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Home , Bernt Notke, Brick Gothic, Christian Krohg, Dragestil, Eilif Peterssen, Kalmar Cathedral

TThehe BBalaltticic SSeaea RRegionegion Cultures,Cultures, Politics,Politics, SocietiesSocieties EditorEditor WitoldWitold MaciejewskiMaciejewski

A Baltic University Publication Case Chapter 4 In search of the artistic identity of the region Andrzej Wozinski

1. of the and the beginning Figure 58. A ’ of Christian art breast pin. Ill.: Małgorzata Sheiki- The Viking Age. The artistic homogeneity of Binkowska the Baltic coastal areas started to evolve in the Viking era. This dates back to ca. 800 AD, when almost the whole of the area was still pagan. Our knowledge of is frag- mentary, as only some remains of the archi- tecture, , and textiles have been preserved. Most surviving items are Rus, on the southern coast of the Baltic, in the objects of artistic handicraft: jewellery, weapon British Isles, Ireland, , and Normandy. irons, vessels, tools, and transportation equip- They even reached and America, ment such as boats or sleighs. The artistic tal- and they had regular contacts with Byzantium. ents of the Scandinavians, coupled with their They brought their art with them, with the organisational and military skills, mobility and specific style, iconography and high skill level. expansiveness, made their art the first artistic Works of Viking art have been preserved in manifestation of the unity of the Baltic coastal many locations the Vikings reached. They were region. produced in the newly established settlements, The Vikings set up their settlements not or occasionally brought by the Vikings to the only in the whole of , but also in areas they conquered or visited. They were also

The art of the Baltic

Like a keystone coupling the elements of a , the Baltic Sea links the Scandinavian countries with the small Russian areas on the Gulf of and around Kaliningrad, separated from each other by , and , and with the northern areas of and . As one compares the art of this territory with the artistic achievements of other European regions, one cannot escape the impression that the Baltic coastal areas constitute something more than just a geographical category. In spite of the politi- cal, ethnic, linguistic and religious divisions, they must be treated as a homogenous artistic region. This distinct character has changed with the changing epochs, and it has varied in intensity. Shared artistic features have not been distributed evenly across the area, sometimes only including some parts of it, and there have also been periods where it was utterly impossible to point to individual features. This distinctness has Figure 59. A Vikings’ amulet shown up at various levels: in the forms, styles, artistic predilections, materials, tech- – ’ hammer, Mjölnir, nologies, iconography, content, sponsorship systems, ways of working and character was made into a cross in the of manufacturing centers. Naturally, many aspects of art in the do have early Christian period. Ill.: their equivalents in other artistic regions, but it is here that they make up a of Małgorzata Sheiki-Binkowska elements that is not to be seen anywhere else. Art historians have already identified a number of distinguishing features of the Baltic region but only for the (especially the Gothic) and the 16th century. The present sketch is an attempt at a broader look at the art of the Baltic, and at showing its specific character. It covers a much longer period: from about 800 AD up to the 20th century. This is a long period, and there have been no in-depth comparative works yet; this, coupled with some editorial factors, means that the attempt is not free from generalisations and only touches upon selected issues, just pointing to some others.

Culture In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region 207 riage and sleigh, cases, beds, chairs, tents, tex- tiles and everyday objects).

Early Christian art. The adoption of in the 9th and 10th centuries never wiped away the Viking art; it came to be adapted to the new needs. This meant introduc- Figure 60. A medieval comb from ing new themes and iconographies; however, . Ill.: Małgorzata Sheiki- the style remained traditional or changed just -Binkowska slightly. One illustration of this synthesis of new and old elements is the famous runic stone that imported by the local rulers and noblemen who stood between two burial mounds at , recognised their high artistic value. There were , founded by the king of Denmark so many works of Viking art in various areas of Harald the Bluetooth in ca. 965 as a dynasty the Baltic coast (although they have also been monument in honour of his parents, com- found in other European regions) that one memorating the christianisation of the country may certainly say that there was some artistic at the same time. The stone depicts a crucified unity and distinctness in the region even in the Christ in an exceptional manner, surrounded by early mediaeval period (which was also a pre- some characteristically Viking interweaving rib- Christian time in many areas). To mention just a bons. This Christian theme borders on a typical couple of important examples, there are the trea- Viking motif on the other side of the stone: a sures of Gnezdovo near Smolensk (Hermitage beast wrapped in a creeper-like ornament. Museum, St Petersburg), Vårby, Scandinavia’s first Christian sanctuaries were (Statens Historiska Museum, ), structurally very simple and built of . None Hiddensee, Rügen (Kulturhistorisches Museum, have survived but some fragments have been ), all dating to the 10th century, and preserved under Romanesque churches erected the treasure of Hon, (containing in the 12th and 13th centuries. These were built not only Scandinavian items, Universitetets of stone in Denmark and Sweden, while Norway Oldsaksamling, ) dating to the 2nd half of continued the tradition of wooden structures. A the 9th century; there is the lost reliquary of St. Kordula dating to about 1000 AD from Kamien Pomorski ; and there are many isolated jewellery objects, including the Gotland-pro- duced, magnificently ornamented drum-shaped which have also been found outside of Gotland – in other regions of Sweden, as well as Finland and Estonia. The art of those Scandinavian tribes is characterised by distinct ornaments with geometrical and animal motifs, such as winding ribbons and interweaving fantastic monsters forming dense, sometimes multi-levelled compositions totally filling up the ornamental space. The famous Oseberg (Norway) find of 1904 (Universitetets Old- saksamling, Oslo) is representative for Viking art. Its main component is a magnificently sculpted and exquisitely equipped funeral boat more that twenty metres long, the burial place of a probable Viking queen and slave dating to ca. 800-850 AD. All kinds of objects were included in this splendid funeral, some of them richly ornamented and located not only on the boat itself but also around it (including a car- Figure 61. A portal motif from the stave- in Urnes. Ill.: Małgorzata Sheiki-Binkowska

Culture 208 In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region English ( cathedral, St. Alban’s church in Odense and Venge Abbey) and German (Dalby and Ribe ) influences are to be seen in the of Danish stone churches. , completed towards the end of the 12th century, has elongated , a , a splendid and a presbytery (ending in a tall decorated with blind arcades on the out- side) and a pair of towers on the western side. It became the model for many Scandinavian tem- ples. is its scaled-down replica. The first Danish churches started appear- ing in the second half of the 12th century. The brick arrived through contacts with and remained the basic building material of the whole Baltic region for a very long time. The churches in Ringsted and Sørø were Scandinavia’s first brick buildings; however, the most important brick structure of the period was , inspired to a large extent by . Before the end of the 12th century, many small parish churches Figure 62. A so-called Eskilstuna coffin, made in the late were built in Denmark. These were construct- 11th century and at the beginning of the 12th century. ed of various materials and were mainly built The runic inscription around the four edges translates as: on rectangular ground--plans, and modeled Kristin had to make this memorial for her son. Every man on English and German solutions. The round who can interpret shall pray for the soul of Alle. Sune was Alles’ father church form was also known, as can be seen, for example, in churches. These temples were modelled, in turn, on the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, even though the special church type evolved in Norway in the direct sources may have been Central European. 12th century, known as the stavkirke (stave- English architecture also provided inspiration church). The structure of a stave-church is char- for Norwegian churches, e.g. cathe- acterised by wooden posts which were initially dral, St. Mary’s church in Bergen or St. Olav’s driven directly into the ground, and later into church in . The English models underpinning brickwork, and by steep shingle were brought in by Cistercian monks from roofs. Classical Viking motifs of pagan origin Fountains, Yorkshire who set up Lyse Abbey also show up in these churches, for example the intricate plait- work of twigs and monsters in the famous portal dating to ca. 1060 and later transferred to the 12th- century stave-church at Urnes, or the sculpted dragon heads at the gable tops of the 12th century stave--church at Borgund. About one thousand such churches were erected in Scandinavia, with only about 30 surviving to our times in Norway. Romanesque stone archi- tecture was brought into the area by Western European builders. The first stone church was erected in Roskilde in ca. 1027. Strong Figure 63. The city of Lund with the cathedral in the very center

Culture In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region 209 near Bergen in the mid-12th century. The ing her. The golden is equipped form of the first Swedish cathedrals was then with a retable depicting Christ and the twelve partially obscured by subsequent changes. The apostles, capped with an open-work arcade. The partially-preserved Cistercian abbey at Roma, altar from the church at Sahl, Denmark, dating Gotland, was among the most impressive pre- to ca. 1200, is quite similar in its form. The two 1200 buildings. A number of parish churches arched retables have no equivalents in European exhibit English influences here, too. As opposed art, and as such can be regarded as specifically to wooden churches, Scandinavian stone tem- Scandinavian formulas. Two sculpture materi- ples did not encompass any new architectural als that were characteristic for the region (and solutions. However, they are interesting for for the North Sea coast) were amber and wal- their impressive numbers, and their diversity. rus tusks, chiefly used in small forms. Mural Additionally, they have been mostly preserved showed monumental Passion scenes, in their original forms – at least when compared the Last Judgment, depictions of Mary and the with other regions. saints. One surprising phenomenon was the Figural had a very important role to strong Byzantine and Byzantine-Italian influ- play. Bas-reliefs were used to adorn architectural ence visible in some Swedish and Danish mural elements, tombstones, baptismal fonts, and altar paintings. This concerns both the style and the frontals. Mural paintings and fully plastic sculp- iconography. Examples of book painting are tures were placed in church interiors. Gotland on the other hand scarce. It is noteworthy that became a leading manufacturer of stone sculp- some motifs appeared in the iconography of the ture, with mass production of sculpted stone Viking era that later became typical for the art baptismal fonts that can still be seen in many of the region. One inherent, natural element of Baltic coast churches. Scandinavian sculptors the Baltic coast landscape has always been ships. working in wood achieved exceptional virtuos- Depictions of ships can be found, among other ity, producing ornamental-figural relief deco- places, on the Gotland picture stones from Ardre rations of churches and everyday items, both and Tjängvide, both dating to the 8th-9th cen- liturgical and secular, that were exceptional on turies (Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm), a European scale. As wars spared Scandinavia, and on the fabric from Tune, Norway. and the proved quite tolerant Up to ca. 1200, the artistic development of towards mediaeval sculpture, exceptionally large the Baltic region was quite uneven. Scandinavia numbers of such objects have survived in the was the leader (not all of it, however: north- region. The earliest of them, dating to the first ern Sweden and Norway, along with Finland, half of the 12th century, depict the Crucifixion remained peripheral areas), while the eastern of Christ, crucifixion groups, Mary with the Baltic coast was only in the early stages of its Child, and the saints. Some were inspired by artistic development. The southern area was French, German and English motifs, and some the best developed one, with the Romanesque were imports. A whole range of representations, St. Michael’s church at Hildesheim occupy- including Christ Crucified and altar frontal ing a prominent place. The above-mentioned depictions, were executed in a manner very Danish church at Dalby was modeled on it. frequent in Scandinavia: a wooden core was During the second half of the 12th century, covered with a gilded copper plate in which some important temples were started, includ- the details were modeled. The Scandinavian ing the cathedrals in Lübeck, , sculpted altar frontals covered with gilded cop- and Kamien Pomorski, the church per plates are among the most numerous monu- at Jerichow (considered to be the first brick ments of this type that have been preserved in church), and the Cistercian abbeys at Kołbacz, the Christian world. They adorned the frontal Oliwa and Lehnin. The Cistercian order, which parts of in many Scandinavian churches, grew rapidly and built new branches of the including parish churches. The most impressive already established abbeys (that was, for exam- one, dating to the 1150s, comes from the church ple, how the Polish Kołbacz abbey was built as in Lisbjerg near Århus, Denmark (Danmarks an offshoot of the Danish Esrom monastery), Nationalmuseum, ). Its icono- played an important role in the dissemination graphic program is dedicated to Mary, who is of related forms of the modest and austere depicted in the centre, with scenes from her life, architecture in the Baltic region. representations of virtues and saints surround-

Culture 210 In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region 2. Art in the period of the flourishing of model for many Baltic coastal cities. Replicas, the repeating the model to varying extents, were built in Malmö, Uppsala, Schleswig, , The rise, flourishing and fall of the Gothic Lüneburg, Doberan, , , style between the early 13th century and the Parchim, Stralsund and the distant Riga, Reval first quarter of the 16th century laid out a new (today’s ) and Dorpat (present-day Tartu). epoch in the history of the region. The period The most important element of the temples was was intertwined with the history of the Hansa, the adaptation and transposition of the basilica the growth of Baltic coastal cities and commerce, scheme of French Gothic cathedrals, with a pres- and with the economic, political and cultural bytery surrounded by an ambulatory and a circle expansion of the burghers. The activity of the of chapels, a system of buttress and flying but- Hansa was undoubtedly the most important fac- tresses, and two towers on the western side. The tor that cemented the Baltic region between the type of a choirless hall temple with decorative 13th and 16th centuries – possibly the strongest gables – with St. Mary’s church in as a such factor in history. The Hansa also played leading exponent – was inspired by Westphalian a role in the formation of the region’s artistic and Cistercian architecture, and became popu- landscape, as works of art also traveled along the lar in and in the 14th commercial routes laid out by the merchants. century. The Dominican and Franciscan orders A specific lifestyle, mentality and aesthetic taste propagated a different temple type, with an developed among Hanseatic burghers. However, elongated presbytery and a main body with two not all the phenomena of the of the or three aisles. One striking feature of the sacral Baltic region were wholly related to the Hansa; architecture of the Baltic coast is the diversity of for instance, the art of the in the spatial and construction systems used: next and was an exception. The artis- to the hall churches that are so characteristic for tic development of the Baltic region followed, the area, there are also basilicas and pseudo-basili- for the most part, a path of its own which was, cas. As far as the scale is concerned, Gdańsk’s St. at the same time, detached from political or Mary’s Church, completed in 1502, is among economic developments. The production of the the largest and most impressive. At times, apart works of art, as well as their importation and from the sacral function, the churches also per- exportation, took place in spite of the conflicts, formed extemporaneous social, commercial or wars or economic embargoes. military functions. There are some so-called Art mainly developed in the cities, which merchant churches in the region which, in addi- also gave support to the Hansa. Lübeck, founded tion to liturgical space, had rooms intended for in 1159, played a leading role. It was the most warehouses, counting--houses or exchanges. St. important city of the Hanseatic League, and Michael’s church in Stralsund had such a com- also – from the beginning of the 16th century plex function: it was a parish church but also onwards – one of the most dynamic creative a town hall and a covered market. St. Mary’s centers on the Baltic coast. The centers took part church in , Gotland, was also a warehouse in the exchange of artistic experience. Within all and archive where the merchants kept their doc- branches of art, a number of phenomena devel- uments. The military character of the state of oped that were specific for the region. the Teutonic Order in Prussia was reflected e.g. in the cathedrals in Königsberg, and Churches. A characteristic building material , which were parts of the fortification appeared in architecture, and specific types of systems both architecturally and functionally. temples and secular buildings developed, along with some extremely individualist solutions. Secular architecture. Within secular architec- This basic building material was brick, but there ture, a characteristic town hall type appeared, were also local “deviations” from this rule: for with a magnificent frontal facade. Excellent example, limestone was used in Gotland, while examples of this are the town halls of Lübeck, most Finnish structures employed granite, with Rostock and Stralsund. Another town hall type, only used for details (here, brick only with a tall tower, inspired by Flemish models, became more popular in the 15th century). is to be found in Gdańsk, Torun and Reval. Lübeck’s St. Mary’s church, erected at the turn Artus and Blackhead houses formed a func- of the 13th and 14th centuries, became the tionally exceptional type. Their names derive

Culture In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region 211 form the legendary King Arthur and the dark skinned St. Maurice. Such buildings were built exclusively in Pomerania and Livonia, although they seem to have Western European origins. Artus Courts were built in Torun, Elblàg, Gdańsk, Braniewo, Königsberg and Stralsund, while Blackhead Houses were erected in Reval, Riga and Dorpat; the oldest date to the early 13th century. They were situated close to the key municipal edifices – the parish churches and town halls. They had gable facades, and were erected on rectangular ground-plans, with pre- sentable, arched halls with columns and auxiliary rooms. Meetings and games were held in them, and theatrical plays staged; the tradition of chiv- alry was also cherished. The societies that used them were elitist organisations. Burgher houses usually had narrow facades with decorative gables facing the streets, and the interiors divided into an entrance-hall, living-room floor and ware- house space. A recurrent motif of the landscape of Hanseatic cities was the granaries, preserved e.g. in Gdańsk and Lübeck, and the hoisting cranes which are still to be seen in the ports of Gdańsk and Lüneburg. Defence structures devel- Figure 64. Gdańsk, the interior of the Artus court. Photo: oped rapidly. Walls with towers guarded access to Alfred F. Majewicz the cities (preserved in large parts in Visby and Reval), as did fortified gates (e.g. the monumen- tal Holstentor in Lübeck). , erected by the is among masterpieces of mediaeval architec- kings, princes, knights, and monks, had ture. References to the Malbork may be very diverse forms. The architecture of some of seen in the mid-14th century King’s Hall and them was adapted to the surface relief, others had castle chapel in Turku, Finland. As one tries to regular, rectangular shapes. The Teutonic Order understand the artistic connections between the castles in Prussia constituted an exceptional phe- various parts of the Baltic region, one has to note nomenon regarding their proliferation, number, that star-vaultings also appeared in 15th-century homogenous character and artistic value. They Finnish churches, possibly under the influence performed a complex military, administrative, of Prussian architecture. In turn, the above-men- economic and religious function. They were tioned Turku castle and cathedral were started built on approximately square ground-plans, by Swedish builders but completed by Reval with four wings, a cloister yard, and towers ris- masters. Among those Baltic basin architects ing from the corners, one of which was always whose names we do know, one outstanding fig- given a monumental form. The most important ure was that of Henrik Brunsberg of , rooms – the chapel, refectory and chapter-house active between the end of the 14th century and – were on the first floor. The castles were sur- the 1430s in Pomerania and Brandenburg. He rounded by moats and had extensive commercial created some exceptionally presentable, har- approaches. The leading edifices of this classical monious and elaborately decorated churches in style were erected between the late 13th century Brandenburg, Prenzlau, Szczecin and , as and the 1330s, including the castles in Gniew, well as the Tangermünde town hall. Golub, Radzyn Chełminski and Malbork (the High Castle). The subsequent expansion gave Painting and sculpture. Within painting and the latter castle a number of individual features sculpture, Scandinavia was still the leader at the which made it one of Europe’s most magnificent beginning of the 13th century, being an interme- defence and residential complexes. The Grand diary in the dissemination of French and English Master’s palace, added in the late 14th century, influence. Soon, north German centers took

Culture 212 In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region over. In the early 14th century, the first winged European sculpture of those times. They had retables appeared in northern Germany, in the widespread artistic consequences visible in the in Cismar (1301) and Doberan whole of the region, sometimes even in the (1310). Those were triptychs shaped like flat 1450s. One of the most impressive chapters in cases, divided into parts by rows of arcades, in the history of the late-Gothic art of the Baltic which figures of saints and relics were placed. region was the work of the versatile painter and They were an important development stage in sculptor Bernt Notke of Lübeck (ca. 1440-- the history of Gothic retables. The compositional 1509), who made quite a career not only as scheme they used, with the rows of figures, sur- an artist but also as a businessman and civil vived in numerous Baltic coast retables until the servant. His works proliferated to all parts of late Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Lübeck- the Baltic region, and even reached produced bronze baptismal fonts, chandeliers am Main. They were characterised by a rich- and liturgical vessels made their way into many ness of form and lively stage-setting, and made Baltic coast churches. They were among the ear- their way to churches in Lübeck, Uppsala (lost), liest examples of the standardisation and indus- Århus, Reval and Stockholm. Stockholm’s St. trialisation of artwork manufacturing. At the Michael’s church houses his famous sculpture of other extreme were some exceptionally original St. George fighting the dragon, commissioned works of prominent artists who enjoyed wide- by the Swedish leader Sten Sture to commemo- spread fame. Their works set the aesthetic and rate his 1471 victory over the . The works quality standard, providing the inspiration and of other late-Gothic north German artists also model to be copied in many variations, more or had a widespread influence, from Scandinavia less faithful. There were a number of outstanding to Reval, including Herman Rode, Benedikt individuals among the Baltic region artists who Dreyer, Claus Berg, Hans Brüggemann, and laid out the directions of artistic development. Henning van der Heide. Master Bertram of , active towards the end of the 14th century, was one prominent Outside influence. The Baltic region also painter. He used light-and-shade modeling and absorbed art from outside. This was a result of some elements of perspective, showing moving transfers of style, artwork importation, and the figures, introducing some landscape compo- importing of foreign artists. Some circles enjoyed nents and enriching the Gothic convention with special recognition. Between the late 14th cen- realist elements. Konrad von Soest, working in tury and the early 15th century, the painting Dortmund at the end of the 14th century, was a and sculpture of the Baltic region were strongly very influential figure. He created paintings that influenced by . More or less at the same were characterised by an elaborate elegance of time, English sculpture was imported in form, slender figures and light colouring. Master large amounts. Until the end of the Middle Ages, Franke, who worked in Hamburg in the first Rhine and Westphalian elements were important half of the 15th century was a highly renowned components of Baltic region art. However, the artist. His works, charming with their fairy-tale remained the strongest influence. poetics, were commissioned, among others, Artistic ideas were imported from there, as were for the Turku cathedral (St. Barbara retable, artists, such as the sculptor Jan Matten, work- before 1412, today at the National Museum, ing at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries Helsinki) and by the Blackhead Fraternity for St. in Prussia. Works of art were also brought in, Catherine’s church in Reval (a lost retable, before chiefly painted or painted and sculpted retables, 1436). Sculpture achieved a very high level at including such masterpieces as the ones executed the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, thanks by Hans Memling in 1491 for Lübeck cathedral to the works of such outstanding masters as the (St. Annen-Museum, Lübeck). Moreover, artists Master of the Madonna of the Darssow family from the Baltic region went on study trips to the of St. Mary’s church in Lübeck (destroyed) and Netherlands, e.g. Michel Sittow of Reval, who Johannes Junge, the author of, among other learned his trade in Memling’s workshop itself. things, the Madonna of Niendorf (St. Annen- Some influences of south appeared Museum, Lübeck), and the Master of the Torun in the painting and sculpture of the region at Madonna of St. Johns’ church in Torun (lost). the beginning of the 16th century. Among Their works, full of elaborate grace, harmony others, the styles of , the so-called and lyricism, are among the finest examples of and Lucas Cranach were copied.

Culture In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region 213 Albrecht Dürer’s engravings were in widespread Baltic coastal cities stated clearly which kinds of use, while the painter Michael of Augsburg wood might be used for . worked in Gdańsk, receiving his commissions from Finland, among other places. Regional unity. At the end of the Middle Ages, the development of art encompassed more or Iconography. The iconography of Baltic region less the whole of the Baltic region. A number of art often included those saints whose lives and great artistic centers had evolved, such as Lübeck, legends were somehow associated with the area, Stockholm, Reval and Gdańsk, but there were such as St. Olav, or those who were the patrons of also some smaller centers. In comparison to other important professional, social or religious groups: Central European artistic centers, those in the St. Nicolaus (the patron saint of merchants and Baltic region were more sparsely distributed. The sailors), St. James the Elder (the patron saint of craftsmen of the time were extremely mobile, pilgrims and travellers), St. Leonard (the patron much more so than in the subsequent period, saint of imprisoned merchants), St. George (the which aided the dissemination of artistic innova- patron saint of knights and nobility), and St. tions, and helped the unification of the region to Gertrude of Nivelles (the patron saint of travel- a considerable extent. Another integrating fac- lers). Secular themes infiltrated into art, leading tor was the above-mentioned importation and to depictions of urban life and town-dwellers: the exportation of works of art. What its scale was functioning of the justice system, the loading of may be testified by the fact that about 600 altar a ship, marine transportation, commercial trans- retables were exported from Lübeck to Reval in actions, e.g. on the stalls at St. Nicolaus’ church, the 15th century, and some of them traveled even Stralsund, founded by a merchant corporation further north, to Finland, which also imported dealing with ’s Novgorod, or the portraits large numbers of artworks from Prussia. Many of the Gdańsk patrician Georg Giese, painted by retables from the Netherlands were brought in, Hans Holbein the Younger in 1532 (Staatliche too. Several dozen of them have been preserved Museen, ). Knight motifs were character- in the Baltic region, mostly in Sweden (36). istic for the art of the Teutonic Knights.

Founders and craftsmen. Burghers were among 3. Art of the period of the Reformation important founders of works of art in the Baltic The modern times in the Baltic region were region. Individuals, trade societies or fraterni- ushered in by the Reformation, which was ties founded them for churches and chapels almost universally accepted in the region by with a view to ensuring redemption for them- the 1550s, and which marked a clear turning selves. But at the same time, those foundations point in art. The Reformation caused changes were also manifestations of some well-defined in the patronage system, as well as in the form, aesthetic tastes. Sometimes, the founder strong- function, iconography and content of works ly influenced the form, iconography and con- of art. These transformations coincided with tent of the work commissioned. the proliferation of forms, mainly In the Middle Ages, not only in this region, in the Netherlandish variety. The Reformation paintings, sculptures and especially altar retables meant that the role of the church as a patron of (combining a number of artistic genres) were art was greatly diminished. In Sweden, this role usually collective works, created by many crafts- was taken over by the royal Vasa court (1523- men. The notion of the artist in the modern sense 1654), who financed, among other things, was non-existent. Usually, the craftsmen had to the construction of the Gripsholm, Vadstena, be members of some professional organisation Uppsala and Svartsjö castles. Later, the nobility – a guild. In contrast to other German-speaking also entered this field. A similar situation existed regions, where it was known as the “Zunft”, the in Denmark, where, among other things, the guild was called the “Amt” or “Werk” in this area. royal castles of Kronborg and Frederiksborg A guild would often consist of craftsmen of sever- were built. In Mecklenburg, Prince Ulrich III al specialisations, e.g. wood-carvers, painters and financed the conversion of his Güstrow castle. In goldsmiths. Guild statutes regulated the ways the Gdańsk, the nobility financed a number of proj- trade was taught and performed. Artistic produc- ects. The approach to some types of works of art tion was subject to strict materials and quality was changed. No more free-standing sculptures control; for example, guild regulations in some or side altar retables were commissioned for

Culture 214 In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region churches; instead, the demand for tombstones its place at in 1817-1818), and epitaphs rose. Within secular art, many the tombstone of the Ture Bielke family at the residences, private houses and public buildings Linköping cathedral (ca. 1615), the epitaph of appeared, and these were furnished with paint- Christoph von Dohn at St. Canute’s church in ings, sculptures and appropriate equipment of Odense (1596), and of Stanisław Radziwiłł at all sorts. Motifs associated with the Virgin Mary the Bernardine church in (1618-1623). disappeared almost totally from sacral iconogra- There were also other Netherlandish architects, phy, while secular art developed allegorical and painters and sculptors in the then exceptionally historical themes, as well as portraits. prosperous Gdańsk. The most prominent of these were the architect, painter and art theo- Netherlandism. In comparison to the Middle rist Hans Vredeman de Vries (responsible for Ages, there were fewer elements in the region’s the 1592 conversion of the Artus Court, the art of that period that could be considered to paintings therein and the paintings at the town be integrative. The most important feature was hall) and the architect Antoon van Opbergen, the “Netherlandism”. The Netherlands were, the designer of, among other things, the Great at that time, one of Europe’s leading artistic Arsenal, a masterpiece of northern architecture centers; Netherlandish artists achieved a high of 1605-1605. Other Baltic cities also employed artistic level, and created formal and stylistic Netherlandish artists: the architect and sculptor models that were characterised by a predilec- Willem Boy worked in Sweden under the pro- tion for elaboration and abstract- tectorate of the Vasas, at Svartsjö castle (1570- ornamentation. One renowned artist was the 1590) and Uppsala cathedral (the impressive Antwerp sculptor and graphic pattern-book tombstone of Gustav I and his two wives, author Cornelis Floris. It was to him that several 1560-1570), among other places; the sculptor patrons from the Baltic region turned to, ask- Antonius Timmerman (d. 1592) was involved ing to design an epitaph for the Danish Princess in the conversion of Turku castle; the architect Dorothea (1552), a tomb for her husband Prince and construction expert Hans van Steenwinckel Albrecht I (1574) in Königsberg cathedral, a worked in Denmark under Frederick II (who tomb for Frederik I of Denmark in Schleswig ruled 1559-1588); and Arent Passer executed cathedral (after 1553), and a tomb for the king the architectural design and sculpture decora- of Denmark Christian III in Roskilde cathedral tion of the Blackhead House in Reval (1597). (1569-1576). Netherlandish artists were ubiqui- tous on the Baltic coast in the 16th and (partial- Italian influence. Italian forms were a little less ly) 17th centuries. Willem van den Blocke, who popular than Netherlandish ones. Northern settled in Gdańsk in 1584 and became one of Italian Renaissance reached a number of the region’s most prominent sculptors, learned Baltic coast centers thanks to some members his trade in Floris’ Antwerp workshop, and later of the Parr (Pahr, Parrio) family that originat- collaborated with his master in Königsberg. He ed from the shores of Lake Como in north- was a virtuoso of the chisel, creating psychologi- ern Lombardy. After spending some time in cally convincing portraits and elaborate compo- , they worked at the Güstrow castle in sitions; he was responsible for the dissemination Mecklenburg as architects and sculptors (1558- across the whole of the Baltic region of a type of 1565), as well as at Schwerin castle (1560- tombstone with kneeling figures. In Königsberg, 1563) and in Swedish palaces and castles in he left behind a tombstone of Queen Elisabeth, , Borgholm, Uppsala, Nyköping and the wife of Prince George Frederic of Prussia Eskilstuna (after 1572). (1578-1582), and also executed a number of Lithuania was a somewhat different area. works in Gdańsk, including the exquisite epi- The Reformation did not prove very popular taphs of Johann Brandes, his wife Dorothea here, and other artistic sources were exploited. (1586) and Eduard Blemke (1591) at St. Mary’s Florentine Renaissance dominated in this area, church, and the tombstone of the Kos fam- mainly thanks to the activities of the architects ily (ca. 1620) at the Post--Cistercian church in and sculptors Bernardo de Gianotis, Giovanni Gdańsk Oliwa. He also executed external com- Cini, Filippo da Fiesole and Giovanni Mario missions, including the tombstone of John III Mosca Padovano, who worked at the Grand Vasa (1594-1596) ordered by Sigismund III Duke’s palace in Vilnius, having spent some Vasa and the Swedish Senate (and only put in time in southern Poland.

Culture In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region 215 component of the region’s art. Netherlandish art- ists were still invited to the Baltic area: the Dutch painters Pieter Isaacsz, Karel van Mader III and Abraham Wuchters worked at the 17th-century Danish royal court of Christian IV, and the sculp- tors Adrian de Vries and Geraert Lambertz were at the castle in Frederiksborg. The Flemish art- ist Thomas Quellinus was active in Copenhagen (creating, among others, the tombstones in Vor Frue). The Dutch sculptor Nicolas Soeffrens (d. 1694) was active in Latvia, while a consider- able number of Netherlandish artists remained in 17th-century Gdańsk. Many artists went on study trips to the Netherlands, where they saw the works of the most prominent European artists, whose styles they imitated or creatively expand- ed. The painter David Beck and the Frenchman Sebastien Bourdon (remaining under the influ- ence of Van Dyck) worked in 17th-century Sweden. The most prominent Swedish painter of the time, David Klöcker Ehrenstrahl, was partially trained in the Netherlands. Among the Gdańsk painters who studied in the Netherlands, three were the most prominent: Andreas Stech, Figure 65. Neptune statue outside the Artus court in Bartholomäus Strobel and Daniel Schultz the Gdańsk. Photo: Katarzyna Skalska Younger, an artist of European format (his style evolved in contact with the works of the circle Other links. Artists whose work created links of Rembrandt, Bartholomäus van der Helst and between the various centers also included the Ferdinand Bol). German painter Jacob Binck, who worked at the royal court of Christian III in Copenhagen, . increased in impor- and then for Prince Albrecht I in Königsberg. tance: the French architect Jean de la Vallée Binck was instrumental in propagating the (1620-1696) worked in Sweden and fabrics and works of Floris in the Baltic area, mentioning paintings by, among others, Francois Boucher him to the patrons and acting as a mediator in and Nicolas Lancret were purchased in the commissions. for the newly-built Christiansborg palace in However, the art of the period used more Denmark after 1740. The French painter J. F. J. than just the new trends. How profound Saly worked in Denmark after 1753. Many art- the influence of the brick Gothic was may ists of the Baltic region, especially Scandinavians, be attested by the numerous brick churches trained in France or were influenced by French which were still erected in the 17th century, art. France offered art that partially satisfied both in Sweden and Poland. Mediaeval forms the local demand for styles full of elegance but also found a continuation in the structures of devoid of exaggeratedly dynamic forms, or orna- Finnish wooden churches. ments obscuring the structure. The trend towards simplicity and accentua- 4. Looseness of artistic relationships in the tion of the tectonics of forms became a distin- period after 1600 guishing feature of Baltic region art after the 17th century, covering all the subsequent styles After the 17th century, there were fewer integrat- with a cloak of a neoclassicism of a sort. ing features in the art of the Baltic region. The The neoclassical coolness and simplicity individualism of tastes was pronounced more dominate in various 17th and 18th-century archi- strongly, both on the part of the patrons and cre- tectural projects on the Baltic coast: Stockholm’s ators. Netherlandism ceased to be a distinguishing knight school, completed by Jean da la Vallée in feature, even though it remained an important 1641; started in 1660 and built

Culture 216 In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region by Nicodemus Tessin the Elder; one of North Stephan Sinding – the only 19th century Europe’s largest buildings – the Royal Castle in Norwegian sculptor of European repute, and Stockholm whose construction was supervised the Dane Johannes Wiedeweld who lived by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger after 1727, in between 1754 and 1758, where he and completed by Carl Harleman in 1742; the befriended the main theorist of , J. projects of the German architect Samuel Berner J. Winckelmann. The main figure of interna- who worked in Turku and erected, among other tional neoclassicism in sculpture was the Dane things, the Court of Appeal building in Vaasa Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770-1844), who worked (1780-1787); and the Turku Academy, designed in Rome for more than 40 years and returned by Carl Christopher Gjörwell (1766-1837), and to Denmark in 1838, using antique models in completed by Carlo Bassi. Neo-classicism also search of an ideal harmony of forms. permeated almost all of the architecture of the remaining part of the Baltic region. Orthodox art. Next to the restrained forms The projects of Bartolomeo Francesco of neoclassicism, a new common element Rastrelli (1700-1770), who worked in appeared in the architecture of the eastern coast St‑Petersburg and Livonia, were more deco- of the Baltic in the 18th century. During this rative and -like: the Winter Palace of period, many orthodox churches came to be tsaritsa Elisabeth I, and the Rundale (Ruental) erected in the vast area of the western provinces residence of the Livonian vice-regents Ernest- of the Russian Empire, from the Grand Duchy Johann Biron and his son Peter. of Finland to the Baltic Provinces, to histori- Again, Lithuania was in a different posi- cal Lithuanian lands, the Kingdom of Poland tion, where the style marked the and the . They were not only used for churches and palaces of Vilnius, Kaunas and religious purposes, but also served as demon- Niesviezys with a lushness of forms and decora- strations of the political and military power of tions, alluding to Italian models. the Russian Empire. They were erected at the Forms that emanated simplicity and calm- turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in styles ness were also present in the works of a num- reminiscent of the Russo-Byzantine, Russian, ber of painters working in the Baltic area at Baroque, Neo-Romanesque, Neo-Gothic and that time, and especially in those of the sculp- Neo-Russian styles. Sometimes, temples of tors, who had a number of outstanding figures other denominations were given the form of among them: the internationally renowned orthodox churches. For example, in the case of Swede Johann Tobias Sergel (1740-1819), the Lutheran St. Nicolaus cathedral in Helsinki (1830-1852), this was supposed to symbolise religious tolerance in Russia on the one hand, but also to remind one – through the huge dimensions of the building – of the power of the Russian Empire on the other.

Neo-Gothic. Exceptional were the classicising or Gothic-like buildings of the most promi- nent 19th-century German architect Carl Friedrich Schinkel and his workshop. They started appearing on the southern coast of the Baltic, from Hamburg to Vettin, Gransee, Annenwalde, Szczecin, Kołobrzeg, Torun, Braniewo and Lidzbark in the first half of the 19th century. The works of this architect, and his activities as an art restorer, gave rise to the interest in the mediaeval period in Pomerania. As a result, the second half of the 19th cen- tury was a Neo-Gothic period here, both in religious and secular (private and municipal) Figure 66. St. Nikolaus cathedral in Helsinki. architecture, e.g. in Szczecin, Gdańsk and Ill.: Małgorzata Sheiki–Binkowska Torun. The Neo-Gothic wave also submerged

Culture In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region 217 other Baltic areas - references to mediaeval architecture were present in the 19th-cen- tury churches of Sweden, Denmark, Estonia, northern Germany and Norway (the so-called “” style, borrowing from the decora- tions of stave-churches, became fashionable in the latter country).

Painting. In the 19th century, a number of com- mon threads appeared in painting in the Baltic area in Germany and Scandinavia. Between 1790 and 1840, the contacts between various expo- nents of became much stronger. One thing that made this possible was the fact that artists from various countries might study at the same academies, e.g. the German paint- ers Caspar David Friedrich, Philip Otto Runge, Georg Friedrich Kersting and the Norwegian Johan Christian Dahl all studied at the Danish Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen. In turn, the Danish got to know German painters at the Academies in Dresden and , and in Rome, where they formed a circle focused around Bertel Thorvaldsen. There were some themes that Figure 67. A Norwegian stave-church. Ill.: Małgorzata united the artists who worked on the southern Sheiki-Binkowska and northern shores of the western tip of the Baltic, such as an interest in light, concealing some defined philosophical, religious and artistic the Norwegian , and the Danes issues. Apart from the above-mentioned, these and Peder Severin Krøyer who artists included – to name just the most promi- mainly focussed on depictions of the typical nent ones – the Germans Carl Gustav Carus local landscape and the life of the local people. and Jacob Gensler, and the Danes Christoffer Typical for Swedish and Danish painters was Wilhelm Eckersberg and Christen Købke. The also the emphasis they placed on the traditional themes were unveiled through similar topics, such simple Scandinavian lifestyle, and the distance as a seaside landscape, dusk, a nocturne, clouds they had towards western industrialisation and in the sky, a window. Views of specific places urbanisation. This thread is also present in the on the Baltic coast also appear in the composi- works of some artists originating in other artistic tions: the shores of Rügen, views of Greifswald, trends, e.g. in those by the prominent exponent Copenhagen, and old churches and castles, which of , the Dane Vilhelm Hammershøi, were characteristic for the interest of that period whose compositions depict extremely modest, in the local environment and its history. empty living rooms, filled with an atmosphere Up to the 1860s, the then famous Kunst- of nostalgia and loneliness. Similar references to akademie in Düsseldorf was popular among the traditional values, associated with the fight for painters of the Baltic region. Scandinavian and the preservation of national identity, are pres- Estonian artists studied there. Later, the art- ent in Norwegian and Finnish painting, e.g. ists of the region went to more and more by and Akseli Gallen-Kallela, often, where they got acquainted with the new who used themes from Nordic myths and sagas, trends – and . and forms originating in folk art.

Scandinavian realism, even though it was Symbolism had a very special form in Scandinavia, French–inspired, had a special, local variation. often taking up topics associated with erotic life, This was visible, for example, in the works fears, alienation, and the dark, untamed side of the painters associated with the rise in the of human nature. The most prominent expo- 1880s of the artistic colony in : nent of this trend was the Norwegian Edvard

Culture 218 In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region Munch, who created some exceptionally expres- 5. The Baltic Sea area as an artistic region sive works. The topics were also touched upon The links that integrate the Baltic region and by another Norwegian, , the Swede define its distinct character have developed in Richard Bergh, the Finn Hugo Simberg, and the various ways over time. In the early Middle above-mentioned Hammershøi and Krøyer. In Ages, they developed as a result of the marked sculpture, the most outstanding Scandinavian domination of one centre, which radiated out symbolist was the Norwegian Gustav Vigeland, into the less developed areas via various chan- who executed some complex, dynamic composi- nels, mainly through the exportation of works tions, such as the Wheel of Life (1934, Vigeland of art and artists. In the Hanseatic period, the Park, Oslo). The Lithuanian painter and com- links became much stronger and more com- poser Nicolaus Konstantin Cˇiurlionis, working plex, leading to the strongest consolidation at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, was of the Baltic region in the whole of its his- also associated with symbolism. In his pictures, tory, in spite of the local differences. That was e.g. in the Sun Sonata cycle (1907-1909, Kaunas when a number of strong centers developed, Museum), he tried to create plastic equivalents remaining in bilateral contact, with people of musical compositions. of similar mentalities, financial abilities and aesthetic needs who worked in those centers. References to the regional tradition in 20th cen- Some outstanding artists appeared, sometimes tury art. Various subsequent avant-garde 20th- active at a number of different locations that century art movements had their exponents in may have been quite distant from one another. the Baltic region. Some of them, like the excel- Sometimes, they would produce for export, lent Finnish architects Eliel Saarinen and Alvar and inseminate the minds of less talented art- Aalto, came to be internationally renowned. It ists with the strength of their art. Some artistic is difficult to find threads that would be charac- problems were solved in ways that proved so teristic for the whole region in the highly indi- exceptionally attractive that they were copied. vidualist creations of the modern artists. One Mass production of some kinds of artefacts manifestation of regional identity might be the developed. All these circumstances meant that various references to the area’s artistic history. a strong, multi-layered artistic community Some of them, such as the Stockholm town evolved, stretching out over an area that over- hall, alluding to mediaeval brick architecture, lapped with the Baltic coast. In the subsequent and completed by Ragnar Östberg in 1925; the periods, the links grew weaker. Copenhagen town hall built by Martin Nyrop In the 16th century, the Baltic region was between 1892 and 1905; the West Prussian united again by the fashion to follow the style Bank in Gdańsk, designed by Kurt Hempel of one foreign centre. Later, the predilection in 1904-1905; the buildings of the Central for some distinct stylistics, ways of expression Station in Gdańsk (1904) and the Gdańsk or topics proved to be the binding medium, Polytechnic building (1900-1904) that allude as did the interest in similar artistic problems. to northern , may be seen as contin- In addition to all these factors, there was one uations of 19th-century . However, more: the references that appeared in the local some quite modern buildings, post-modern- art of the various periods, directed towards the ist structures, using pastiche and free stylisa- most characteristic and splendid elements of tion, such as the 1987 Municipal Library in the region’s artistic history. Various references Uppsala, seem to look back towards the histori- to the Gothic brick architecture, encountered cal forms of the brick architecture of the Baltic along almost the whole coast, the Norwegian region. 20th-century sculpture also alludes to dragestil, or the travesties of Netherlandish the region’s history. The German expression- mannerist projects in early-20th-century ist Ernst Barlach (1870-1938), for example, Gdańsk architecture all meant that some his- referred to the extraordinary achievements of toric artistic links within the region were ampli- the late Gothic, especially to the works by C. fied ex post, finding reflections in the mirror of Berg. The 1970s works of the Danish artists P. the art of the following periods. Kirkeby and R. Winther seem to be inspired to some extent by the neo--classicism that was once so widespread in the region.

Culture In search of the artistic identity of the Baltic Sea region 219 LITERATURE AND REFERENCES

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