UNITY JOURNAL

Building national security through human security: Seasonal migration from Upper Mustang

Man Bahadur Khattri

Abstract Keywords: the Loba, Upper Mustang, migration, seasonal migration, food security Migration is one of the essential social- cultural phenomena of human being around Introduction the world. Seasonal migration is one of the human security dimensions directly related The primary objective of this paper is to the national security of a country. This to explore the causes, processes, and paper explores the human security dimension destinations of seasonal migration adopted closely related to seasonal migration by the Loba of Upper Mustang, . and national security which has reasons, Upper Mustang covers a vast area of 2071 processes, and destinations of the Lobas of sq km. The restructuring of the local unit has Upper Mustang, Nepal. The survey, interview, divided into two rural municipalities (Lo- and field observation (Upper Mustang, manthang and Dalame rural Municipality). Western Hills of Nepal and Vanarashi, 3322 is the total population of these two ) were the principal methods of data rural Municipalities (http://lomanthangmun. collection. The findings of the research are gov.np/ & http://dalomemun.gov.np/) Upper that both married males and females having Mustang belongs to Alpine climate (3000- agriculture and livestock occupations of the 4500 masl) and Tundra climate (4500 large family go for seasonal migration from masl and above). This area covers by snow Upper Mustang, Nepal. The dominant age during the winter (DDC Mustang, 2068 group of migrants is 20-50 years. The level BS). The Upper-Mustang is among the of literacy, language efficiency, and social sparest populated regions of Nepal having network plays a determining role in choosing a density of 1.49 persons per km2. The the destination and period of stay out. They population and household of Lobas have usually migrate to a group and use multiple decreased by a decadal ratio of 1.40% and modes of transportation for their travel. For 1.14%, respectively (CBS, 2012). This sort business, they use the social network. They of negative population dynamics can be rent a room to live in. For business investment, associated with out-migration. Suwal (2014) they use mostly their own money and some presented that the rate of migration from the they borrow from moneylenders. They not mountain region of Nepal is 19 percent. only work themselves also employ Nepali Lobas of Upper-Mustang are of Tibetan speaking youths in Vanarashi. Their property origin, and their identities are observed in Upper Mustang is taken care of mostly by regarding their socio-economic, cultural, their family members. They bring cash and linguistic, historical, and geographical kind as their earning while returning home.

74 UNITY JOURNAL context. The Lobas are the inhabitant of Lo for the survey. The sample size was 78 tsho-dhun. In Loba etymology, ‘Lo tsho-dhun’ households from those who migrate out refers to seven local councils or municipalities for winter seasons and 67 households who of , namely: Lo-manthang, stay in Upper Mustang during winter. A Chhoser, Chonhup, Tsharang, Ghami, checklist for the semi-structured interview Surkhang, and part of Chhuksang, which is was used to facilitate the interviews and the also called the gate of Upper Mustang. Upper key informant interviews to collect in-depth Mustang is also known as “Mustangbhot” in information on the topic. Field observation Nepal (Jackson, 1978, p. 196). The Lobas in Upper Mustang, Western Hills of Nepal, are well-known people of “salt and grain and in Vanarashi, Utter Pradesh India was trade” in the Kaligandaki river basin, which conducted. Quantitative data were analyzed passes from -Tibet to India. The Lobas using SPSS 20. Searching patterns in data heavily engaged in seasonal migration and was the main tool of qualitative data analysis. trade until salt and grain trade closed. During The reviews of the literature on the themes the winter, they traded in the low land area was another strategy to collect secondary and during the summer season, they traded information and that was applied in to to Tibet. Now their past trading heritage is formulate a research question data analysis followed to winter trade and only occasional and interpretation. summer trade in Tibet as they participate in the trade fare organized in boarding areas Migration of Lo-manthang rural Municipality. This Food is a fundamental need for people living research is about present-day winter season in any corner of the world. As data provided by migration. Loba term Ghungha means winter the government of Nepal, 38 districts of Nepal and the Loba use conch cell as the symbolic are most vulnerable for food security and 24 metaphor for the color of the surrounding. percent of the people are under the poverty The climate becomes cold at that season. The line. The mountain region of Nepal is the minimum temperature during winter goes most food-insecure region (Bhandari, 2018). 0 up to -20 C., and the maximum temperature Gurung (2001) has mentioned employment, 0 during summer goes up to 26 C. After they marriage, trade, agriculture, educations as the harvest the most valued singled seasonal significant causes of migration. The lacking crops in autumn and the Loba commence food sufficiency as the cause of migration their seasonal migration for trade-in Nepali was highlighted by Tulachan (2001). Gurung Hills and Indian cities particularly Varanasi. (1988) pointed out, the regional imbalance This paper mainly focuses on the reasons, as the cause and consequences of migration processes, and destinations of seasonal as the tendency of migration or pull factors migration of Lobas of Upper Mustang. are usually sparse resources region to Methods and data abundant resources region and employment opportunities. Pandey (2016) has clearly This paper is based on qualitative and stated that food security in Upper Mustang quantitative data from primary and secondary from the perspective of self-production is the sources. For primary data sampling, poorest one. (1986) studied changes interview and observation methods were of the Thakali migrant of , have used. An accidental sampling was adopted found the adoption of a new form of culture

75 UNITY JOURNAL as no eating yak meat, adopting Kanyadan working in different capacities. Almost every instead capture marriage and modification household, there are people who have been mourning days of death which were to a foreign country. They started to go to practiced in Mustang. Seasonal migration Japan, the USA, and other high earning was described and documented concerning countries. This also supported migration in resource use by the pastoralist among the a different part of the country especially to Sherpa of Nepal by Furer-Haimendorf (1975) Pokhara, . There are many Lobas and among the Tarangapurian of Dolpa have settled in different parts of India, USA. by James Fisher (1987). Fisher (1987) has In some households have sent two to three focused on seasonal migration to Tibet and members of the family in order to work in the mid-western region of Nepal in which foreign countries. To imagine the volume of Tarangapurian are interconnected with international migration of Loba, Craig (2011) their identity, language, trade, social and estimated that more than 1,000 people from economic relations. Tulachan (2001) has Tibetan-speaking areas of Upper Mustang actually documented seasonal migration live in New York. Similarly, this estimated in relation to trade of Loba as a strategy population constitutes 25 % of able-bodied for survival merely economic perspective. of 20–40-year-old out of their villages are This study lacks current development such currently in New York (Craig, 2011, p. 197). as road access to Upper Mustang and food availability and changes in the mode of The focus of the paper is the human security transportation. Similarly have no attention to dimension from the perspective of food the socio-cultural systems like reme ghaypkin security which is fundamental rights of (rotational or turn of sharing of power, Nepali citizens. If the food security is not privilege and responsibilities among the guaranteed, it might result in the national members (individual/household/community) security threat in Nepal. It is worth to mention and nechang or ista, fictive kin relation that the Upper Mustang is the most sensitive especially with outside their community area for a national security point of view. relation. Nechang is used for the rest, selling Social status of winter migrants goods and trust-building. No attention is paid to religious, educational and health and In this sense, migration is not only maintains social networks among friends and economical; it contains multiple aspects relatives. of people's socio-cultural, environmental, health, education, trade, and religious. The The Lobas of Upper Mustang also migrates study has reflected multiple reasons for as migrant workers in foreign countries. migration, such as escaping from winter, Young Loba started international labor temporary employment, pilgrimage, meeting migration since the 1990s. Foreign family and relatives. employment or remittance has become one of the primary income sources of the Loba. The main target of the winter migration is Many have been to the United States of trade in India and the mid-hill region of the America, Japan, Korea, Canada, Germany, western development region of Nepal. But France, the United Kingdom, and some these days Lobas have extended their spheres Middle Eastern countries in which they are of trade up to Butwal and Narayanghad,

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Chitwan districts. The places of seasonal Table 2: Sex and marital status of the migration and their activities and pattern of respondents return and connectivity to Upper Mustang is clearly said in the interview: S Sex Marital status Total % N All Loba who go to Varanasi return their Marr- Unm- home, but many Lobas who have been % % doing business in other towns of India ied arried such as Simla, Dibrigarh of Asham, 1 Male 41 87.2 6 12.7 47 60.2 2 Female 16 51.6 15 48.3 31 39.7 Kashmir, Jaypur usually staying more Total 57 73.8 21 26.9 78 100 permanently, but they have close contact Source: Field Survey, 2015 with their family and share their profits and loss. Male and female participation in seasonal migration is very significant; however, Pema Chiring Loba (36) from Lo-manthang, dominants are married male and married females usually join with their husbands if not Age, sex and marital status of seasonal their relatives. Married women's participation migrants is meaningful among female respondents, The age and sex of an individual are vital 51.61 % were married. In the case of male for roles and responsibilities to cope with respondents, 87.23% were married. During the socio-economic of any social setting. the observation, mainly females were the Age has much significant role in migration, ones who actually sell goods usually clothes which is presented in table 5.1. Similarly, in Varanasi. which sex and their marital status have much Family size, education, and occupation significance in migration in general and winter trade migration in particular. Family size allows or creates the opportunity to migrate and restrict people’s movement. Table 1: Age of respondent Similarly, educational status and main SN Age group No. of % occupation have some restrictions and (years) respondents privileges on people’s movement. Table 3 1 21-30 25 32.1 presents the number of the family. 2 31-40 28 35.9 3 41-50 12 15.4 Table 3: The family size of respondents 4 51-60 8 10.3 No. of family No. of 5 61 and above 5 6.4 SN % Total 78 100 member respondents Source: Field Survey, 2015 1 Two members 9 11.5 2 Three to five 26 33.3 Table 1 presents that 21-40 years old age members group represents 68%. Economically active 3 Six to seven 26 33.3 energetic youth and some old people of high members experience participate. The old one paly role 4 Eight and above 17 21.8 of guide to the young in trade. Total 78 100 Source: Field Survey, 2015

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Table 3 The majority of the migrant Over 85.9% of migrants had agriculture as respondent were from 3-7 members. It can their primary occupation. Even the minimum be concluded that neither the small family number of people of the occupational size nor the big family is adopting seasonal background of service also migrate. These migration. Family size and the nature of service holders usually travel for other family are the obstacles and opportunities. purposes such as pilgrimage and visiting The large family was usually supporting to relatives. look after property at their place of origin. Table 6: Monthly income of the respondents Table 4: Educational background of the Monthly respondents S No. of income % N respondents S Educational No. of (NPR) % N background respon-dents 1 Up to 5000 27 34.6 1 No formal education 14 17.9 2 6000-10000 32 41.0 2 Studied up to class 5 47 60.3 3 11000-15000 17 21.8 Class 6 to SLC & 4 16,000 and 2 2.6 3 17 21.8 above above Total 78 100 Total 78 100 Source: Field Survey, 2015 Source: Field Survey, 2015

The literacy level of seasonal migrants is 75.6% of the respondents were average essential for economic, social and business middle-class people who earn less than 10,000 points of view. Over 60 % of respondents per month migrate out for winter seasonal have educational backgrounds up to class 5. trade. The rich people are the investors and It means they have limited formal school, but the poor ones are dependent workers. they are able to handle business. Only 21.8% Process and destination of migration of respondents were who have been school from 6 grade up to SLC and above. The The Lobas of Upper Mustang migrate low level of educational attainment is also because they need to migrate in order to supportive in Nepal and India due to langue avoid cold, they would like to manage their and group assistant. economic life with some source of income, visiting their relatives who have been outside Table 5: The main occupation of the of their homeland, and some go for Buddhist respondents pilgrimage sites like Pokara, Shoyambhunath, SN Occupation Respondents Percent Bhoudha Nath, Lumbini, Sarnath Gaya. For 1 Agriculture 67 85.9 this reason, they need to travel for some days and livestock and they follow the traders. These days they 2 Trade 4 5.1 travel a few days because of road construction 3 Tourism 4 5.1 to Upper Mustang and road linking to the 4 Services 3 3.8 neighboring district such as Myagdi, , Total 78 100 Parbat and Kaski district. The transportation Source: Field Survey, 2015

78 UNITY JOURNAL facility also hindered their business. The cost the traders is very important, in which of travel has increased. These days they use a Loba do reme gyapken that is taking a different mode of transportation such as jeep, turn as responsibility. bus, plane etc. Tamtin Chhiring (44) from Lo-manthang, They usually travel in the group and in several This interview is providing ideas about the waves after harvesting their valuable single experience of trading, co-operation in trade, seasonal crops. They plan to return back in expenditure, possible profits and pain and the spring season at the time of the beginning hope of being seasonal migrants in Upper of agriculture activity in Upper Mustang. Mustang. Tamtin Chhiring was interviewed when he Time and cost was traveling to India with several Ladies and a few men. Everyone looked happy and Economic and environmental reasons are the they were laughing. First, he hesitated to tell most prominent causes of migration during something about his journey but he shared winter the Lobas of Upper Mustang. Many information very openly as: respondents have responded that they have I have been to India for winter trade for multiple reasons to migrate during winter 28 years. At first, I started to work as a from Upper Mustang, such reasons include vendor, and later I went to Ludhiana, cold, religious, health treatment, meeting Panjab, India to give the order for a with family and friends, arrangements of sweater at the factory to bring and sell in goods and services for trade during summer. Varanasi. Nowadays, I spend about six Table 7: Reasons for migration months in total to order a sweater, bring No. of to Varanasi and sell in 3 months and S Reasons Per- respon- return home. The reason why I do this N for migration cent dents winter migration and trade there is no job 1 Very cold in Upper 7 9.0 during the winter in Lo-manthang. I must Mustang leave behind my wife and other family 2 In search of additional 19 24.4 members at home and spend the cold income winter in India. I have to earn to my family 3 To visit relatives and 1 1.3 members for summer. The margin of the family members selling goods is about 25-30%. We sell 4 Multiple reasons 51 65.4 a sweater with a maximum price which including pilgrimage costs 7-800 IC, and the cheapest one cost and medical treatment Total 78 100 100-150 IC. There is no harassment from Source: Field Survey, 2015 Indian security and other people, but we must be cleaver that there are some people Table 7 shown that multiple reasons who prefer to steal our things. We hire for migration. The winter season is the government land for shopkeeping and opportunity for many activities outside their pay collectively about 1500,000 IC for homeland. They usually travel up to 8 days three months. The co-operation among to reach their destination.

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Table 8: Days to reach the destination place Table 9: Accompany during travel

S No. of days No. of Accompany No. of % SN % N used to travel respondents during travel respondents 1 Three days 10 12.8 1 Alone 6 7.7 2 Four days 30 38.5 Along with 2 18 23.1 3 Five days 25 32.1 family members 4 Six days 5 6.4 3 Neighbors 1 1.3 5 Seven days 8 10.3 4 Relatives 9 11.5 Total 78 100 5 Friends 12 15.4 Source: Field Survey, 2015 6 Multiple 32 41.0 Total 78 100 Table 8 shows that 38.5% of respondents Source: Field Survey, 2015 have responded that they reach in 4 days. 32.1% has replied for 5 days. I can conclude They mainly use multiple means of that 4-5 days needed to reach the destination. transportation such as jeep, bus, airplane, The required days to travel differs by train, taxi for travel. Some people also travel destination and means of transportation used. with a helicopter but it is not the ordinary In the past, before road access to Upper means of travel. Travel cost also depend upon Mustang to Pokhara, they needed to walk at the means of travel food and drink and the least 15 days to reach only to Pokhara. People types of the hotel they stay in. They mostly from Chhoser and Chhonhup would need travel in a group and mixture of their own more days than Ghami and Surkhang, but family, relatives, neighbors, and friends. these days due to jeep and bus service from While traveling to India and returning back upper Mustang only difference would be the from India most people from Lo-manthang, number of hours. In the past, people stayed Charang, Ghami, Chhonhup, Surkhang at the house of Nychang in Loba language usually stay in Kaji Pokhari, and Nagin tole or ista in Nepali or fictive kin relatives, but in Amarsigh Chhock in Pokhara. The Lobas, these people stay usually at the hotel, but especially from Chhoser lives in Dule Gauda their preferences are to those hotels run by of , where people displaced their relatives or people from their regions. by GLOF from Chhoser have been living. Travel usually takes place in the group, Another group of people who do not travel married and unmarried, relative, and India, but travel with horse lives in and neighborhood for their own security while around Pame, nearby lakeside Pokhara. The traveling to India. It is safer for ladies to living arrangement is usually taking place on travel in a group. Table 8 has shown that 41% the basis of relationship and familiarity with of respondents travel with multiple relations the people, which are mainly concentrated that constitute family members as well as around the religious heritage centers. This with friends. happens while traveling to India and hill regions and their return. Some stay in nearby Pema Tshal monastery, Amchi School in Yamdi, Pokhara. These people do small

80 UNITY JOURNAL trade like Jimbu, hing, birenun in and around go for wage working, and adult people Pokhara. They advertise their jimbhu as such are real traders. They usually go two or that Chhimekiko nak mitho, aafno bhancha three times to visit Ludhiyana to get their mitho; it means when you cook it tasty trading goods when they have good sell. smells even outside of the house or neighbors Those who trade and tourism business know by smell and taste good when you eat. during the summer in Lo-manthang they Similarly, winter season schools are dispersed usually like to take holidays, having fun, according to their stay such as Deep Jyoti meeting with family and relatives. High School from Chhoser is located nearby and they need to calculate their business. Kaji Pokhari. Chhodea monastery is built for Local money lenders give money with the winter season in Bouddha. Many people interest, 12%, 18%, up to 24% depending live in and around Bouddha and Shoyambhu upon the time they borrow money. Risk in Kathmandu. is those who sell sheep and goat; they earn in a large amount and loss in the Table 10: Financial cost of travel large number as well. Those who go for Financial cost No. of wages, the first time they manage travel SN % of travel respondents cost themselves. The new ones are paid 1 Up to 10,000 7 9.0 less than those of experience. Those who 2 11000-15000 31 39.7 are more matured the rate is about 15000 per month including food and shelter. 3 16000 and 40 51.3 Usually, they are paid in a lump sum for above three months. Those who have better Total 78 100 experience get more money to bring Source: Field Survey, 2015 home around 50,000 NRs. The cost of travel reaches above NRs. 16000 Sankha Lal Gurung (60) Chhoser responded by 51.3 % of respondents as Property and caring in Upper Mustang shown in table 9. The destination of seasonal migrants as interviewed to: Ownership of property is closely related with People from Chhoser and Chonhup the security dimension of the Lobas. The prefer mostly go to the hill region of types of property, safeguarding property and mid-hills such as Baglung, Myagdi, security of resources have genuine issues Parbat, Syangja, Kaski, Lamjung, when people migrate from place to another. Tanahun, Gorkha, Dhading. They speak Moreover, some pertinent concerns include fluent . They have how they get information about their houses, built relationships with the local people. the wages or gifts given to those people People from Lo-manthang, Charang, who take care of the property, types of work Ghami they usually go to India. People undertaken who live in the Upper Mustang. from Samar, Ghiling, and Muktinath The other relevant social and cultural usually go and stay in Assam. Their categories are: 96.2% of respondents own business follows networking with the property in Upper Mustang. Among those local people, their own neighborhood. property owners, 70% of respondents own Nepali, Hindi, and English speakers go to land, house, livestock (see table 11). India. They love Hindi film songs. Young

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Table 11: Types of property Some people who asked to do work during S Types of No. of Percent their absence are paid wages. They are paid N property respondents in a Lump sum, Sankha Lal Gurung one of 1 House 3 3.8 the Key informants says: 2 Land 1 1.3 Those who stay in Upper Mustang and 3 Hotel 1 1.3 take care of property especially house 4 Land, house and 70 93.3 they get a lump sum from 5-10,000 (for 5 livestock months), if the work to be done more than 5 Missing (Who do 3 3.8 expected then the property owner offers not own Property) extra money. In a rich family almost every household, one person in a family Total 78 100 stays back. Source: Field Survey, 2015 Sankha Lal Gurung (60), social worker, and Table 11 shows that 76.9% of respondent’s former teacher from Chhoser VDC. property is taking care of their own family Those people who stay and take care of members. Similarly, 21.8% of respondents the property in Upper Mustang do perform have responded that their property is looked feed livestock clear snow when it falls, after by their relatives and neighbors. Those occasionally lightening light at home. Those people who have migrated seasonally get who take care of the property are paid in cash information mainly by mobile phone. and kind. Table 12: Taking care of the property Economic activities at the destination S Taking care of No. of % N the property respondents Where Loba go and live; what arrangement Own family is done for the living where they trade, why 1 60 76.9 members usually they go there, how they manage their investment, if they work for others, 2 Neighbors 9 11.5 how much they save or not, goods sold 3 Relatives 9 11.5 from wholesalers, or retailers, amount of Total 78 100 Source: Field Survey, 2015 investment, loss and profit, benefits, and challenges are most important questions. Table 13: Wages for the person or family who What others activities such as pilgrimage, takes care of the property health treatment, recreation, education, and Wages for S No. of others are carried out while being at the taking care of % N respondents place. The situation who has been to mid-Hill the property regions of Nepal is quite different from those 1 Turn by turn 18 23.1 who have been to India. This trade-in Nepali (reme ghypkin) 2 Cash 3 3.8 Hills is called rigu and the traders are called 3 Goods 8 10.3 rigura. One interview was taken with rigura 4 Gift 43 55.1 for his experience. 5 Multiple 6 7.7 I buy goods in Kathmandu and Pokhara. Total 78 100 I went to sell items such as jimbu, Source: Field Survey, 2015

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(Himalayan herbal spices) nirmasi, In trade, investment is one of the essential pakhanbed, jethimadhu, yarsa gumba components, whether someone has their own (medicine), bire nun, phitkiri, necklace, resource or arranged using different social- for Gurung dress, kantha mala, moti cultural mechanisms. 35.9% of respondents mala, lockets, women’s cosmetic goods. have said that they use their own resources. I went together with my nephew (sister’s Similarly, 30 % borrowed from local money son) around Gorkha, Lamjung. I also lenders. The interest depends on 12-24% per brought to sell socks, trousers, and a cap. year. Some of them work for wages. I invested only around 45, 000 NRs. and I earned more than 50,000 NRs. I just I visited Vanarashi for the business around roamed different villages for a month. I mid of Asoj, 2072 BS. First, I went to was able to buy some foodstuffs, such as Ludhiyana by train from Gorakhpur. I ordered sweaters at the Factory, it needs rice, lentil/pulse, beaten rice, sugar, tea, around two weeks for clearing demanded LPG, clothes to children, wife, and sister. goods. I invested in the 700,000 IC. I got They are happy. goods for 1,000,000 IC and I will pay Funjok Gurung (40) - Chhoser-5 before I go back to Nepal. They need The interview of Funjok gives the idea to pay sales tax, around 12-13,000 IC. of roaming trade in Nepal which is quite This time many goods will be remaining different than in India. With a short time, which worth about 4-500,000 IC, which and small investment people can earn good will be sold next year. The rate of profit amount of money and arrange household is up to 50%. I have two stalls. I pay wages 40-50,000 for each worker. My consumption. They go with relatives not in husband did not come with me, he has a big group because their customers are few. to look after the hotel in Kagbeni and he Sell varieties of items. They have fewer risks. is not educated for winter trade. I have Maximum people stay in a rental house which two children (one daughter 8 years old constitutes 62.8%. 7.7% of respondents have and one son of 7 years ). I come with my said that they stayed at their own house. The daughter. I feel secure. In the past, people reasons are given as familiarity of the place, steal clothes and we needed a big effort people, environmentally comfortable and to convince customers but these days we secure. have a fixed price and we do not need to bargain. If anyone interested to buy they Table 14: Living arrangement of respondents buy otherwise, it is OK. We have to pay S Living No. of Percent rent for a room for a year. We need room N arrangement respondents for next year as well as to store remaining 1 Own house 6 7.7 sweaters and our other belongings. So, 2 Rent 49 62.8 we need to pay rent in advance. We 3 Friend’s house 6 7.7 usually travel in a group in order to avoid 4 Relative’s house 3 3.8 trouble in Indian cities. In Biyanyak Park, 5 Others 8 10.3 we need to pay rent in a group. We have a 6 Missing 6 7.7 committee to look after. Total 78 100 Lhohacho Gurung (35) Chhoser but currently Source: Field Survey, 2015 in Kagbeni

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This is an ample example of the independent In order to understand the problems, strategy, status of the women among the Loba. and trust which is expressed in the interview Women have decision making power even of Tamange Bista that is in detail as below: in the economic sectors and mobility outside without any barrier. Another interview gives I come from Lo-manthang bit earlier than the situation of the handing of business in others because I need to go to Ludhiyana Vanarasi, especially in Binayak Park. There to order goods. In Ludhiyana, the Panjabi are other places as well where Loba trade, factory owner speaks Tibetan or Loba such place includes just in front of the railway language fluently. Mostly they are station and Panjabi. There are few Muslims as well. They have kept banner of Tibetan exiled There are 28 stalls in Binayak park. Dalai Lama under their factory hoarding These stalls are used mostly by board. We face difficulties to carry traders from Chhoser, Lo-manthang, money from Nepal. Nepali police trouble Ghami (Dhakmar), Tcharang, Ghiling, us to carry money with us even 50,000 Chhuksang. They need to pay the toilet IC which is not enough; it is enough for separately 5 and 3 Indian Currency (IC) traveling to India. These days everything for long and short toilets respectively is expensive, but the factory owner in each time. I am paying 3500 IC for a room Panjab gives us goods in credits. Even separate in Maidakini. I need to pay 20 a new person who is not familiar with IC for travel to the room each way. This factory owners if introduced by a familiar year's chairperson of the management one trusted and given goods. One sack committee is Kunga Sangbu; this change cost around 300,000 IC if I bought 4 sacks for next year. There is a rotation of it cost around 1,200,000 IC. I do not have leadership Tcharang-Ghami one year that much money; maybe I give 100000 and Lo-manthang, Chhoser, Chhonhup IC so they give us others on credit, and another year. They followed this reme we should give back after selling. The ghyapkin strictly. They sell a jacket, factory owner sends a person to collect sweater, Maflar, cap all are winter goods. money in Vanarashi. If they are unable to People steal during the pick period of the sell and payback in such conditions they season. These days local people respect agree to pay next year after selling. us. Women are highly respected. To bring a sweater from Ludhiyana and buy from Tamange Bista (54), Lo-manthang local whole sellers differs by 100-150 IC The migrants not only traders themselves but per item, and the quality is also better also work for wages and learn for the future. if bought in Ludhiyana. We use Parcel Table 15 shows the details. Carrier Van (PCV) train to deliver our goods, which is arranged mostly through middle persons. A maximum 30-40% margin is made to sell each item. Interview with Chhewang Norbu Gurung (28)

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Table 15: Nature of work business for 25 years. My mother comes from Chhetri caste from Kathmandu, but S Nature of No. of % my father is Lamichane Gurung. I have N work respondents no difficulties in selling because there is Own a fixed rate. I speak Nepali, Hindi and 1 53 67.9 investment English very well. I enjoyed being with 2 Work for lords 15 19.2 Nepali. Himachal is very cold. I can travel to Himachal in a day by train. I Missing 10 12.82 earn 7,000 IC each month. I get food and Total 78 100 shelter form, my master. Source: Field Survey, 2015 Abhilasha Gurung (21) Table 15 shows that most of the winter People from Upper Mustang also do business migrants (67.9%) respondents are investing in co-operation with Tibetan refugees. In the their own money and among them, 19.2% Tibetan refugee managed area, there were at are working for others. 41% of respondents least six Loba stalls (stall no. 2, 10, 17, 19, directly buy from leading whole sellers or 21, and 22). producers or carried mostly from Ludhiyana, but 33.3% of respondents buy with local Table 16: Management of capital resources whole sellers. The Loba trader even hires people from India who speak Nepali and S Management of No. of % Hindi fluent and trusted. They also have an N capital respondents ancestral relation to Nepal. The following 1 Own saving 28 35.9 two interviews are significant in this regard. 2 borrow 24 30.8 I come from Aasham as a wage worker Loan from for selling a sweater. I have a mother, 3 financial 1 1.28 three sisters, one big brother (all siblings institution are married to Nepali speaking Indians 4 Multiple 10 12.82 in Aasham). My mother is a widow and Missing single. My family member speaks Nepali 5 15 19.23 (workers) at home. We have Nepali speaking community in Aasham. I come every year Total 78 100 in November for 4 months to Vanarashi. Source: Field Survey, 2015 I come to contact because my master’s daughter is living in Aasham, and she The trade is somehow the individual capacity arranges my travel and job. I stay with to bargain and influence the customers. One my master. They provide me food and of the most important factors would be the shelter. They give me 6000 IC per month. elasticity of the price of goods. The informants said about fixed price controls anarchy in the Interview with Reshma Sunar (18) pricing and bad relationship among the traders. I am a student for BBA final year in The rate of profit and price is determined by Himachal Pradesh. I came here in the committee. The committee is led in turn October and I stay until February. I am system which called Reme Ghyapkin. They working since last year. My mother had a have a fixed price which is stamped by the

85 UNITY JOURNAL committee. The profit might take 50-100%, Table 17: Benefits of winter migration it is not sure it can range up to 30% as the most common margin. The rate of profit S No. of Benefits % and loss are not accurate since many did not N respondents respond appropriately. The loss was difficult 1 Employment 1 1.28 to document. The trade was one thing when 2 Income 5 6.41 they are in the hill and different parts of India, 3 Saving grain 6 7.69 and there are a number of other activities Comfortable such as pilgrimage, education, entertainment. 4 2 2.6 When they return almost everyone, they bring living goods which are useful, such as clothes, grain, 5 Health treatment 1 1.28 medicine, solar equipment. These things are 5 Multiple benefits 55 70.51 bought either in Pokhara or in Kathmandu. 6 Missing 8 10.3 Such goods are brought to sell by 41% of Total 78 100 respondents, but 52.6% of respondents use for Source: Field Survey, 2015 self-consumption. Very few numbers of youth stay in Upper In order to evaluate the explicit and implicit Mustang. They need to take care of their costs and benefits of winter migration, it is property, and some take care of others too. a complicated thing to do, but many people They get paid when they look after other’s think that it provides employment, income, houses, feeding livestock and clearing snow saving grain at home, health treatment, on the rooftop. Those who have a large comfortable living, and others. number of livestock such as cows, sheep, Those people who visit the mid-hill region and goats. Those who do not speak other of Nepal usually take herbal spices as part languages than Loba language stay in Upper of their trading. 41% of respondents reported Mustang. that they carry items from Upper Mustang to sell; however, 52.6% do not bring anything for When people come to know that someone selling except their own consumption. They not going out from Upper Mustang, those carry back home usually readymade clothes, people who have planned to go out ask to food, medicine, drink many other essential look after the property. Those people who materials, mostly for home consumption. look after property get money as wage it can be fixed, such as 5000 NRs., but others pay Lobas enjoy multiple immediate benefits on the basis of how much work is carried of winter migration, such as temporary out during winter, the nature and frequency employment, limited source of income, of snowfall are one of the main phenomena saving grain, and fuel, health accessibility, which determine the rate and amount of comfortable living in a warmer climatic wages. The winter seasonal migration with condition. a is also represented that 67.9% of trade has become very popular even Drokpa respondents have responded that they enjoy has started winter seasonal migration and multiple benefits due to winter out-migration. trade. They ask help from their neighbor to These benefits support the livelihood of look after their livestock. the Lobas, which is the most fundamental humanitarian security dimension.

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It is also essential to shed light on educational and services with Tibetan as well as people migration too. It was good to meet Chhimi from the hill region of the western part of Gurung and Chulgen Tenzin Gurung, Nepal. The trade is their past occupation, and both associate professors of Bon religion the legacy is found in different forms. There at Central University for Tibetan Studies are some changes in the amount of trade (CUTS), Sarnath, UP, India. Both professors material, modes of transportation and medium come from the Mustang district. According of exchange. In the past barter system and to them, there are at least 30 university local livestock, transportation-based trade students from Mustang and 15 comes from was practiced in a limited geographical area Upper Mustang. The students who have been and circle of the people. studying at CUTS organized as “Mustang Student’s Union”, and who also hosted Out Migration has occurred in Lo-manthang Loshar at Sarnath, India for the Lobas of at the same time economic diversification Mustang year 2016. The participants were and various opportunities created at the local those who have been there for either business level by GOs and NGOs. It has happened or study or pilgrimage purposes. that changes occurred in trade, tourism, transportation, and communication. NOGs Conclusion and (I) NGOs enter Upper Mustang, GOs expanded their services such as health The in part III, under post, school, police post, VDC, veterinary. the title of fundamental rights, has clearly These are the external agencies that are co- mentioned that citizens will have the operating in most of the cases to adopt in the fundamental rights to live with dignity; they local environment. have rights to food, rights to justice, and rights to equality. The rights which are guaranteed The Lobas in Upper Mustang, in their by their constitution should be realized by constant efforts to sustain their daily lives, the citizens. If people realize that they do have been working hard to ensure their food not have these rights guaranteed, Nepal security. These indigenous ethnic people in shall ultimately face adverse consequences, Nepal have been successful in adaptation including conflicts and upheavals. while securing their valuable resources during their seasonal migration. Precisely, the The Lobas have adapted to high altitude Lobas make significant contribution to make harsh environments of Upper Mustang community safe and comfortable in terms of during winter taking up their traditional food security of individuals in particular and occupation based upon salt and grain trade. the entire Nepal in general. The winter trade in India and jimbu and other cosmetic goods supported their livelihood Acknowledgments by mobilizing various resources. The most important thing is that they follow strictly I am thankful to Santosh Sherchan, then Chief remeghyapkin and nechang the traditional of ACAP-Lo-manthang, for supporting me institution to manage the conflict in fulfilling to carry out this research. Similarly, I would roles, duties, and sharing benefits. Their one like to thank Lama Phunchok for his assistant of the strategies of adaptation is ecological as during this research and trip to Vanarashi well as cultural resources exchanging goods India.

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