Anal. Chem. 1999, 71, 235R-255R

Forensic Science

T. A. Brettell*

Forensic Science Bureau, New Jersey State Police, Box 7068, West Trenton, New Jersey 08625

K. Inman

California Department of Justice DNA Laboratory, 626 Bancroft Way, Berkeley, California 94710

N. Rudin†

1563 Solano Ave. #506, Berkeley, California 94707

R. Saferstein‡

Box 1334, Mount Laurel, New Jersey 08054

Review Contents Canadian Society of Forensic Science, Journal of Forensic Identifica- Drugs and Poisons 235R tion, Forensic Science Review, Analytical Toxicology, Electrophoresis, Ethanol and Volatiles 235R and BioTechniques, as well as Chemical Abstracts Selects: Forensic Cannabinoids 236R Chemistry. Our survey encompasses the period from January 1997 Morphine and Related Narcotics 237R through December 1998. Because of the normal delays in the Cocaine 237R abstraction of journal articles by Chemical Abstracts, some work Amphetamines 238R covering this period will inadvertently be omitted. Hopefully these Barbiturates 239R references will be included in the next biennial review. Benzodiazepines 239R The format selected for this survey divides coverage into three Miscellaneous Drugs and Poisons 239R distinct areas: drug and poisons, forensic DNA analysis, and trace General Procedures 241R Forensic DNA Analysis 242R evidence. Within the scope of each of the areas, articles have been DNA Extraction and Quantitation 242R selected to describe current forensic science practices in analytical Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms 242R chemistry and to outline relevant forensic science research Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms 242R interests. To keep our discussion concise and meaningful, we have Short Tandem Repeats 242R limited our survey to drugs regulated under the United States Gender Identification 243R Controlled Substances Act, ethanol, and common poisons. Fur- AmpliType PM and HLA-DQA1 243R thermore, to eliminate unnecessary duplication of effort, citations Multisystem 243R of articles appearing in Clinical Chemistry, Journal of Pharmaceuti- Mitochondrial DNA Typing 243R cal Sciences, and other pharmaceutical journals have been mini- General Methodology 244R mized. We believe that ample coverage of these journals is Reviews, Cases, and Miscellaneous 244R Trace Evidence 244R provided within the pharmaceutical and clinical chemistry reviews Paint 244R planned for this journal. It is recommended that interested readers Fibers 244R consult these sections in order to obtain a complete survey of Glass 245R the drug-abuse subject. Gunpowder and Primer Residue Detection 245R Petroleum Products 245R DRUGS AND POISONS Explosives 245R Ethanol and Volatiles. The ability of subjects with impaired Fingerprints 245R respiratory function to provide a satisfactory breath sample for Miscellaneous 246R the Alcotest 7410 breath alcohol device (1) and the Breathalyzer Literature Cited 247R 7410-CDN evidential breath alcohol analyzer has been evaluated (2). The recommended standards and procedures of the Canadian It is the aim of this review to present a concise survey of articles Society of Forensic Science Alcohol Test Committee have been appearing in publications that primarily appeal to forensic prac- 3 titioners. To accomplish this objective, we have focused our published ( ). Compressed-gas ethanol breath standards have attention on the following journals: Journal of Forensic Sciences, been compared to wet simulators as calibration standards (4). The Science & Justice, Forensic Science International, Journal of the influence of hypersalivation on breath alcohol was investigated (5). Breath and blood ethanol concentrations were simultaneously

† www.forensicdna.com. Forensic DNA consultant. measured with the Draeger 7110 Mk II from individuals who ‡ Forensic science consultant. received 0.8 g of ethanol/kg of body weight combined with 1 g

10.1021/a1990009c CCC: $18.00 © 1999 American Chemical Society Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 235R Published on Web 05/07/1999 of fructose/kg of weight or with 30 mg/kg (6). No differences in has been studied (30). The kinetics of methanol elimination in mouth alcohol elimination patterns were observed with oral alcoholics has been studied (31). A study of rearrests for drunken jewelry when tested on a DataMaster breath test instrument (7). driving in Norway has been reported (32). Drugs and alcohol The effects of asthma inhalers and nasal decongestants on the among suspected impaired drivers in Switzerland has been studied DataMaster were evaluated (8). A study was conducted of potential (33). vapor-phase interferences that could be present on human breath Benzyl alcohol was identified and quantified by GC/mass and also be capable of inducing a false-positive response for spectrometry (GC/MS) in human serum and postmortem blood ethanol on the Intoxilyzer-5000 (9). after derivatization with 4-carbethoxyhexafluorobutyryl chloride Estimation of blood alcohol concentrations after social drinking (34). Commercial products containing diethyl ether were detected has been reported (10). The estimation of time between drinking in the blood of three homicide victims by GC and GC/MS (35). and death from tissue distribution patterns of ethanol has been Headspace GC was used to detect and quantify difluoroethane in studied (11). Concentration-time profiles of ethanol in arterial two traffic fatality victims (36). Trichloroethylene was determined and venous blood and end-expired breath during and after in the blood of victims in forensic cases by GC/ECD (37) and intravenous infusion have been reported (12). The influence of GC/ECD and GC/FT-IR (38). The distribution of toluene in glue the ethanol metabolism was investigated on the concentration of sniffers’ biological fluids has been studied by GC and GC/MS ethanol in venous blood using a computer simulation model (13). (39). Headspace GC/FID was used to determine benzene in The blood alcohol level was calculated in women while taking biological fluids of a victim of fatal poisoning (40). Volatiles that into consideration body weight, body height, blood water content, are used and abused as anesthetics have been reviewed (41). and body water content (14). The inhibition of ethanol production Enflurane has been determined in human tissues by GC/MS (42). by Saccharomyces cerevisiae in human blood by sodium fluoride The chemical, toxicity, and pharmacological properties of the has been studied (15). current fluorinated inhalation anesthetics have been surveyed (43). An accurate, automated, simultaneous gas chromatographic An analytical method for the identification of volatile organic headspace measurement of whole blood ethanol and acetaldehyde compounds in blood has been developed using purge-and-trap has been reported (16). Automated headspace gas chromatogra- extraction coupled with GC/FT-IR (44). SPME and GC/MS were phy/flame ionization detection (GC/FID) was used to study the used to confirm volatiles in the investigation of two traffic fatalities stability of ethanol in human whole blood controls (17). Static (45). Literature reports concerning the analysis of occluded headspace sampling and automated solid-phase microextaction solvent as a basis for determining whether cocaine and heroin (SPME) were compared for the determination of blood alcohol samples have a common origin have been reviewed (46). Head- (18). A new procedure has been proposed for the direct deter- space analysis of solvents in cocaine and heroin samples was mination of ethanol in plasma and whole blood using vapor determined by GC/FID and confirmed by GC/MS (47). generation and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) Carboxyhemoglobin levels were determined in two victims of (19). open air carbon monoxide poisoning (48). The interpretation of A comparison of ethanol concentrations in the occipital lobe postmortem carboxyhemoglobin concentrations has been dis- and cerebellum has been reported (20). Ethanol and putrefactive cussed (49). The performance of the Instrumentation Laboratory alcohols were determined in fluids from putrefactive blisters by Inc. IL-682 for the analysis of postmortem blood specimens for GC (21). Ethanol concentrations in the mixed left and right heart carboxyhemoglobin was evaluated (50). blood, urine, and stomach contents of 186 cadavers were analyzed Cannabinoids. A preliminary study of the analysis of can- by GC in order to find the influence of postmortem diffusion of nabis by supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) with atmo- alcohol from the stomach contents to the heart blood (22). Ethanol spheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectroscopy (APCI- analyses using the synovial fluid of the knee joint as well as blood MS) has been reported (51). GC/MS was used to identify butyl and urine were performed by the pulse heating-gas chromato- cannabinoids in marijuana (52). Unsmoked handrolled cigarettes graphic method in 12 medio-legal autopsy cases (23). A prospec- were analyzed for cannabis resin/cannabis content by thin-layer tive and comprehensive investigation was done on 73 medico- chromatography (TLC) (53). Capillary electrochromatography was legal autopsies of alcoholics (24). The concentration of ethanol used to analyze the cannabinoid content in marijuana and hashish in blood and plasma was determined by headspace GC and the (54). The cannabinoid content was determined by GC/MS of water content of whole blood was determined from the change marijuana samples seized in Greece and its forensic application in weight after desiccation (25). The effect of omeprazole, has been reported (55). Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was de- ranitidine, and cimetidine on peak blood ethanol concentrations tected in foodstuff containing hemp and the forensic significance has been studied (26). The relationship between urinary ethanol was discussed (56). The inorganic element pattern of marijauna concentrations, urine/blood ratio of ethanol, and urinary creatinine was evaluated as a tool for comparing different seizures (57). The content was investigated by the analysis of two successive voids filtering effects of various household fabrics on the pollen content from 40 individuals apprehended for driving under the influence of hash oil has been studied (58). of alcohol in Sweden (27). The urine concentrations of ethanol, A method for the identification of cannabis using DNA-specific methanol, and the ratio of serotonin metabolites were determined primers has been developed (59). Methods have been reported from apprehended drunk drivers (28). The ethanol content of for the identification of Cannabis sativa L., comparing the various foods and soft drinks, and their potential for interference sequence of the nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed with the DataMaster, have been studied (29). The inter- and spacer II (ITS2) of an unknown sample with a known predeter- intraindividual variation of methanol elimination in nonalcoholics mined consensus sequence of cannabis (60, 61). Western blotting

236R Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 and development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was has been reported (101). Blood toxicological results for deaths utilized for the detection of cannabis pollen allergens (62). attributed to heroin overdose were compared with those of a ∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinol has been confirmed in blood by GC/ sample of 100 current heroin users who had injected within the MS (63, 64) and GC/MS/MS (65). The CEDIA DAU (EIA) and preceding 24 h (102). the Abbott AsSym system (FPIA) cannabinoids assays were An improved GC/MS assay has been described for the evaluated for their combined effectiveness in the analysis of quantification of codeine and morphine as trimethylsilyl (TMS) cannabinoids in whole blood (66). A noncannabinoid immunogen derivatives (103). GC/MS was used for the simultaneous deter- has been used to elicit antibodies with broad cross-reactivity to mination of acetylcodeine, monoacetylmorphine, and other opiates cannabinoid metabolites (67). 11-Nor-9-carboxy-∆8-tetrahydrocan- in urine (104). A procedure for the determination of morphine nabinol was determined in urine of cannabis users by GC/MS has been developed using the nitrosation reaction in a system of (68). 11-nor-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (THC- flow injection analysis (FIA) with spectrophotometric detection COOH) was determined in urine by high-performance thin-layer (105). The detection of acetylcodeine and 6-monoacetylmorphine chromatography (HPTLC)/ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometry/ in opiate-positive urines has been reported using GC/MS (106). FT-IR on-line coupling (69). A sensitive and reliable method has Morphine and its analogues have been determined in urine by been developed for the identification and quantification of THC- on-line coupled reversed-phase liquid chromatography/gas chro- COOH in urine using a microbed solid-phase extraction (SPE) matography with on-line derivatization (107). A new HPLC- column (70). Cannabinoids were detected in urine by an enzyme chemiluminescence analysis system for morphine has been multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) and confirmed by GC/ described (108). A system for automatic sample preparation MS (71). Immunoassay screening of cannabinoids was evaluated followed by on-line injection of the sample extraction into a gas for false-negative results with the use of excess fluid ingestion chromatograph/mass spectrometer has been developed for si- (72). A study was conducted to examine the excretion profile of multaneous analysis of three opiates in human urine (109). creatinine and marijuana metabolites in a group of six marijuana Vitreous humor specimens were analyzed for codeine, mor- users who smoked two different doses of marijuana over a four- phine, and 6-monoacetylmorphine by FPIA and GC/MS (110). week period (73). An indoor air quality-pharmacokinetic simula- Qualitative detection of opiates in sweat by enzyme immunoassay tion of passive inhalation of marijuana smoke was evaluated (74). (EIA) has been reported (111). Morphine formation from ethyl- Immunoassay and GC/MS was used to evaluate the excretion of morphine in urine has been studied using EMIT and GC/MS cannabinoids in urine after ingestion of cannabis seed oil (75) (112). The certification of a human urine standard reference and hemp oil (76-78). material consisting of morphine-3-â-D-glucuronide has been re- Morphine and Related Narcotics. Evaluation of a sampling ported using enzymic hydrolysis and GC/MS (113). An evaluation procedure for heroin street doses has been reported (79). A new of the role of relative operating characteristic plots in the spray reagent has been proposed which is highly specific and prediction of heroin use from total codeine and total morphine sensitive for the detection and identification of heroin in street concentrations in urine has been reported (114). A statistical samples (80). Simultaneous detection of adulterants and coex- approach has been used for the prediction of verifiable heroin tractants in illicit heroin by HPTLC with two successive mobile use from total codeine and total morphine concentrations in urine phases has been described (81). Methodology has been presented (115). Paired blood and urine specimens were tested for opiates for the analysis of cations and anions in illicit heroin using capillary by immunoassay to identify the frequency of occurrence and help electrophoresis (CE) with indirect UV detection (82). The feasibil- in the interpretation of results (116). 6-Monoacetylmorphine was ity of predicting the country of origin of heroin based on the detected in urine by TLC following liquid-liquid extraction to concentration of selected alkaloids and adulterants in seized prevent innocent poppy seed eaters from being falsely accused material has been assessed (83). The methodology used for the of drug abuse (117). To establish the plausibility of the “poppy comparative chemical analyses of illicit drug seizures, and its seed defense”, the concentrations of codeine, norcodeine, mor- application to a heroin comparison case, has been described (84). phine, normorphine, and thebaine were determined in various The application of isotopic analysis of 13C for forensic purposes poppy seeds from different countries by GC/MS (118). has been discussed in the case of heroin (85). Five different hair digestion procedures were evaluated by A rapid and selective reversed-phase HPLC assay with gradient radioimmunoassay (RIA) to determine the most effective method elution and diode-array detection (DAD) for the determination of that could be used to liberate morphine from hair (119). Acetyl- heroin and morphine and metabolites in plasma was developed codeine was determined in hair by GC/MS as a specific marker (86). Morphine and metabolites have been determined in body for heroin use (120). Morphine and 6-monoacetylmorphine were fluids by liquid chromatography (LC)/APCIMS (87-89), GC/ determined by GC/MS in the hair of a coercive heroin adminis- FID (90), GC/MS (91-94), HPLC with direct injection and tered overdose victim (121). Opiates were determined in hair by postcolumn derivatization (95), HPLC/ECD (96), HPLC with GC/MS using acid hydrolysis (122-124). Two autopsy cases were fluorescence detection after solid-phase extraction (97), and GC/ used to underline the importance of immunohistochemistry in MS and HPLC (98). Opiates were determined in hair by GC/MS forensic practice (125). A postmortem study was completed on and the results compared to other body fluids (99). Evidence of heroin-associated nephropathy (126). gestational heroin exposure by comparative analysis of fetal and Cocaine. Using published high-resolution mass measure- maternal body fluids, tissues, and hair has been reported in a ments as a reference, the mass spectra of several cocaine heroin-related death (100). A preliminary study on the distribution derivatives were examined (127). The detection of cocaine on of morphine and its glucuronides in the subcompartments of blood various denominations of United States currency was reported

Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 237R using SPE and GC/MS (128). Cocaine has been determined in fingernail and toenail specimens obtained from suspected cocaine illicit powders by capillary electrophoresis CE (129) and HPLC users (163). and GLC (130). Cocaine free base identification and quantification Amphetamines. The analysis of stimulants has been re- procedures have been reviewed and discussed (131). The ratio- viewed (164). Amphetamines and related compounds have been nale for developing cocaine profiling methodology has been analyzed by GC/FT-IR (165), HPLC/UV (166), negative-ion described and the current cocaine signature procedures in use chemical ionization MS (167), capillary zone electrophoresis at the United States Drug Enforcement Agency’s Special Testing (CZE) (168), and CE and HPLC (169). Methlenedioxyamphet- and Research Laboratory have been reviewed (132). The varia- amines and related compounds have been characterized by GC/ tions of purity of cocaine seizures in Spain have been surveyed MS (170), HPLC with fluorometric detection (171), LC and MS (133). Adulterants encountered in the illicit cocaine seized in (172, 173), GC/FID and GC/MS (174), ion trap MS (175), GC/ Rome have been reported (134). Electrothermal atomic absorption CIMS with derivatization (176), nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry has been used to determine traces of cadmium in (NMR) (177-179), and Fourier transform raman spectroscopy cocaine (135) and to determine silver, aluminum, cadmium, and (FTRS) (180). Some unusually marked and single-scored tablets manganese in cocaine and heroin powders (136). Ecgonidine were analyzed for illicit drug content to yield 3,4-methylenedioxy- methyl ester has been determined using a continuous-flow vapor ethylamphetamine (181). 3,4-Methylenedioxycathinone homo- generator preconcentrator/thermal desorption technique for the logues have been characterized (182). detection of concealed cocaine (137). Comparative determination Optical isomers of amphetamine-related compounds have been of total isomeric truxillines in illicit, refined, South American analyzed by two-dimensional column-switching HPLC with fluo- cocaine hydrochloride has been reported using capillary GC/ECD rescence detection (183), HPLC/UV (184), CE (185, 186), and (138a). The isolation and comparative determination of ecgonine infrared spectrophotometry (IR) (187). Methamphetamine proper- methyl esters in illicit cocaine samples has been presented using ties and analytical methods of enantiomer determination have been GC/SIM (138b). The detection and mass spectral analysis of reviewed (188). 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine has been alkaloids of cocaine-bearing plants has been described (139-141). characterized by GC/MS, HPLC/DAD, CE/DAD, FT-IR, and The qualitative and quantitative analysis of cocaine and eight NMR (189). Factors influencing the extraction of impurities from cocaine-related analytes has been reported using SPE followed Leukart amphetamine have been studied (190). by GC/MS (142). Cocaine and related analytes have been Amphetamine-related compounds have been detected in blood determined using GC/surface ionization detection (SID) (143), by GC/MS (191-193), GC/NPD (194), GC/CIMS (195), GC/ HPLC (144), HPLC/DAD (145), and HPLC/UV (146). Cocaine, NPD and GC/MS (196), HPLC after derivatization (197), HPLC/ nicotine, caffeine, and metabolites have been determined in the APCIMS and DAD after phenylisothiocyanate derivatization (198), plasma of neonates (147). A retrospective study of autopsy cases and GC and LC procedures with various detectors as well as TLC has been published relating cocaine blood concentrations to and CE (199). Tissue distribution of amphetamine isomers from toxicity (148). a fatal overdose victim have been determined by EMIT, TLC, A liquid-liquid extraction method for isolating cocaine from HPLC, and GC/MS (200). The toxicology of amphetamine-related urine was developed utilizing GC/MS for analysis and quantifica- deaths has been discussed (201, 202). The effects of 3,4- tion (149). A large-scale study was conducted to determine methylenedioxymethamphetamine in decomposing tissues have whether lowering the initial immunoassay testing and confirmation been discussed (203). Ephedrine was determined in biological GC/MS testing cutoffs in urine would significantly affect the fluids of a suicide victim by GC/MS following liquid-liquid positive rates for cocaine and marijuana (THC) (150). Cocaine extraction and pentafluoropropionic acid derivatization (204). was measured by GC/MS and benzoylecgonine was determined Amphetamine-related compounds have been detected in urine by FPIA in the urine of substance-abuse treatment patients (151). by HPLC/UV (205-208), HPLC with fluorescence detection Cocaine and its metabolites were detected by SPE and GC/MS (209-211), GC/MS (212-214), CE with laser-induced fluores- in amniotic fluid and umbilical cord tissue (152). Saliva concentra- cence (215) and differential pulse polarography (216). A system- tions of cocaine and metabolites were measured by GC/MS (153). atic evaluation that compares the recoveries of methamphetamine A study has been reported on the stability of cocaine and and amphetamine from spiked urine using SPE and GC/MS has metabolites in postmortem fluids (154). been reported (217). The derivatization of amphetamine and Cocaine and metabolites have been determined in hair by methamphetamine using SPE for their detection in urine has been narrow-bore HPLC in combination with fluorescence and electro- described (218). GC/FID and GC/FT-IR have been used to spray MS (155), positive chemical ionization GC/MS (156) and quantitatively determine amphetamine enantiomers (219). Analy- GC/MS (157). Isotopically labeled cocaine and benzoylecgonine sis of methamphetamine and amphetamine in urine has been were determined in hair by GC/MS (158). The effect of centrifu- described using SPME and GC/MS (220, 221), and SPME and gation of hair digests on the quantitation of cocaine in human GC/NPD (222, 223). The urinary excretion of d-amphetamine hair has been reported (159). Procedures for distinguishing following oral doses in humans was studied using immunoassays passive contamination from active cocaine consumption have been and GC/MS (224, 225). discussed (160). Cocaine detection by hair analysis and skin swab The determination of stimulants in hair has been done using testing has been reported (161). The matrix and modifier effects HPLC with chemiluminescence detection (226), GC/MS (227- in the SFE of cocaine and benzoylecgonine from human hair has 232), ELISA and GC/MS (233), Headspace SPME and GC/NPD been studied (162). Cocaine was determined by GC/MS in the (234), and ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) (235, 236). The

238R Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 interlaboratory comparison of quantitative determination of am- benzodiazepine FPIA, and a radioreceptor assay (RRA) were phetamine and related compounds in hair samples has been evaluated in screening for benzodiazepines (270). Oxaprozin cross- reported (237). Optimization of a simple method for the chiral reactivity was studied in three commercial immunoassays for separation of phenethylamines of forensic interest based on benzodiazepines in urine (271). The CEDIA DAU benzodiazepine cyclodextrin complexation capillary electrophoresis and its pre- assay has been reformulated to include on-line hydrolysis of liminary application to the analysis of human urine and hair has urinary benzodiazepine glucuronide conjugates (272, 273). Ben- been reported (238). zodiazepines were determined in hair by GC/NICIMS (274-276) Barbiturates. A reversed-phase HPLC method has been and GC/MS (277). developed for the forensic analysis of 10 frequently used barbi- Miscellaneous Drugs and Poisons. A quantitative method turates (239). A FPIA for barbiturates in urine has been described that avoids derivatization has been described for the determination using the Abbott AxSym analyzer (240). Barbiturates in urine has of lysergide (LSD) levels in urine (278). LSD has been determined been determined by SPME and CE (241), SPME and ion trap in biological fluids by CE with laser-induced fluorescence detection GC/MS (242), HPLC with electrochemical detection using on- (279, 280), HPLC coupled to electrospray ionization MS (281), line selectable-power photochemical reaction (243), and GC/MS automated extaction using the Zymark RapidTrace with LC/MS/ (244). Barbiturates were determined in larvae (245). The various MS (282), microparticle-based immunoassay (283), immunoassay analysis methods for the determination of barbiturates in body and GC/MS (284, 285), and GC/MS (286). The precision and fluids has been reviewed (246). the diagnositic performance of the CEDIADAU LSD assay was Benzodiazepines. The determination of benzodiazepines and evaluated (287). LSD concentrations in urine were measured by their toxicity, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and structure RIA and HPLC with fluorescence detection (288). The effects of have been reviewed (247). Triazolam has been determined in a chemicals and household agents on an EIA for the detection of drug tablet by thermal desorption GC (248). Diazepam has been LSD in urine were investigated (289). The determination of LSD determined in cold drinks by high-performance TLC (249). Ion and phencyclidine in biological samples has been reviewed (290). trap MS and a quadrapole mass spectrometer were compared A study was conducted to determine the conditions needed to using diazepam as model compound (250). Alprazolam was achieve the equilibrium concentrations for the epimerization of detected in biofluids by HPLC (251). A HPLC method has been d-LSD to iso-LSD (291). developed for the analysis of several benzodiazepines and some Phencyclidine (PCP) was identified in human body fluids by of their metabolites in blood, plasma, and urine (252). Fluni- headspace SPME and GC/SID (292). PCP blood concentrations trazepam and its main metabolites have been determined in serum were compared to the subsequent Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) and urine by HPLC after mixed-mode SPE (253) and HPLC/DAD evaluations (293). A retrospective study was conducted to after SPE (254). Flunitrazepam and its main metabolites have been determine the stability of PCP in whole blood samples stored for determined in urine by HPLC/UV (255) and GC/MS (256). 1-3 years (294). GC/MS was used to analyze various drugs in Flunitrazepam and its metabolites have been determined in blood hair such as PCP (295-297), fenethylline and amphetamine (298), by HPLC and APCIMS (257). A study was conducted to compare and methadone and metabolites (299) and polydrug use (300). the performance of the OnLine and OnTrak immunoassays for Dextropropoxyphene and its metabolite were quantified in hair benzodiazepines with GC/MS analysis in detecting flunitrazepam using HPLC (301). Tricyclic antidepressants were analyzed in hair and its metabolites in human urine (258). The use of HPLC as samples (302). Digoxin was detected in hair by immunoassay an extraction procedure for the analysis of triazolam in decom- (303). The evaluation of extraction procedures, hair treatments, posed human muscle by GC/MS has been reported (259). The and development of reference materials in the hair analysis for stability of diltiazem in whole blood and in postmortem samples nicotine and cotinine has been reported (304). SPE and HPLC has been investigated (260). The stability of nitrobenzodiazepines was used to analyze nicotine and cotinine in infants’ hair (305). and their metabolites in postmortem blood and water has been The enantioselective separation of methadone and its main studied (260A). The postmortem distribution of various benzo- metabolite has been accomplished in human hair by LC/ion spray diazepines in body fluids has been studied (261). MS (306). The enantioselective determination of methadone Olanzapine concentrations have been determined by GC/FID enantiomers and its major metabolite in human biological fluids in the biological fluids of an overdose victim (262) and in the has been described using HPLC (307). Methadone and its primary biological fluids of other forensic case victims using GC/NPD and metabolite have been determined in meconium using FPIA and GC/MS (263, 264). A method to determine clozapine in biological HPLC/DAD (308). A SPE method for the extraction of methadone fluids has been reported using GC/NPD (265). GC/MS was used and its two metabolites from whole blood has been described to identify Alprazolam and metabolites in body fluids and HPLC (309). Quantitative analysis of methadone metabolites in human was used to quantify the drugs (266). A review of methods for hair has been accomplished by positive-ion chemical ionization the determination of benzodiazepines in biological specimens MS (310). published over the last five years has been presented (267). Blood A simple method for the urinary identification and blood specimens were screened for benzodiazepines by EMIT and GC/ quantification of meprobamate has been described which uses ECD and the results confirmed by GC/MS (268). Three com- GC/MS after SPE (311). A GC/MS method for the determination mercial immunoassay techniques (EMIT, FPIA, OnLine) for the of fentanyl in urine has been described (312). The prevalence of screening of benzodiazepines in urine were evaluated by GC/ dextroproxyphene in the total autopsy material in Sweden has MS as the reference method (269). EMIT, Abbott ADx serum been examined (313). A compilation of fatal and control concen-

Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 239R trations of drugs in postmortem femoral blood has been published line SPE has been described (345). The simultaneous identifica- (314). A HPLC/ion spray MS method has been developed for tion and quantitation of fluoxetine and its metabolite in biological the determination of buprenorphine and norbuprennorphine in samples by GC/MS has been reported (346). Liquid-liquid biological fluids and hair samples (315). Zopidone was determined extraction followed by HPLC/DAD has been used to detect in the blood and other body fluids by GC/MS (316). The betaxolol in a fatal poisoning case (347). Amlodipine concentra- concentration of phenol in postmortem blood has been determined tions were determined in body fluids from a fatal poisoning victim by GC/MS and derivatization (317). The case history and (348). A method to determine amitriptyline and its metabolite in toxicological findings of a fatal fentanyl intoxication due to the human plasma has been reported using HPLC/UV and particle application of multiple transdermal patches has been presented beam MS (349). Two venlafaxine-related deaths have been (318). The postmortem serum and tissue redistribution of fluox- reported with comparison of results from the analysis of biological etine and norfluoxetine has been studied (319). Phenmetrazine fluids using capillary GC/NPD and HPLC/UV-visible (350). LC has been determined in urine by GC/MS after liquid-liquid was used to quantitate colchicine in body fluids and tisses of a extraction and derivatization (320). Moclobemide, sertraline, and fatal poisoning victim (351). A method for the determination of pimozide concentrations were determined by GC and GC/MS in N,N-dimethyltryptamine in body fluids by GC/SID has been a victim from a fatal interaction of these drugs (321). Moclobemide reported (352). A method for the quantitation of diester diterpene- was determined by GC/NPD in the body fluids of a fatal victim type Aconitum alkaloids and their hydrolysis products by GC/ (322). Anabolic steroids found in the illegal market were analyzed SIM was applied to the analysis of body fluids of a suicide victim by GC/MS (323). Tissue concentrations of ketamine were (353). An unusual death attributed to the combined effects of determined by GC/NPD (324). The homogeneity of drug con- choral hydrate, lidocaine, and nitrous oxide has been discussed centrations in cadavers was evaluated (325). Cocaine, lidocain, (354). Cyproheptadiene was determined by GC/NPD in the blood methadone, and destromoramide and metabolites were deter- of a victim of ethanol and cyproheptadiene intoxication (355). mined in the hair of a polyintoxication victim by GC/MSD and Phenethylamine was determined in P. semilanceata mushrooms HPLC (326). Xylazine toxicity has been reviewed and two using GC/MS (356). homicide cases involving xylazine have been reported (327). GC/ Diltiazem and pentoxifylline was determined in body fluids by MS has been used to detect and quantify phenmetrazine in the GC/NPD and GC/MS from a suspicious death (357). Zolpidem urine (328, 329). A method has been developed for the quanti- concentrations were determined by GC/MS in the body fluids of tation and identification of γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and its an overdose victim (358). EDTA was analyzed in bloodstains by lactone in illegal preparations (330). UV-excited resonance Raman electropspray LC/MS/MS and ion chromatography (359). GLC spectroscopy has been used to identify narcotics and explosives and FPIA were used to detect valproic acid in the body fluids of (331). Between-eye differences in electrolyte concentrations were an overdose victim (360). Buprenorphine-related deaths among studied in autopsies using an ion-specific electrode system (332). drug addicts in France have been reported (361). Poppy seeds The prevalence of drugs of abuse in urine of drivers involved in were examined for opiates, specifically thebaine content, using road accidents in France has been reported (333). Drugs of abuse GC/ion trap MS after extraction with methanol (362). The content and the correlation with driving in Austria has been studied (334). of thebaine of the Papaver species and their F1 hybrid was The distribution of phenol in a fatal poisoning case was determined determined by HPLC (363). A study has been presented that by GC/MS (335). Fluoxetine was determined by GC/MS and developed and validated a LC method with electrochemical clozapine was determined by GLC in the body fluids of a victim detection to measure R-amanitin concentrations in urine after of a fatal drug interaction between the two drugs (336). The sample pretreatment with double-mechanism (reversed-phase/ stability of tricyclic antidepressants in formalin solutions was cation exchange) SPE cartridges (364). GC/MS was used to studied by GC/MS (337). measure chloroquine concentrations in the body fluids of a suicide An alternative and complimentary capillary electrophoresis victim (365). The toxicological findings of autopsy results of method was developed for the identification of the hallucinogenic dextropropoxyphene case in Sweden have been reviewed (366). mushroom’s Psilocybe semilanceata indole alkaloids psilocybin and Drug abuse among Finnish male prisoners has been discussed baeocystin (338). Interpretation of drug findings on the skin has (367). Venlafaxine blood concentrations have been presented from been discussed (339). GC/MS was used to detect narcotine, a fatal motor vehicle case (368). Propoxur was determined in the papaverine, and thebaine in the seeds of Papaver somniferum body fluids of a fatal intoxication victim (369). A GC/NPD method (340). A general screening method for the determination of for the quantitative determination of Rocuronium in postmortem anabolic steroids in oil-based injectables, tablets, and capsules has blood has been described (370). A new and easy method to screen been described which used HPLC and UV-visible-particle beam and to quantify GHB in biological samples has been described MS (341). A review has been published on the comprehensive (371). An automated screen for cholinesterase in postmortem screening of stimulants, narcotics, and â-blockers (342). Methods blood has been reported (372). Postmortem cases were reviewed for detecting hypnotics and sedatives not belonging to the classes where dextromethorphan had been detected and quanitified (373). of barbiturates and benzodiazepines have been reviewed (343). The drug purity content of powders and other illicit preparations Methods for detecting aniticonvulsants not belonging to the in the United Kingdom has been discussed (374). 1-Chloroethyl classes of barbiturates and benzodiazepines have been discussed chloroformate was found to be a good reagent for the N- (344). The GC/MS quantitation of dextropropoxyphene and demethylation of tertiary amines to produce drug metabolite norpropoxyphene in hair and whole blood after automated on- reference material for forensic toxicology applications (375).

240R Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 Triazolam, pentobarbital, amitriptyline, and bromazepam were method of sample preparation has been proposed that permits detected in the tissues of a victim of the toxic interaction of these identification by FT-IR microspectrophotometry of the components drugs (376). Four postmortem cases have been reported in which of illicit drugs (405). In situ surface-enhanced FT-Raman (SERS) the analgesic drug tramadol was identified (377). Trancylpromine detection of heroin, codeine, and cocaine samples after separation was identified by GC/MS after derivatization with pentafluoro- on a Kieselgel 60-type chromatography thin layer has beeen propionic anhydride in the blood, urine, and tissues of a fatal performed (406). Software has been introduced for processing overdose victim (378). A simple and rapid method for the analysis qualitative analysis data from two parallel TLC analyses (407). A of malathion in blood was developed using headspace SPME and method for improving detection limits using a novel sample GC/MS with selected-ion monitoring (379). GC/NPD was used concentrator has been described (408). to determine maprotiline and metabolites in postmortem speci- The detection of drugs of abuse in biological fluids has been mens (380). Moclobemide was determined in postmortem blood reported using GC/MS (409, 410), HPLC/DAD (411-413), CE and urine by GC/MS and HPLC/PDA after SPE (381). FPIA was (414-416), CEC (417), LC/MS (418-420), LC/APCIMS (421), used to determine postmortem toxicological analyses for digoxin and SPME (422). Applications of AAS in toxicology and the (382). The distribution of drugs in various tissues of the brain criminalistics field have been presented (423). SPE procedures was determined by GC/MS (383). in the systematic toxicological analysis have been reviewed (424). GC/MS was used to identify and quantify malathion in the The analysis of methaqualone in biological matrixes by CE has body fluids of a suicide victim (384). A simple and reliable method been compared with GC/MS (425). A survey of drugs-of-abuse for the isolation of benzhexol from blood and urine has been testing in the European Union has been reported (426). The presented using SPE and papaverine as an internal standard (385). laboratory validation study of a drug evaluation and classification A simple method to quantify fenthion in postmortem matrixes with program has been published (427). Recent developments in SPE, HPLC/DAD, and GC/MS has been described (386). Baygon, analytical toxicology have been discussed (428). Drug screening carbaryl, and carbofuran were detected in forensic toxicological in biological fluids has been reviewed (429). A method for specimens by TLC (387). The main hydrolysis products of correcting HPLC retention data has been produced using HPLC/ organophosphorus nerve agents, methylphophonic acids, in hu- DAD (430). Therapeutic, toxic, and lethal concentrations in human man serum by indirect photometric detection ion chromatography fluids of 90 drugs affecting the cardiovascular and hematopoietic were determined (388). A method for the determination of trace systems have been tabulated (431). The transmission of the levels of blood cyanide has been developed using headspace GC/ results of drug tests for the International Olympic Committee has NPD (389). A method to detect cyanide in body fluids by been described (432). A review of the quality assurance in forensic fluorometry has been reported (390). An ion chromatography toxicological analysis has been published (433). A field evaluation method with fluorescence and UV detection for the simultaneous of “on-site” multianalyte drug testing devices was performed to determination of cyanide and thiocyanate in blood has been determine the best device available for the purpose of rapidly developed (391). Capillary GC/MS was employed to quantitate detecting drivers under the influence of drugs (434). drugs in biological fluids and stomach contents of a homicidal The determination of drugs of abuse in blood has been poisoning victim (392). The toxicological analysis of postmortem reviewed (435). Methods to detect drugs of abuse in blood have material for silver was performed by flame atomic absorption included immunoassay techniques (436, 437), GC/MS (438), CZE (FAA) (393). A method for measuring sodium azide concentra- (439), HPLC/DAD and capillary GC/FID (440), and SPE and tions in aliquots of blood and other tissues by ion chromatography FIA/tandem MS (441). A review of reference values for thera- has been reported (394). Five abused drugs in nitrite-adulterated peutic and toxic levels for a large number of drugs has been urine have been determined by immunoassays and GC/MS (395). published (442). Nitrite concentrations were measured to determine adulteration Screening for drugs of abuse in urine has been reviewed (443). of urine drug-testing specimens (396). Drugs of abuse have been analyzed in urine by GC/MS (444), General Procedures. The use of CE in the analysis of illicit immunochromatographic techniques (445), immunoassay and drug seizures has been detailed (397). CE was interfaced with a GC/MS (446-448), solid-phase immunoextraction and HPLC/ time-of-flight mass spectrometer and evaluated for the analysis of ECD (449), and SPE and GC/MS (450). A totally automated drugs of abuse (398). The application of micellar electrokinetic procedure has been developed for the preparation and analysis capillary chromatography (MECC) to the analysis of illicit drug of drugs in urine by GC (451). Findings from a multisite laboratory seizures has been presented (399). CE for the separation of chiral evaluation comparing on-site urinalysis drug-test results to results compounds of forensic interest has been reviewed (400). The use from EMIT and GC/MS were reported (452). Vitamin B2 interfer- of GC/MS in forensic science has been reviewed (401). A practical ence with immunoassays has been discussed (453). The integrity approach to determining laboratory GC/MS limits of detection of urine specimens for toxicological analyses with specific refer- has been presented (402). Modification of a chemstation data ence to adulteration, mechanism of action, and laboratory detec- analysis program for addition of automated extraction ion chro- tion has been discussed (454). Urinanalysis was performed on matographic groups for the detection of opiates, barbiturates, and body packers/smugglers (455). benzodiazepines was reported (403). Positive-ion electron impact, A special publication issue has been dedicated to the analysis positive-ion chemical ionization, and negative-ion chemical ioniza- of hair for drugs of abuse (456). Testing of drugs of abuse has tion mass spectra of cocaine and related compounds have been been reviewed (457-462). Drugs of abuse have been analyzed presented and each fragmentation mode was analyzed (404). A in hair by GC/MS (463), HPLC/DAD and GC/MS after SPE

Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 241R (464), infrared microscopy (465, 466), RIA and GC/MS (467), for rapid quantitation of a DNA sample extracted from buccal GC/MS/MS (468), CZE (469), CE (470), and SFE (471). scrapes is presented (495). Literature data related to the merit of hair as a chronological diary Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs). A of drug exposure, as examined by segmental analysis, are comparison of interlaboratory variation in autoradiographic DNA reviewed with emphasis on the mechanisms of drug incorporation, profiling measurements is presented (496). Partial digestion physiology of hair growth, and findings resulting from the products of genomic DNA using HaeIII were characterized (497). research effort and routine analytical results (472). One laboratory Partial digestion products of genomic DNA using HaeIII were has reported their experience for the past 10 years with hair characterized and the results used to interpret casework data testing for drugs of abuse (473). A biochemical approach on the (498). A three-banded pattern due to an internal restriction site conservation of drug molecules during hair fiber formation has in the VNTR D5S43 is described (499). Chemiluminescent been reported (474). The concordance between self-reported drug labeling systems were found to give similar results for RFLP DNA use and findings in hair about cocaine and heroin has been typing as isotopic systems (500). Population data for the VNTR reported (475). The effect of cosmetically treated hair on the loci D1S7, D2S44, D4S139, D5S110, D10S28, and D14S13 were stability of drugs of abuse has been discussed (476). The effect studied in a population from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (501). The of pigmentation on the drug deposition in hair has been reported allelic frequency distribution for three VNTR markers, D6S132, (477). Use of the hair of children to determine drug exposure D7S467, and D17S26, was determined for a population in Rio de has been demonstrated (478). Hair analysis as a potential index Janeiro, Brazil (502). A comparison study of RFLP profiles showed of therapeutic compliance in the treatment of epilepsy has been that concordance between Canadian laboratories is higher than reported (479). that between U.S. laboratories due to use of a single analytical Screening of drugs in synovial fluid of the knee joint and in protocol for all Canadian laboratories (503). Various DNA data- vitreous humor has been reported using fluorescence (480). bases constructed from convenience samples were found to be Testing of drugs of abuse has been reported in saliva and sweat statistically similar to each other (504). (481), in meconium (482), and in nails (483). The chemical factors Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AMP-FLPs). involved in accumulation and retention of fentanyl in hair after The VNTR loci APOB, PAH, and D1S80 were characterized with external exposure or in vivo deposition have been discussed (484). regard to human specificity (505). The validation and implementa- tion of the D1S80 locus for forensic casework is described (506). FORENSIC DNA ANALYSIS Aspermic semen was successfully typed for the PCR-amplified It is striking to note that publication on conventional forensic VNTR locus, D1S80 (507). The D1S80 locus was studied in a serology techniques have virtually disappeared from the citation population from the province of Messina, Italy (508). literature in the past few years. In fact, all but two of the following Short Tandem Repeats (STR). Sequence variation at the papers pertain specifically to aspects of forensic DNA typing. The STR locus D12S391 was investigated (509). Duplex and triplex other two discuss issues of blood chemistry that directly impact DNA analysis. Of the DNA papers, almost all present optimization, amplifications of the STR loci D3S1359, THO1, TPO, FESFPS, and validation, or population studies of PCR-based marker systems, vWFA3131A were evaluated (510). The STR loci FESFPS, FOLP23, with the most recent emphasis on development of short tandem GABRB15, and CYAR04 were studied in the Korean population repeat (STR) loci. Papers discussing automated systems for the (511). The STR loci CSF1PO, TPOX, and THO1 were studied analysis of STR loci have begun to predominate. Studies on using a single-stranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP) mitochondrial DNA typing are also beginning to appear. We have technique (512). The STR locus D21S1 was studied in Japanese arranged the survey primarily by technique or typing system, and and Chinese populations (513). The European DNA profiling then as general methodology, reviews, and case studies. A few group (EDNAP) reported on the STR loci D21S11 and FIBRA papers have been consolidated under a “multisystem” heading (FGA) (514). Three STR loci, D5S818, D7S820, and D13S317, were where the study covered more than one major typing system. studied in sixteen worldwide indigenous human populations and DNA Extraction and Quantitation. A protocol for increasing one chimpanzee population (515). The STR loci D8S1179, D18S51, DNA extraction yield from saliva stains is presented (485). Various D21S11, and FIBRA and the amelogenin locus were amplified as DNA extraction strategies for STR typing were evaluated (486). a pentaplex and studied in the French Caucasian population (516). The recovery and DNA typing of saliva stains from human skin The STR locus vWF was studied in the Palestinian population was investigated (487). A protocol for extraction of DNA from (517). The STR loci vWFA31 and THO1 were studied in an human skeletal remains is presented (488). A procedure for the Austrian population (518). The results of validation studies extraction of liquid blood using the QIAamp spin column is performed on the CTT STR multiplex (CSF1PO, TPOX, and presented (489). A procedure suitable for isolating DNA from THO1) are presented (519). Thirteen STR loci were studied in a samples in the field is described (490). Three DNA extraction Taiwanese Chinese population (520). A worldwide population methods for aged blood and bone samples were evaluated (491). study was conducted using twenty different STR loci (521). A A procedure for the removal of PCR inhibitors from ancient bone heptaplex DNA amplification system containing the STR loci, samples using silica-based spin columns was investigated (492). D1S103, THO1, D21S11, and D18S51, FIBRA, and the amelogenin Methods for the extraction and successful amplification of DNA locus was optimized for forensic use (522). Three STR loci, from ancient bone are described (493). DNA suitable for PCR- CSF1PO, TPOX, and THO1, were studied in a general Australian, based testing could be extracted from cytological smears, histo- an Australian Caucasian, and an Australian Asian population (523). logical sections, and paraffin-embedded tissues (494). A technique Six STR loci, FGA, D8S1179, THO1, vWFA31, D18S51, and

242R Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 D21S11, and amelogenin were coamplified and studied in the about PCR DNA typing from stamps were challenged (555). Australian population (524). The ISFH’s recommendations for STR Comments regarding a previous paper about PCR DNA typing nomenclature are presented (525). EDNAP’s recommendations from stamps were answered (556). An optimized and validated for STR nomenclature are presented (526). The development of protocol for co-amplifying the amelogenin and HLA-DQA1 genes two quadruplex amplification systems for the analysis of STR loci is presented (557). Validation studies from twenty-six forensic (CSF1PO, TPOX, THO1, vWFA31; F13A01, FESFPS, BFXIII, laboratories using the AmpliType PM PCR amplification and LIPOL) is reported (527). The STR locus, CD4, was studied in typing kit are presented (558). The allele and genotype frequen- an Austrian population and validation experiments were performed cies of the AmpliType PM and HLA-DQA1 loci were studied in (528). The results of an interlaboratory study of the STR triplex an Italian population (559). The allele and genotype frequencies CTT (CSF1PO, TPOX, THO1) and the STR quadruplex CTTv of the AmpliType PM and HLA-DQA1 loci were studied in (CSF1PO, TPOX, THO1, vWFA31) were evaluated (529). The STR populations from the Central Pyrenees and Teruel, Spain (560). loci CSF1PO, TPOX, THO1, F13A01, FESFPS, and vWA were Single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis of HLA- studied in the French Canadian population of Quebec (530). The DQA1 amplification products was investigated as a screening tool STR quadruplex THO1, vWA, FESFPS, and F13A01 and amelo- (561). The AmpliType PM + DQA1 marker system was studied genin was studied in an Austrian population (531). The effect of in two New York City Jewish populations (562). The AmpliType degradation on the amplification and typing of the STR loci PM + DQA1 marker system was studied in Arab and Pakistani ACTBP2, CMAG, THO1, CYP19, and LPL was investigated (532). populations living in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (563). The A protocol for the multiplex amplification of four Y chromosome- five loci in the AmpliType PM system were studied in a Japanese specific STR loci is presented (533). A quadruplex system of Y population (564). Using the AmpliType PM + DQA1 PCR typing chromosome STRs is presented (534). Eight STR loci on the Y system, the possible effect of substructure on probability calcula- chromosome were studied in the Basque and Catalan Iberian tions of DNA profiles was investigated in Caucasian, Arabic, populations (535). The same allele designations were obtained Korean, Sioux/Chippewa, Navajo, Pueblo, African American, for STR fragments analyzed by capillary electrophoresis and gel- Southeastern Hispanic, and Southwestern Hispanic populations based systems (536). A logical framework was established for (565). A review of hypothetical problems with the DQA1 + PM taking account of peak areas when interpreting mixed DNA-STR forensic typing kit based on theoretical optimums for primer profiles (537). Sizing precision of a capillary electrophoresis hybridization was presented (566). A population study of the system was shown to allow for accurate genotyping of fluores- markers in the AmpliType PM + DQA1 PCR typing system was cently labeled STR fragments differing in length by a single performed in a German Caucasian population (567). nucleotide (538). German population data were reported for three Multisystem. The ability to detect mixtures in individuals STR loci, D3S1744, D12S1090, and D18S849 (539). Sequencing with blood transfusions using the AmpliType PM + DQA1, D1S80, data and allele distribution for the D12S391 STR locus in an Austria and the STR CTT (CSF1PO, TPOX, THO1) marker systems was population is reported (540). A validation study of the STR studied (568). The efficacy of the PCR-amplified forensic DNA ACTBP2 is reported (541). Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ typing systems AmpliType PM, HLA-DQA1, THO1, vWFA31, ionization was used for the detection of tetranucleotide STRs using F13B, and FESFPS was investigated for stained cytological smears a time-of-flight mass spectrometer (542). Allele frequencies of four (569). The effect of using different reference databases to estimate STR loci, CD4, THO1, D21S11, and SE33, were reported for the the frequency of a DNA profile using the PCR-based systems Belgian population (543). The AMFLSTR Blue PCR amplification AmpliType PM + DQA1 and D1S80 was investigated (570). kit, which coamplifies the STR loci D3S1358, vWFA31, and FGA, Mitochondrial DNA Typing. Mitochondrial DNA sequencing was validated according to TWGDAM guidelines (544). The STR was used to compare DNA from the nephew of Tzar Nikolai II locus D12S391 was analyzed in a German and three Asian Romanov with DNA from the putative remains of the Tzar (571). populations (545). The accuracy of an automated fluorescent Detection of mitochondrial DNA variants using (SSCP) analysis detection system for the STR locus D12S391 was investigated of superposed restriction enzyme fragments from PCR-amplified using band shift analysis relative to an allelic ladder (546). The products was investigated (572). The rate and pattern of inter- STR locus D3S1358 was studied in the German population (547). generational substitutions in the human mitochondrial DNA The STR locus vWFA31 was studied in a Qatari population (548). control region was investigated (573). The extent of mitochondrial The STR locus D3S1359 is described (549). A study was DNA heterogeneity in European populations is described (574). performed to detect changes in absorbance and fluorescence of A family exhibiting heteroplasmy in the human mitochondrial complexes of DNA-STR fragments with specific intercalating dyes DNA control region was studied for somatic mosaicism and (550). The STR locus B8S306 was studied in a German population segregation of mitotypes (575). Sequence variation in the mito- (551). chondrial DNA control region in the Korean population was Gender Identification. Because some males apparently lack studied (576). A procedure was reported for mitochondrial DNA a Y copy of amelogenin, the PCR gender test based on this gene typing using restriction enzyme digestion of PCR amplicons (577). incorrectly typed them as females (552). A de novo deletion of Forensic applications of mitochondrial DNA typing are reviewed Yq resulted in a failure to detect any signal with a DYZ1 probe (578). Mitochondrial DNA typing for the legal and law enforce- (553). ment community is reviewed (579). The results of mitochondrial AmpliType PM and HLA-DQA1. The frequency of HLA- DNA sequencing on evidence samples from three robberies were DQA1 alleles, including the subtypes 4.1 and 4.2/4.3, was studied reported (580). A protocol for washing hair shafts before mito- in a Swiss population (554). Conclusions from a previous paper chondrial DNA sequencing was developed (581). The decision,

Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 243R Tennessee vs Ware, in which mitochondrial DNA sequencing was of bloodstain age by HPLC (617). A reliable method (CE/MS) admitted for the first time in a U.S. court, was reviewed (582). for detecting low concentrations of EDTA in human plasma General Methodology. Using degenerate oligonucleotide samples is presented (618). primed PCR, as little as 15 pg of human genomic DNA was uniformly amplified (583). The results of using a four-color TRACE EVIDENCE capillary array electrophoresis scanner for DNA sequencing are Paint. A survey of the evidential value of paint in traffic reported (584). Instability in minisatellite repeat DNA appears to accident cases has been undertaken (619). A paint database be controlled by flanking recombination initiation elements (585). developed in Canada has proven valuable in forensic identifications The ability to perform PCR DNA testing on stained tissue samples (620). The frequency of occurrence of paint chips and glass was investigated (586). The results of high-speed DNA genotyping fragments on clothing has been determined (621). Several using microfabricated capillary array electrophoresis chips are different quinacridone pigments have been identified in single- presented (587). A protocol for direct PCR amplification from layer U.S. automobile original topcoats (1974-1989) by infrared paraffin-embedded tissue is described (588). The efficacy of PCR- spectroscopy (622, 623). FT-IR microscopy and SEM/energy based forensic DNA typing systems was evaluated for formalin- dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) have been applied for the fixed and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues (589). A examination of multilayer fragments of automobile paints (624). procedure was developed for sequential multiplex amplification FT-IR microspectroscopy has been applied for examination of in forensic samples (590). The different mobility of complementary paints transferred onto different kinds of fabrics (625). Recent DNA strands on denaturing polyacrylamide gels depends on the changes in automotive paint formulations have been investigated proportion of AC/GT (591). Fluorescence in situ hybridization using pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (626). (FISH) was determined to be unsuitable for determination of sex Fibers. On the basis of microscopic characteristics, fluores- in telogen hairs (592). The electrophoretic behavior of DNA cent properties, and microspectrophotometry, a majority of red, fragments in denaturing and nondenaturing polyacrylamide gels blue, and green cotton fiber samples were discriminated (627). was compared (593). Improvements in PCR yield and specificity Observations with regard to dyes on fibers have been made with using the AmpiTaq Gold DNA polymerase enzyme were reported the aid of FT-IR (628). X-ray fluorescence microanalysis was (594). reported to significantly increase the discrimination power be- Reviews, Cases, and Miscellaneous. Forensic DNA analy- tween colorless fibers (629). The forensic analysis of microfibers sis systems, including RFLP and HLA-DQA1, are reviewed (595). has been reviewed (630). A review of the studies of fiber transfer RFLP and PCR methods for forensic DNA analysis are reviewed and persistence and determinations of the significance of fiber (596). The history of forensic DNA analysis is reviewed (597). evidence has been presented (631). The forensic value of common Forensic DNA analysis in Europe, with an emphasis on standard- fibers when they appear in certain garments or combinations has ization efforts, is reviewed (598). The state of forensic DNA typing been evaluated (632). The retention and recovery of transferred is reviewed (599). Past and future uses of capillary electrophoresis fibers following the washing of clothing has been evaluated (633). are reviewed (600). The National Research Council’s report, The Fiber transfer of wool to vinyl and leather vehicle seats has been Evaluation of Forensic DNA Evidence was summarized (601). Also studied (634). The frequency of the fiber population on car seats note The Proceedings of the European Symposium: Ethical and has been studied (635, 636). The frequency of fibers on outdoor Legal Issues of DNA Typing in Forensic Medicine (602). A PCR surfaces has been evaluated (637). The frequency of occurrence method for genotyping the ABO blood group II A2 and O2 alleles of blue wool fibers on seats in pubs has been undertaken (638). is presented (603). PCR methods for genotyping the ABO The frequency of occurrence of a red acrylic fiber on various items subtypes A1,A2,OA,OG, and O2 are presented (604). The analysis of clothing was studied (639). A significant number of common of ribosomal DNA as a tool for the identification of C. sativa L. fibers have been found in the head hair of individuals (640). The specimens was investigated (605). A procedure for the detection value of fibers as forensic evidence has been studied from a and identification of cannabis by DNA typing is reported (606). statistical point of view (641). A pattern-recognition algorithm The possibilities for using DNA analysis in toxicology are combined with near-IR reflectance spectroscopy has been modified discussed (607). The results of forensic DNA tying as an to function as a nondestructive analytical technique for identifying identification tool in several mass disasters are presented (608). dyes present on textiles (642). Provided the dye concentration in DNA typing was used for identification of mass disaster victims the fiber is sufficient, it is possible to make some general (609). Five cases are described in which STR typing was observations on the type of dyes that have been used with FT-IR performed (610). In a paternity case, two mutations out of nineteen microspectroscopy (643). A diffuse reflectance Fourier transform PCR-based markers tested were observed (611). DNA typing of IR spectroscopy (DRIFTS) investigation was performed on a series skeletal remains was discussed in the context of identifying bodies of poplin cotton fabrics treated with a bifunctional reactive dye from mass graves (612). The resolution of a paternity case (644). A set of fibers, mainly synthetic, were successfully involving apparently conflicting single-locus and multilocus DNA examined by Raman microprobe spectroscopy (645). FT-Raman typing results is discussed (613). The results of genetic investiga- microscopy has been used to characterize the natural plant fibers tion into the origin and gender of dried blood on a statue of the flax, jute, ramie, cotton, kapok, sisal, and coconut fiber (646). Virgin Mary suggest blood of human, female origin (614). DNA Pyrolysis gas chromatography has been used to identify minute analysis in the case of Christine Jessop is described (615). The samples of wool fiber (647). FT-IR microspectroscopy, SEM/EDX, results of a case involving a blood mixture were interpreted using microscopy, and X-ray diffraction have been successfully applied a tree diagram (616). A procedure is suggested for the estimation to the characterization of thermally changed fibers (648). Polariza-

244R Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 tion FT-IR microspectroscopic data have been obtained from and other cartridge-related materials (674). A review of all aspects unstretched and stretched poly(ethylene terephthalate) single of analysis associated with gunshot residues has been published fibers (649). (675). Sampling protocols for the detection of smokeless powder Glass. Refractive index and elemental compositions have been organic residues using capillary electrophoresis have been re- used to classify glass (650). Changes in refractive index after ported (676). reannealing have been used to characterize windshield glass Petroleum Products. A review of common techniques for (651). The interpretation of elemental composition measurements characterizing accelerants recovered from fire scenes has been from forensic glass evidence has been explored (652). The published (677). Retention of gasoline and diesel fuel samples interpretation of elemental composition measurements from on charcoal has been assessed (678). In the course of a routine forensic glass evidence has been explored (653). Studies have fire investigation, three commonly available fuel injector cleaners been carried out to investigate the number of glass fragments were analyzed by GC (679). An overall scheme has been transferred to the clothing of a person in the vicinity of a breaking presented for the comprehensive analysis of flammable and window (654, 655). The transfer of glass between a person who combustible liquid residues in fire debris, mainly utilizing passive has broken a window and other person in close vicinity has been adsorption onto Tenax followed by thermal desorption (680). The investigated (656). The transfer of glass from the surface of a utility of individual mass spectrometer ion profiles vs summed card bound box to the cloth of the person carrying the box has ion profiles in the analysis of petroleum residues related to arson been investigated (657). The distribution of glass fragments on investigations has been demonstrated (681). Selected ion profiles the ground near a vehicle when the windshield has been broken of fire debris extracts for the purpose of differentiating background has been examined (658). It has been found that glass fragment residues produced by burning asphalt from liquid petroleum shapes cannot be used to distinguish glass acquired by backward distillates have been investigated (682). GC/MS/MS has been fragmentation from a broken window or glass acquired through shown to be a highly sensitive technique for identifying the contact with a broken window (659). A statistical treatment for presence of gasoline residues (683). Motor oils were examined grouping glass fragments recovered in a forensic case has been with respect to changes in their elemental composition during described (660). The evidential value of glass from a statistical their use in an automobile (684). Electronic aroma detection point of view has been presented (661). Sampling problems in technologies for the detection and identification of accelerants and glass analyses have been studied from a statistical point of view their residues in suspected arson debris were investigated (685). (662). A statistical approach to the significance of glass evidence Explosives. Capillary electrochromatography has been used has been proposed using independent physicochemical measure- to separate a series of nitroaromatic and nitramine explosive ments and chemometrics (663). compounds (686). Micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatogra- Gunpowder and Primer Residue Detection. During the phy has been used to separate organic explosive constituents course of a study, fireworks were found that generated gunshot (687). Capillary electrophoresis was applied to the analysis residue (GSR)-similar particles, those particles being found both inorganic ions in low-explosive residues (688). A novel electrolyte on the hands of professional fireworks technicians and in the has been developed for the effective separation by capillary combustion plume of consumer-grade devices (664).The com- electrophoresis of cations detected in low-explosive residues (689). parison of properties of adhesive tapes, tabs, and liquids used for The use of micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography has the collection of gunshot residue and other trace materials for been applied for the separation and identification of high-explosive SEM analysis has been reported (665). The mechanism of GSR components in postexplosive samples (690). The application of deposition on the hands of a shooter has been studied. GSR has solid-phase microextraction to the recovery of residues of organic been characterized by SEM/EDX (666). The concentrations of explosives by headspace sampling has been discussed (691). A antimony, barium, and lead in gunshot residue collection swab systematic approach to the identification of water-gel explosives extract solutions were determined using inductively coupled has been described (692). A capillary-based displacement flow plasma-mass spectrometry (667). It was found that 86% of the immunosensor has been successfully evaluated for the detection mercury was vaporized after discharge from mercury fulminate of the explosive, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) (693). A Raman primed ammunition, 88% of which was not detectable by SEM microspectroscope has been developed and successfully used to (668). Shooting tests were carried out using ammunition having detect a range of narcotics and explosives, both pure and antimony-free primers and in which the highest content of contaminated (694). antimony on the surface of projectiles was observed. A very small Fingerprints. A new class of reagents, 1,2-indanediones, was percentage of gunshot residue particles containing antimony was successfully evaluated for latent print visualization on paper (695). found in these tests (669). X-ray microfluoresence spectrometry An IR wide-band tunable pulse laser has been used to detect latent has been successfully evacuated as a technique for the elemental fingerprints (696). FT-IR analysis has been used to measure the analysis of firearm discharge residues on the hands of a firer quantity of polymer deposition associated with cyanoacrylate- (670). A proposed criterion for uniquely characterizing GSR has fumed fingerprints (697). A lipid-specific europium bioconjugate been offered (671). The smokeless powders in 22 kinds of method for latent fingerprint detection has been evaluated (698, ammunitions were analyzed by SEM/EDX. This study demon- 699). A lipid-specific lanthanide-based method of latent fingerprint strates that smokeless powder could be the source of some of detection on currency has been described (700). A latent the elements detected in GSR (672). Potential sources of GSR fingerprint development method using ruthenium tetroxide has contamination has been investigated (673). A database was been described (701). A hydrogen peroxide solution was used to devised for the identification of ammunition from gunshot residues clean cartridge cases and to aid in the development of latent prints

Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 245R on cartridge cases (702). The application of image enhancement (XEF) and by microscopy (738). The application of pyrolysis GC techniques in fingerprints has been reviewed (703). Visualization to the detection of art forgeries has been described (739). The of latent prints has been reported by placing the fingerprint inside underlying theory for the electrostatic imaging of forensic a corona discharge induced plasma (704). Fingerprints have been evidence has been reviewed (740). The analysis of EDTA in dried developed on fired cartridge cases by metal vapor deposition bloodstains by electrospray LC/MS/MS and ion chromatography (705). A potential replacement for the CFC113-based ninhydrin has been reported (741). An introduction to CE techniques relative formulation has been proposed (706, 707). A design allows the to forensic science has been published (742). Recent advances real-time observations of latent fingerprints by short- wave UV in CE techniques relative to forensic science has been reviewed luminescence (708). A design allows the real-time observation of (743). The application and limitations of color comparisons in latent fingerprints by short-wave UV luminescence (709). Visual- forensic science has been reviewed (744). A Bayesian approach ized fingerprints on unfired brass cartridge cases developed by to interpreting footwear impressions has been developed (745). palladium deposition were examined by Auger electron spectros- The use of a white adhesive lifter to remove footwear imprints in copy, SEM, and electron probe microscopy (710). The observation dust and then their subsequent enhancement with a pH indicator that the fingerprints of children disappear from surfaces more has been described (746). Various methods for chemical enhance- quickly than those of adults initiated a study to characterize the ment of footwear impressions in blood have been evaluated (747). chemical components in fingerprints (711). The potential role the Internet can have in forensic science Miscellaneous. The capillary zone electrophoresis of water- services has been explored (748). A review of forensic science soluble inks was examined (712). sites on the Internet has been presented (749). The identifying CE was used to analyze roller ball pen inks (713). Writing and characteristics of paper lunch bags have been studied (750). The printing inks were analyzed by micellar electrokinetic capillary criteria for firearms and toolmark identification have been chromatography (714). CE was applied to the analysis of fountain reviewed (751). A new approach to decision making in the forensic pen inks (715). Writing inks have been analyzed by TLC and FT- science laboratory base on the principles of Bayesian inference IR analysis (716). Printing inks have been analyzed by TLC (717). has been described (752). The technology of computerized image The stability of different writing inks to fading on different paper analysis for the identification of bullets and cartridge casings has products was examined (718). The chemical reactions occurring been described (753). Problems associated with the interpretation on paper between different liquid erasures and writing inks have of scientific evidence were evaluated with the aid of the Bayesian been studied (719). Colored toner samples were characterized theory (754). by FT-IR and GC/MS (720). Black toner samples were character- The introductory textbook Criminalistics: An Introduction to ized by FT-IR and SEM/EDX (721, 722). Black toner samples Forensic Science (755) has been revised. Case readings and were characterized by DRIFTS, SEM/EDX, and pyrolysis gas overviews of forensic science topics can be found in More chromatography (723). Chemistry and Crime (756), Science and the Detective (757), and Forensic soil analysis has been applied to the investigation of Crime Scene to Court (758). Appropriate techniques for conducting an airplane crash (724). A technique for the forensic comparison a crime scene investigation have been described in First Unit of soils based on automated SEM has been devised (725). The Responder (759). Three detailed books have been published on forensic value of the pollen content of soil for forensic evaluations the subject of blood spatter interpretation (760-762). An essential has been investigated (726). Purge-and-trap gas chromatography reference text for analysts involved in arson investigation is GC- was used as a direct analytical technique for lipstick smears (727). MS Guide to Ignitable Liquids (763). Two standard textbooks Raman spectroscopy has been studied for its utility as an analytical relating to arson investigating have been revised (764, 765). An technique for lipstick smears (728). in-depth treatment of forensic aspects of explosion investigation The analysis of wax-based products by capillary GC/MS has can be found in Forensic Investigation of Explosions (766). An been reported (729). excellent reference text relating to all aspects of forensic drug Lachrymators have been identified by ambient temperature analyses is the Drug Abuse Handbook (767). Also, A Brief History ion mobility spectrometry (730). Different formulations of the of Cocaine (768) has been published. Excellent reference texts lachrymator oleoresin capsicum have been distinguished by have been published in forensic toxicology. They are Analytical chemical and elemental analysis (731). The detection, identifica- Toxicology for Clinical Forensic and Pharmaceutical Chemists (769) tion, persistence, and ballistic properties of lachrymators were and Handbook of Drug Analysis (770). studied (732). A hand-held ion mobility spectrometer was used A comprehensive treatise on fingerprint analysis has been to characterize the vapors produced by samples of CN and CS published (771). Formerly titled DNA Demystified, this revision, tear gas sprays (733). now An Introduction to Forensic DNA Analysis, retains a basic An ICPMS method measured the percentage of antimony, introduction to scientific and legal issues in forensic DNA typing amounts of trace elements, and lead isotopic ratios of the bullets. and adds chapters on interpretation and quality assurance (772). This approach was shown to be feasible for comparing bullet alloys DNA Fingerprinting is another readable introductory book on the (734). A number of reagents have been tested for determining subject of forensic DNA profiling and paternity testing (773). A metal traces on the hand emanating from firearms (735). Latent number of other books have been published on forensic aspects imprints that are formed by the close contact between the metallic of DNA analysis (774-778). The Proceedings of the 14th Meeting parts of a weapon and the palm of the hand were visualized by of the International Association of Forensic Sciences has been the application a pyrdyldiphenyltriazine (PDT) reagent (736, 737). released (779). An excellent book entitled Spot Test Analysis (780) Counterfeit coins were investigated using X-ray fluorescence as has been published, as has Atlas of Human Hair (781), an

246R Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 71, No. 12, June 15, 1999 essential reference for analysts engaged in hair comparisons. The (4) Silverman, L. D.; Wong, K.; Miller, S. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1997, 21- (5), 369. widely used reference book Gunshot Wounds (782) has been (5) Tsokos, M.; Bilzer, N. Blutalkohol 1997, 34(6), 405. revised. (6) Bilzer, N.; Schewe, G.; Blauert, J.; Kirschall, C. Blutalkohol 1997, 34(2), 89. (7) Logan, B. K.; Gullberg, R. G. J. Forensic Sci. 1998, 43(1), 239. Thomas A. Brettell is Chief Forensic Scientists of the New Jersey State (8) Logan, B. K.; Distefano, S.; Case, G. A. J. Forensic Sci. 1998, Police Forensic Science Bureau. He received his B.A. degree (1973) in 43(1), 197. chemistry from Drew University, Madison, NJ; a M.S. degree (1975) in (9) Caldwell, J. P.; Kim, N. D. J. Forensic Sci. 1997, 42(6), 1080. chemistry from Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA. Dr. Brettell joined the (10) Stowell, A. R.; Stowell, L. I. J. Forensic Sci. 1998, 43(1), 14. New Jersey State Police Forensic Science Bureau in 1976. Dr. Brettell (11) Ito, A.; Moriya, F.; Ishizu, H. Acta Med Okayama 1998, 52(1), was awarded The Chromatography Forum of the Delaware Valley Award 1. in 1997. He has been a member of the faculty of the New Jersey Governor’s (12) Jones, A. W.; Norberg, A.; Hahn, R. G. J. Forensic Sci. 1997, School in the Sciences since 1984 and teaches forensic science in the Law 42(6), 1088. and Justice Departments of The College of New Jersey and Rider University. (13) Zink, M.; Troeger, H. D.; Zink, P. Blutalkohol 1997, 34(6), 413. He is a past-president of the Chromatography Forum of the Delaware (14) Alt, A.; Jensen, U.; Seidl, S. Blutalkohol 1998, 35(4), 275. Valley and has served on the A-Page Advisory Board of Analytical (15) Amick, G. D.; Habben, K. H. J. Forensic Sci. 1997, 42(4), 690. Chemistry. Dr. Brettell is on the Board of Governors of the Eastern (16) McCarver-May, D. G.; Dursisin, L. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1997, 21- Analytical Symposium, a Fellow in the American Academy of Forensic (2), 134. Scientists, and a certified Fellow of the American Board of Criminalistics. (17) Dubowski, K. M.; Gadsden, Sr.; R. H.; Poklis, A. J. Anal. Toxicol. He also holds memberships in the American Chemical Society, the New 1997, 21(6), 486. Jersey Association of Forensic Scientists, and the Northeastern Association (18) Penton, Z. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. 1997, 30(1), 7. of Forensic Scientists. His present research interests include headspace (19) Perez-Ponce, A.; Garrigues, S.; de la Guardia, M. Anal. Chim. analysis in gas chromatography. Acta 1996, 336(1-3), 123. (20) Moore, K. A.; Kunsman, G. W.; Levine, B. S.; Herman, M. M. Keith Inman is currently employed as a senior criminalist by the Forensic Sci. Int. 1997, 86(1, 2), 127. California Department of Justice DNA Laboratory. Mr. Inman holds a (21) Grellner, W.; Iffland, R. Forensic Sci. Int. 1997, 90, 57. B.S. and M.Crim., both from the University of California at Berkeley. In (22) Iwasaki, Y.; Yashiki, M.; Namera, A.; Miyazaki, T.; Kojima, T. his professional career he has been employed as a criminalist by the Orange Forensic Sci. Int. 1998, 94(1, 2), 111. County Sheriff’s Department, the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department, (23) Ohshima, T.; Kondo, T.; Salo, Y.; Takayasu, T. Forensic Sci. Int. the Los Angeles County Chief Medical Examiner-Coroner, and the 1997, 90, 131. Oakland Police Department. He was in private practice for six years at (24) Thomsen, J. L.; Simonsen, K. W.; Felby, S.; Frohlich, B. Forensic Forensic Science Services of CA Inc., a private crime laboratory. Mr. Sci. Int. 1997, 90, 33. Inman has coauthored An Introduction Forensic Analysis, a book that (25) Jones, A. W.; Hahn, R. G. Forensic Sci. Int. 1997, 90, 175. has become the preeminent reference for both attorneys and crime (26) Brown, A. St J. M.; James, O. F. W. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther. laboratories. He teaches a variety of general forensic and forensic DNA 1998, 12(2), 141. courses for the University of California at Berkeley extension, on-line for (27) Jones, A. W. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1998, 22(3), 184. Knowledge Solutions, and a criminal investigation course for California (28) Jones, A. W. Forensic Sci. Int. 1998, 93, 127. State University at Hayward. Mr. Inman is a member of California (29) Logan, B. K.; Distefano, S. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1998, 22(3), 181. Association of Criminalists and a Fellow of the American Board of (30) Haffner, H.-T.; Besserer, K.; Graw, M.; Voges, S. Forensic Sci. Criminalistics. Int. 1997, 86(1, 2) 69. (31) Haffner, H.-T.; banger, M.; Graw, M.; Besserer, K.; Brink, T. Forensic Sci. Int. 1997, 89, 129. Norah Rudin is a private forensic DNA consultant, author, and (32) Skurtveit, S.; Christophersen, A. S.; Beylich, K. M.; Bjorneboe educator. She was previously a DNA research consultant with the A.; Morland, J. Forensic Sci. Int. 1998, 92, 21. California Department of Justice DNA Laboratory and is currently Acting (33) Augsburger, M.; Riviera, L. Forensic Sci. Int. 1997, 85, 95. Technical Leader for the Idaho State Department of Law Enforcement (34) Dasgupta, A. Steinagel, G. J. Forensic Sci. 1997, 42(4), 697. DNA Laboratory. She is coauthor of An Introduction to Forensic DNA J. Forensic Sci. 42 Analysis (CRC Press, 1997) and author of Dictionary of Modern Biology (35) Ward, M. E.; Meyerhein, R. F. 1997, (2), 344. (Barron’s, 1997). Dr. Rudin earned a B.A. in zoology at Pomona College (36) Broussard, L. A.; Brustowicz, T.; Pittman, T.; Atkins, K. D.; in Claremont, CA, and received her Ph.D. from the Department of Biology Presley, L. J. Forensic Sci. 1997, 42(6), 1186. at Brandeis University with a concentration in molecular biology and (37) Isedschmid, O. S.; Cassin, B. J.; Hepler, B. R.; Kanluen, S. J. genetics. She is an instructor for the University of California at Berkeley Forensic Sci. 1998, 43(1), 231. Extension, teaching both forensic DNA and general forensic science (38) De Maere, S.; Meyer, E.; Dirinck, I.; Lambert, W.; Piette, M.; courses. She is also developer and instructor of on-line forensic DNA and Van Peteghem, C.; De Leenheer, A. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1997, 21(3), forensic science courses with Knowledge Solutions. She is a published 223. author of numerous general and academic articles. Her work has appeared (39) Park, S.; Kim, N.; Yang, Y.; Seo, B.; Paeng, K.-J. J. Forensic Sci. in Genetics, Molecular and Cell Biology, San Francisco Daily Journal, 1998, 43(4), 888. CAC News, Jurimetrics, TIE-LINE, and other professional journals. Dr. (40) Barbera, N.; Bulla, G.; Romano, G. J. Forensic Sci. 1998, 43(6), Rudin lectures and has presented abstracts and scientific papers on genetics 1250. and forensic DNA analysis throughout the United States and internation- (41) Brandenberger, H. Anal. Toxicol. Clin. Forensic Pharm. Chem. ally. Dr. Rudin is a provisional member of California Association of 1997, 563. Criminalists. (42) Ise, H.; Kudo, K.; Jitsufuchi, N.; Imamura, T.; Ikeda, N. J. Chromatogr., B: Biomed. Sci. Appl. 1997, 698(1-2), 97. (43) Pihlainen, K.; Ojanpera, I. Forensic Sci. Int. 1998, 97, 117. Richard Saferstein is a forensic science consultant. He retired as Chief (44) Ojanpera, I.; Pihlainen, K.; Vuori, E. J. Anal. Toxicol. 1998, 22(4), Forensic Scientist of the New Jersey State Police Laboratory in 1991. He 290. received B.S. and M.A. degrees from the City College of New York in (45) Brewer, W. E.; Galipo, R. C.; Morgan, S. L.; Habben, K. H. J. 1963 and 1966, respectively. He received his Ph.D. degree in chemistry Anal. Toxicol. 1997, 21(4), 286. from the City University of New York in 1970. Prior to his coming to the (46) Cole, M. D. Forensic Sci. Rev. 1998, 10(2), 113. New Jersey State Police in 1970, he was employed as a forensic chemist (47) Cartier, J.; Gueniat, O.; Cole, M. D. Sci. Justice 1997, 37(3), 175. with the Treasury Department (1964-1968) and served as an analytical (48) Jumbelic, M. I. J. Forensic Sci. 1998, 43(1), 228. chemist with Shell Chemical Co. (1969-1970). Dr. Saferstein is the (49) Levine, B.; D’Nicuola, J.; Kunsman, G.; Smith, M.; Stahl, C. author of a number of technical papers covering a variety of forensic topics. Toxicology 1996, 115(1-3), 129. He has also written a book (six editions) on the subject titled Criminal- (50) Levine, B.; Green, D.; Saki, S.; Symons, A.; Smialek, J. E. Can. istics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (Prentice-Hall, 1998) and Soc. Forensic Sci. 1997, 30(2), 75. has edited Forensic Science Handbook, Volumes I-lII (Prentice-Hall, (51) Backstrom, B.; Cole, M. D.; Carrott, M. J.; Jones, D. C.; Davidson, 1982, 1988, 1993), and More Chemistry and Crime (Oxford University G.; Coleman, K. Sci. Justice 1997, 37(2), 91. Press, 1997). Dr. Saferstein has served on the editorial boards of the (52) Smith, R. M. J. Forensic Sci. 1997, 42(4), 610. Journal of Forensic Sciences, Journal of Applied and Analytical Pyrolysis, (53) Buchanan, B. E.; O’Connel, D. Sci. Justice 1998, 38(4), 221. and Microchemical Journal. He is a member of the American Chemical (54) Lurie, I. S.; Meyers, R.; Conver, T. S. Anal. Chem. 1998, 70(15), Society, the American Academy of Forensic Science, the American 3255. Microchemical Society, The Forensic Science Society, the Society of (55) Stefanidou, M.; Dona, A.; Athanaselis, S.; Papoutisis, I.; Koutse- Forensic Toxicologists, the Canadian Society of Forensic Scientists, the linis, A. Forensic Sci. Int. 1998, 95(2), 153. Northeastern Association of Forensic Scientists, the Northwestern As- (56) Alt, A.; Reinhardt, G. Blutalkohol 1997, 34(4), 286. sociation of Forensic Scientists, and the Mid-Atlantic Association of (57) Landi, S. J. Plant Nutr. 1997, 20(2, 3), 311. Forensic Scientists. (58) Horrocks, M.; Bedford, K. R.; Morgan-Smith, R. K. J. 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