal fishermen in Trinity Bay. based life on the island. No records inform us about Beothuk’s activities in the latter Few contemporary reports mention contact with the half of the 1600s as there seem to have been few contacts indigenous population, but those that do state that or sightings. This changed dramatically in the early 1700s European explorers captured several of them to take when English settlements expanded into Notre Dame Bay. back to Europe. Hence, Beothuk would soon have Mi’kmaw families began to settle on the Newfoundland become wary and avoided coming in contact with west and south coasts, and Innu from Labrador exploited Europeans or engaging in trade. The earliest account fur bearing animals on the Northern Peninsula more of an exchange of goods dates from 1612, when the extensively. colonist John Guy and his men met Beothuk in Trinity

After an initial friendly trading encounter with Beothuk in 1612, Guy returned to the spot where he and Beothuk had met. He found furs and shells left by Beothuk, who probably expected that Guy would leave goods in exchange. The image below is a fanciful depiction of this encounter in Trinity Bay. It is “fanciful” because the canoes are dugouts which Beothuk did not use; the depiction of Beothuk is not authentic; and it is unlikely that John Guy would wear this type of clothing in his colony.

Source: Theodor de Bry, Historica Americae sive Novi Orbis, pt. XIII, 1628 Fig. 2.73 Fig. 2.74 A Mi’ kmaw encampment is shown in this 1790 watercolour by Hibbet Newton Binney, a Halifax customs officer. Mi’kmaq Mi’kmaq probably had the closest relationship with to the island of Newfoundland to hunt and to trap at Europeans, particularly in the early contact years. On the beginning of the seventeenth century, as European the mainland, Mi’kmaq hunted small animals for their settlement encroached on their territory on the mainland. furs and traded these with Europeans for needed supplies. A number of writings indicate that Mi’kmaq continued These supplies included items such as iron kettles and to travel to the island occasionally over a period of about guns. Food such as flour was also traded. Over time, fifty years. In the mid-1600s, Mi’kmaq from Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq integrated these European items into their way began using European shallops for travel – these vessels of life. Although Mi’kmaq now had guns, they were tied made the trip across the Cabot Strait easier. Travel and to Europeans for a supply of bullets and servicing of the trade increased. guns. Likewise, the use of European foodstuffs continued to erode their traditional ways of living. Newfoundland’s environment and resources were conducive to Mi’kmaw way of life. Mi’kmaq settled on the Mi’kmaw oral tradition maintains Mi’kmaq lived in south and west coasts, as well as in the central area of the Ktaqamkuk (which means “land across the water”) prior island. to European contact. Historians suggest Mi’kmaq came

Questions: 1. Interactions between indigenous peoples 2. For each indigenous people noted in this section, and Europeans resulted in the adoption of summarize the nature of the relationship that each some European commodities into indigenous people had with Europeans. What similarities and Questionslifestyles. Give examples of these items. What differences do you note? impact might this adoption of commodities have had on indigenous peoples?

132 133 Based on what we have examined so far in this course, we can draw two conclusions. First, there is a lot of information to learn about the past.

Second, the past shapes our present circumstances, as well as our sense of 2.76 Fig. identity. Therefore, knowing about the past is important. Many would argue that the migratory fishery is a significant event in the history of Newfoundland and Labrador. But, is it an important part of the history of your community? What about your family’s history? Shown here is an illustration from Harper’s Weekly. These two conclusions raise an important question: if migratory fishery is that it had a significant impact on you need to know about the past, but cannot know all First Nations and Inuit who lived here. of it, what do you focus on remembering and passing The Burton family, Hay Cove, Placentia Bay, c. 1920 along to future generations? Significance is also useful when examining local and family history. For example, what is significant While this textbook highlights some aspects of the history about the history of your community or area? What of our province, it cannot address everything from the should be preserved and passed along to future past. Instead it focuses on events, ideas, and trends that generations? These are the questions considered by may be useful to you as you explore the culture and the approximately 80 community museums and 150 heritage of our province today and consider current local archives in our province as they work to preserve and future issues that may arise. The writers have not the history of their community or area. But with over written “your” history. That task is left to you. 900 communities in our province, this means that there is a significant amount of information that is Fig. 2.77 Fig. As you will recall, social scientists frequently use the not being preserved. idea of significance to guide them as they explore specific events in the past. Pulling out what is significant However, there are things that you can do to ensure L’Anse aux Meadows National that our heritage is not lost. In this section, you will Gros Morne National Park of Canada was Historic Site of Canada. – that which has had deep consequences for many designated a UNESCO world heritage site in 1987. people over a period of time – enables us to create an have a chance to examine your community for pieces Red Bay, Labrador is now under consideration overall understanding of an event or time period that of history that are worth preserving. Once you have for designation as a world heritage site. is otherwise too large to tell about in its entirety. For done this, you may wish to assume an active role in example, one important idea related to the the heritage stewardship of your community. By helping to pass along your culture and heritage to future generations you become a steward of your cultural heritage. Community histories are sometimes referred to as Preserving heritage can be done at many levels. "small histories". • Some people dedicate themselves to preserving their family history through genealogical research or simply talking to family members about their lives and memories. • Others work at the community level to identify, protect, and present significant heritage resources in their locality. Examples of this include community archives, museums, and historical societies. • Provincially, the government of Newfoundland and Labrador, through institutions such as The Rooms and the system of provincial historic sites, preserves the cultural fabric that helps tell the story of our province. • Parks Canada is responsible for national historic sites in Newfoundland and Labrador, including the doz- ens of sites commemorated by the bronze plaques found in communities all over the province. • Newfoundland and Labrador is also home to two world heritage sites – Gros Morne National Park and L’Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site – both of which are managed by Parks Canada Display at The Rooms Provincial Museum Fig. 2.75 Hearts Content Cable Station 134 135 Mending a cod trap at Ryan Premises National Historic Site of Canada

Heritage can be divided into two categories – tangible heritage and Intangible Heritage intangible heritage. Tangible heritage or material culture refers to Intangible heritage is sometimes called “living heritage” because it is very much alive and items that you can see, touch and/or handle. Intangible heritage, on the always changing. According to UNESCO, it other hand, refers to practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, includes our “living expressions and traditions” inherited and transmitted from generation and skills passed on from previous generations. to generation. Our traditional songs, stories, dances, dialects, words and expressions, knowledge, skills, customs, practices, and folklore are all considered intangible Tangible Heritage heritage. Tangible heritage can be further divided into two types – built heritage and moveable heritage. Built heritage includes buildings, Some examples of our intangible heritage structures, and engineering works (such as roads, bridges, are relatively easy to recognize, such as a traditional song like “I’se the B’y”. Other fences). In Newfoundland and Labrador, many of our heritage 2.80 Fig. resources fall under this heading, including historic houses like examples might not be so obvious. The Winterholme Heritage Inn in St. John’s or knowledge and skills required to Traditionally, songs, stories, skills and knowledge were the root cellars in Elliston. properly mend a cod-trap using passed on orally in Newfoundland and Labrador. In a net needle or to split a codfish fact, some songs and stories that existed for centuries using cut-throat and splitting Much of our tangible heritage is made up Winterholme, the house that were rarely, if ever, written down until university of the objects of daily life. Sometimes called Sir Marmaduke Winter knives, for example, are parts researchers began recording and transcribing them moveable heritage, this category includes built in St. John’s in of our intangible cultural in the 1950s. artifacts, artistic works, technological and 1905-1907. heritage. industrial tools, textiles, fossils, and so on. However, while recordings, videos, photographs, and Some examples of moveable heritage are In order to preserve transcriptions may preserve specific examples of our intangible cultural easy to find – for example, tools used in the Root Cellars in Elliston, some intangible heritage from a specific place and time, fishery. Other examples are a little more of which are still in use today. heritage, it must they don’t keep it alive. Intangible heritage is fluid, difficult to locate, such as items found in be transmitted or dynamic, and always changing with each generation archaeological excavations. passed on from – just as a song or story is always a little different one generation depending on who is performing it and when. Our Documents, books, and other archival materials fall under to the other. cultural expressions, customs, knowledge, and skills the heading of moveable heritage, as well. Examples include must be passed on from person to person and practised everything from a letter written by a soldier in the Royal from generation to generation to remain part of our Newfoundland Regiment during the First World War to intangible cultural heritage. ledger books written in by merchants over a hundred years ago.

In many families, their personal objects, photographs, books, and letters are often preserved and handed down through the Examples of moveable heritage in generations. Similarly, the artifacts, artistic Port au Port. works, and archival materials housed at places like our national historic sites, The Rooms, and our community museums are preserved to be tangible reminders of our collective past that we can see and The Rooms, St. John’s and the Mary March experience first-hand. Museum, Grand Falls.

Fig. 2.82 Traditional music is an example of intangible heritage.

Although an Innu tea doll is a piece of tangible heritage, the skills required to make it are part of intangible heritage.

Fig. 2.78 Fig. 2.79 Fig. 2.81 136 137 What do you think is worth preserving in your community? Identifying Significant Local Heritage Every community in Newfoundland and Labrador has a unique history. Preserving that history is important. But how can you do this? The following steps are one way that your class could go about the process of heritage stewardship.

1. As a class, brainstorm a list of pieces of 4. Present your argument to your class. Use tangible heritage in your area that should be photographs and stories in your presentation. preserved. (Your teacher may want to add to your list.) 5. As a class, identify the three most significant heritage resources that should be preserved 2. Working alone or in a small group, select an from your community. item from your list that interests you. Conduct research to gather information that can be 6. As an extension, your class could make a used to establish its significance. presentation to your town or heritage organization about why it is important to 3. Once you have researched the item, create preserve this piece of history for future an argument as to why this item should be generations. preserved. At Issue At Issue Fig. 2.84

Doing HistoRical Research

When historians conduct research, they formulate a question to focus their work. You may find this approach and the following questions helpful as well. Lester-Garland Premises in Trinity has been restored and is now a Provincial Historic Site. The North Atlantic Aviation Museum tells the story of Gander’s • What experience from the past do I want to know more about? involvement in the development of aviation over the North Atlantic. • What is the main question that will guide my inquiry? What are the other specific questions that I need to ask in my research? • Where can I get information to help answer my questions? For Discussion: - Who can help me find answers to my questions? - What books, images, and other documents could I use? For your own community, consider the following: - What buildings and places in the community - How reliable are these sources? - When was this place first settled? Why was it are important? Why are they important? settled? • What is the answer to my question? For Discussion - What are some of the past practices from - What conclusions or inferences can I draw from my sources? - When did my family move here? Why did the community? - What is the “answer” to my question? they come? - How can I summarize this into a single page? - Who were (are) some of the important - Where do I keep my research? - What did the settlement look like in the persons in the community? • What is an effective way to share my work? early years? How has it changed over time? - Who is my audience? - What is the clearest way to share my work? - What are the most important points to emphasize? Questions 1. Use your skills in photography and storytelling 2. Based on your exploration of heritage resources to create a storyboard called “exploring place”. in this section: a. Find an old photograph of a particular a. What do you feel is your community’s most Questions location in your community. significant tangible heritage resource? b. Take a photograph of the same place today. Explain. c. Create a 150 word summary that describes b. What do you feel is your community’s most both what has changed and why it significant intangible heritage resource? changed. Explain.

Fig. 2.83 138 139 Summary Key Terms In this chapter we studied the roots of Newfoundland and Labrador culture. We began with how Aboriginal Governance Migratory Fishery humans populated Earth. We then shifted to examine the earliest peoples in Newfoundland and Archaeology Indigenous People Perspective Labrador, the descendants of these peoples who were present at the time of European arrival, and the various European groups who arrived in Newfoundland and Labrador. This was followed by Economics Intangible culture Prehistoric a discussion of the prosecution of the migratory fishery and the various categories of the fishery Evidence Inuit Sponsored settlement which were prosecuted. We studied governance of the migratory fishery and the beginnings of settlement. Finally, early contact between Europeans and First Nations and Inuit was examined. First Nations Migration Tangible culture

Specifically, we studied the following key ideas:

- There are several theories which attempt to explain the peopling of Earth and how humans Questions originally arrived in the Americas. 1. The indigenous peoples of Newfoundland and Labrador developed sophisticated - From 7000 BCE, various Paleo-American and Paleo-Eskimo groups migrated to, lived in, and tools and implements which enabled them to live successfully in a harsh disappeared from present-day Newfoundland and Labrador. - These early Paleo-American and Paleo-Eskimo groups were the ancestors of First Nations environment. Write a short essay to support this statement. (Beothuk, Innu, and Mi’kmaq) and Inuit, who (with the possible exception of Mi’kmaq) were inhabiting Newfoundland and Labrador at the time just prior to European contact. 2. What were the site and situation factors which made the Newfoundland and - A combination of factors in late fifteenth century Europe encouraged exploration eastward, Labrador fishery so desirable for Europeans? which resulted in the “discovery” of the Americas. - The discovery of fish in Newfoundland and Labrador waters led to the development of a 3. What factors enabled and encouraged Europeans to engage in the migratory migratory fishery, as various European countries became involved in the exploitation of this fishery? valuable resource. - Several types of fishing were prosecuted in Newfoundland and Labrador waters. 4. What were the reasons why there was originally little need for permanent settlement in - There were many risks associated with the migratory fishery and steps were taken to minimize these risks. order to prosecute the fishery? Which reason was most significant? - Governance of the migratory fishery sometimes proved to be difficult. - The migratory fishery continued for a long period of time but eventually there were some 5. Various relationships developed between Europeans and First Nations and Inuit attempts at settlement. during this time period. What might have been the most significant changes - During the time that the migratory fishery operated in Newfoundland and Labrador, there was resulting from these interactions for First Nations and Inuit? for Europeans?. contact, peaceful and adversarial, between Europeans and First Nations and Inuit.

140 141 “... I think there is merit in just ‘being.’ Somehow or other the greatest gift we have is the gift of our own consciousness, and that is worth savouring. Just to be in Artist profiles a place that’s so silent that you can hear the blood going through your arteries and be aware of your own existence, that you are matter that knows it is matter, and that this is the ultimate miracle.”

- Christopher Pratt, artist

142 143 “The land is not an abstract physical location but a place, charged What is profile with personal significance, shaping Conceptual Artist the images we have of ourselves.” Three pictures from Marlene Creates’ installation, Cairn: Shore Stone and Mountain Stone, St. John's, Newfoundland 1982, located behind the Arts and Culture Centre, Marlene Creates St. John’s. Original dimensions: 2.4 m wide x 2.4 m long x 0.6 m high. Art? Conceptual art is about the concept Marlene Creates is a conceptual artist. Her work explores the relationship between or idea that an artist wants to portray human experience, memory, language and the land, and how they rely on each other. rather than about the creation of an art object that is aesthetically pleasing. One Using photography as a medium, Marlene will sometimes interact with the landscape of the first influential conceptual artists and then photograph that interaction. In 1982, for instance, she travelled around the was Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968). island of Newfoundland, sleeping outdoors. Each morning when she got up, Marlene Duchamp questioned the role of art. photographed her sleeping place to show how her being there had changed the land. With the invention of the camera, he wondered why one should paint an (See Fig. 3) object when it could be photographed. He theorized that the job of an artist In her series, The Distance Between Two Points is Measured way we live now. I don't want to suggest that their lives are is to create ideas in collaboration in Memories, Labrador 1988, Marlene interviewed romantic; no one would wish that traditional peasant life A view of the cairn in 1986 after it had been in place for four years. with the art viewer rather than just Labradorian elders who were Inuit, Innu, or Settlers. She continue exactly as it was. But these people make sense of creating an art object. Conceptual art asked these people to draw what she called a “memory their place in nature.” is the contemporary name for art that map” of how they remembered the environment of strives to do this. their youth. Then Marlene followed these maps to the Between 1989 and 1991, Marlene completed a similar place they described to photograph it and find an object project by interviewing her mother’s relatives from Conceptual artists often avoid the from the area. The resulting assemblages included a Lewisporte and Joe Batt’s Arm. Having grown up in traditional art forms of painting or photograph of the person, their memory map, a framed Montreal, Marlene didn’t know most of the relatives she sculpture. Instead, many conceptual written section of their story in their own words, a was interviewing. She found it very moving to hear stories artists create installations which landscape photograph of one of the landmarks in the about her family that she had never before heard. bring a viewer through a series of memory map, and an object from that area. (See the experiences. Conceptual art may next spread for an example from this series.) Marlene’s work has also been influenced by ancient include text, photographs, or videos, standing stones in the United Kingdom, which are but in all cases the concept is the art “Most of their stories,” Marlene writes, “revolve around similar to Stonehenge. Early in her art practice, she work, not the art object. a sadness at the loss of nature in their lives, now that they created her own stone installations. (See Fig. 4-6) Her live in communities. The increasing urbanization of the work focuses on the influence humans have on our world worries me and it was in meeting these people that environment and investigates how landscapes, in turn, I got the greatest sense that something has been lost in the shape human culture. “If a work of Conceptual art A view of the cairn in 1986 after a light snowfall. begins with the question ‘What is art?’, rather than a particular (Below) A view of Marlene Creates’ installation Sleeping Places, Newfoundland 1982 style or medium, one could (Right) An excerpt from this installation. Medium: a sequence of 25 black & white photographs, argue that it is completed by the selenium-toned silver prints, each framed 51 cm x 61 cm. proposition ‘This could be art’: ‘this’ being presented as object, image, performance or idea revealed in some other way.”

— Tony Godfrey, in Conceptual Art, Phaidon Press, London, 1998 A view of the cairn in 2002 after it had been in place for twenty years. Marlene Creates 144 Sleeping Places, Newfoundland 1982 145 Silver Gelatin Print Josephine Kalleo, Labrador 1988 from the series The Distance Between Two Points is Measured in Memories by Marlene Creates Medium: assemblage of 2 black and white photographs and one story panel, selenium-toned silver prints; memory map drawn by Josephine Kalleo, pencil on paper; and saltwater grass from Nain. Installed dimensions: 160 cm high x 152 cm wide, plus floor space.

(Below) Installation view of Josephine Kalleo, Labrador 1988

Try it... Reflect...

Think about a place that has been important to you … How have you shaped your landscape? How has - Draw a memory map of that place. your landscape shaped you? Try - Link thatit memory map with a photograph of that landscape and something that is appropriate to take from that place. - Have someone take a photograph of you (preferably in that place). - Write a paragraph explaining what it felt Reflect like to be in that place. - Present all five items in an art presentation in class.

146 147 Grandfather I have something to tell you (2004) by Michael Massie. Anhydrite, bone, bird’s eye maple, mahogany, and ebony. 17.25 x Artist profile 9.25 x 12 inches Michael Massie Detail of Grandfather I have something to tell you (2004) by Michael Massie’s art combines modern and traditional elements, and reflects his Michael Massie. mixed Inuit, Metis, and Scottish ancestry. Michael loved creating art from an early age. When he was growing up in Happy Valley-Goose Bay, art was not offered after grade six, so Michael taught himself to draw from comic books.

In 1991, after studying European art forms in St. John’s, “I am part Inuit and part Qablunaaq,” Michael has said, Stephenville, and Halifax, Michael took a workshop in “I might as well combine the two and come up with Inuit carving techniques from sculptors Mattiusi Iyaituk something different.” and Charlie Kogvik, both of whom had learned the craft from family carvers. Michael created controversy Michael’s silversmithing honours his Scottish grandfather, in the Inuit stone-carving world by introducing non- David Massie, who came to Labrador in the early 1900s traditional materials like wood and European techniques to work for the Hudson’s Bay Company. His imagery like silversmithing. of owls, shamans, and uluks are drawn from his Inuit heritage. Since 1992, Michael has also created many Grandfather I have something to tell you: A story from my past. When I was twelve or thirteen, my father and my mother’s father took... (us) camping to Mulligan, Labrador for a week. One day my Dad and Grandfather left camp to go get more supplies...

Going outside for a minute, I noticed a small bird... which landed not far from where I was standing. I quickly went into the cabin and grabbed the pellet-gun and went back outside. Now Grandfather had always told us not to kill any animals that we didn’t eat... but I aimed and pulled the trigger—and watched as the bird turned... (face up)— dead. Stunned and riddled with guilt and fear over what I had just done, I picked up the little bird and brought it into the cabin to show the boys... and was roundly told off for it.

Grabbing a little spoon, I ran out to bury the little bird. I never could tell Grandfather or Dad what I had done and I have always regretted doing that... and this is my confession in stone, some thirty years later.

Walrusty (2005) by Michael Massie. Sterling silver, kingwood, In the design, having the one leg standing and the other lignum vitae, ebony, and bone. 22 .86 x 20.96 x 17.15 cm kneeling is me standing to accept responsibility for what Michael says the inspiration for the design of this piece “came from I had done – while also kneeling to say a prayer or something I saw one night as I switched off the TV... just that split second before the screen goes black, there was a shape that caught my confessing to it all. The gloved hand represents the fact eye (the shape that is now the negative space between the handle and that I have hidden something, while the ungloved one the spout). As soon as I was back in the shop, I began to sketch that says that I am baring all or confessing. The X’s for eyes is shape—and lo and behold this is what came from it.” a whimsical way of saying something is dead.

13 14 148 149 elaborate and decorative tea sets, which are a fond also incorporates humour that comes from Aboriginal homage to his Metis grandmother’s love of tea. For stories where shamans turn into trickster animals to The look of confidence was apparent on his face as he was Michael, tea is an act of hospitality, which represents his teach important lessons. In addition, many of Michael’s about to strike (2003) by Michael Massie. Limestone, cocobolo wood, love for his family – an underlying theme in much of his sculptures are based on stories. His compact stone ivory, bone, and sinew. 50.8 x 33 x 18.42 cm. work. carvings have a strong connection to traditional Inuit stone carvings. Yet at the same time, the exaggerated features The modern artists Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dali have of some of his pieces speak of his early appreciation of influenced Michael’s contemporary designs. But his art the pop art form of cartoons. “Remember what you know and always leave the door open for something new.” - Michael Massie

Enigmas of a teapot (2002) by Michael Massie. Etched sterling silver, olive wood, horse hair, musk ox horn, ebony, ivory, seal skin, enamel, and sinew. 19.68 x 24. 13 x 14.22 cm This piece deliberately combines Inuit and surrealist motifs. (Note the melting ulu on the lid.) Traces of eight well-known surrealist artworks are incorporated. The surface of the piece is etched with Inuktitut syllables, drawings of eyes, and free-form shapes.

Try it... Reflect...

Find a story in your culture and tell it in a work of Think about your own influences as it relates to your visual art. Consider creating a carving from plaster art work. Who, or what, influences you? How are Tryof Paris to represent it the story. these influences reflected in your creations?

13 14 150 Rc 151 Statue of a Beothuk woman by artist Gerald Squires “The Beothuk., the aboriginal inhabitants of Newfoundland, profile were hunters, gatherers, and fishers who moved seasonally Artist between the coast and the interior. With the influx of European settlements and fisheries in the 1700s the Beothuk found their Fig. 1 Windows into the Past territory increasingly reduced and conflict between the two groups Recording Artists – escalated. The Beothuk declined steadily in numbers and by the Some works of art are less interpretive or conceptual and are more literal – capturing early 1800s they had ceased to exist as a viable cultural group. events and practices in a style known as realism. The works of realist artists are Shanawdithit, the last of her people, died in 1829.” especially important when the viewer seeks to have a deeper understanding of the past before the invention of the camera. In fact, these works often serve as a carefully – A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk, Ingeborg Marshall preserved “window” into the past, providing us with an understanding that goes beyond a written description. Here are two artists who have done just that.

Shanawdithit In the winter of 1829, William Cormack presented Some of Shanawdithit’s sketches show artifacts, mentifacts, Shanawdithit, the last known Beothuk, paper and black and sociofacts from her culture. Others illustrate specific and red lead pencils. Shanawdithit, who was in her late events that she witnessed and capture the topography twenties, was staying with Cormack after having been of the land where the Beothuk lived. Her drawings are captured six years earlier by some fur trappers. Despite strong, clear, and expressive. As she drew and told William having no prior experience using these art materials, Cormack her stories, both of them were probably aware Shanawdithit immediately adapted and created many that she was one of the last of her people. drawings.

Cormack was the president of the Boeothick (Beothuk) Institution of St. John’s.

What would you draw, if you were the last person in your community or region and had centuries of culture to preserve in one picture?

Fig. 2 Shanawdithit’s Sketch VII. This shows different kinds of animal products eaten or used by Beothuk. On the top Fig. 3 row, Shanawdithit has shown dried salmon, dried meat, and dried lobster tails. Underneath this is a deer bladder filled with oil and pieces of seal fat on the skin. The bottom row shows a seal skin, bladder, and fillet; a birch vessel for boiling eggs in; and a knapsack made of seal skin.

152 153 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 The Start, engraving. George Pearson, engraver, wood engraving, William Hind vignette, 5 x 9.2 cm (image) Explorations I, 6 In 1861, artist William Hind was invited by his geologist Fig. 5. These wood engravings were printed with raised brother Henry to join eleven men on an expedition to type to illustrate Henry’s two-volume book Explorations explore the Labrador interior. Like the scientists on the in the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula: The Country of the trip, William was primarily an observer and recorder Montagnais and Nasquapee Indians. Other commercial of everything he saw, including the environment, First artists copied William’s paintings onto lithography Nations and Inuit he encountered during the expedition, stones, and printed colour illustrations separately, to be and the rigours of travelling throughout the region. added to the black and white text and engravings. Today wood engravers and lithographers are considered artists It is likely that William used a Camera Lucida on this trip, in their own right. But in the nineteenth century they as his sketches have a traced quality. A Camera Lucida, were anonymous craftspeople. a device used by many artists at the time to speed their drawing and increase accuracy, was a series of lenses that Henry Hind may have considered his brother’s art to be made it easy for the artist to “trace” what he or she saw less important than the scientific work he was doing as a onto a sketchbook. However, few admitted to owning one geologist. However, William put a lot of artistic energy as their use was considered” cheating”. into his paintings. The lithograph shown in Fig 7, based on his painting To the Burying-Ground, is very expressive When William returned to Toronto, and then to England, and has merit as a work of art in its own right. It shows he created studio paintings and pen and ink drawings from the spiritual emphasis that William put into his work, his sketches. Commercial artists converted his pen and which is reminiscent of Pre-Raphaelite artists of the

ink drawings into wood engravings, like the one shown in time. These are terms that were once used to refer Innu living in Labrador.

Fig. 7. To the Burying -Ground, lithograph, William L. Walton, lithographic draftsman, colour lithograph, 11.2 x 18.5 cm (image) Explorations II, These artists frontspiece depicted their landscapes realistically and used brilliant colour Try it... Reflect... and light. Today some visual artists continue to make sketches of Which of the works presented in this section do you find their subjects and then use the sketches to help them create most engaging? Have the works changed how you think Trya painting or drawing.it It is also becoming increasingly about that time period? How does viewing the work of these common for an artist to work from photographs of his/her artists help? subject.

Make a photograph of a subject and use the photograph to help you create a work of visual art in a medium that may Reflect be new to you, such as charcoal or pastel. Work quickly, allowing perhaps no more than 30 minutes to create your image. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of using Fig. 6. Resting on the Portage Path, lithograph, William L. Walton, lithographic draftsman, colour lithograph, a photograph in this way. 11.2 x 18.5 cm (image) Explorations I, facing 43

154 155 Artist profile William B. Ritchie In 1976, when William Ritchie was twenty-one, the Ontario-born graduate of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design travelled to Nain for what was supposed to be a two-month visit. He stayed there six years. Because of his interest in learning about the region, William was taught how to hunt, make his own clothes, and survive in the north by an Inuit friend. His friend was artist Gilbert Hay, (see page 88 for an Peninsula in 1992, his time spent in remote parts of example of Hay’s work). In return for Gilbert teaching Canada and his friendship with Gilbert Hay and him his traditional skills, William taught Gilbert how to Gilbert’s family, continue to shape his art practice. print lithographs. The two men formed a partnership and created a series of illustrations for a book of Inuit Currently William spends five months of every year legends, which is still unpublished. Although William managing a printmaking studio in Cape Dorset which moved to a cabin on the southern shore of the Avalon is the working space for several famous Inuit artists.

William Ritchie Ookpik the Believer, 1985, Lithograph Ed. A/P

William Ritchie Labrador Mythology Series: Branta Canadensis, 1983, Lithograph Ed. 6/15

156 157 Several of William’s illustrations of Aboriginal peoples hike in a blizzard. He has often found himself reflecting from Newfoundland and Labrador’s past are used in this on this experience in a cabin or shelter in the wilderness, text book. He based the faces of these people on Innu before beginning to paint or draw. Then William floods his and Inuit people he knows, since he assumes that they paper with a thin wash of watercolour. When the wash are related to Maritime Archaic and Beothuk peoples. dries, William starts looking for images in the wash. With a pencil, he draws the animals, birds, fish, leaves, rocks, and William’s art is heavily influenced by the attitude that water that are suggested there. William’s art reflects his Labrador’s Aboriginal people have towards nature. interest in animals. His animals are always transforming, “Some people study art history,” says William, “and like Inuit shamans, into human figures or other animals. some people study specific artists, and they become their visual clues. I live among nature and I look to it It is the transformation of nature, from season to season, for my clues. I’m always watching for beautiful colour that inspires William’s images. Nature is not a single entity combinations, and texture. That’s what informs me…. that stands still for the artist to capture it. Instead, William I think that’s what drew me to Aboriginal people, the records the journey he has taken through nature and the way they draw from the land for their clues to live.” shifting essence of his constantly changing subject.

For William, an art project is something that follows from an intense experience in nature, a canoeing trip, or a

“My first encounters with a place – the smells in the air, the sounds of the birds, the unusual vegetation, the land I can’t recognize – are precious moments” - William Ritchie

William Ritchie Labrador Mythology Series: Luma, 1981, Lithograph Ed. 2/10

William Ritchie Labrador Mythology Series: Trout, 1983, Lithograph Ed. 4/20

Try it... Reflect...

Take a hike, go canoeing, or sit by the shore. Look What is the most peaceful place that you have visited at the natural world around you. Quickly sketch in nature? What was it about the experience that you Trywhat you see. Don’tit worry about the arrangement of found relaxing? Describe the experience in a few brief subjects on your paper – simply allow your lines to phrases. flow from one subject to another. Fill your paper.

158 Rc 159 The tradition of creating hooked mats for one’s own household use evolved into a cottage industry in Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1900s thanks to Dr. Wilfred Grenfell, who ran the Grenfell medical mission in northern Newfoundland and the profile southern Labrador coast. In 1906, Dr. Grenfell met Artist Jessie Luther, an occupational therapist who was using arts and crafts as part of a recovery treatment for sanitorium patients in the United States. Grenfell invited Luther to teach the women at his mission Rug Hooking Fig. 1 how to weave – both as occupational therapy for patients and to provide cash supplements to fishing In the not too distant past, people in Newfoundland and Labrador did a much better families dependent on credit. A few years later, Luther suggested that Grenfell add hooked mats to job at recycling than we do today. Objects were seldom thrown away. For example, the crafts the women were producing. He agreed. adult-sized hand-me-downs were ripped apart at the seams and made over into

children’s clothing. When those clothes were too worn to wear they went into a rag Fig. 3 bag along with other saved materials, such as the burlap bags that food came in. When strips were hooked randomly in lines, the pattern was called “hit or miss” Sometimes these fabric scraps found new life as part of a floor mat – an item of or “scrappie” and the rug would be relegated to the hallway or the kitchen. necessity, but also a form of cultural expression.

The making of these rugs often started during the brin was covered. The completed mat was then placed Hooked mats, once created to fulfill a stormy months of February and March. A man in the in the appropriate area of the house. functional need and later as items for sale, family might make a wooden frame and stretch a piece of cut burlap (or brin, as it was called) over it. Another Traditional mat designs were often geometric and very are in modern times seen as an art form. family member would then use a charcoal stick from the colourful. The designers created their dyes from onion fire to draw a design. Next, a woman would cut her rags skins, berries, and bark. Mat designs were passed on, Fig. 4 into strips about a centimetre wide and, with the help modified, and innovated. Some rug hookers also used Example of Grenfell hooked mat of a bent nail in a wooden handle, hook the strips in quilting designs or borrowed floral patterns from items such loops through the holes in the brin. Each strip was tied as teacups. Sometimes mats commemorated events like a on the back and then trimmed. This continued until the local marriage or a royal visit, or even pictured a family pet.

The beige parts of this mat were made with A hooked mat from recycled silk stockings! Newfoundland and Labrador, mid 1900s

Fig. 2 160 161 Fig. 5 Grenfell hooked mat: Dog Team with Shadows. Brin base, hooked with dyed stocking and cotton. Prototype design c. 1939 Fig. 7 by Stephen Hamilton. Today artists like Helen Murphy, Barbara O'Keefe, and Frances Ennis use this art form much as they would use paint and canvas, to create art work which will be hung on the wall and to tell a story. This rug, Women Of Vision, was Scenes of polar bears, Inuit dog created by the three artists to commemorate their friend, Sister Marie Ryan, who sleds, and fishing villages were very died in 2008. They note: “It celebrates her life and the Presentation Sisters 175th popular with the Grenfell Institute’s Anniversary in Newfoundland and Labrador. It also captures a little of the voyage Fig. 8 English, Canadian, and American of the first four Sisters…who set sail from Ireland in 1833 to live out their vision customers. Different artists from the of a society where girls and young women would have access to education.” United States and Great Britain Sometimes one form of cultural expression can influence another. This who came to work at the Institute piece, The Boat from Bacon Cove (1990), by Kathleen Knowling is added their designs over time. Dr. inspired by the designs of hooked mats crafted by outport women, Grenfell also created some designs but is actually oilstick and coloured pencil on watercolour paper for the mats. that has been coated with black acrylic paint. Fig. 6 A Grenfell hooked mat produced 1930-1950. In Grenfell’s time there was a debate as to whether traditional mats were better or worse than Grenfell mats. Kits with stamped Grenfell patterns, donated silk Today, the story of rug hooking continues in Newfoundland Try it... Reflect... stockings dyed in subtle vegetable dyes, and suggested and Labrador. Hooked mats, once created to fulfill a colour samples pinned to burlap, were distributed among functional need and later as items for sale, are in modern Think about a rug you might like to hook. Will Look around your home and community for other craftswomen. When an individual completed a mat, it was times seen as an art form. Many contemporary artists you use a traditional design or make up your own examples of individuals who have created works of returned to the Grenfell mission and then sold. Initially have chosen them as their form of artistic expression. At Trydesign? Present yourit choice to your class, explaining art that are also used as functional items in their the individual who had hooked the mat was paid in the the same time, they have a symbolic cultural connection your choice of design. If possible, hook your rug. daily life. Photograph what you observe and add it form of goods, such as clothing or food. Later they were to the thousands of women who worked to sustain their See if there are individuals in your community with to your portfolio. paid in cash. Women who produced Grenfell mats were families and way of life. experience with rug hooking who can teach you very proud of their craftsmanship and of their ability to how to hook a rug. Once you complete your rug, contribute to their family income. how will you use it? Reflect

162 163 them. Well, Sol said, be that as it might, he owned them “Alright then,” said Uncle Sol, “I only borrowed the use now ’cause possession was nine points of the law. of his holes, never intending to keep them, and now he can have them back again.” Skipper Lige said the holes Skipper Lige was a younger man than Uncle Sol, and was drove out the Bay when the ice went out, but Sol a bigger man. And if he hadn’t been a church going maintained that holes was only fresh air and water and Artist profile man besides, he said after as how he’d a tied Uncle Sol they were still up there in the Arm and Lige could have to his own rope and reeved him down one hole and them and ten thousand welcomes. up through the other. As it was, he went home and he wired Skipper Bob Killick, the Magistrate, to come Well, Skipper Bob had to call a fifteen minute recess on immediately, or a bit quicker than that if ’twas possible. that, but after it was over he come back and he ruled as Ted Russell Skipper Bob wired back that he’d come and have how Uncle Sol was wrong on account of how, in what courtwork in May, when navigation opened. he called the common law, a hole couldn’t be a hole unless there was an edge around it. Ted Russell was a man who had many jobs throughout his lifetime – but he is most famous Public opinion was one-sided. Skipper Lige was a as a writer and master storyteller. His career as a “professional” storyteller began one night respectable man whereas Uncle Sol was the worse Then Uncle Sol tried his last dodge. He said as how miserable hangashore on the coast. And to make matters a man couldn’t steal anything without shifting it from when he was sitting with friends telling stories. One of the people in the room was a CBC worse, Uncle Sol was doing real well with the herring where he’d found it in the first place and that he hadn’t Radio producer, who asked Ted to come into the studio and record some of his stories. and even offered Skipper Lige a meal for his Good shifted these holes an inch. Skipper Lige said no, Sol Friday dinner. I can’t repeat Skipper Lige’s answer but hadn’t shifted ’em, not ’cause he wouldn’t but ‘cause he So was born The Chronicles of Uncle Mose whose narrator experiences from his past jobs – including his time as a it made him feel so low that he didn’t have the face to couldn’t and if he could’ve he’d a slung the two holes was a retired fisherman from Fortune Bay, living in the magistrate. Ted hadn’t always enjoyed the duties of this go to church on Easter Sunday. over his back quick enough and gone off with them. fictitious community of Pigeon Inlet. Uncle Mose spoke job, describing the time as “the hungriest years of the Sol said be that as it might, the fact was he hadn’t with Ted Russell’s warm voice and had the slow drawl hungry thirties.” However, one of his funniest stories Well, Pigeon Inlet School was packed for courtwork shifted them and on that point, Skipper Bob Killick the of Ted’s home community, Coley’s Point. was of a rural magistrate, who had to make a most when Skipper Bob Killick come on his rounds in May Magistrate had to agree with him. difficult decision – how to deal with “Uncle Sol Noddy and he read out the charge how Uncle Sol had stolen the From 1953 to 1961, without interruption, Ted told over (who) stole… two holes from Skipper Lige Bartle.” property of Skipper Lige: namely and to wit, two holes. He give his verdict that, although Uncle Sol hadn’t 500 six-minute stories, sometimes twice a week, to a actually stolen the holes, he had trespassed on them and devoted radio audience listening to him on the CBC It was Ted’s uncanny ability to portray the personality Then Uncle Sol, instead of having the common decency he asked Uncle Sol what he had to say before sentence Radio’s Fishermen's Broadcast. Ted also wrote several quirks of his characters and his descriptions of a rural to confess what he done and take what was coming, had was passed. Well, Uncle Sol said, right cheerful-like, that radio plays for the CBC during this time. lifestyle that was already disappearing that attracted a the impudence to look the Magistrate right square in if all he’d done was trespass against Skipper Lige, then loyal audience. He also immortalized the Newfoundland the face and say he didn’t know whether he was guilty no doubt Skipper Lige, as a churchgoing man, would “The aim I had in mind, I suppose, was just to tell stories and Labrador tall tale in his poem, The Smokeroom on or not, and what he would like to know was, “What was be only too ready to forgive those, including Uncle Sol, – stories I knew were basically true – not factual, but true the Kyle (see page 84). His play, The Holdin’ Ground, was the law concerning holes?” Well, Skipper Bob was took who had trespassed against him. And Skipper Lige bust – about Newfoundland people,” Ted once said. the first Newfoundland and Labrador drama to be right aback for a minute and he said he allowed the law right out then for sure and he said he’d forgive Uncle Sol performed on television. But it is his tales of idyllic life concerning holes was like the law concerning anything when Uncle Sol give him back his holes, edges and all, His stories reflected the life he knew in rural in the town of Pigeon Inlet that remain Ted Russell’s else: you mustn’t steal them. Then Uncle Sol, brazener and with that, Skipper Bob delivered his judgement. Newfoundland. He knew what it was like to grow most enduring legacy. than ever, asked, “How could you steal a hole anyway?” up as the son of a fisherman and he drew on his And when Skipper Bob said what did he mean how He ordered Uncle Sol to cut two holes the following could you steal a hole, Uncle Sol said ’cause a hole, well winter, in the same place, for Skipper Lige to set his a hole was nothing, only a hole. herring net in and that was the end of it as far as the law was concerned. Of course, Uncle Sol got the best All this time poor Skipper Lige was sitting there saying of it in the long run but that’s another story, and like nothing but swelling up like a gurnet, ready to bust. Skipper Bob his own self said the following summer, Stealin’ the Holes Then he said as how a hole might be nothing to the after he’d heard the outcome, he doubted very much hangashore that stole it but ’twas something to the man if even the Supreme Court could do much to cure a A Pigeon Inlet Story by Ted Russell Copyright : The Estate of Ted Russell that had to chop it. But Skipper Bob called him to order hangashore like Uncle Sol Noddy, ’cause he was one In all the years that Skipper Bob Killick was Magistrate But two holes was enough to serve Skipper Lige Bartle’s so Lige kept quiet but he swelled bigger, if that was miserable hangashore if ever there was one. along this shore, the shrewdest piece of courtwork he purpose that evening he was coming home down the Arm possible, until Skipper Bob ruled that on his first point, had to handle was the time when Uncle Sol Noddy on dogteam from his rabbit slips. He chopped his two Uncle Sol had lost out and a hole was something. stole the two holes from Skipper Lige Bartle. holes, then hurried home to get his net and a flake longer so as to have it set and home again before night overtook Now what good, you might say, is two holes? Not much him. He didn’t even stop for a bite to eat. Just grabbed a nowadays since most people give up keeping dogs. But pair of dry cuffs and was off again, a spry man. years ago, well how else can a man set a herring net Try it... Reflect... under the ice? You cut two holes, eight or ten feet apart, But spry as he was, Uncle Sol Noddy was spryer. Uncle tie a rope to one end of a flake longer, poke it down Sol was already there and had just finished setting his Create a brief monologue based on your own life Think back on the various experiences you have had through one hole and hook it up through the other with net in Lige’s holes. Well, Lige ordered Sol to take that experience – feel free to use fictional content, exaggeration in your lifetime. What memories stand out? Why? a hand gaff. Oh yes, if you want to set a bigger net, you net out of his holes. Sol said they was his ’cause he’d Tryand hyperbole as youit craft you story. Which stories from your childhood and youth will cut three holes, or even four. found them. Lige said they was his ’cause he chopped you want to pass on to your children? 164 Reflect 165 Photo Credits