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, Cleaning products play an essential role in our daily lives. By safely and effectively removing soils, germs HISTORY ...... 4 and other contaminants, they help us to stay healthy, I care for our homes and possessions, and make our ì surroundings more pleasant.
The Soap and Detergent Association (SDA) recognizes that public understanding of the safety and benefits of cleaning products is critical to their proper use. So we've revised Soaþs and Detergents to feature the most current information in an easy-to-read format. This second edition summarizes key developments in the history of cleaning products; the science of how they work; the procedures used to evaluate their safety for people and the environment; the functions of various products and their ingredients; and the most common manufacturing processes.
SDA hopes that consumers, educators, students, media, government officials, businesses and others ñnd Soaps and Detergents avaluable resource of information about cleaning products. o
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¡: 2nd Edition li¡: orpq¿ The Soap ancl Detergent Association
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r'í-\ HISTORY r The earlv Greeks bathed for Ð aesthetié reasons and apparently did not use soap. Instead, they I The origins of personal cleanliness cleaned their bodies with blocks of I date back to prehistoric times. Since clay, sand, pumice and ashes, then water is essential for life, the eadiest anointed themselves with oil, and people lived near water and knew scraped off the oil and dirt with a something about its cleansing 11 Records show that ancient metal instrument known as a strigil. properties rr They also used oil with ashes. As Roman civilization advanced, so - at least that Egyptians bathed regularly. The ¿r it rinsed mud off Ebers Papyrus, a medical document Clothes were washed without soap I AiA bathing. The first of rhe famous their hands. from about 1500 8.C., in streams. Roman baths, supplied with water from describes combining their aqueducts, was built about 3l2B.C. animal and vegetable : tr'$ The baths were luxurious, and bathing oils with alkaline salts became very popular. By the second to form a soap-like century 4,D., the Greek physician, Galen, material used for år recommended soap for both medicinal treating skin diseases, fi\ and cleansing purposes. as well as for washing fl\'1'
e 467 A.D. and the resulting decline in bathing habits, much of Europe felt the impact of fìlth upon public health. This lack of A soap-like material found 9 personal cleanliness and related
¡; These scientifìc r0..*13:n:l;ffffii:ffi1ii. l! dir"ou.ries, together to their ready supply of raw materials such with the development of as oil from olive trees. The English began power to operate factories, making soap during the l2th century. The t> The science of modern made soapmaking one of soap business was so good that in 1622, IJ ,o^p-rking was born some America's fastest-growing KingJames I granted a monopoly to a 20 years later with the discovery bY industries by 1850. At the soapmaker for $100,000 ayear. Well into Michel Eugene Chevreul, another same time, its broad the 19th century, soap v/as heavily taxed French chemist, availability changed soap as a luxury item in several countries. of the chemical from a luxury item to an When the high tax was removed, soap everyday necessity. rl(/ith became available to ordinary people, and Ë"^ï[ffi"'r'ç'*qo this widespread use came cleanliness ':t standards improved. fats, glycerine ].. the development of milder and fatty acids. soaps for bathing and soaps -- l.\ His studies for use in the washing )! machines that were available ''-¿-:/r-z i established the / basis for both fat and to consumers by the turn of f . .J,'' , soap chemistry. the century. The first detergents were used 16 18 chiefly ffi i":iï,,i iåii10.,,.",.', for hand dishwashing Since those early achievements in detergent and builder chemistry, the same t¡ntil 1916, when and the first fìne fabric lat¡ndering. The new product activity has continued to focus on developing synthetic detergent was developed breakthrough in in the development cleaning products that are efficient and easy to use, as well as safe Germany in response to a of detergents Wodd for all-purpose laundry for consumers and for the environment. Here's a summary of some rJlar I-related shortage of fats uses came for in 1946, when the fìrst of those innovations. making soap. Known today simply as "built" detergent (containing a detergents, synthetic detergents are surfactant/builder combination) was non-soap washing and cleaning introduced in the U.S. The surfactant I 950s products that are "synthesized" or put is a detergent product's basic Automatic dishwasher powders together chemically from a variety of cleaning ingredient, while the raw materials. The discovery of builder helps the surfactanr to detergents was also driven by the need work more efficiently. Phosphate for a cleaning agent that, unlike soap, compounds used as bt¡ilders in wot¡ld not combine with the mineral these detergents vastly improved salts in water to form an insolt¡ble performance, 1960s st¡bstance known as soap curd. making them Prewash soil and stain removers .ì--- st¡itable for Iaundry powders with enzymes cleaning heavily '-l\ .J Enzyme presoaks ' soiled laundry. rtr.ll )-'1
1970s Liquid hand soaps Fabric softeners (sheets and wash-cycle added) Multifunctional products (e.g., detergent with fabric softener)
t9B0s Detergents for cooler water washing Automatic dishwasher liquids By 1953, sales of detergents in Concentrated laundry powders 19 this country had surpassed those ofsoap. Now detergents have all but replaced soap-based products .¡ Household detergent producrion for laundering, r 7r dishwashing and 1990s in the United States began in the household cleaning. Detergents Ultra (superconcentrated) powder and liquid detergents early 1930s, but did not really take off (alone or in combination with soap) Ultra fabric softeners until after Vorld War IL The war-time are also found in many of the bars Automatic dishwasher gels interruption of fat and oil supplies as and liquids used for personal Laundry and cleaning product refìlls well as the military's need for a cleaning cleansing. agent that would work in mineral-rich sea water and in cold water had ft¡rther stimulat€d research on detergents. Surfactants are classifìed by ANTON|C (NEGAT|VE) their ionic (electrical charge) Þ properties in water: anionic (NO (negative "fD NONTONTC CHARGE) charge), nonionic (no charge), cationic (positive (PostTtvE) charge) and amphoteric (either cATroNrc To understand what is needed to achieve effective cleaning, it is helpful to have positiv€ or negative charge). a basic knowledge of soap and detergent chemistry. AMPHOTERTC (POS|T|VE/NEGAT|VE)
Soap is an anionic surfactant. Other anionic as v¡ell as nonionic surfactants are Water, the liquid commonly ,_,..-t/:...{ used for cleaning, has a the main ingredients in today's detergents. Now let's look closer at the property called surface tension. In the body of the chemistry of surfactants. -*----i,ç+4ç water, each molecule is surrounded and attracted by other water molecules. However, at the surface, SOAPS these molecules are surrounded by other water Soaps are water-soluble or potassium molecules only on the water side. A tension is created sodium salts of fatty acids. Soaps are as the water mol€cules at the surface are pulled into made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with a the body of the water. This tension causes water to strong alkali. bead up on surfaces (glass, fabric), which slows First, let's examine the composition of fats, oils and alkalis; then we'll review process. SURFACE TENSION wetting of the surface and inhibits the cleaning the soapmaking process. You can see surface tension at work by placing a drop of water onto a countertop. The drop Fats and Oils will hold its shape and will not spread. The fats and oils used in soapmaking come from animal or plant sources. Each fat or oil is made up of a distinctive mixture of several different triglycerides. r iJi In the cleaning process, surface tension must be reduced so v/ater can spread and wet surfaces. In a triglyceride molecule, three Chemicals that do this effectively are called surface fatty acid molecules are attached active agents, or surfactants. They are said to make to one molecule of glycerine. water "wetter." There are many types of triglycerides; each type consists of its own particular combination of fatty acids. (FAT MOtECUTE) SURFACTANT Fatty acids are the components of fats and oils that are used in making soap. St¡rfactants perform other important They are weak acids composed of two parts: ft.¡nctions in cleaning, such as loosening, a carboxylic acid group a hydrocarbon chain attached to the emulsifying (dispersing in warer) and consisting of one hydrogen (H) carboxylic acid group. Generally, it is holding soil in suspension until it can be atom, two oxygen (O) atoms, made up of a long, straight chain of rinsed away. Surfactants can also and one carbon (C) carbon (C) atoms each carrying provide alkalinity, which is useful in atom; plus two hydrogen (H) atoms. removing acidic soils. 0CI(D 0 a) 0.900 IF Ð o oo
CARBOXYTIC HYDROCARBON FATWACID 10 ACID GROUP CHAIN l1 Alkali 'l'he carboxylate encl of thc An alkali is a solt¡ble salt of an alkali metal like s
How Soaps Are Made How Water Hardness Affects Cleaning Action Saponifìcation of fats and oils is the most widely used soapmaking process. This method involves heating fats and oils ancl reacting them with a Although soap is a good clcaning agent, liquid alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap) pltrs glycerine . its effectiveness is reduced when used in hard watcr. Harclness in water is '[tü ,.:¡ cat¡sed by the presence <¡f mineral salts mostly those of calcitrm (Ca) ancl .å^ rl '-t ,,- ,r--\. - 't \¡t-n*/' magnesium (Mg), but sometimes also =-:p iY- iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). The o.*o,l SOAP WATER GTYCERINE mineral salts react with soap to form an ' ..i.ii' i::¡u*r '. -.YCERIDE , *ü=..ifr--{lJ,' insoluble precipitate known as soap film or scr¡m. SOAP MINERAL FILM Soap film does not rinse away easily. It Ttre other maior process is soapmaking the neutralization of fatty acids \,--'f . ,-+--.&¡rr tends to remain behind and produces with an alkali. '. t visible clcposits on clothing and makes Fats ancl oils arc The fary acids are then purified by distillation M fabrics fcel stiff. It also attaches to the hydrolyzed (split) with and neutralized with an alkali to prodtrce soap insides of bathtubs, sinks and washing high-pressure steam to and watcr (neat soap). machines. yield cnrcle fatty acids ancl Some soa¡r is rrsed up by reacting with glycerine. hard water minerals to form the film. This reduces thc amount of soap availablc for cleaning. Even when \u-. clothes are washed in soft water, some hardness minerals are introdt¡ced by the soil on clothes. Soap molecr¡les are not FATTY ACID ALKALI SOAP WATER very versatile and cannot be adapted to (NEAT SOAP) today's variety of fibers, washing temperatur€s and water conditions.
lùl¿hen the alkali is sodit¡m hyclroxiclc, a sodit¡m soap is formed. Soclium soaps are "hard" soaps. Bar soaps are harcl soaps. Whcn the alkali is potassium hyclroxidc, a potassium soap is formed. Potassium soaps are softer and are fotrncl in some liquid hand soaps and shaving creams. t2 l3 SURFACTAIUTS IIU DETERGEIIIÎS Nonionic Surfactants Nonionic surfactant molecules are produced by first converting the hydrocarbon A detergent is an effective cleaning product because it contains one or more to an alcohol and then reacting the fatty alcohol with ethylene oxide.
surfactants. Becat¡se of their chemical makeup, the surfactants used in detergents CONVEffiCD TO \ can be engineered to perform well under a variety of conditions. Such surfactants are less sensitive than soap to the hardness minerals in water and D EIHYLENE NONtONIC most not form a fìlm. rATTY will HYDROCARBON -+ ALcoHot oxlDE SURFACTAIÛI Detergent surfactants were developed in response to a shortage of animal and vegetable fats and oils during rVodd War I and Vodd lVar II. In addition, a These nonionic surfactants can be reacted further with sulfur-containing acids substance that was resistant to hard water was needed to make cleaning more to form another type of anionic surfactant. effective. At that time, petroleum was found to be a plentiftll source for the manufacture of these surfactants. Today, detergent sr¡rfactants are made from a variety of petrochemicals (derived from petroleum) and/or oleochemicals HOI,U SOAPS AIUD DETERGEIUTS t,vORK (derived from fats and oils). Three types ofenergy are needed for good cleaning results: Let's discr¡ss the main components of detergent surfactants. o chemical energy, provided by the soap or detergent; Petrochemicals and Oleochemicalc o thermal energy, provided by warm or hot water; and o provided Like the fatty acids used in soapmaking, both mechanical €nergy, by a machine or hands. petroleum and fats and oils contain hydrocarbon chains that are repelled by water but attracted to oil and grease in soils. These hydrocarbon chain sources These rypes of energy interact and should be in proper balance. Irt's look at WATER-HATING are used to make the water-hating end of the how they work together. surfactant molecule. Let's assume we have Now let's add soap or These opposing forces Other Chemicals oily, greasy soil on detergent. The surfactant's loosen the soil and rùØater Chemicals, such as sulfur trioxidc, sulfuric acid and clothing. alone water-hating end is suspend it in the water. ethylene oxide, are used to produce the water-loving will not remove this soil. repelled by water but Warm or hot water helps end of the surfactant molecule. One important reason is attracted to the oil dissolve grease and oil in WATER.IOVING that oil and grease in the soil. At the same soil. Washing machine t present in soil repel the time, the water-loving end Alkalis agitation or hand rubbing water As in soapmaking, an alkali is used to make detergent t{-i molecules. is attracted to the water helps pull the soil free. sr¡rfactants. Sodium and potassium hydroxide are the molecules. most common alkalis. '\'l
How Detergent SuÉactants Are Made
Anionic Surfactants The chemical reacts with hydrocarbons derived from petroleum or fats and oils *. I)=Ð to produce new acids similar to fatty acids. A second reaction adds an alkali to the new ^îi.fD= acids to produce one type of anionic surfactant molecule. þ
I4 r5 Laundry Detergents and Laundry Aids are available as liquids, powders, gels, sticks, sprays, pumps, sheets and bars. They are INGREDIENTS formulated to meet a variery of soil ancl stain removal, bleaching, fabric softening and Soaps and detergents are essential to personal ancl public health. Through their conditioning, and disinfectant needs under ability to loosen and remove soil from a surface, they contribute to good varying water, temperature and use conditions. personal hygiene; redt¡ce thc presence of germs that cause infectiot¡s cliseases; extend the useñ¡l life of clothes, tableware , linens, surfaces ancl furnishings; ancl make our homes and workplaces mor€ pleasant. = soaps and detergents found in thc home can be grouped into four general categories: personal cleansing, laundry, dishwashing ancl household cleaning. within each category are different product types formulated with ingredients sclected to perform a broad clcaning ft¡nction as well as to cleliver properties specifìc to that product. I(nowing the different products and their ingredients Laundry detergents are either Boosters enhance the soil ancl stain helps you select the right prodr.rct for the cleaning job. general purpose or light duty. General removal, brightening, buffering and purpose detergents are suitable for all water softening performance of PRODUCTS washable fabrics. Liquids work best on detergents. They are used in the wash oily soils and for pretreating soils and in addition to the detergent. Personal Cleansing Products stains. Powders are especially effective- n-. inclt¡de bar soaps, gels, liquid soaps in rifting out cray ä'-o-u"ät;.:lì; "n¿ iKtr !:::':::^,:ä,î::ff:*u'"t Light duty detergents are used for and heavy duty hand cleaners. These ãimcult stains and soils. \ifhen added hand or machine washing lightly products get th€ir cleaning action to ttr. *ash water, they increase soiled items and from soap, other surfactants or a delicate fabrics. cleaning power. combination of the two. The choice Laundry aids contribute to the Føbríc softeners, added to the fìnal of cleaning agent helps determine the effectiveness of laundry detergents rinse or dryer, make fabrics softer and product's lathering characteristics, and provide special functions. feel on the skin and rinsability. fluffier; decrease static cling, wrinkling Bleacbes (cblorine ønd otygen) and drying time; impart a pleasing whiten and brighten fabrics and help fragrance and make ironing easier. remove stubbom stains. They convert Preutasb soil and stain remouers are soils into colorless, soluble particles Bar soaps or Gels are formr¡lated Liquid soaps are generally used to pretreat heavily soiled and that can be removed by detergents and for cleaning the hands, face and body. formt¡lated for cleaning hands, and stained garments, especially those carried away in the wash water. Liquid Depending on the other ingredients, feature skin conditioners. Some made from synthetic fìbers. chlorine bleach (usually a sodium they may also moisturize the skin contain antimicrobial agents that kill hypochlorite solution) can also disinfect Starcbes, fabric finisbes and sízings, ancl/ or inhibit odor-causing bacteria. or inhibit disease-causing bacteria. and deodorize fabrics. Oxygen (color- used in the fìnal rinse or after drying, Specialty bars inclucle transparent/ safe) bleach is more gentle and works give body to fabrics, make them more translucent soaps, lnxury soaps and Heavy duty hand cleaners are safely on almost all washable fabrics. soil-resistant and make ironing easier. medicated soaps. available as bars, liquids, powders and Water softeners, added to the wash or pastes. Formulated for removing Bluings contain a blue dye or pigment rinse, inactivate hard water minerals. stubborn, greasy dirt, they may taken up by fabrics in the wash or Since detergents are more effective in include an abrasive. rinse. Bluing absorbs the yellow part soft water, these proclucts increase of the light spectnlm, count€racting cleaning power. the natt¡ral yellowing of many fabrics. t6 t7 Dishwashing Products Household Cleaners are available as liquids, include detergents for hand and gels, powders, solids, sheets and pads for use on ,--v ,ËiK machine dishwashing as well as painted, plastic, metal, porcelain, glass and other some specialty products. They surfaces, and on washable floor coverings. are available as liquids, gels, Because no single product can provide optimum powders and solids. performance on all surfaces and soils, a broad range of products has been formulated to clean -\/- effìciently and easily. \ùflhile all-purpose cleaners are intended for more general use, others work t (-) () I specialized I best under highly conditions.
Hand dishwashing detergents Film removern remove build-up of penetrate and Metal cleanels remove soils and polish r€move food soils, hold soil in hard water fìlm and cloudiness from All-pur¡lose cleaners prevent metalware. Tarnish, the oxidation of suspension and provide long-lasting dishes and the interior of the loosen soil, soften water and soil from redepositing on the cleaned metal, is the principal soil found on suds that indicate how much cleaning dishwasher. They are used instead of surface. Some also disinfect. metalware. Some products also power is left in the wash water. an ar¡tomatic dishwasher detergent in protect cleaned metalware against a separat€ cycle or together with the rapid retarnishing. Automatic dishwasher detelgents, detergent. Abrasive cleansers remove heavy accumulations of soil found in in addition to removing food soils and often Ouen cleaners remove burned-on holding them in suspension, tie up Lime and rust removers remove small areas. The abrasive action is provided metal grease and other food soils from oven hardness minerals, emulsiff grease deposits of lime and/or rust from the by small mineral or particles, fìne steel wool, copper or walls. These cleaners are thick so the and oil, suppr€ss foam caused by interior of the dishwasher. They are nylon particles. also disinfect. product will cling to vertical oven protein soil and help water sheet off used when no dishes or other Some surfaces. dish surfaces. They produce little or dishwasher products are present. are designed for no suds that wot¡ld interfere with the Specialty cleaners Rug sbampoos and uplJolstery cleaners washing action of the machine. the soil conditions found on specifìc surfaces, such as glass, tile, metal, dissolve oily and greasy soils and hold ovens, carpets and upholstery, toilet them in suspension for removal. Some Rinse agents are t¡sed in addition to bowls and in drains. also treat surfaces to repel soil. the automatic dishwasher detergent to lower surface tension, thus improving Gløss cleaners loosen and dissolve oily Toilet boul cleaners prevent or remove draining of the water from dishes and soils found on glass, and dry quickly stains caused by hard water and rust t¡tensils. Better draining minimizes without streaking. deposits, and maintain a clean and spotting ancl fìlming and enhances pleasant-smelling products drying. bowl. Some Glass and. multì-surface cleaners also disinfect. remove soils from a variety of smooth surfaces. They shine surfaces without Drain openers unclog kitchen and streaking. bathroom drains. They work by producing heat to melt fats, breaking Tub, tíle and sink cleaners remove them down into simpler substances normal soils found on bathroom that can be rinsed away, or by surfaces as well as hard water deposits, oxidizing hair and other materials. soap scum, rust stains, and/or mildew Some use bacteria to prevent grease and mold. Some also treat surfaces to build-up which leads to drain clogging. retard soiling; some also disinfect. l8 rg IIUGREDIEilTS Nonionlc surfactants are low sudsing and are typically used in laundry and automatic dishwasher detergents surfactants and builders are the major components of cleaning products. other and rinse aids. Because they do not ionize in solution ingredients are added to provide avariety of functions, such as increasing and thus have no electrical charge, they are resistant to cleaning performance for specifìc soils/surfaces, ensuring product stability and water hardness and clean well on most soils. The most supplying a unique identity to a product. Let's examine how surfacrants and widely used are alcohol ethoxylates. builders work and then review other commonly used ingredients. Cationic surfactants are used in fabric softeners and in fabric-softening laundry detergents. Other cationics are the disinfecting/sanitizing ingredient in some Sudactants household cleaners. They ionize in solution and have a positive charge. Quaternary ammonium compounds are the principal cationics. Surfactants, also called surface active agents, are organic chemicals that change the properties of water (see page Ampboteric surfactants are used in personal cleansing l0). By lowering the surface tension of water, surfactants and household cleaning products for their mildness, enable the cleaning solution to wet a surface (e.g., clothes, sudsing and stability. They have the ability to be anionic dishes, countertops) more quickly, so soil can be readily (negatively charged), cationic (positively charged) or loosened and removed (usually with nonionic (no charge) in solution, depending on the pH the aid of mechanical action). (acidity or alkalinity) of the water. Imidazolines and Surfactants also emulsify oily soils betaines are the major amphoterics. and keep them dispersed and Lower surface '4 suspended so they do not settle back tens¡on Builders ä on the surface. To accomplish their intended jobs effectively, many cleaning products Builders enhance or maintain include two or more surfactants. the cleaning effìciency of the q Emulsify, disperse, surfactant. The primary "@g suspend soils function of builders is to -rilÞt. a reduce water hardness. {? This is done either by ls¡ sequestration or cbelation surfactants are generally classified by their ionic (electrical charge) @olding hardness minerals in @e; properties oð in water. solution), by precipitation ffi Anionlc surfactants are t¡sed in laundry (forming an insoluble Sequestrat¡on and hand dishwashing detergents; substance), orby ion household cleaners; and personal excbange (trading electrically charged particles). Complex phosphates and cleansing products. They ionize (are sodit¡m citrate are common sequestering builders. Sodium carbonate and converted to electrically charged sodit¡m silicate are precipitating builders. Sodium aluminosilicate (zeolite) is an particles) in solution, carry a negative ion exchange builder. charge, have excellent cleaning Builders can also supply and properties and generally are high maintain alkalinity, which assists sudsing. Linear alþlbenzene sulfonate, cleaning, especially of acid soils; alcohol ethoxysulfates, alþl sulfates help keep removed soil from and soap are the most common anionic redepositing during washing; surfactants. and emulsify oily and greasy soils.
20 2t lngredient Key Ingredient Primary Functions Tyrpical Examples The following key indicates the product category in wlrich an ingreclient may be used. The key letters appear below each ingredient. Dnzymes o Proteins classifìed by the type of soil they Amylase (starch soils) break down to simpler forms for removal by Lipase (fatty and oily @ o @ o@ detergent soils) Personal Cleansing Dishwashing Protease (protein soils) Laundry Household Cleaners . Cellulase reduces pilling and greying of fabrics Cellulase containing cotton and helps remove lngredient Prirnary Functions Typical Examples particulate soils
Fabric sotfitening Impan softness ând control static electricity in Quatemary ammonium Abrasives Strpply smoothing, scrubbing ancl/<>r Calcite agents fabrics compowrds @@ polishing action Feldspar Quartz o Sand Fluorescent Attach to fabrics to create a whitening or Colorless fluorescing whitening brightening effect when exposed to daylight compounds Aclds Net¡tralize or adjust alkalinity of other Àcetic acid agents ingredients Citric acid Hydrochloric acid o Phosphoric acid Fragrances . Mask base odor of ingredients and package Fragrance blends Sulfuric acid . Cover odors of soil @o@ o Provide special identity to product Alkalis o Neutralize or adjust acidity of other Ammonium o Provide pleasant odor to clothes and rooms ingredients hydroxide @o@ o Make surfactants and builders more Ethanolamines Hydrotropes o Prevent liquid products from separating Cumene sulfonates effìcient Sodium carbonate into layers Ethyl alcohol o Increase alkalinity Sodium hydroxide o@ r Ensu¡e product homogeneity Toluene sulfonates Sodium silicate Xylene sulfonates Opacifiero . Reduce transparency or make product opaque Polymers @o@ r Provide a special effect Titanium dioxide Antimicrobial Kill or inhibit growth of microorganisms Pine oil Preservativec Protect against natural effects of product aging, Butylated agents that cause diseases and/or oclor Quatemary ammonium e.g., decay, discoloration, oxidation and hydrox¡oluene compounds @o@ bacterial attack Ethylene diamine @o@ Sodium hypocNorite tetrâacetic acid Triclocarban Glutaraldehyde Triclosan Proceosing aids o Provide important physical characteristics, Clays Antirede¡losition Prevent soil from resettling after removal Carboxymethyl e.9., proper pour or flow, viscosity, solubility, Polymers agcilts during washing cellulose @o@ stability and uniform density Sodium silicate Polycarborylates o Assist in manufacttrring Sodium sulfate o@ Polyethylene glycol Solvents Sodium silicate Solvents o Prevent separation or deterioration of Ethanol Bleaches Help whiten, brighten and remove stains ingredients in liquid products Isopropanol o@ o Dissolve organic soils Propylene glycol o@ r Clean without leaving residue chk¡rine bleaclt Sodium hypochlorite
orygen bleacb Sodium perborate Soclium percarbonate Suds control Ensure optimum sudsing (foaming) level needed for a cleaning job agento Colorants o Provicle special identity to product Pigments or dyes @o@ o Provide bluing action suds stabllizers Maintain high sudsing where suds level is an Alkanolamides @ important indicator of cleaning power Alþlamine oxides Corosion Protect metal machine parts and finishes, Sodium silicate inhibitors china patterns ancl metal utensils suds suppressors Control sudsing where suds would interfere Alþl phosphates with cleaning action Silicones o@ o@ Soap )t 23 Medical science has long confirmed the important relationship between cleanliness ancl health. The regular r¡sc of cleaning products is ft¡ndamental to the As consumer neecls ancl lifcstylcs change, and as new mant¡facturing processes health of ot¡r society and the well-being of its people. become available, the soa¡t and detergent industry responds with new products. Ilecause cleaning A commitment to safefy is a top priorify from the time a company begins working products are part of our on a new product and continues as long as the product is in the marketplace. everyday lives, it is essential that they not Companies cvalt¡ate thc safety of existing cleaning products by talking with present a significant risk to health. In consrìmers, reviewing scientific developmcnts ancl monitoring prodtrct use data considering the human safety of an that may affcct the safety assessment proccss. individual ingredient or product, To determine thc safety of a cleaning procluct ingredient, inclustry scientists toxicologists (scientists who assess the evalt¡ate the toxicity of the ingredient. Toxicity is generally definecl as any safety of a chemical) are concerned with harmft¡l effect of a chemical on a living organism, i.e., a human, an animal, a the effects from two types of exposures: IIIITE¡UDED plant or a microorganism. Since all chemicals, including water (H2O), are toxic intended and uninten 24 25 If this human safety evaluation indicates an unacceptable risk, it may be possible to make the risk smaller by changing the manufacturing process; reformulating to reduce or eliminate an ingredient contributing to the toxic Most household cleaning products are formulated to be effect; or using labeling or a child-resistant closure. If the risk cannot be reduced, used with water and "go down the drain" into wastewater the product will not be marketed. dË treatment systems & (municipal Even though manufacturers sewage formulate cleaning products to treatment plants or ensure that they are safe or have septic tank systems). very low risk, human health effects To assure that products are safe for the can stiil result from unintended environment, manufacturers evaluate the exposure. To warn consumers impacts of product ingredients in wastewater about a specific hazard, household treatment systems, streams, rivers, lakes and V ' I' cleaning products carry cautionary estuaries.estuaries ScientifìcScientiff¡- principlesnrincinlec thatthqt areqte u¡idetrrwidely i SÊl¡ÙÄó¡SÊliiÄä¡ , s-EPTtC rnelru¡¡¡r TANK labeling whenever necessary. For recognized¡cr¡oøira¡t bylrrr thetfra technical¡ø¡t:a2¡at ^âAand regutatory-Áã,.t^t^-, I ] i,-,,:;iÄff*j.r{;s SYSTEM consumers, this is one of the most communities are used to assess the risk to important features of the label. the environment of these impacts. Federal regulations govern how precautionary statements related to human Environmental risk assessment safety are used on household cleaning product labels. The regulations require considers the exposure concentrations and that statements follow a standard format. There is first a "signal word," followed effects of individual ingredients. Two sets by a short description of the potentialhazard. The following chart shows the of information are used in these signal words - CAUTION or WARNING and DANGER - and what rhey mean: assessments. One set enables industry scientists to predict the concentration of the ingredient from all sources, including cleaning products, at various locations in the environment (the predicted Øcþosure concentratíon). The other set is used to find the highest concentration of the ingredient at which no harm will occur to animals, plants or microorganisms living in the environment (the noeffect concentratlon). comparing the predicted exposure concentration and the no'effect concentration enables scientists to determine whether the use of an ingredient is saþ for tbe enulrontnent. The planned use of a cleaning product ingredient is acceptable if the predicted exposure concentration is lower than the concentration that would harm animals, plants or microorganisms. POISON, which rarely appears on household cleaning products, is the strongest indication of hazard and means that accidental exposure cot¡ld cause severe medical effects. The term may be found on household lye and on some car care products, such as antifreeze. Along with the safety evaluation process and cautionary labeling, an extensive consumer education program on the proper use, storage and disposal of cleaning products supports the human safety efforts of the soap and detergent industry. PREDICTED EXPOSURE NO-EFFECT SAFE FOR In addition, the industry works closely with poison control cent€rs to assure CONCENTRATION CONCENTRATION ENVIRONMENT that, shot¡ld an accidental exposure occur, treatment information is available to health care providers. Together, these activities enable consumers to use cleaning products with confìdence in both their safety and performance. 26 27 This information applies to ingredients lmproving Eny¡ronmentel Ouality processed through household septic tank systems as well as municipal treatment plants. The soap and detergent industry is committecl to understanding the impact of its Two basic steps occur in the treatment of products and packages on the environment. with this understancling comes the wastewater in both systems. The fìrst step, ability to reduce their impact and improve their environmental quality. called primary treatment, consists of Manufacturers of cleaning products have been leaders in reducing packaging the removal of solid waste and encouraging sound waste disposal practices. Aclvances in technology material, such as have resulted in products that are more concentrated, products that combine two grit or grease, functions in one, products with refill packages and packages that use recycled PHYSICAL from the materials. concentrated products need less energy to manufacture and transport, wastev/ater by pbysical means, i.e., settling and and require less packaging. Multiftlnctional products eliminate the need for flotation in tanks. The second step, called separate packages. Refìll packages allow consumers to reuse primary packages secondary treatment, removes the dissolved many times, decreasing the amount of packaging used and the volume of trash material by btological means, i.e., consumption gen€rated. Plastic and paperboarcl that woulcl otherwise be thrown away become by microorganisms. usable materials through recycling. It is in the secondary treatment stage where the BIOLOGICAL Through education and community programs, the soap and cletergent industry most important process in reducing the exposure concentration of helps consumers learn how to reduce waste and how best to dispose of it. detergent ingredients occurs. This is called biodegradatlon. consumers are reminded that the environmentally wise way of handling any Biodegradation describes how organic (carbon- household cleaning product is to buy only containing) detergent ingredients, like the amount that can be used; to use it all up surfactants, enzymes and, fragrances, are or give it away; and, if it must be disposecl, to broken down into carbon dioxide, water dispose of it propedy. As a rule of thumb, and minerals by the action of micro- products designed for use with water should organisms such as bacteria. ,A,t this stage, be disposed of by pouring down the drain; biodegradation reduces the amount of solid products such as scouring pads should detergent ingredients discharged into the be ptrt into the trash. environment to levels that do not present a A promising method under development for BIODEGRADATION risk to fìsh or other aquatic life. Any small improving the environmental quality of a amounts of chemicals which are not biodegraded or removed during product is life cycle assessment (LCA). LCA se¡ñ/age treatment are diluted in surface vr'aters, soil and the describes a "cradle-to-grave" look at all the ocean. They continue to biodegrade or be rernoved environmental impacts of a product and from water by attaching to solids, a process its package, from acquiring raw materials known as adsorptlon. through manufacture and distribution Some inorganic (not carbon-containing) to consumer use and disposal. One 1 detergent ingredients, such as phosphates, advantage of LCA is that it can determine zeolites and some dyes, also attach to solids, whether reducing an environmental and are further treated during processing of the impact in one area, such as manufacturing, biosolids (sludge) procluced in primary and shifts the impact to another, such as secondary treatment. Biosolids are often used as disposal. LCA also helps to identify where fertilizers and soil conditioners. ADSORPTION environmental improvement efforts should Because of modern treatment methods, only an insignificant amount of the be focused. ingredients used to clean clothes, dishes, home and workplace surfaces actually Sound scienti.fìc information provicles the fotmdation for the soap and detergent reaches the environment. And that amount is at such levels as to not cause any industry's cofirmitment to safety. The industry maintains this commitment without adverse effects. compromising product performance, convenience or cost-effectiveness. 2A 29 ¡ '-")-,1 / ..'-¿- , f.i- | Soap was made by the batch kettle fìnishing line. The firsr unit in the line ¡-- boiling method until shortly after is a mixer, called an amalgamator, in Worlcl War II, when continuous which the soap pellets are blendecl processes were developed. together with fragrance, colorants and Continuot¡s processes all Soap ancl detergent mant¡factr¡ring consists of a broad range of processing and are preferred other ingredients. O The today packaging operations. The size and complexiry of these operations vary from because of their flexibility, mixture is then homogenized and speed and economics. refìned small plants employing a few people to those with several hr¡ndred workers. throrlgh rolling mills and Prodr¡cts range from large-volume types like launclry detergents that are t¡sed on Both continuot¡s and batch processes refìning plodders ro achieve thorough produce soap a regular basis to lower-voh¡me specialties for less frcquent cleaning needs. in liquid form, called blending and a uniform texture. neat Cleaning products come in three principal forms: bars, powders and soap, and a valuable by-product, Finally, the mixture is continuously glycerine. The glycerine extruded from plodder, liquicls. Some li<¡r.ricl products are so viscot¡s that they are gels. The first step in @ is the cut into recoverecl manufacturing all threc forms is the selection of raw materials. Raw materials are by chemical treatment, bar-size t¡nits and stamped into its fìnal followed by shape chosen accorcling to many criteria, inchtding their human anct environmental evaporation and refining. in a soap press. €) Refined glycerine safety, cost, compatibiliry with other ingreclients, ancl the form and performance is an important Some of today's bar soaps are called industrial "combo characteristics of the fìnishecl procluct. While actual production processes may mat€rial used in foods, bars," because they get their cosmetics, vary from mantrfacturer to manufacturer, there are steps which are common to drugs and many other cleansing action from a combination products. ofsoap and all proctucts of a similar form. synthetic surfactants. The next processing Others, Let's start by looking at bar soap manufacturing and then we'll review the step after called "syndet bars," feature saponification sr¡rfactants processes used to make powder and liquid detergents. or neutralization is as the main cleansing clrying. Vact¡um spray drying is used to ingredients. The processing methods convert the neat soap into dry soap for manufacturing the synthetic base B'IR SOAPS pellets.Ø The moisture content of the materials for these bars are very pellets will vary depending on the different from those t¡sed in traditional Traditional bar oils and neutralization of fatty acids, desired properties of the soap bar. soapmaking. However, with some soaps are made IE were described in the Chemistry In the final processing step, the dry minor modifications, the finishing line from fats and oils chapter (see page 12). soap pellets pass through a bar soap equipment is the same. or their fätty acicls which are reacted r------with inorganic I I water-soluble t- rl bases. The main rlrr{ll ¡ ..- , i sources of fats are rilìrr I'L.' I beef ancl I mutton ri ¡ll tallow, while palm, r¡lì ¡ll coconut and palm ¡ì! i 'ii-* l kernel oils are the i r"*ørt-i principal oils t¡secl ¡ lr r ...1 I ... in soapmaking. i ¿r.,á' I The raw materials may #be pretreated to remove impurities and to achieve itr'-, rl the color, odor and performance IewcentHer$ features desired in the finished bar. L------'Ihe chemical processes for making soap, i.e ., saponification of fats and 30 3r POWDER DETERGEIUTS LIQU¡D DETERGEIUTS Powder are dctergents are prodtrced by screened to achieve a relatively Both batch and continuous blendlng spray drying, uniform @ agglomeration, dry size. processes are used to manufacture mixing or combinations of these After the granules have been liquid and gel cleaning producrs. UQUID DRY methods. cooled, heat INGREDIENTS INGREUEÜIS sensitive ingredients that Stabilizers may be added during ln the spray process, are not compatible drylng dry with the spray manufacturing to ensure the and liquid ingredients drying temperatures (such are fìrst as bleach, uniformity and stability of the combine I uQutD , r DRY INGREDIÊNTS 1 INGREDIEMfS PACKAGIIUG I The final step in the manufacture of soaps and detergents is packaging. Bar soaps are either wrapped or cartoned in single packs or multipacks. Detergents, including household cleaners, are packaged SPRAY DRYING in cartons, bottles, pouches, bags or cans. uQurD The selection of INGREDIEMÍS packaging materials Agglomeratioz, which leads to and containers involves higher density powders, consists of considerations of blending dry raw materials wirh liquid product compatibiliry ingredients. Helped by the presence of and stability, cost, a liquid binder, rolling or shear mixing package safety, solid AGGLOMERATION causes the ingredients to collide and waste impact, shelf adhere to each other, forming larger uQliD DRY appeal and ease ofuse. INGREDIE¡ITS INGREDIENIS particles. r..-r.:+F.r--€'-.1 Dry rnlxíng or dry blending is I I Jt*'r.r" I used to blend dry râw materials. i DETEnGEilT I ,- quantities - i l--,.'.-t---' Small of liquids may also be added. 32 DRY MIXING 33 - I ü @ NW,,Suite 300 . Washington, www.cleaningl0l.com