The Past and Future 01 Music Listening 63
college сатрщ in East Orange, and since 1998 in ]ersey City, has allowed the station со reach а large and culturally privileged urban radio audience of the 4 greater New York City area.5 WFMU comes ир often as а superior alternative со aIgorithmic mщiс ser ТНЕ PAST AND FUTURE OF MUSIC vices Ьесаще тапу believe that this station provides the most unpredict The pre-history of various online пшsiс dissemination practices proposed and Chess, specialty music markets like hillbilly, ЬеЬор , and jump blues, and а here depends оп the notion of "serendipity," а word that often comes up when new specialty artists' performance rights group, Broadcast Music 1ncorporated recommendation system programmers describe their goals, and when music (ВМ1).1 5 The key cultural institut~on of the period-the disc jockey-both fans describe their preferred listening experience. According [о the Oxford demonstrated the existence of new local audiences for radio music and served EngLish Dietionary, "serendipity" means "making unexpected discoveries Ьу as ап instrument of these audiences' formation. chance." English поЫетап and writer Horace Walpole introduced the word Taking advantage of the emergent specialized ethnic markets, disc jockeys in а private letter in 1754, referring [о ап old tale about the three princes of spearheaded the production of new music genres al1d radio formats in соllаЪо Serendip, "who were always making discoveries Ьу accidents and sagacity, of ration with local audiences. АI ]arvis began what is considered the 6rst disc things they were not in quest Of."1O Historians, sociologists, and philosophers jockey show in 1933, but D]s did пot Ьесоте а national phenomenon until the of science took up this notion [о explain unexpected discoveries in science." 1940s. Already in 1944, а survey found that teenagers knew small independent "Serendipity does exist," philosopher ofscience Pek Van Andel maintains, and "hot jazz" labels only because of their exposure via disc jockey programs.16 is accessible only to humans: Propelled Ьу the ASCAP recording Ьап of 1942 and Ьу the reinstatement of transcription as а valid form of radio music, three thousand disc jockeyswere А computer program cannot foresee or operationalize the unforeseen 17 оп the air Ьу 1947, when the networks fmally lifted their Ьап оп record shows. and сап thus not improvise ("imprevu")="unforeseen"). It cannot Ье Disc jockeys' influence in the industry rested оп their personal connection surprised or astonished, and has по sense for humor, curiosity or odd to listeners. Disc jockeys had а unique opportunity to introduce а record оп the ity. Because we do not always realize аll the implications of our theses, air and test its local popularity оп the spot. 1п 1942, Capitol Records Ьесате when we put them into our computer, the results сап Ье surprising for us, the first studio со provide free releases for pron1Otiol1al purposes. Six years later, whether trivial or not. 12 every record сотрапу, including the majors, had а budget for О] records.l~ Others propose а more complicated relationship between the calcu Music producers believed that D]s could make ап individual record, and build lated and the unexpected. The kind of "sagacity" required for serendipitous а reputation for а record сотрапу . discoveries has Ьееп linked Ьу historian Carlo Ginsburg [о "conjectural" Yet for every О] who claimed [о make а hit record through constant airplay, knowledge, which draws upon intuitive, circumstantial interpretation of there were several who complained that their audiences did пос share their clues, symptoms, and signs. Governments and corporations have repeat sophisticated tastes. "Most of ту listeners tend toward hillbilly," а jockey from edly attempted [о quantify this everyday practical knowledge in service of Spencer, lowa confessed. 'Туе Ьееп trying [о educate them otherwise, but it's large-scale population management projects. Sir William Herschel invented а long, slow process." А Pittsfield, Massachusetts spinner appealed [о his col fingerprinting in 1860 when observing Bengali peasants in his administra leagues со push ЬеЬор and big band jazz: "1 think ifmore jocks wou1d get with tion marking documents with fingers dipped in tar.13 'П 1882 French police it there wouldn't Ье such ап overwhelming demand for corn."19 Not аll audi officer Alphonse Bertillion proposed anthropometry and thus, Ьу extension, ences could Ье constructed Ьу the music industry's publicity efforts. 1с was disc contemporary biometrics. Не likened his modern police methods [о ancient jockeys' ability со stumble upon emergent audiences that made their reports so hunters' tracking strategies.14 Throughout its history, the radio industry, [оо, valuable for the music industry. tried [о manage music audiences Ьу blending quantification and intuition in 1с is at this point that computers and disc jockeys combined the algor-itlШ1iс anticipating listener desires, aspiring [о the scientific authority, yet forced [о and informal aspects of the пшsiс business. 1п 1949, performance rights group draw upon informal human judgment. Disc jockeys have Ьееп at the center Broadcast Music Incorporated placed а full-page ad in Variety, а major trade of these contradictory efforts. entertainment weekly. 'П the ad, а сеат of doctors examines ап anthropo 1п the 1940s, radio Ьеgзп its transformation from а primarily national [о а morphic "log" in ап operating room. 1п such а clinical way, the ad suggested, local medium. Еуеп before regular commercial television network program ВМ' analyzed n10re than 32,400 daily station music logs оп IВM "electronic ming Ьеgзп in 1948, the U.S. radio and music industries confronted resurgent accounting and tabulating machines." ВМ1 promised radio station managers со institutions unaffiliated with the national networks. 'П radio, the number of diagl10se the "strength of the heart of your broadcasting ... according [о tlH: independent stations soared from 45 (5%) in 1945 [о 916 (44%) in 1950. 'П first scientific and automatic system ofchecking actual broadcast use of пшsi с ." the music industry, the "big three" пшsiс labels and the original performance The mixed organic and technical metaphors revealed а fundamental tel1siol1 iп rights organization, the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Pub 19405 mщi с а щ:liепсе researcll: the new powerful computcr tec~lI1ology, rro ~ li sllers (ASCAP) wcrc losing ground [О iшJерепdеl1t labcls lik<~ SaV\1Y, N:Нi\)щl, gl'3I11ш('\1 (1) iIIСП';lМ' rrofit5, tried to lеаПl from (jisc .iщ~ kеУ5' :11.1 'НХ (\C;:srll etiC 66 Elena Razlogova The Past and Future 01 Music Listening 67 choices, made со please or convert their IocaI Iisteners. Today, commerciaI organizers' idea of inceractive "randomising machines" extended со computers пшsiс recommendation services aspire со this "for-profit serendipity" as weII. and their users such art experiments as WiIIiam Burroughs's randomly reas Ву the Iate 1950s, disc jockeys Iost their relative аисопоту, their controI sembled сехс and sound cut-ups and much of John Cage's own works that over playlists decimated Ьу payola scandaIs and Ьу Тор 40, а scripted format incorporated chance sounds from devices such as radio setsY Уес unlike these that forced DJs со play only сор hits with по improvised banter. 'П the Iate "analogue" experiments and Iike the iTunes shutfle feacиre, the exhibit's visuaI 1960s, however, DJs were back as а culturaI force, in а new format, freeform and sound etfects тау have seemed random, Ьис in [асс obeyed programmed radio. Ву the early 1960s, FM radio stations proliferated and smaII portable software. transistor radios Ьесате а popular means for music Iistening, especiaIIy among 'П some aspects, developmel1ts in freeform О] culture and cybernetic music young people. 'П July 1965 the FederaI Commun.ications Commission pro had ditferent roots and goals. Cybernetic Serendipity exhibit sponsors included hibited FM stations from simuIcasting n10re than 50% of programs from their IВM, Boeing, General Motors, Westinghouse, ВеII Telephone Labs, and the parent АМ affiIiates, making possible the rise of FM rock radio in generaI and US Air Force research Iabs. Critics pointed оис that the exhibit showcased these freeform radio in particular.20 Freeform О] style relied оп the industry's inabiI institutions' work withощ апу critique of computers' role in nascent "tech ity to соиnc their alternative audiences, and survived beyond the pale ofratings nocratic ащhоritаriапism" in Western societies and in the Iooming nuclear services. conflict.28 Freeform DJs broke with the fast paced, ad-dominated Тор 40 format. DJs Уес in other ways, both freeform radio and cybernetic music provided а aired personaI commentary оп IocaI and nationaI events and played severaI councer-cultural counterpoint со hyper-rаtiопаI post-war scientism. As Fred tracks from the same album опе after another, taking Iong stretches between Turner has shown, the earliest military projects that gave birth со the Internet ads. They otfered psychedelic music and other rock genres unavailable оп Тор тау have seemed Iike а "closed worId," Ьщ in [асс rested оп informaI соIIаЬо 40 stations. They revived the 1940s tradition oflive interaction with Iisteners. rations between engineers and sociaI sciencists. 2~ The exhibit poster pointed со ВоЬ Fass, who ran Radio ИnnатеаЫе оп WBAI-FM in New York from 1965 со that history of informaI experimentation. Continuing the theme of human 1975, пос only took caIIs from his Iisteners, Ьис sometimes рис severaI of them сотрщеr symbiosis introduced Ьу the ВМI ad in the 1940s, it arranged geo оп the air, inviting them: "speak among yourselves."21 'П the early 1970s, radio metric Iines and computer parts into а cyborg-like figure with опе inquisitive stations returned со the commerciaI modeI and тапу DJs were forced оис. 22 еуе. This image, and the exhibit as а whole, suggested democratic, participa As freeform radio emerged, the nascenc computer art movement explored tory, and personaI uses for computer programming, directed ас art and everyday music, serendipity, interactivity, and programming. А pioneer соmрщеr art Iife rather than military or economic dominance. This alternative, although exhibit in London in 1968 was cicled "Cybernetic Serendipity," and deliberately пос oppositional, view of ап aIgorithmic future echoed freeform radio's 1 Y60s Iooked for the unexpected in the interaction between the computer, the arts incimate and interactive practices. including music-and the audiences. The exhibit was extremely popular; over Опе music composition ас the show echoed the job of а DJ, or of а reLom 45,000 visitors atcended. 23 The show featured соmрщеr-рrоgrаmmеd music as mendation aIgorithm, more directly. Peter Zinovietfexhibited а computer that weII as traditionaIIy composed music Ьу such composers as lannis Xenakis and played variations оп tunes that уои whistled со it. Zinovietf recaIIed in 2010: John Cage.24 (PJeople сате along and whistled into the computer. The computer апа То Ье sure, aIgorithmic music composition, based оп а symbiosis of сот lysed the whistle and would often guess what the person was going со posers and computers, foIIowed а trajectory ditferent from aIgorithmic music whistle пехс. 1 took several of the most popular tunes that people would recommendation, modeled оп interactions between DJs and computers. Уес the whistle and the computer, а massive great thing, wouId make tunes оиС technicaI aspects ofexhibited algorithmic music presaged the issue of"random" of the whistles. 30 aIgorithmic music selection tackled Ьу contemporary music delivery aIgorithms as the shutfle function in iTunes, epitomized in the iPod Shutfle, released such Zinovietf's robot was less Iike а composer creating new пшsiс then Iike а О] to in 2005. Famously, Apple programmers had rewrite the aIgorithm со aIIow who recommended а сипе based оп what users "requested" Ьу whistling inco со пос 25 users manipulate the shutfle feature, making it truly random. rhe device. 'П ditferent ways, Pandora and Spotify try со play variations оп their СОl1triЬщоrs со tlle exhibit aIso experimented wich programmable seren users' chosen melodies. dipity. The press release noted that "TI1fough the use of cybernetic devices Today, most aIgorithmic music services claim со aIIow users со Ьесоте their (О шаkе ~rзрhiсs, Ыт and poems, as weII as other rзп(lоrнisiпg machines о\уп DJs, crafting their пшsiс stream according со their own tastes. Вщ rllcy wllicll iщеr,lеt wirh tlH: SРСП3tоr, I1IЗ11У 11<1РРУ discov{'ric$ were lIIade."2I, TIH: olfcr cOlНp e [in~ appl'oaches to m\JSic l'ecommendatiol1. Lзst.fm, аl1 illcefll:triollal 68 Elena Razlogova The Past and Future of Music Listening 69 online site founded in the United Kingdom in 2002, relies оп genre labels and The third important legacy of both the 1940s and the 1960s is the арреа! user tagging. Pandora, ап online and smartphone radio service available in the of idiosyncratic music recommendations~both welcome and not-a mark of 'US since 2005 and in а limited form in Australia and New Zealand since 2012, both the earliest and the later freeform disc jockey shows. I n response to ап ЕlIа deliberately ignores opinions of friends or experts in favor of "music genome" Fitzgerald's "Two little теп in а fiying saucer" heard оп WFMU, а listener descriptions created Ьу professional пшsiсоlоgists. Весаше it relies оп hand confessed that he in vain "tried [о train а [P]andora station to play" World War coded data for music recommendation, Pandora Radio has а much smaller 11 tunes like Fitzgerald's. Не "wanted the feel of а radio playing in а Lockheed пшsiс catalogue than other music sites: опе million songs against several mil plant somewhere 'round '44." Unfortunately Pandora's "music genome" lacked lions оп Last.fm and Spotify. Spotify, available first in Sweden, then throughout а sense of history. " ! constantly kept having [о shake а сап of pennies at it to Europe, and since 2011 in the US, plays music оп demand; Pandora and Last. пot play contempo clowns covering classics done right the 1st time. "3~ But [т do not.3' Opponents of music services focus оп how little а1l of them рау such ahistorical mistakes also provide unexpected discoveries. Last.fm displayed musicians and their privileging of algorithms over human D]s. As WFMU О] cultural ignorance when it mixed ир а jazz funk ]apanese artist Kino with а Marty McSorley pointed out аЬощ Spotify in а typical exchange with listeners, 1980s Russian rock group Ьу the same пате. Some Russian fans were angry " the artists get paid next [о shit. [A]nd [it's] robots. and [Гт] scared ofrobots."32 when they didn't hear the soundtrack for ап iconic Perestroika-era band. Oth As McSorley's соттещ shows, exploitation of musicians is опе legacy of ers, however, were happy to encounter а different group Ьу the same пате Ьу the 1940s music industry most evident in contemporary online music services. chance.39 Serendipity has Ьесоше опе ofthe key pleasures sought in the online Spotify, in particular, has Ьесоте embedded in the traditional music industry, listening experience. relying оп it for operation and expansion. The four major labels, Universal, Online freeform radio stations in general and WFMU in particular have Warner, Sony, and EMI, have owned 17% of Spotify since 2009. 33 The сот Ьесоте both а model for and ап alternative to music recommendation soft рапу keeps its deals with master rights holders (usually labels) secret; each is ware, yet their operations are more often praised than closely studied. Radio negotiated privately, and in exchange for disсоuщs in royalties labels are offered stations began to stream online in the 1990s. Ву 2000, shoutcast.com listed а stake in the сотрапу . Each lаЬеl pays ап unknown small share to its artists. 3,615 iщегпаtiопаl channels. Only а few were а1l online at а given time, Ьщ Charles Caldas, the СЕО of Merlin, which represents over 10,000 indie labels enough were for опе observer to declare а "radio free internet" revolution.40 in negotiations with streaming services (and owns 1% of Spotify) praised Spo (п 2001, 2,000 people per day listened to WFMU's live stream or archived tify for paying 250% more to Merlin's clients in the year ending March 2012 tracks- about 10% of the station's entire daily audience.41 Ву 2008, WFMU's than the previous year.34 Yet artists who post their work оп Spotify themselves online public outnumbered its radio audience; Ьу 2010, twice as тапу people via TuneCore have Ьееп getting а paltry 0.004 cents per play.35 Spotify, and, to listened to the station online as over FM.42 а lesser extent, other music services, make топеу for major players in the busi Ву 2007, WFMU made it possible for users to comment оп the shows in real ness at the expense ofindependent artists.36 time online. Ву 2009 almost every playlist attracted comments from fans in the At the same time, the legacy of the 1960s is evident in the ways commer New York City area and internationally. ]udging from press and online сот cial services have to band together with freeform stations to combat copyright mentary, тапу ofWFMU's most active listeners are former D]s, independent restrictions. Tim Westergren, опе of Pandora's founders, actively participated musicians, struggling writers, obsessive record coHectors, and veteran music in the effort to fight high royalty rates in 2007. When online performance fans. Some musicians featured оп WFMU are also devoted listeners. Under rights organization SoundExchange attempted to institute prohibitive рег ground sound artist Frank Pahl posted to опе of the shows: "[I] was noticing а play fees, both commercial subscription services and non-commercial stations Ьитр in ту music for architecture sales"-on his personal site-"and the сот il1cluding WFMU organized а day of Ыасkощ in protest, and led 300,000 ments mentioned [WFMU]. [I] went to your webpage and уои were playing [В] listeners to write angry letters [о Congress. After two years of negotiations, ilbao [E]ffect ... [С]о figure. [Y]oujust made ту day!"43 Some D]s are active as SoundExchange relented and made rates only marginal1y better, hurting both independent musicians, sound artists, or record producers. WFMU tllUs blшs small stations and commercial giants like Pandora. As Кеп Freedman explains, the line between music production and distribution. "Commercial stations have to start paying per song per listener right away, Dubbed Ьу опе observer а station that plays " по hits, аН the time," WFMU wllereas non-commercial stations аге given the first 230 simultaneous streams revels in promoting rare recordings.44 WFMU plays obscure world шusiс, СО1 ' а ftat rate of $500 .... [But] As soon as уои start developing а sigпifiсащ unpopular cylinder recordings from the early twentieth century, 45-ItРМ ;щuiСЩ : t : , ir becomes complctely unaffordable." 37 Spotify, I.asr.fm, and similar п~ с оr(liпgs , $ оmсriПlеs at the wrong speed, and recordings tlJ Currently, music bIogs are under threat from federal enforcement agencies of ап 'awkward high school teenager. Netflix then proposed а one-million that crack down оп copyright infringement. When the FBI closed Megaupload dolIar contest for 10% improvement ofthe site's recommendation engine. Pro cloud storage service along with а pirate book sharing site library.nu in]anuary grammers could test their code оп Netflix site in real time, and if the code 2012 and took аll ofits files ofНine, тапу music bIogs lost their entire libraries helped recommend the blms users already liked, their code was considered ап in the action. As of mid-2012, of the three bIogs WFMU listed as hit Ьу the improvement.63 Megaupload shutdown, HolyWarbIes по longer existed, Mutant Sounds was in Уес from freeform radio listeners' perspective the Napoleon Dynamite prob hiatus but accepting re-uploads from users, and Clobal Croove was running as lem was not reaHy а probIem. WFMU О] from 1996 to 2009, Кеппу С, aka usual. 58 Users volunteered to re-upload their own files to restore Iibraries. As Kenneth Coldsmith, provides the best example of а О] who invites "haters" опе user reported, "Mutant Sounds has helped [in] broadening ту views оп loudly dissatisfied listeners. In the Iater years, his WFMU show was calIed "Ап music, for which [1] ат extremely grateful. 1 too would like to help you out in Нош of Paill," with the motto, "1 apologize in advance-it's only ап hour." reuploading апу item." 59 Other sounds were irretrievabIy lost. "The Iast thing Кеппу С took the пате of а famous smooth jazz saxophonist as his О] pseud 1 downloaded from HW [HolyWarbIes]," опе user remembered, "was а rare, опут and then read оп the air Ietters sent to him Ьу Iisteners who mistook completely ощ of print album Ьу Marie ]ubran, а Syrian artist who recorded him for the musician. Coldsmith's "uncreative" books include Day-an entire mostly during the 50S ."6U When US agencies crack down оп piracy, they at the issue of the New York Times for Friday, September 1, 2000, retyped in 9-point same time decimate globally translocal music communities created Ьу bloggers. Bookman Old Style font.M Кеппу С offered со а freeform radio listener what Conversely, Ьу virtue of their business plans, online commercial stream Napoleon Dynamite, before the contest, offered со а cinephile: ап unpredictabIe ing services stay confined within Western economic and aesthetic boundaries. element that stretched one's patience уес led опе to unexpected discoveries. WFMU, with numericalIy smaller audiences, reaches farther geographically Thus before its million-dollar contest, Netflix serendipitously сате up with than Pandora, Spotify, or еуеп Last.fm, which is only availabIe оп the iPhone in an aIgorithm that recommended the unexpected and the bizarre-an equiva the US, UK, and Cermany. Restricted in their reach and repertoire, commer lещ ofwhat пшsiс fans have insisted makes WFMU D]s superior со apps. Then cial music services саппос help but create а neo-colonial listening experience Netflix deliberately chose the code that embedded а more mainstream, pre for their customers. dictabIe aesthetic-a тоуе so far mirrored Ьу music recommendation services. Take, for example, Pandora's "music genome" that describes "the relative Ву contrast, freeform D]s' unpredictabIe aesthetic comes with а politics, опе exoticism ofthe melody scale." As the New York Times explained in 2009, dur especialIy proactive about combatting copyright. In 1996, Coldsmith created ing а Pandora coding session, after listening to а raga, а North Indian classic UbuWeb, ап online archive of avant-garde poetry, пшsiс, and later video. "1 music form, опе expert, а violinist, opined: "1 асшаllу put exotic at 3.5," which wanted to create а warehouse for the avant-garde," Coldsmith explained, "pro prompted а lecture from ап Indian music expert оп how опе would undel>tand posing the idea that пос аll economies are the same." Instead of clearing sound "exotic" in relation to that particular melody.6I But the very category "exoti and video files with authors beforehand, he posts them first and then waits for cism," а term with а long colonial history and connotations, would пос make authors to сопсасс him about taking them down. Very few protest, and if they sense in the North Indian context. It does make sense, however, when we do, negotiation ensues and usually Coldsmith convinces creators со leave their think of Pandora as the inheritor of the Western commercial "world music" work availabIe оп the site.65 marketing category invented in the 1980s and 1990s, exemplified Ьу the Put Likewise, WFMU founded and maintains several services that promote сl1е отауо labeI, which sells CDs of feel-good samples of "world пшsiс" in North sharing of free non-infringing music. In 2009 it launched Free Music Archive American retail stores.62 Music bIogs, and online playlists and comments spaces (FMA), а collection of downloadabIe tracks curated Ьу freeform radio sta set up Ьу WFM U and other freeform stations, provide а unique alternative со tions, independent labels, and small concert venues. АlI the uploaded tracks art' such neo-colonial projects. cleared for use through а Creative Commons license or а direct agreemel1t witll Like aesthetic choices, algorithms embody particular social and political the FMA. WFMU has presented its "Free Music Archive Radio арр" as "Cre sensibilities. Recommendation services сощiпuе со "perfect" their algorithms, ative Commons Pandora."66 WFMU iPhone арр is streaming UbuWeb С ОI1 - fixing what managers believe are errors and glitches. Yet it is precisely when tent. These intertwined freeform online algorithmic projects together acqlli re the algorithm "faiIs" that we gain insight into the aesthetic and poIitical judg n10re cultural force than WFMU, FMA, or UbuWeb would have alonc. тепс of Internet users. The Netflix Napoleon Dynamite probIem is а case in It remains ореп whether the future of online music will Ье dеfш е d Ьу Sro point. In 200Н , Netflix discovered that its algorithm failed to predict wl1ether tify and its corroratt: shareholders, or Free Music Archive ашi UbuWcb. Маl1У :1 ш('r wO\lkl like or 11:1СС NafJol(~ ()I1 Dynami/I' , а Ыт аЬонС tllC lIIi b ;I ~lvcntures rссспt зl~()fitlllJ1k "(()П'ссtiопs" in cOnll11erci !isteners' music tastes, those measuring "exoticism" оС wor!d music according 19. Tim Edwards со Bi/lboard, November 27, 1948, 44-45; М ае MeGarry со Billboard, Мау 7, to Western users' expectations, and those gating music according to geographic 1949,37. 20. 5щап J. Douglas, LiSI<'/lillg ///: Radio atrd II,e Americatr /tnagitraliotr (New York: Times Books, copyright restrictions-reftect the views оС the services' corporate owners. 1999), ch . 10; Marc Fisher, S"fnellling in II,e Air: Radio, Rock, a//d II,e I~ evo/U/io// Thar SI,al'erl A!gorithms have po!itics because оС реор!е and structures that create them, а Gelleralio// (New York: Random House, 2007); Кеп Freedman, "Free/or/ll Timelil1e" апd реор!е either unable or unwilling to recognize the unexpected insights, po!iti "А Brief Hiscory оС Freeform Radio," in -п.е Besl .if LCD, 4-7. 67 21. Fisher, Somelili//g in /I,e Air, 129. са! and aesthetic, that certain iterations оС a!gorithms сап provide. 22. Fгееdrпап, "Freeform Timeline," 5. 23, Quoced il1 Rainer Usse!mann, "The Dilemma оС Media Агс : Cybernecic Serendipicy а, clle Notes ICA London," Leonardo 36, по , 5 Uanllary 1,2003),390. 24. Cybemeric Serendipiry Exl,ibil Calalog (London: Ашhог, 1968). 1. Keich Chamberlin, "Re: Уои, che О]," New Ycrker, ]uly 26, 2010. 25. Sceven Levy, Т!,е Реifш Лling: Ноио r/,e iPod ShujJ/es Соmmегсе, C"/Iure, atrd Coo/tress (New 2. Philip R. Oleniek, еоттеnc со Claire Cain Miller, "Liscening со Radio оп che Web? Thac's York : 5imon & Sehuscer, 2006). 50 Lasc Year," Вil s-Т!,е New Ycrk Tifnes, 5epcember 10, 2009, hсср:l/ысs.ыоgs.пусimеs. 26, Cybemelic SeretrdipilY Exl,ibil Cala/og. eomI2009/09/10/ 1iscening-co-radio-on-che-web-chacs-so-lasc-year/. 27. Оп Burroughs and С а ве, see DOlIglas Kahn, Noise, Waler, Meal: А Hisrory о! So und i/l Il,e Аm 3. 5asha Frere-]ones, "Уои , che О], " Neu) Yorker, ]uпе 14, 2010. (СашЬгidgе, МА: MIТ Press, 1999), 4. 5сеуеп Ruccel1berg, "The 5erelldipicy Revolucion," U,/iversa/ ReeotntnendaliollS, February 12, 28. Quoced in Ussеlшапп, "The Dilemma оС Media Агс," 392, 2008, hсср:l/uпirее.Ыоgsрос .е оm/2008/02/sеrепdiрiсу-rеvоlщiоп . hcml. 29. Fred Тllгпег, Fro//1 Cc'Ulllercul,ure ' о Cyber(u/lure: Sleu)arl Brm,d, II,e WI,~le Earlll Nelwork, atl ,1 5. Кеп Freedman, "Frееfоrш Timeline," in Т//е Ве.fLCD: Л/е Arr atrd Wri/ing oJWFMU-FМ Il,e Rise o!DigirallJl,'piatli"1I1 (Cllicago: Universicy ofChicago Press, 2006); Раlll N, Edwards, 91 . 1 FM, ed. Оауе che Spazz (Prineecol1, N]: Prineecon Arehiceecural Press, 2007), 4-5; TI,e C/osed W~rM: CmnpU/ers atld II,e Po/ili(s о! Discourse itl СоМ War AlI1erica, /lI. 45. Ken Freedrnan, "Treasure Trove of Found SouIld Уосаl Workouts," Beware о! II, е В1оg, June 20, 2005, h[[p://bIog . wtinu . org/t·reeforrn / 2005 / 06 /sing_alon~wi[h . h[ml. 46. Michael Ne[sch, "Mori[z Sings Боhеmiап Rhapsody Ьу Queen," УоиТиЬе, h[[p:// www. you[ube.com/ wa[ch?v=7vsp233gVN8 47. "Ken's Playlisc," WFMU, March 30, 2011, h[[р://wfтu.огg / рlауliш/shоws / 39756. 4~. "WFMU's Friday Af[ernoon Timeslo[ wi[h Ken Fгееdmап," Wr'MU, 1998, h[[p://wfmu. SECTION 11 огg / Рlауliш/ Ken/ ken.980501.h[ml 49. Oavid Suisman, соrnтешs [о author, Sep[ember 8,2012. 50. Mark Frauenfelder, "WFMU S[reaming Radio оп iPhone," Bo;ng Bo;ng, November 5, 2007, h[[р://www . ЬоiпgЬоiпg.пе[ / 2007/ 11 / 05/wtinu-шеатiпg-гаdiо.h[ml. Radio's New Sounds 51. Alan S[avicsky and Michael НuшsЬегgег, "'Wi[h [he Suppor[ ofLis[eners Like Уои': Lessons from U.S. Public Radio," in 'п,е РиЫ;с ;n РиЫ;с Serv;ce Med;a, ed. Gregory Ferrell Lowe (Go[eborg, Sweden: Nordicom, 2009), 257- 271. 52. "Playlis[ for SCO[[ Williarns," WFMU, January 23, 2012, h[[р://wfтu . org / рlауliш/ shows/ 43594. 53. "WFMU iPhone Арр V2.11s Оие! , " Beware oJll,e Blog, July 30, 2010, h[[p://bIog.wfrnu.org/ fгееfогщ/201 0/07/wfmu-iphol1e-a pp-v21-is-ou[.h[ffi 1. 54. Vicki Беl1l1е[[, "Radio Богеdсш Ргеsешs , " AV Fe51;val, February 19, 2012, h[[p:// www. avtesci val.co. uk/ bIog/ 20 12/02/19/ гаdiо-Ьогеdсаs[-ргеsешs. 55. Vicki Беппе[[, "Collateral Oamage," 'Пе W;re, February 2, 2012, hцр: // [hеwiге. co.uk/arlicles/8439/. See also Chris[opher Kel[y, "ТЬе Oisappearing Vir[ual Library," AUazeera, March 1, 2012, h[[p://www.aljazeera.com/indep[h/opinionI2012/02/2012227 143813304790.hlml. 56. Casey Rae, "ТЬе Rise & Fall оС МР3 Бlоgs," Free Mus;c Arcl'ive, Augus[ 22, 2012, Ь[ [р : / / fгеешu sicarc hi ve .org/ си ra[or/ F М А / blog/ The_Rise __F а 11_oCMusic _Бlоgs __ gues[_pos[_by_Casey_R ае . 57. Беппе[[, "Colla[eral Oamage." 58. Мuшн Sounds, h[[р://тиеаш-sоuпds.ыlgsро[.сот/ 2 0121о1IIiсkiпg-wоuпds-апnd [aking-s[ock-afcer.h[ml; Global Grooves, lщр://glоьаlgгооvегs.ыgsроI.соm!. 59. Jason Sigal, "Music Бlоgs Reac[ ю Megaupload Seizure & Cyberlocker Lockdowns," Beware о! II,e Blog, January 26, 2012, h[[р://Ыоg.wfтu . огg / fгееtОгтI2012/01/пшsiс-Ыоgs-геас[ [o-теgаuрlоаd-sеizuге-суЬегlосkег-Йlеsегvе . h[тl#тоге. 60. Gary, "Guilcy Unlil Proven IПl1осеш;," Bodega Рор, Jal1uary 27, 2012, h[[p://bodegapop. blogspo[ .са120 12/ 0 1/ gu il[у-uшil-ргоvеl1-il1посеп[ .Ь[ ml. 61. Rob Walker, "The SOl1g Oecoders," New York Т;,"е5, ОсюЬег 18, 2009. 62. Al1ahid КаssаЫап, "Would You Like Some World Music wi[ll Your La[[e; Slarbucks, РиlUтауо, апd Ois[ribu[ed Tourism," 1'wenlierh-Cenlury MU5ic 1, по. 2 (2004): 209-223. 63. Clive Тhотрsоп, "lfYou Liked This, You're Sure ю Love ТЬа[," New York 1';,"е5, November 23,2008. 64. Kenl1e[h Goldsmi[h, Оау (New York: Figures, 2003). 65. Oave Mal1dl, "Iшегviеw wi[h Kenne[h Goldsmi[h," TI,e Be/;ever, ОсюЬег 2011; UbuWeb, Ь[[р :// www.ubu.com 66. Jason Sigal, "Free Music Archive Radio & more from Music Hack Оау," Beware oJll,e В/оg, November 7, 2011, h[[p://blog.wfmu.org/freeform/ 2011 / 11 / free-music-archive-radio mоге-Ггоm-шusiс-hасk-dау.hllпl; Free Music Arcllive, hllp://freemusicarchive.org!. 67. See Jirn Jоhпsоп, "Mixil1g HUlllal1s al1d Nonhumans Toge[her: ТЬе Sociology of а Ooor Closer," Soc;al ProbIem5 35,110.3 аиl1е 1988): 298-310; апd Langdol1 Wil1пег , "00 Ar[ifac[s Have Poli[ics?," Daedalus 109 (1980): 121-136.