New Social Movements in Northeast India: Contextualizing Environmentalism in Contemporary Collective Action
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NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN NORTHEAST INDIA: CONTEXTUALIZING ENVIRONMENTALISM IN CONTEMPORARY COLLECTIVE ACTION DAVID BUHRIL DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE MIZORAM UNIVERSITY NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN NORTHEAST INDIA: CONTEXTUALIZING ENVIRONMENTALISM IN CONTEMPORARY COLLECTIVE ACTION BY DAVID BUHRIL DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE Submitted In partial fulfillment of the requirement of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science of Mizoram University, Aizawl. MIZORAM UNIVERSITY Post Box No. 190 Gram : MZU AIZAWL: MIZORAM Phone : (0389) 2331610 www.mzu.edu.in Fax : 0389 – 2331610 Prof. K.V. Reddy Department of Political Science CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled “NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN NORTHEAST INDIA: CONTEXTUALIZING ENVIRONMENTALISM IN CONTEMPORARY COLLECTIVE ACTION,” submitted by DAVID BUHRIL for the award of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, is a research work, done under my supervision and guidance. The thesis, submitted by him has not formed the basis for the award to the scholar for any degree or any other similar title and it has not yet been submitted as a dissertation or thesis in any university. I also certify that the thesis represents objective study and independent work of the scholar. (PROF. K. V. REDDY) SUPERVISOR DECLARATION MIZORAM UNIVERSITY JUNE/2020 I, David Buhril, hereby declare that the subject matter of this thesis is the record of the work done by me, that the contents of this thesis did not form basis of the award of any previous degree to me or to the best of my knowledge to anybody else, and that the thesis has not been submitted by me for any research degree in any other University / Institute. This is being submitted to the Mizoram University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science. (DAVID BUHRIL) Candidate (PROF. J.K. PATNAIK) (PROF. K.V. REDDY) Head Supervisor i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My heartiest thanks to my supervisor, Prof. K. V. Reddy, Department of Political Science, Mizoram University, whose guidance, support, understanding, valuable inputs and suggestions have abundantly enriched my work and enabled me to complete my work. The trust that he built for me was more than faith. I remain indebted to him. I extend my thanks to all the faculty members and staff of the Department of Political Science for admitting me to Ph.D. program and allowing me to pursue a subject of my interests.I extend my gratitude to all the interviewees whose valuable responses to my interview have immensely helped me to demystify my work. My sincere thanks to the families of Andy Ngurkhuma Pudaite, Paul Lalhriatpuia Ralsun and Robert Sanglora Khawbung for their generous support and for building me a home away from home. May God bless them abundantly. I thank my wife Lilypar and Lalrinmoi, my mother in law, for extending all the support. This research initiative would not be possible without the abundant support of my family. Their endless prayer remains a blessing; keeping me sane and enthused during the long years it took to bring my research into being. I thank my friends and particularly my mother’s prayer partners for their encouragement and endless prayer support. I am so blessed. Above all, I thank the Almighty God for enabling me to pursue my dream and finish the long chase that I have nursed for so long. Dated: June 5, 2020. Mizoram University (DAVID BUHRIL) ii ABBREVIATIONS NSMs – New Social Movements NGOs – Non Governmental Organizations CSOs – Civil Society Organizations SANDRP - South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People DONER - Department of Development of the North Eastern Region CEA - Central Electricity Authority NHPC - National Hydro Power Corporation NEEPCO - North Eastern Electric Power Corporation SEBs -State Electricity Boards INGOs - International Non-Governmental Organizations KMSS - Krishak Mukti Sangram Samiti LSHP - Lower Subansiri Hydropower Project AFSPA - Armed Forces Special Powers Act EMRIP - Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples FPIC - Free, Prior and Informed Consent MoEF - Ministry of Environment and Forest WCD - World Commission on Dams IGOs – Inter- Governmental Organizations WCED - World Commission on Environment and Development MLR&LR Act - Manipur Land Revenue and Land Reforms (MLR&LR) Act NHPC - National Hydro Power Corporation MW – Mega Watt iii RF – Reserved Forest EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment EAC - Expert Appraisal Committee PAPs – Project Affected Persons AASU - All Assam Students Union NEC - North-Eastern Council UNC - United Naga Council NWUM - Naga Women’s Union, Manipur ANSAM - All Naga Students Association, Manipur NPMHR - Naga People’s Movement for Human Rights CATD - Committee Against Tipaimukh Dam MoU - Memorandum of Understanding ZU - Zeliangrong Union ZWU - Zeliangrong Women Union ZYF - Zeliangrong Youth Front CCCD - Citizens Concern for Dams and Development HSA – Hmar Student’s Association SIPHRO - Sinlung Indigenous Peoples Human Rights Organisation WCD - World Commission on Dams YMA - Young Mizo Association MZP - Mizo Zirlai Pawl MHIP - Mizo Hmeichhia Inzawmkhawm Pawl MUP - Mizo Upa Pawl HI - Hmar Inpui iv HYA - Hmar Youth Association HWA - Hmar Women’s Association ACTIP - Action Committee Against Tipaimukh Project TMHP - Tipaimukh Multipurpose Hydroelectric Project PFR - Preliminary Feasibility Report DPR - Detailed Project Report CERTIFICATE DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i ABBREVIATIONS ii-iv CONTENTS CHAPTER – 1: INTRODUCTION 1-76 CHAPTER- 2: ENVIRONMENTALISM AND NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A CONCEPTUAL VIEW 77-133 2.1 ENVIRONMENTALISM: LOCATING THE ROOTS OF NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 2.2 LINKING ENVIRONMENTALISM TO THE PARADIGM OF NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 2.3 ENVIRONMENTALISM AND POLITICAL THEORY 2.4 ENVIRONMENTALISM AND SOCIAL LOCATION THEORY 2.5 MICRO THEORIES OF ENVIRONMENTALISM 2.6 OLD UNIONS AND NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 2.7 ENGENDERING NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 2.8 SYNTHESIZING NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS DEFINITION 2.9 ENQUIRING ENVIRONMENTALISM AS NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN NORTHEAST INDIA CHAPTER-3: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 134-203 3.1 MAJOR THEORISTS OF NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 3.2 DEBATES ON NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 3.3 CLASS CULTURE AND THE NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 3.4 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND THE REVISED CLASS CONCEPT 3.5 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS, ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS 3.6 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN NORTHEAST INDIA: CONSCIOUSNESS FROM WITHOUT 3.7 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: NEGOTIATING NEW FRONTIERS CHAPTER-4: NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS, CIVIL SOCIETY AND POLITICS 204-242 4.1 IDENTITY AND PARTICIPANTS IN NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 4.2 THE EMERGENCE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 4.3 CIVIL SOCIETY IN INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM 4.4 THEORY OF CIVIL SOCIETY 4.5 RURAL NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN THE AGE OF GLOBALIZATION 4.6 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND THE LANGUAGE OF RIGHTS 4.7 POLITICS OF THE CIVIL SOCIETY 4.8 ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS AND THE CIVIL SOCIETY 4.9 ENVIRONMENTAL DEMOCRACY: MULTIPLE MEANINGS, MULTIPLE PRAXES 4.10 EMPOWERING ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS CHAPTER-5: NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN NORTHEAST INDIA: A CASE STUDY OF KRISHAK MUKTI SANGRAM SAMITI (KMSS) MOVEMENTS (ASSAM) AND ANTI-TIPAIMUKH DAM MOVEMENTS (MANIPUR) 243-337 5.1 UNDERSTANDING NORTHEAST POWERHOUSE CAPACITY AND NATIONAL POLICY ON HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT 5.2 LOWER SUBANSIRI HYDROPOWER PROJECT (LSHP) – ASSAM / ARUNACHAL PRADESH 5.2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PUBLIC HEARING FOR LSHP: THE EMERGING FAULTLINES 5.2.2 KRISHAK MUKTI SANGRAM SAMITI: ASSAM’S NEW VOICES OF DISSENT 5.2.3 POLITICAL IDEOLOGY OF KRISHAK MUKTI SANGRAM SAMITI 5.2.4 KRISHAK MUKTI SANGRAM SAMITI MOVEMENTS AGAINST LOWER SUBANSIRI HYDROPOWER PROJECT 5.2.5 UPSTREAM: THE MYTH OF BENIGN PROJECTS 5.2.6 KRISHAK MUKTI SANGRAM SAMITI STYLES AND TACTICS OF NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 5.3 TIPAIMUKH DAM: THE CONTROVERSIAL HISTORY 5.3.1 PRESIDENT’S RULE, CLEARANCE FOR TIPAIMUKH DAM AND THE POLITICAL INDECISION 5.3.2 CIVIL SOCIETIES RISE AGAINST TIPAIMUKH DAM 5.3.3 CENTRE BACK OUT OF TIPAIMUKH DAM 5.3.4 PUBLIC HEARINGS: ORCHESTRATED DRAMAS AND CIVIL SOCIETIES RESPONSE 5.3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CLEARANCE FOR TIPAIMUKH DAM 5.3.6 ANTI-TIPAIMUKH DAM MOVEMENTS: THE SECOND WAVE 5.3.7 SOCIAL AUDIT REPORT: THE GRASSROOTS PERSPECTIVES 5.3.8 UNDERSTANDING RIVER TUIRUONG PEOPLE 5.3.9 REVIEWING THE FIRST PUBLIC HEARING IN TIPAIMUKH 5.3.10 TIPAIMUKH DAM: TIPAIMUKH PEOPLES RESPONSES 5.3.11 RAMIFICATIONS OF TIPAIMUKH DAM 5.3.12 MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS AND TIPAIMUKH DAM 5.3.13 FOREST ADVISORY COMMITTEE REPORT 5.3.14 COMPARING THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE TWO MOVEMENTS 5.3.15 MEDIA AND THE NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN NORTHEAST INDIA 5.3.16 INTERPRETING THE DATA CHAPTER – 6: CONCLUSION 338-355 APPENDICES INTERVIEW SCHEDULE QUESTIONS 356-360 BIBLIOGRAPHY 361-381 BIO- DATA OF CANDIDATE 382 PARTICULARS OF CANDIDATE 383 CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1 This chapter broadly sketches the concepts of New Social Movements (NSMs) and look into how the movement grows out of various social and political discontents. It traces the roots of NSMs theory from the break-up of the New Left that fractured into diverse single issue groups. The chapter hints at the incapability of the old left or the working class that gave way for the emergence of new social movements. New social movements were the products of the break-up of the New Left at the end of the 1960s. 1 The New Left fractured into a multitude of single issue groups representing the peace movement, the environmental movement, the student movement, the women‟s movement, and the gay liberation movement. The creation of these single issue groups were seen as an indication that the old left, composed of workers and unions, were incapable of addressing these issues. It was in this fractured socio-political context that the 1970s saw emergence of NSMs theory and activism. The roots of new social movement theory can be traced to an attempt by Marxists to explain different social formations within capitalism in the post-war era and the supposed failure of the working class in the pre and post-war periods. Particularly influenced by Herbert Marcuse and Louis Althusser, sociologists worked on theories that embraced the idea of a new working class as a revolutionary agent.