CHAPTER 7 The Early Middle Ages

i'

CORONATION OF CHARLEMAGNE . The crowning of Charlemagne by the pope implied that the emperor had a spiritua l responsibility to spread and defend the fait h. (Scala/Art Resource, N. Y.) he establishment of Germanic kingdoms in the fifth and sixth centuries on Roman lands marked the end of the ancient world T and the start of the Middle Ages, a period that spanned a thou­ sand years. During the Middle Ages the center of Western civilization shifted northward from the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea to parts of Europe that Greco-Roman civilization had barely penetrated. The Early Middle Ages (500-1050) marked an age of transition. The humanist culture that characterized the Greco-Roman past had disinte­ grated, and a new civilization was emerging in Latin Christendom, which covered western and central Europe. Medieval civilization con­ sisted of a blending of the remnants of Greco-Roman culture with Germanic customs and Christian principles. The central element was Christianity; the Christian view of a transcendent God and the quest for salvation pervaded the medieval outlook, and the church was the dom­ inant institution. During the Early Middle Ages, Latin Christendom was a pioneer soci­ ety struggling to overcome invasions, a breakdown ofcentral authority, a decline in trade and town life, and a deterioration of highly refined culture. The Latin Christian church, centered in Rome and headed by the pope, progressively gave form and unity to the new civilization. Christian clergy preserved some of the learning of the ancient world, which they incorporated into the Christian outlook. Dedicated mission­ aries converted various Germanic, Celtic, and Slavic peoples to Latin Christianity. From Italy to the North Sea and from Ireland to Poland, an emerging Christian tradition was providing unity to people with differ­ ing cultural traditions. The center ofemerging medieval civilization was the kingdom of the Franks, located in Gaul (France) and western Germany. Migrating west­ ward from their homeland in the valley of the Rhine River, the Ger­ manic Franks conquered Roman Gaul in the fifth and sixth centuries. Charlemagne (768-814), the greatest of the Frankish rulers, added large areas of Germany and Italy to his kingdom. On Christmas Day in the year 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans, a sign that the memory of Imperial Rome still persisted. Without Roman law, a professional civil service, and great cities serving as centers of trade, however, Charlemagne's empire was only a pale shadow of the Roman Empire. Rather, the crowning of a German king as emperor of the Romans by the pope signified something new: the intermingling of Germanic, Christian, and Roman elements that came to characterize medieval Latin Christendom. Charlemagne's empire rested more on the strength of the emperor's personality than it did on viable institutions. Charlemagne's heirs were unable to hold the empire together; power passed gradually into the hands of large landholders, who exercised governmental authority in their own regions. Also contributing to this decline in centralized au­ thority were devastating raids by Muslims from Spain, North Africa,

192 !P ,;',

; ,

Chapter 7 Th e Early Middle A ges 193

and Mediterranean islands; Northmen from Scandinavia; and Magyars from western Asia. Europe had entered an age of feudalism, in which public authority was dispersed among lords and held as if it were pri­ vate inheritable property. Feudalism rested on an economic base known as manorialism. Al­ though familyfarms owned by free peasants still existed, the essential agri­ cultural arrangement in medieval society was the village community (manor), headed by a lord or his steward and farmed by serfs, who were bound to the land. A .lord controlled at least one manorial village; great lords might possess scores. Much land was held by various clerical institu­ tions; the church's manors were similar to those run by nonclerics. Feudalism was an improvised response to the challenge posed by in­ effectual central authority, and it provided some order and law during a period of breakdown. Medieval feudal practices were not uniform but differed from region to region. In later centuries, when kings reasserted their authority and fashioned strong central governments, the power of lords declined. Latin Christendom (western and central Europe) was only one of three new civilizations based on religion that emerged after the decline ofthe Roman Empire; Byzantium and Islam were.the other two. During the Early Middle Ages both of these eastern civilizations were far more advanced than Latin Christendom. And yet it was Latin Christendom, not Byzantine or Islamic civilizations, that eventually produced the modern world.

1 The Byzantine Cultural Achievement ~

During the Early Middle Ages, when learning was in retreat in Latin Christendom, Byzantine civilization preserved the intellectual tradition of ancient Greece. Al­ though the Roman Empire in the West fell to the German tribes, the eastern provinces of the Empire survived. They did so because they were richer, more ur­ banized, and more pOlJulous and because the main thrust of the Germanic and Hunnish invaders had been directed at the western regions. In the eastern parts, Byzantine civilization took shape. Its religion was Christianity, its culture Greek, and its machinery ofadministration Roman. Contacts with Byzantine learning dur­ ing the High Middle Ages stimulated learning in the Latin West.

Theophylact Simocattes THE VALUE OF REASON AND HISTORY

In the following selection Theophylact Simocattes, a seventh-century Byzantine historian, shows respect for the tradition of reason that was inherited from the 194 Part Two The Middle Ages

classical world and familiarity with Homer, the wellspring of Greek literature. Like Thucydides, he values history, considering it a far better avenue to knowl­ edge than the myths and fables created or embellished by poets.

Man is adorned not only by the endowments of his adventures. His recital pleased the Pho­ nature but also by the fruits of his own efforts. For caeans so much that the banquet seemed to have reason, which he possesses,is an admirable and di­ changed into a theater. Indeed, they lent him an vine trait by which he renders to God his adora­ attention altogether remarkable, nor did they tion and homage. Through reason he enters into feel during his long narration any tedium, al­ knowledge of himself and does not remain igno­ though he described the many misfortunes he rant of the ordering of his creation . Accordingly, had suffered . For listening brings an over­ through reason II;len come together with each whelming desire (to hear more) and thus easily other and, turning away from external considera­ accepts a strange tale. tions , they direct their thoughts toward the mys­ It is for this reason that in learning the poets tery of their own nature. are considered most estimable, for they realize Reason has given many good things to men that the spirits of men are fond of stories, always and is an excellent helpmate of nature. The yearning to acquire knowledge and thirsty for . things which nature has withheld from man, strange narrations. Thus the poets create myths reason provides in the most effective manner, for men and clothe their phrases with adorn­ embellishing those things which are seen, ments, fleshing out the fables with method, and adding spice to those that are tasted, roughen­ embellishing their nonsense with meter as if ing or softening things to the touch, compos­ with enchanted spells. This artifice has suc­ ing poetry and music for the ear, soothing the ceeded so well that poets are considered to be the­ soul by lessening discord, and bringing sounds ologians, intimately associated with the gods. It into concord. Is not reason also the most per­ is believed that through the poets' mouths the suasive master of the crafts?-reason which has gods reveal their own personal affairs and also made a well-woven tunic from wool, which whether a felicitous or a calamitous event will from wood has constructed carts for farmers, happen to men in their lifetime. oars for sailors, and small wicker shields for This being so, one may term history the soldiers as protection against the dangers of the common teacher of all men: it shows which battlefield. course to follow and which to avoid as profitless. Most important of all, reason provides the The most competent generals are those who hearer with that pleasure which reflects the have been instructed by history, for history reveals greatest amount of experience, the study of his­ how to draw up troops and by what means to tory, which is the instructor of the spirit. Noth­ outmaneuver the enemy through ambush. His­ ing can be more seductive than history for the tory renders these generals more prudent be­ minds of those who desire to learn. It is suffi­ cause they know about the misfortunes of cient to cite an example from Homer to demon­ others, and it directs them through observation strate this: Soon after he had been thrown on the ofthe mistakes ofothers. Similarly, it has shown beach by violent waves of the sea, the son of that men become happier through good con­ Laertes, Odysseus, almost naked and with his duct, pushing men to higher peaks of virtue body emaciated from the mishap of the ship­ through gradual advances. For the old man his­ wreck, was graciously received at the court of tory is his support and staff, while for the Alcinous. There he was clothed in a bright robe young, it is the fairest and wisest instructor, ap­ and given a place at the table of the king. Al­ plying (the fruit of) great experience to new sit­ though only just arrived, he was granted per­ uations and thus anticipating somewhat the mission to speak and an opportunity to relate lessons of time. I now dedicate my own zeal and Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 195 efforts to history, although I know that I am un­ skill in composition. If any parts of my work dertaking a greater task than I am able to fulfill should prove pleasing in any way, let this be as­ effectively, since I lack _>legance of expression, cribed rather to the result of chance than to my profundity of thought, purity of syntax, and own skill.

Procopius THE BUILDING OF HAGHIA SOPHIA

In his work dealing with the construction of the church of Haghia Sophia (holy wisdom), the Byzantine historian, Procopius of Caesarea (c. 499-565), illumined a different aspect of the Byzantine cultural achievement, its artistic genius. Pro­ copius discussed the construction of this magnificent edifice, the baffling techni­ cal problems it posed, and their resolution. Started in A.D. 360 and completed in A.D. 537, the church was the most awesome architectural achievement of the reign of the emperor Justinian, and it became a landmark of imperial glory. Jus­ tinian spared nothing to build Saint Sophia, employing the talents of mathemati­ cians who had studied ancient treatises on vaulting and curved surfaces and bringing to bear the greatest technical and artistic skills of Byzantine civilization, to achieve a result ofunparalleled beauty. The following is Procopius' description of the construction of Saint Sophia.

{T[he Emperor, disregarding all questions of ex­ So the church has become a spectacle of mar­ pense, eagerly pressed on to begin the work of vellous beauty, overwhelming to those who see construction, and began to gather all the arti­ it, but to those who know it by hearsay alto­ sans from the whole world. And Anthemius of gether incredible. For it soars to a height to Tralles, the most learned man in the skilled craft match the sky, and as if surging up from amongst which is known as the art of building, not only the other buildings it stands on high and looks of all his contemporaries, but also when com­ down upon the remainder of the city, adorning pared with those who had lived long before him, it, because it is a part of it, but glorying in its ministered to the Emperor's enthusiasm, duly own beauty, because, though a part of the city regulating the tasks of the various artisans, and and dominating it, it at the same time towers preparing in advance designs of the future con­ above it to such a height that the whole city is struction; and associated with him was another viewed from there as from a watch-tower. Both master-builder, Isidorus by name, a Milesian by its breadth and its length have been so carefully birth, a man who was intelligent and worthy to proportioned, that it may not improperly be said assist the EmperorJustinian. Indeed this also was to be exceedingly long and at the same time un­ an indication of the honour in which God held usually broad. And it exults in an indescribable the Emperor, that He had already provided the beauty. For it proudly reveals its mass and the men who would be most serviceable to him in the harmony of its proportions, having neither any tasks which were waiting to be carried out. And excess nor deficiency, since it is both more pre­ one might with good reason marvel at the dis­ tentious than the buildings to which we are ac­ cernment of the Emperor himself, in that out of customed, and considerably more noble than the whole world he was able to select the men those which are merely huge, and it abounds ex­ who were most suitable for the most important of ceedingly in sunlight and in the reflection of the his enterprises. sun's rays from the marble. Indeed one might 196 Part Two The Middle Ages say that its interior is not illuminated from It was by many skilful devices that the Em­ without by the sun, but that the radiance comes peror Justinian and the master-builder An­ into being within it , such an abundance of light rhemius and Isidorus secured the stability of the bathes this shrine. And the face itselfof the church church, hanging, as it does, in mid-air. Some of (which would be the part which faces the rising these it is both hopeless for me to understand in sun, that portion of the building in which they their entirety, and impossible to explain in perform the mysteries in worship of God) was con­ words . . . . structed in the following manner. . . . The whole ceiling is overlaid with pure gold, which adds glory to the beauty, yet the light re­ flected from the stones prevails, shining out in Procopius describes in detail the construc­ rivalry with the gold. And there are two stoa­ tion and design of the church, which con­ like colonnades;' one on each side, not separated sists of a basically rectangular unit with four great arches, topped by a windowed circular in any way from the structure of the church it­ structure, upon which a massive dome was self, but actually making the effect of its width placed, "marvelous in its grace, but by rea­ greater, and reaching along its whole length, to son of the seeming insecurity of its com­ the very end, while in height they are less than position, altogether terrifying." The result, the interior of the building. And they too have according to Procopius, is a triumph of tech­ nique, of art, of soul. It is an ethereal struc­ vaulted ceilings and decorations of gold. One of ture that seems to float, divertingthe spectator these two colonnaded stoas has been assigned to from the building's innumerable unsettling men worshippers, while the other is reserved for details to an all-encompassing spiritual vi­ women engaged in the same exercise. But they sion in which the mind is lifted upward to have nothing to distinguish them, nor do they God. The exaltation it inspires, he says, is a tribute to the proximity of God and the differ from one another in any way, but their genius of Justinian . very equality serves to beautify the church, and their similarity to adorn it . But who could fit­ tingly describe the galleries of the women's side, . . . And upon this circle rests the huge spheri­ or enumerate the many colonnades and the cal dome which makes the structure exception­ colonnaded aisles by means of which the church ally beautiful. Yet it seems not to rest upon solid is surrounded? Or who could recount the beauty masonry, but to cover the space with its golden of the columns and the stones with which the dome suspended from Heaven. All these details, church is adorned? One might imagine that he fitted together with incredible skill in mid-air had come upon a meadow with its flowers in and floating off from each other and resting only full bloom. For he would surely marvel at the on the parts next to them, produce a single and purple of some, the green tint of others, and at most extraordinary harmony in the work, and those on which the crimson glows and those yet do not permit the spectator to linger much from which the white flashes, and again at those over the study of anyone of them, but each de­ which Nature, like some painter, varies with the tail attracts the eye and draws it on irresistibly most contrasting colours. And whenever anyone to itself. So the vision constantly shifts sud­ enters this church to pray, he understands at denly, for the beholder is utterly unable to select once that it is not by any human power or skill, which particular detail he should admire more but by the influence of God, that this work has than all the others. But even so, though they turn been so finely turned. And so his mind is lifted up their attention to every side and look with con­ toward God and exalted, feeling that He can­ tracted brows upon every detail, observers are not be far away, but must especially love to still unable to understand the skilful craftsman­ dwell in this place which He has chosen. And ship, but they always depart from there over­ whelmed by the bewildering sight. So much, lIn ancient Greek architecture, a stoa was a covered walk, then, for this. usually having columns on one side and a wall on the other. Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 197 this does not happen only to one who sees the of the shrine which is especially sacred, where church for the first time, bur the same experience only priests may enter, which they call the Inner comes to him on each successive occasion, as Sanctuary, is embellished with forty thousand though the sight were new each time. Of this pounds' weight ofsilver. spectacle no one has ever had a surfeit, but when So the church of Constantinople (which men present in the church men rejoice in what they are accustomed to call the Great Church), speak­ see, and when they leave it they take proud de­ ing concisely and merely running over the details light in conversing about it. Furthermore, con­ with the finger-tips, as it were, and mentioning cerning the treasures of this church-the vessels with a fleeting word only the most notable fea­ of gold and silver and the works in precious tures, was constructed in such a manner by the stones, which the Emperor Justinian has dedi­ Emperor Justinian. But it was not with money cated here-it is impossible to give a precise ac­ alone that the Emperor built it, but also with count of them all. Bur I shall allow my readers to labour of the mind and with the other powers of form a judgment by a single example. That part the soul.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Why did Theophylact value reason? History? What is his debt to ancient Greece? 2. From Procopius' description, list some distinguishing features of Saint Sophia.

2 Islam

The vital new religion ofIslam emerged in the seventh century among the Arabs of Arabia. Its founder was Muhammad (c. 570-632), a prosperous merchant in Mecca, a trading city near the Red Sea. When Muhammad was about forty, he be­ lieved that he was visited by the angel Gabriel, who ordered him to "recite in the name of the Lord!" Transformed by this vision, Muhammad was convinced that he had been chosen to serve as a prophet. Although most desert Arabs worshiped tribal gods, in the towns and trading centers many Arabs were familiar with Judaism and Christianity, and some had accepted the idea of one God. Rejecting the many deities of the tribal religions, Muhammad offered the Arabs a new monotheistic faith, Islam, which means "surrender to Allah" (God).

Muhammad THE KORAN

Islamic standards of morality and rules governing daily life are set by the Koran, the book that Muslims believe contains the words ofAllah as revealed to Muham­ mad. Muslims see their religion as the completion and perfection ofJudaism and Christianity. They regard the ancient Hebrew prophets as sent from God and value their messages about compassion and the oneness of humanity. Muslims also regard Jesus as a great prophet but do not consider him divine. They see 198 Part Two The Middle Ages

Muhammad as the last and greatest of the prophets and believe that he was en­ tirely human, not divine. Muslims worship only Allah, the creator and ruler of heaven and earth, a single, all-powerful God who is merciful, compassionate, and just. Following are excerpts from the Koran:

GOD It was He who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and then mounted the throne. God: there is no god but Him, the Living, the He knows all that goes into the earth and all Eternal One. Neither slumber nor sleep over­ that emerges from it, all that comes down from takes Him. His is what the heavens and the heaven and all that ascends to it. He is with you earth contain. Who can intercede with Him ex­ wherever you are. God is cognizant of all your cept by His permission? He knows what is be­ actions. fore and behind men. They can grasp only that He has sovereignty over the heavens and the part of His knowledge which He wills. His earth. To God shall all things return. He causes throne is as vast as the heavens and the earth, the night to pass into the day, and causes the day and the preservation of both does not weary to pass into the night. He has knowledge of the Him. He is the Exalted, the Immense One. inmost thoughts of men. (57:1-7) (2:255-257) RIGHTEOUSNESS AND MERCY In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful Righteousness does not consist in whether you face towards the East or the West. The righteous It is the Merciful who has taught the Koran. man is he who believes in God and the Last Day, He created man and taught him articulate in the angels and the Book and the prophets; speech. The sun and the moon pursue their or­ who, though he loves it dearly, gives away his dered course. The plants and the trees bow wealth to kinsfolk, to orphans, to the destitute, to down in adoration. the traveller in need and to beggars, and for the He raised the heaven on high and set the bal­ redemption of captives; who attends to his ance of all things, that you might not transgress prayers and renders the alms levy; who is true to that balance. Give just weight and full measure. his promises and steadfast in trial and adversity He laid the earth for His creatures, with and in times of war. Such are the true believers; all its fruits and blossom-bearing palm, chaff­ such are the God-fearing. (2:176-178) covered grain and scented herbs. Which of your Lord's blessings would you deny? Serve God and associate none with Him. He created man from potter's clay, and the Show kindness to parents and kindred, to or­ jinn [spirits} from smokeless fire. Which of your phans and to the destitute, to near and distant Lord's blessings would you deny? (55:1-18) neighbours, to those that keep company with you, to the traveller in need, and to the slaves All that is in the heavens and the earth you own. God does not love arrogant and boast­ gives glory to God. He is the Mighty, the Wise ful men, who are themselves niggardly and en­ One. join others to be niggardly; who conceal the It is He that has sovereignty over the heavens riches which God of His bounty has bestowed and the earth. He ordains life and death, and has upon them (We have prepared a shameful pun­ power over all things. ishment for the unbelievers); and who spend He is the First and the Last, the Visible and their wealth for the sake of ostentation, believ­ the Unseen. He has knowledge of all things. ing neither in God nor in the Last Day. He that Chapter 7 Th e Early M iddle A ges 199 chooses Satan for his friend, an evil friend has he. (4:36- 39) People of the Book.t do not transgress the bounds of your religion. Speak nothing but the CHRISTIANITY truth about God. The Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, was no more than God 's apostle and His And remember the angels' words to Mary. They Word which He cast to Mary: a spirit from said:* "God has chosen you. He has made you Him. So believe in God and His apostles and do pure and exalted you above womankind. Mary, not say: "T hree" [a reference to the Trinity] For­ be obedient to your Lord; bow down and wor­ bear, and it shall be better for you. God is but ship with the worshippers." one God . God forbid that He should have a son! This is an account of a divine secret. We re­ His is all that the heavens and the earth contain. veal it to you. t You were not present when they God is the all-sufficient protector. The Messiah cast lots to see which of them should have does not disdain to be a servant of God, nor do charge of Mary; nor were you present when they the angels who are nearest to Him. Those who argued about her. through arrogance disdain His service shall all The angels said to Mary: "God bids you re­ be brought before Him. (4:171-172) joice in a word from Him. His name is the Mes­ siah, Jesus the son of Mary. He shall be noble in HELL this world and in the hereafter, and shall be one HEAVEN AND of those who are favoured. He shall preach to THAT WHICH IS COMING men in his cradle and in the prime of manhood, In the Name a/God, the Compassionate, the and shall lead a righteous life." Merci/ul "Lord," she said, "how can I bear a child when no man has touched me? " When that which is coming comes-and no He replied: "Even thus. God creates whom soul shall then deny its coming-some shall be He will. When He decrees a thing He need only abased and others exalted. say: 'Be,' and it is. He will instruct him in the When the earth shakes and quivers, and the Scriptures and in wisdom, in the Torah and in mountains crumble away and scatter abroad the Gospel, and send him forth as an apostle to into fine dust, you shall be divided into three the Israelites. He will say: 'I bring you a sign multitudes: those on the right (blessed shall be from your Lord . From clay I will make for you those on the right); those on the left (damned the likeness of a bird. I shall breathe into it and, shall be those on the left); and those to the fore by God's leave, it shall become a living bird. By (foremost shall be those). Such are they that God's leave I shall heal the blind man and the shall be brought near to their Lord in the gar­ leper, and raise the dead to life. I shall tell you dens of delight: a whole multitude from the what to eat and what to store up in your houses . men of old, but only a few from the latter gen­ Surely that will be a sign for you, if you are true erations. believers . I come to confirm the Torah which They shall recline on jewelled couches face to preceded me and to make lawful to you some of face, and there shall wait on them immortal the things you are forbidden. I bring you a sign youths with bowls and ewers and a cup of from your Lord: therefore fear God and obey me. purest wine (that will neither pain their heads God is my Lord and your Lord: therefore serve nor take away their reason); with fruits of their Him. That is a straight path.''' (3:42-51) own choice and flesh of fowls that they relish. And theirs shall be the dark-eyed houris [beau­

' Cf. Luke i, 26-38. tMu0ammad. tChristians. 200 Part Two The Middle Ages tiful virgins], chaste as hidden pearls: a guer­ Say: "Those of old, and those of the present don [reward] for their deeds. age, shall be brought together on an appointed There they shall hear no idle talk, no sinful day. As for you sinners who deny the truth, you speech, but only the greeting, "Peace! Peace!" shall eat the fruit of the Zaqqurn tree and fill Those on the right hand - happy shall be your bellies with it. You shall drink scalding those on the right hand! They shall recline on water: yet you shall drink it as the thirsty camel couches raised on high in the shade of thornless drinks." [cedars] and clusters of talh.s amidst gushing Such shall be their fare on the Day of Reckon­ waters and abundant fruits, unforbidden, never­ ing. (56:1-56) ending. We created the houris and made them vir­ gins, loving companions for those on the right WOMEN hand: a multirude from the men of old, and a Men have authority over women because God multitude from the later generations. . has made the one superior to the other, and As for those on the left hand (wretched shall because they spend their wealth to maintain be those on the left :hand!) they shall dwell them. Good women are obedient. .They guard amidst scorching winds and seething water: in their unseen parts because God has guarded the shade of pitch-black smoke, neither cool nor them. As for those from whom you fear disobe­ refreshing. For they have lived in comfort and dience, admonish them and send them to beds persisted in the heinous sin,11 saying: "W hen we apart and beat them. Then ifthey obey you, take are once dead and turned to dust and bones, no further action against them. Surely God is shall we be raised to life? And Out forefathers, too? " high, supreme. If you fear a breach between a man and his wife, appoint an arbiter from his people and an­ other from hers. If they wish to be reconciled §Probably the banana fruit. God will bring them together again. Surely God llldolarry. is all-knowing and wise. (4:34-35)

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Compare and contrast the views of God and morality described in the Koran with those found in the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament. 2. What advice does the Koran give to Christians?

3 Muslim Relations with Christians and Jews ~

The Koran regards Jesus as a righteous prophet who performed miracles but re­ jects his divinity and denounces as blasphemers those who believe in it. Muslims accept the Hebrew Scriptures as God's revelation but are often critical of Jews, probably because of their opposition to Muhammad in Medina. In Islamic lands both Christians and Jews were called the people of the Book and were granted the status of dhimmis-minorities who lived under the protection of Islamic au­ thority. They were not required to convert and were free to practice their faith in private and to govern their own communities. For these privileges, they had to Chapter 7 The Early Middle A ges 201

accept a subordinate status, which included payment of a poll tax and humiliat­ ing restrictions on their activities (described in the following documents). De­ spite these prohibitions, Christians and Jews generally enjoyed toleration and some rose to positions of prominence. Jews in particular lived in greater security than they did in Christian lands where, in the High and Late Middle Ages, they were subject to frequent persecution, including expulsion and massacre. Unlike in the Latin West, medieval Muslims did not teach that Jews were endowed with Satanic qualities.

LEGAL TEXTS AND DECREES: , !I' RESTRICTIONS ON DHIMMIS ~ : i The first document describing restrictions on Jews and Christians is from a legal text drawn up in the eighth and ninth centuries. The second is a decree issued by a caliph in 1354.

"You will be subject to the authority of Islam engaged which is not lawful for a Muslim, we and to no contrary authority. You will not refuse shall reject it and punish you for it. If you sell a to carry out any obligation which we think fit to Muslim something we hold forbidden, such as impose upon you by virtue of this authority. wine, pig, blood, or carrion, and the like, we If anyone of you speaks improperly of shall annul the sale, confiscate the price if it has Muhammad, may God bless and save him, the been paid, and not rerum the thing to you if it Book of God, or of His religion, he forfeits the still exists , but pour it our if it is wine or blood protection [dhimma] of God, of the Commander and burn it if it is carrion; if the purchaser has of the Faithful, and of all the Muslims; he has already consumed it, we shall not oblige him to contravened the conditions upon which he was pay for it, but we shall punish you for it. given his safe-conduct; his property and his life You shall not give a Muslim anything to eat or are at the disposal of the Commander of the drink which is forbidden, nor marry him in the Faithful. presence of witnesses chosen from among you If one of them commits fornication with a nor by wedding rites we hold to be invalid.. .. Muslim woman or goes through a form of mar­ If any of you steals and the victim takes him riage with her or robs a Muslim on the highway before a judge, his hand shall be cut off if his or subverts a Muslim from his religion or gives crime is punishable by this penalty, and he shall aid to those who made war against the Muslims make restiturion. . . . by fighting with them or by showing them the You may not display crosses in Muslim cities, weak points of the Muslims, or by harboring nor proclaim polytheism, nor build churches or their spies, he has contravened his pact ['ahd], meeting places for your prayers, nor strike clap­ and his life and his property are at the disposal pers , nor proclaim your polytheistic beliefs on of the Muslims. the subject ofJesus, son of [Mary], or any other If he commits some lesser offense against the to a Muslim. property or the honor of a Muslim or against an You shall wear the girdle [zunnar] over all your infidel under Muslim protection, with a pact or garments, your cloaks and the rest, so that the safe-conduct, he shall be punished. girdles are not hidden. You shall differentiate We shall supervise all your dealings with yourselves by your saddles and your mounts, and Muslims. If there is anything in which you are you shall distinguish your and their headgear 202 Part Two The Middle Ages

[qalansuwa} by a mark which you shall place on You must observe all the conditions which we your headgear. You shall not occupy the middle have imposed. of the road or the seats in the market, obstruct­ ing Muslims. A noble decree , to the effect that all the com­ Every free adult male of sound mind among munities of Jews, Christians, and Samaritans in you shall have to pay a poll tax (jizya} of one di­ the Egyptian lands and the God-guarded realms nar, in good coin, at the beginning of each year. of Islam and their dependencies must conform He shall not be able to leave his city until he to the covenant accorded by the Commander of pays his poll tax or appoints someone to pay it the Faithful 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, may God be on his behalf, with no further liability until the pleased with him, to the members of these com­ beginning of the year. The poor among you is li­ munities in bygone times, as follows: That they able for the poll tax, which should be paid for shall not build any new convent or church or him. Poverty does not free you from any obliga­ hermitage in the lands of Islam, nor rebuild any tion, nor does it abrogate your pact [dhimmal ... such building which is destroyed; that they shall You are subject to no taxes on your money other not harbor spies nor any who are suspect to the than the poll tax as long as you stay in your Muslims, nor shall they deceitfully plot against country or travel around in the lands of the the Muslims; that they shall not teach their Muslims otherwise than as a merchant. You may children the Qur'an; that they shall not make in no circumstances enter Mecca. If you travel public display of polytheism; that they shall not for trade, you shall pay to the Muslims a tenth obstruct any of their relatives who wish to accept part of all your merchandise. You may go wher­ Islam; that they shall not dress like the Muslims, ever you wish in the lands of the Muslims, ex­ but shall wear blue and yellow distinguishing cept [holy} Mecca, and reside wherever you wish dress ; that their women shall be prevented from in the lands of the Muslims, except the Hijaz, dressing like Muslim women; that they shall where you may only stay for three days in any not ride with stirrups nor gird a sword, nor ride city, after which you must leave... . on a horse or mule but only on donkeys, side­ We owe you protection, for yourselves and for seat on litters; that they shall not sell intoxicat­ property which it is lawful for you to hold ac­ ing drinks; that they shall keep to their special cording to our laws, against anybody, Muslim or dress wherever they are; that they shall wear gir­ other, who seeks to wrong you, as we would pro­ dles not made of silk around their waists; that tect our own persons and property, and we ad­ the Christian woman who appears in public shall minister justice to you in matters under our wear a cotton veil, dyed blue, and the Jewess a jurisdiction as we do with our own property. yellow veil; that none of them shall enter the bath But no one among you can ask us to protect any except wearing a sign around his neck which forbidden thing which you own, such as blood, distinguishes him from the Muslims, such as a carrion, wine, or pigs, as we would protect law­ ring made of iron or lead or some other material; ful property. We shall not prevent you from that they shall not build themselves houses higher having them, but we shall not allow you to dis­ than the houses of the Muslims, nor equal to play them in the cities ofthe Muslims. Ifa Mus­ them, but only lower; that they shall knock lim or any other buys such merchandise, we lightly with their clappers and not raise their shall not compel him to pay the price, because voices in their churches; that they shall not work these are forbidden things and therefore have no in the service of our exalted state, may God price which could be legally enforced. But we strengthen its foundations, nor in the service of shall restrain him from troubling you in this, any of the amirs, may Almighty God strengthen and if he persists he shall be punished, though them, nor shall any of them hold a position which not by enforcing payment for what he took would give him authority over any of the Mus­ from you. lims; that jurisdiction over the estates of the dead Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 203 among them shall be according to the noble enter public bathhouses together with the Mus­ Muhammadan Holy Law and that the rules of lim women, bur that separate bathhouses shall administrative confiscation will be applied to be made for them, into which they shall enter. them equally as to the Muslim dead; that the All this is in accordance with the rulings of the women of the protected communities shall not doctors of the Holy Law, as has been explained.

REVIEW QUESTION 1. What was the purpose of the restrictions imposed on Christians and Jews?

4 Islam and Greek Learning --Vi".­

In the eighth and ninth centuries, Muslim civilization, which creatively integrated Arabic, Byzantine, Persian, and Indian cultural traditions, entered its golden age. Muslim science, philosophy, and mathematics, based largely on the achievements of the ancient Greeks, made brilliant contributions to the sum of knowledge at a time when Latin Christendom had lost much of Greco-Roman thought and cul­ ture. The Muslims had acquired Greek learning from the older Persian and Byzan­ tine civilizations, which had kept alive the Greek inheritance. By translating Greek works into Arabic and commenting on them, Muslim scholars performed the great historical task of preserving the philosophical and scientific heritage of ancient Greece. Along with this heritage, the original contributions of Muslim scholars and scientists were also passed on to Christian Europe.

Avicenna LOVE OF LEARNING

The most eminent Muslim thinker, Ibn-Sina, known to the West as Avicenna (980-1037), was a poet, doctor, scientist, and philosopher who wrote on every field of knowledge. His philosophical works, which relied heavily on Aristotle, had an important influence on medieval Christian thinkers. In his auto­ biography, excerpted below, Avicenna describes his love for learning and his debt to ancient Greece.

[In] Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan] I was ther invited him to stay in our house, hoping put under teachers of the Koran and of letters. that I would learn from him also. Before his By the time I was ten I had mastered the Koran advent I had already occupied myself with Mus­ and a great deal of literature, so that I was mar­ lim jurisprudence, attending Isrna'Il the As­ velled at for my aptitude.. .. Then there came cetic; so I was an excellent enquirer, having to Bukhara a man called Abu 'Abd Allah al­ become familiar with the methods of postulation Narili who claimed to be a philosopher; my fa- and the techniques of rebuttal according to the 204 Part Two The Middle Ages usages of the canon lawyers . I now commenced books th at have been written on this subject. reading the Isagoge(ofPorphyry)! with al-Natili : Medicine is not a difficult science , and naturally when he mentioned to me the definition ofgenus I excelled in it in a very short time, so that qual­ as a term applied to a number of things of differ­ ified physicians began to read medicine with ent species in answer to the question "What is me. I also undertook to treat the sick, and meth­ it ?" I set about verifying this definition in a man­ ods of treatment derived from practical experi­ ner such as he had never heard. He marvelled at ence revealed themselves to me such as baffle me exceedingly, and warned my father that I description. At the sam e time I continued be­ should not engage in any other occupation but tween whiles to study and dispute on law, being learning; whatever problem he stated to me, I now sixteen years of age . showed a better mental conception of it than he. The next eighteen months I devoted entirely So I continued until I had read all the straight­ to reading; I studied Logic once again, and all forward parts of Logic with him; as for th e sub­ the parts of ph ilosophy. During all this time I tler points, he had no acquaintance with them. did not sleep one night through, nor devoted my From then onward I took to reading texts by attention to any other matter by day. I prepared a myself; I studied the commentaries, until I had set of files; with each proof I examined, I set completely mastered the science ofLogic. Similarly down the syllogistic premisses and put them in or­ with Euclid- I read the first five or six figures with der in the files, then I examined what deductions him, and thereafter undertook on my own account might be drawn from them. I observed me­ to solve the entire remainder of the book. Next I thodically the conditions of the premisses, and pro­ moved on to the Almagest (of Ptolemy)>; when I had ceeded until the truth of each particular problem finished the prolegomena (introductory essay} and was confirmed for me. Whenever I found myself reached the geometrical figures, al-Natill told me perplexed by a problem, or could not find the mid­ to go on reading and to solve the problems by my­ dle term in any syllogism, I would repair to the self; I should merely revise what I read with him, so mosque and pray, adoring the All-Creator, until that he might indicate to me what was right and my puzzle was resolved and my difficulty made what was wrong. The truth is that he did not really easy. At night I would return home, set the lamp teach this book; I began to solve the work , and before me, and busy myself with reading and many were the complicated figures of which he had writing; whenever sleep overcame me or I was no knowledge until I presented them to him, and conscious of some weakness, I turned aside to made him understand them. Then al-Natill took drink a glass of wine until my strength returned leave of me, setting out for Gurganj. to me; then I went back to my reading. If ever I now occupied myself with mastering the the least slumber overtook me, I would dream various texts and commentaries on natural sci­ of the precise problem which I was considering as ence and metaphysics, until all the gates of I fell asleep; in that way many problems revealed knowledge were open to me. N ext I desired to themselves to me while sleeping. So I continued study medicine, and proceeded to read all the until I had mad e myself master ofall the sciences; I now comprehended them to the limits of hu­ man possibility. All that I learned during that 'Porphyry (A.D. 233-c. 305) wrote a history of philosophy time is exactly as I know it now; I have added and edited the lectures of Plotinus, the N eoplatonist. Th e lsagoge was Porph yry's int roduction to the categories of nothing more to my knowledge to this day. Aristotle. I was now a master of Logic, natural sciences 2Euclid, an Alexandrian mathematician who lived around and mathematics. I therefore returned to meta­ 300 B.C. He creatively synthesized earlier developments in geometry . physics; I read the Metaphysica (of Aristotle), but 3Ptolemy, a math ematician, geographer, and astronomer did not understand its contents and was baffled who worked at Alexand ria in the second century A.D . His by the author's intention; I read it over forty A lmagest , a Greek-Arabic term meaning "the greatest," summed up anti quity's knowledge of astro nomy and be­ times, until I had the text by heart. Even then I came the aut horitative text during the Middle Ages. did not understand it or what the aut hor meant , and Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 205

I despaired within myself, saying, "This is a book collaborated with them in treating the royal pa­ which there is no way of understanding." But one tient. So I came to be enrolled in his service. One day at noon I chanced to be in the booksellers' day I asked his leave to enter their library, to exam­ quarter, and a broker was there with a volume in ine the contents and read the books on medicine; his hand which he was calling for sale. He offered he granted my request, and I entered a mansion it to me, but I returned it to him impatiently, be­ with many chambers, each chamber having chests lieving that there was no use in this particular sci­ of books piled one upon another. In one apartment ence. However he said to me, "Buy this book were books on language and poetry, in another law, from me : it is cheap, and I will sell it to you for and so on; each apartment was set aside for books four dirhams. The owner is in need of the money." on a single science. I glanced through the cata­ So I bought it, and found that it was a book by logue of the works ofthe ancient Greeks, and asked Abu Nasr al-Farab! On the Objects of the Metaphys­ for those which I required; and I saw books whose ica. I returned home and hastened to read it; and very names are as yet unknown to many-works at once the objects of that book became clear to which I had never seen before and have not seen me, for I had it all by heart. I rejoiced at this, and since. I read these books, taking notes oftheir con­ upon the next day distributed much in alms to the tents; I came to realize the place each man occu­ poor in gratitude to Almighty God. pied in his particular science. Now the Sultan of Bukhara at that time was So by the time I reached my eighteenth year I NUl) ibn Mansur, and it happened that he fell had exhausted all these sciences. My memory for sick of a malady which baffled all the physicians. learning was at that period of.rp.y life better than My name was famous among them because of it is now, but to-day I am more mature; apart the breadth of my reading; they therefore men­ from this my knowledge is exactly the same, tioned me in his presence, and begged him to nothing further having been added to my store summon me. I attended the sick-room, and since then.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Provide examples of Avicenna's familiarity with Greek learning. 2. Show how Avicenna combined Greek learning with Islamic teachings.

5 Converting the Germanic Peoples to Christianity ~

From its beginnings, Christianity sought to carry to all peoples its offer of sal­ vation through faith in Jesus. After Christianity had become the religion of the Roman state, pagan cults were suppressed. When the western Roman provinces fell under the power of invading Germanic tribes, Christian Romans faced the task of converting their new rulers to their religion. The ability of the Christian religion to penetrate and absorb alien cultures while preserving its own core beliefs was continually to be tested in the Early Middle Ages. Roman Britain had been invaded in the fifth century by various tribes from northwestern Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Among these tribes were the Angles (from which the word English is derived), the Saxons, and the Jutes. The Romano-Britons, who were Christians, were forced to retreat westward to oc­ cupy what became the Celtic-speaking Christian principalities ofCornwall, Wales, and Cumberland. Pagan Germans ruled the rest of England. ;. ~.

206 Part Two The Middle Ages Bede HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND PEOPLE

The English monk called the Venerable Bede (673-735), in his History ofthe Eng­ lish Church and People, cites a letter from Pope Gregory I (the Great) written in 601. In the letter, the pope forwarded instructions for Augustine of Canterbury, whom he had appointed leader of a mission to convert the English to Christian­ ity. He wrote his emissary to tell Augustine to win the favor of the pagan English by accommodating the requirements of Christian beliefs to the existing non­ Christian cultural practices, as the excerpt shows.

When these [missionaries] had left, the holy fa­ that the people, seeing that its temples are not ther Gregory sent after them letters worthy ofour destroyed, may abandon idolatry and resort to notice, which show most clearly his unwearying these places as before, and may come to know interest in the salvation of our nation. The letter and adore the true God. And since they have a runs as follows: custom of sacrificing many oxen to devils, let "To our well loved son Abbot! Mellitus: Greg­ some other solemnity be substituted in its place, ory, servant of the servants of God. such as a day of Dedication? or the Festivals of "Since the departure of yourself and your the holy martyrs [saints' days] whose relics are companions, we have been somewhat anxious, enshrined there. On such occasions they might because we have received no news of the success well construct shelters of boughs for themselves of your journey. Therefore, when by God's help around the churches that were once temples, you reach our most reverend brother, Bishop and celebrate the solemnity with devout feast­ Augustine.s we wish you to inform him that we ing. They are no longer to sacrifice beasts to the have been giving careful thought to the affairs of Devil, but they may kill them for food to the the English, and have come to the conclusion praise ofGod, and give thanks to the Giver ofall that the temples of the idols in that country gifts for His bounty. If the people are allowed should on no account be destroyed. He is to de­ some worldly pleasures in this way, they will stroy the idols, but the temples themselves are more readily come to desire the joys of the to be aspersed [sprinkled] with holy water, al­ spirit. For it is certainly impossible to eradicate tars set up, and relics enclosed in them. For if all errors from obstinate minds at one stroke, these temples are well built, they are to be puri­ and whoever wishes to climb to a mountain top fied from devil-worship.> and dedicated to the climbs gradually step by step, and not in one service of the true God. In this way, we hope leap. It was in this way that God revealed Him­ self to the Israelite people in Egypt, permitting the sacrifices formerly offered to the Devil to be "The elected head of a monastic community, the abbot was offered thenceforward to Himself instead. So He supposed to rule justly and paternally following the consti­ tution (rule) of the community. bade them sacrifice beasts to Him, so that, once 2Augustine (not to be confused with Augustine of Hippo) they became enlightened, they might abandon a was an Italian monk who was sent in 597 to convert the wrong conception of sacrifice, and adopt the English to Christianity. He established his see (bishopric) at Canterbury and founded others at Rochester and London, right. For, while they were to continue to offer successfully directing missionary activity in the southern part of what is now England. 3AsChristianity was monotheistic, it denied the valid ity of any other gods. Therefore, Christians customarily desig­ 4The anniversary of the dedication or consecration of a nated the pagan deities as "devils, " or evil spirits. church was celebrated as a holiday . Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 207 beasts as before, they were to offer them to God he may consider how he may best implement instead of to idols, thus transforming the idea of it on the spot. God keep you safe, my very sacrifice. Of your kindness, you are to inform dear son." ... our brother Augustine of this policy, so that

Einhard FORCIBLE CONVERSION UNDER CHARLEMAGNE

Although most conversions were based on peaceful persuasion or a voluntary act of consent, occasionally Christianity was imposed by force. Thus, after his long wars against the pagan Saxons, Charlemagne required the Saxons to adopt Chris­ tianity and be assimilated into the Frankish kingdom. In his biography of Charle­ magne, the Frankish historian Einhard (770-840) described this event.

No war ever undertaken by the Frank nation was enjoined upon them, gave without hesitation the carried on with such persistence and bitterness, or required hostages, and received the officers sent cost so much labor, because the Saxons;' like al­ them from the King. They were sometimes so most all the tribes of Germany, were a fierce peo­ much weakened and reduced that they promised ple, given to the worship of devils, and hostile to to renounce the worship of devils, and to adopt our religion, and did not consider it dishonorable Christianity, but they were no less ready to vio­ to transgress and violate all law, human and di­ late these terms than prompt to accept them, so vine. Then there were peculiar circumstances that that it is impossible to tell which came easier to tended to cause a breach of peace every day. Ex­ them to do; scarcely a year passed from the be­ cept in a few places, where large forests or moun­ ginning of the war without such changes on their tain ridges intervened and made the bounds part. But the King did not suffer his high pur­ certain, the line between ourselves and the Saxons pose and steadfastness-firm alike in good and passed almost in its whole extent through an evil fortune-to be wearied by any fickleness on open country, so that there was no end to the their part, or to be turned from the task that he murders, thefts, and arsons on both sides. In this had undertaken; on the contrary, he never allowed way the Franks became so embittered that they at their faithless behavior to go unpunished, but ei­ last resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to ther took the field against them in person, or sent come to open war with the Saxons [in 772]. Ac­ his counts- with ~n army to wreak vengeance and cordingly war was begun against them, and was exact righteous satisfaction. At last, after con­ waged for thirty-three successive years with great quering and subduing all who had offered resis­ fury; more, however, to the disadvantage of the tance, he took ten thousand of those that lived on Saxons than of the Franks. It could doubtless have the banks of the Elbe.> and settled them, with been brought to an end sooner, had it not been for their wives and children, in many different bod­ the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say ies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war how often they were conquered, and humbly sub­ that had lasted so many years was at length ended mitting to the King, promised to do what was 2Counts were royal officials exercising the king's authority in districts called counties. "The Saxons were members of a Germanic tribe living be­ 3The Elbe River, in central Germany, flows northwestward tween the Rhine and Elbe rivers. into the North Sea. 208 Part Two The Middle Ages by their acceding to the terms offered by the ceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith King; which were renunciation of their national and religion, and union with the Franks to form religious customs and the worship of devils, ac­ one people.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Give examples of the methods Pope Gregory I suggested for introducing Christianity in pagan England . 2. Compare the methods Charlemagne used to convert the Saxons with the instruction given by Pope Gregory I to Augustine of Canterbury.

6 The Transmission of Learning --Vv_

Learning, which had been in retreat in the Late Roman Empire, continued its de­ cline in the unsettled conditions following Rome's demise. The old Roman schools closed, and many scientific and literary works of the ancient world were either lost or neglected. Knowledge ofthe Greek language in western Europe vir­ tually disappeared, and except for clerics, few people could read or write Latin. The few learned people generally did not engage in original thought but pre­ served and transmitted surviving elements of the Greco-Roman past. One such scholar was Cassiodorus (c. 490-575), who served three Ostrogothic kings in Italy. Cassiodorus wrote.theological treatises and the twelve-volume His­ tory of the Goths, but his principal achievement was collecting Greek and Latin manuscripts. Like other Christian scholars before and after him, Cassiodorus maintained that the study ofsecular literature was an aid to understanding sacred writings. He retired to a monastery where he fostered the monastic practice of copying Christian and pagan manuscripts. Without this effort of monks, many important secular and Christian writings might have perished.

Cassiodorus THE MONK AS SCRIBE

In the following reading from his Introduction to Divine and Human Readings, Cassiodorus gave his views on the importance of the monastic scribe's vocation. Cassiodorus believed that through his pen the scribe preaches the word of God and is inspired by his text to know God more fully.

ON SCRIBES AND THE REMEM­ it appeals, perhaps not without reason , for by BERING OF CORRECT SPEiLING reading the Divine Scriptures he wholesomely instructs his own mind and by copying the pre­ 1. I admit that among those of your tasks cepts of the Lord he spreads them far and wide. which require physical effort that of the scribe,' Happy his design, praiseworthy his zeal, to if he writes correctly, appeals most to me ; and preach to men with the hand alone, to unleash lScribes were persons trained to copy by hand the texts of tongues with the fingers, to give salvation books, or to take dictation . silently to mortals, and to fight against the illicit Chapter 7 Th e Early Middle Ages 209 temptations of the devil with pen and ink. Every that a handsome external form may clothe the word of the Lord written by the scribe is a wound beauty of sacred letters; in some measure, per­ inflicted on Satan. And so, though seated in one haps, we imitate the example in the parable ofthe spot, with the dissemination of his work he trav­ Lord, * who amid the glory of the heavenly ban­ els through different provinces. The product of quet has clothed in wedding garmenrs those his roil is read in holy places; people hear the whom He judges worthy of being invited to the means by which they may turn themselves away table. And for the binders, in fitting manner, un­ from base desire and serve the Lord with heart less I err, we have represented various styles of undefiled. Though absent, he labors at his task. I binding in a single codex.? that he who so desires cannot deny that he may receive a renovation of may choose for himself the type of cover he life from these many blessings, if only he accom­ prefers . plishes things of this sort, not with a vain show of 4. We have also prepared cleverly con­ ambition, but with upright zeal. Man multiplies structed lamps which preserve their illuminat­ the heavenly words, and in a certain metaphorical ing flames and feed their own fire and without sense, if one may so express himself, that which human attendance abundantly maintain a very the virtue of the Holy Trinity utters is written by full clearness of most copious light; and the fat a trinity of fingers. 0 sight glorious ro those who oil in them does not fail, although it is burned contemplate it carefully! With gliding pen the continually with a bright flame. heavenly words are copied so that the devil's 5. Nor have we by any means allowed you to craft, by means of which he caused the head of be unacquainted with the hour meters which the Lord ro be struck during His passion, may be have been discovered to be very useful to the hu­ destroyed. They deserve praise too for seeming in man race. I have provided a sundial for you for some way to imitate the action of the Lord, who, bright days and a water clock which points out though it was expressed figuratively, wrote His the hour continually both day and night, since law with the use ofHis all-powerful finger. Much on some days the bright sun is frequently absent, indeed is there to be said about such a distin­ and rain water passes in marvellous fashion into guished art, but it is enough to mention the fact the ground, because the fiery force of the sun, that those men are called scribes (librarii) who regulated from above, fails. And so the art of serve zealously the just scales (libra) of the Lord. man has brought into harmony elements which 2. But lest in performing this great service are naturally separated; the hour meters are so re­ copyists introduce faulty words with letters liable that you consider an act ofeither as having changed or lest an untutored corrector fail to been arranged by ' messengers. These instru­ know how to correct mistakes, let them read the ments, then, have been provided in order that works of ancient authors on orthography the soldiers of Christ.> warned by most definite [spelling)... . signs, may be summoned to the carrying out . . . I have collected as many of these works as of their divine task as if by sounding trumpets. possible with eager curiosity. .. . [If you) read [them) with unremitting zeal, they will com­ *Matthew 22:1l. pletely free you from the fog of ignorance, so 2A codex consists of the rectan gular sheets on whi ch scribes have written, bound together on one side like a modern I that what was previously unknown may become book . Invented in the late first century A.D . , the codex grad­ for the most part very well known. ually replaced scrolls as the predominant way to store writ­ I 3. In addition to these things we have pro­ ten texts . 'I 3"Soldiers of Christ" is a metaphor to describe the monks in .,I vided workers skilled in bookbinding, in order their vocation, I I I

REVIEW QUESTIONS 'I .1 ] 1. What was the function of a scribe ? 2. What contributions did the monasteries make in the development of medieval culture? i 210 Part Two The Middle Ages

7 The Carolingian Renaissance -----vt/i~

The Early Middle Ages witnessed a marked decline in learning and the arts. Pa­ tronage of both the liberal and the visual arts by the old Roman aristocracy was not widely copied by the Germanic ruling class that replaced the Romans. Sup­ port for learning and the arts shifted from secular to ecclesiastical patrons. Monasteries became the new centers for intellectual and artistic activities, and Christian themes and values almost entirely displaced the worldly values of Greco-Roman culture. Under the patronage ofCharlemagne (742-814), the great Frankish emperor, a conscious revival of classical Greek and Roman learning and the visual arts oc­ curred. Charlemagne realized that his great empire could not be effectively gov­ erned without a cadre of literate clergy and administrators. To educate the leaders of the Frankish empire, Charlemagne sponsored a number of reforms de­ signed to improve the educational institutions and the quality of literacy and learning in his realm. At court, he completely reformed the school conducted for the children of his family and his courtiers and recruited the best scholars in western Europe to staff it. Among these scholars was the English deacon Alcuin of York (735-804), who became his chief advisor on educational and religious af­ fairs. They aimed at restoring classical learning to serve the needs of the new Christian culture.

Einhard CHARLEMAGNE'S APPRECIATION OF LEARNING

The revival of classical learning and the visual arts under Charlemagne is called the Carolingian Renaissance, a cultural awakening that helped shape medieval civilization. One of Charlemagne's most significant decisions was ordering the making of copies of old manuscripts dating back to Roman times. Much of today's knowledge of Roman learning and literature comes from surviving Car­ olingian copies of older Latin texts that no longer exist. In the first reading, Charlemagne's biographer Einhard describes western Europe's greatest royal pa­ tron of the liberal arts since the fall of the western Roman Empire.

Charles [Charlemagne] had the gift of ready it as well as his native tongue; but he could and fluent speech, and could express what­ understand Greek better than he could speak ever he had to say with the utmost clearness. it. He was so eloquent, indeed, that he might He was not satisfied with command of his na­ have passed for a teacher of eloquence. He tive language merely, but gave attention to most zealously cultivated the liberal arts, held the study of foreign ones, and in particular those who taught them in great esteem, and was such a master of Latin that he could speak conferred great honors upon them. He took Chapter 7 T he Early M iddle A ges 211 lessons in grammar of the deacon Peter of and Ravenna.i for he could not find such as Pisa.! at that time an aged man . Another dea­ were suitable elsewhere. He was a constant con, Albin of Britain, surnamed Alcuin, a man worshipper at this church as long as his health of Saxon extraction, who was the greatest permitted, going morning and evening, even scholar of the day, was his teacher in other after nightfall, besides attending mass; and he branches of learning. The King spent much took care that all the services there conducted time and labor with him studying rhetoric, di­ should be administered with the utmost possi­ alectics, and especially astronomy; he learned to ble propriety, very often warning the sextons reckon, and used to investigate the motions of not to let any improper or unclean thing be the heavenly bodies most curiously, with an in­ brought into the building or remain in it. He telligent scrutiny. He also tried to write, and provided it with a great number of sacred vessels used to keep tablets and blanks in bed under his of gold and silver and with such a quantity of pillow, that at leisure hours he might accustom clerical robes that not even the doorkeepers who his hand to form the letters; however, as he did fill the humblest officein the church were obliged not begin his efforts in due season, but late in to wear their everyday clothes when in the ex­ life, they met with ill success. ercise of their duties. He was at great pains He cherished with the greatest fervor and de­ to improve the church reading and psalmody votion the principles of the Christian religion, (singing], for he was well skilled in both, al­ which had been instilled into him from infancy. though he neither read in public nor sang, ex­ Hence it was that he built the beautiful basil­ cept in a low tone and with others. ica-' at Aix-la-Chapelle.t which he adorned with He was very forward in succoring the poor, gold and silver and lamps, and with rails and and in that gratuitous generosity which the doors of solid brass. He had the columns and Greeks call alms, so much so that he not only marbles for this structure brought from Rome made a point of giving in his own country and his own kingdom, but when he discovered that there were Christians living in poverty in 1Peter of Pisa, a famous grammarian (in Latin, the interna­ tional language of the Middle Ages), was brought from Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, Alexan­ Ital y to teach at the school in Charlemagne's palace. He en­ dria, and Carthage, he had compassion on their couraged interest in pre-Christian classical writing, which wants, and used to send money over the seas to influenced the court poets of that era. 2A basilica is usually a rectangular-shaped church, whose them. ... main chamber is divided by columns into a cent ral nave and side aisles. There was usually a semicircular apse at the nar­ row end facing the east, which was the visual focal point 4Ravenna, in northeastern Ital y, was the final capital of the and the location of the main altar. western Roman Empire, in the fifth cent ury; in the sixth 3Aix-la-Chapelle, now Aachen , was Charlemagne's capital. and seventh centuries it was the capital of th e Byzantine It was located in what is now western Germany, near the governors of Italy. Ravenna is famous for its magnificent Netherlands-Belgium frontier. sixth-century churches and mosaic art .

Charlemagne AN INJUNCTION TO MONASTERIES TO CULTIVATE LETTERS

In a letter to the Abbot Baugulf of Fulda (in Germany), Charlemagne announced his decision to use monasteries as schools for training future clergymen in gram­ mar, writing, and rhetoric. "',

212 Part Two The Middle Ages

Charles, by the grace of God, King of the Franks as far as possible by those who are chosen for and Lombards and Patrician of the Romans, to this very purpose alone, so that they ought to Abbot Baugulf and to all the congregation, also be the especial servants of truth. For when in to the faithful committed to you, we have di­ the years . .. [past}, letters were often written rected a loving greeting by our ambassadors in to us from several monasteries in which it was the name of omnipotent God. stated that the brethren who dwelt there of­ Be it known, therefore, to your devotion fered up in our behalf sacred and pious prayers, pleasing to God, that we, together with our we have recognized in most of these letters faithful, have considered it to be useful that both correct thoughts and uncourh expres­ the bishoprics and monasteries entrusted by sions; because what pious devotion dictated the favor of Christ to our control, in addition faithfully to the mind, the tongue, uneducated to the [rule} of monastic life and the inter­ on account of the neglect of study, was not able course of holy religion, ... also ought to be to express in the letter without error.. .. We zealous in [the cultivation of letters}, teaching began to fear lest perchance, as the skill in those who by the gift of God are able to learn, writing was less, so also the wisdom for under­ according to the capacity of each individual, standing the Holy Scriptures might be much so that just as the observance of the rule im­ less than it rightly ought to be. And we all parts order and grace to honesty of morals, so know well that, although errors of speech also zeal in teaching and learning may do the are dangerous, far more dangerous are errors of same for sentences, so that those who desire to the understanding. Therefore, we exhort you please God by living rightly should not neglect not only not to neglect the study of letters, but to please him also by speaking correctly. For it also with most humble mind, pleasing to God, is written: "Either from thy words thou shalt to study earnestly in order that you may be be justified or from thy words thou shalt be able more easily and more correctly to pene­ condemned."* trate the mysteries of the divine Scriptures. For although correct conduct may be better Since, moreover, images ... and similar fig­ than knowledge, nevertheless knowledge pre­ ures are found in the sacred pages, no one cedes conduct. Therefore, each one ought to doubts that each one in reading these will un­ study what he desires to accomplish, so that derstand the spiritual sense more quickly if . . . the mind may know more fully what ought previously he shall have been fully instructedz to be done, as the tongue hastens in the praises in the mastery of letters. Such men truly are of omnipotent God withour the hindrances of to be chosen for this work as have both the errors. For since errors should be shunned by will and the ability to learn and a desire to in­ all men, . .. the more they ought to be avoided struct others. And may this be done with a zeal as great as the earnesrness with which we *Matthew, xii. 37. command it .

REVIEW QUESTION

1. Why was Charlemagne so anxious to raise the educational standards of both the clergy and laity of his empire? How did he go about doing it? Chapter 7 Th e Early Middle A ges 213

8 The Feudal Lord: Vassal and Warrior

In societies in which the state's role in regulating human relationships is mini­ mal, law and order are maintained through custom and contract. This condition prevailed in the Early Middle Ages, particularly among the Germanic peoples. Laws were based on the community's assumptions about what was right and wrong, enforced by public opinion and community-approved use offorce. To en­ force law and to protect oneselfand one's family, a person formed contractual ties with others and sought security and justice in mutual aid. A principal form of such a contract was called vassalage. By its terms, two free men of different m eans bound themselves to assistance and loyal support. The socially and eco­ nomically superior man was called the lord; the man of inferior social status was called the vassal. The vassal pledged to be loyal and fight on behalf of his lord when called upon, in return for the lord's loyalty and protection when they were needed. The contract was lifelong and had deep emotional meaning in addition to the obvious self-interest of both parties. Vassalage was a dynamic relationship, ever changing in content and meaning ac­ cording to time, place, and circumstances. In the Carolingian Empire, vassalage was practiced by all members ofthe free class wealthy enough to afford weapons. Charle­ magne and his successors tried to use vassalage as a means ofcontrolling their war­ like subjects and organizing them to serve more effectively for the defense of the royal family's realms. Eventually, the kings' vassals used their military skills, their own landed wealth, and their political power to diminish royal power. The royal vassals then became the true center ofauthority within medieval society. An important part of the lord-vassal relationship was the lord's grant of a fief to his vassal. The fief might be any object of value that reflected the vassal's social status and the lord's respect for his services. A fief could be a war­ horse, sword, and suit of armor; a public office; a right to collect a tax or toll; or authority to hold a court of justice in a specified district. The most sought­ after fief was a land grant--one or more manors from which to draw income. Fiefs were held for the duration of the bond of vassalage. Ifthe bond was broken by death or di sloyalty, the fief was forfeited to its grantor. By the late ninth cen­ tury, however, fiefs had become hereditary, as had the right to be a vassal to a specific lord.

Galbert of Bruges COMMENDATION AND THE OATH OF FEALTY

This reading contains an eyewitness account of the ceremony of commendation or investiture in which vassals swore an oath of fealty (loyalty) to their new lord, William Clito, the count of Flanders, in 112 7, and were then invested with their fiefs . The account comes from an early twelfth-century chronicle written by a 214 Part Two The Middle Ages

Flemish notary, Galbert of Bruges (a major medieval commercial city in Flanders, now part of Belgium).

Through the whole remaining part of the man, and the other replied, "I am willing;" and day those who had been previously enfeoffed with clasped hands, surrounded by the hands of [given fiefs] by the most pious count Charles,' did the count, they were bound together by a kiss. homage to the count, taking up now again their Secondly, he who had done homage gave his fealty fiefs and offices and whatever they had before to the representative of the count in these words, rightfully and legitimately obtained. On Thurs­ "I promise on my faith that I will in future be day the seventh of April, homages were again faithful to count William, and will observe my made to the count being completed in the follow­ homage to him completely against all persons in ing order of faith and security. good faith and without deceit," and thirdly, he First they did their homage thus: The count took his oath to this upon the relics of the saints. asked if he was willing to become completely his Afterward, with a little rod which the count held in his hand, he gave investitures to all who by this lCharles, count of Flanders, was murdered on March 2, agreement had given their security and homage 1127. and accompanying oath.

Bishop Fulbert of Chartres OBLIGATIONS OF LORDS AND VASSALS

In a letter written in 1020 to William, Duke of Aquitaine, Bishop Fulbert (c. 920-1028) of Chartres summarizes the obligations of the lord and the vassal.

To William most glorious duke of the Aquitani­ practicable, that that good which his lord is able ans,' bishop Fulbert [asks] the favorof his prayers. to do easily, he make not difficult, nor that Asked to write something concerning the which is practicable he make impossible to him. form of fealty, I have noted briefly for you on the However, that the faithful vassal should avoid authority of the books the things which follow. these injuries is proper, but not for this does he He who swears fealty to his lord ought always to deserve his holding; for it is not sufficient to ab­ have these six things in memory; what is harm­ stain from evil, unless what is good is done also. less, safe, honorable, useful, easy, practicable. It remains, therefore, that in the same six things Harmless, that is to say that he should not be in­ mentioned above he should faithfully counsel jurious to his lord in his body; safe, that he and aid his lord, if he wishes to be looked upon should not be injurious to him in his secrets or as worthy of his benefice and to be safe concern­ in the defences through which he is able to be ing the fealty which he has sworn. secure; honorable, that he should not be injuri­ The lord also ought to act toward his faithful ous to him in his justice or in other matters that vassal reciprocally in all these things. And if he pertain to his honor; useful, that he should not does not do this he will be justly considered be injurious to him in his possessions; easy or guilty of bad faith , just as the former, if he should be detected in the avoidance of or the do­ "The Aquiranians inhabited the kingd om of Aquitaine in ing of or the consenting to them, would be per­ southwestern France-later a province of France. fidious and perjured. Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 215

Bertran de Born IN PRAISE OF COMBAT

Feudal lords did not engage in productive labor as did serfs, merchants, and craftsmen. Manual labor and commerce were considered degrading for men of their rank and skills. Lords were professional warriors; combat was what they relished, trained for, and eagerly sought. They used their wealth to obtain armor and weapons; and even their

I love the springtide of the year Each soldier then, in fighting mood, When leaves and blossoms do abound, To follow should be willing, And well it pleases me to hear For no man is accounted good The birds that make the woods resound Till blows he's given and withstood. With their exulting voices. And very well it pleases me Axes and swords and spears and darts, Tents and pavilions pitched to see, Shields battered in with many a blow, And oh, my heart rejoices We'll see when first the battle starts, And clash of arms as foe meets foe; To see armed knights in panoply [full armor] The steeds of dead and dying Ofwar on meadow and on lea [pasture]. Wildly will rush throughout the field, I like to see men put to flight And all who wish to be revealed By scouts throughout the countryside, As brave will e'er be trying I like to see, armed for the fight, How best their axes they may wield, A host of men together ride; For they would rather die than yield. And my delight's unbounded Not so much joy in sleep have I, When castles strong I see assailed, Eating and drinking please me less And outworks smashed, whose strength has Than hearing on all sides the cry failed, "At them!" and horses riderless And near the walls, surrounded Among the woodlands neighing. By moats, and by strong stakes enrailed, And well I like to hear the call The host that has the ramparts scaled. Of "Help!" and see the wounded fall, Loudly for mercy praying, And wellI like a noble lord And see the dead, both great and small, When boldly the attack he leads, Pierced by sharp spearheads one and all. For he, whene'er he wields his sword, Inspires his men by his brave deeds, Barons, without delaying, Their hearts with courage filling. Pawn every city, castle, hall, When tide of battle's at the flood, And never cease to fight and brawl. 216 Part Two The Middle Ages

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. In the Middle Ages, cont racts were symbolized and publicly noted by the use of various ritual acts or gestures. Explain how the cont ract ofvassalage was signified by specific rituals or actions. 2. What were some of the ethical and emotive dimensions of vassalage ? Describe the mutual obligations of lords and vassals. 3. What personal qualities were expected from a medi eval leader in combat? What challenge did the Germanic warrior spirit present to th e leaders of the Christian Church?

9 The Burdens of Serfdom

The feudal lord's way of life was made possible by the toil of the serfs who worked on the manors. Serfs, who were not free persons, had some rights but many burdensome obligations. Unlike slaves, they could not be sold off the land or dispossessed from their landholdings. Their tenure on their farms was hered­ itary, but they owed heavy rent to the landlord in the form oflabor and a share of their crops and livestock. There were many restrictions on their personal free­ dom: they needed the landlord's permission to leave the estate, to marry, or to pass on personal property to their heirs. In return, they received security; they were defended by the landlords against outside aggressors or fellow serfs. The labor services usually took up half the work week of the serf. He was re­ quired to plant, plow, and harvest the lord's fields, repair roads, fix fences, clear ditches, and cart goods to barns and markets. Although specific obligations varied from time to time and manor to manor, they were sufficiently onerous to encourage the serfs to seek freedom; in later centuries, when the opportunity presented itself, a serf might flee to a nearby town or to newly developed lands, or might purchase certain freedoms from the manorial lord. The serfs' struggle to rid themselves of the burdens ofserfdom took centuries. It was largely successful in western Europe by the fifteenth century. But in eastern Europe, serfdom was imposed on the for­ merly free peasantry in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Remnants ofserf­ dom in western Europe survived until the French Revolution. Serfdom was abolished in central and eastern Europe in the mid-nineteenth century.

Bishop Adalbero ofLaon THE TRIPARTITE SOCIETY

Medieval thinkers came to see their society divided into three different but com­ plementary groups: clergy, lords, and serfs. Each group had its own responsibili­ ties-s-priests guided the souls of the faithful; lords protected society from its enemies; and the serfs' toil provided sustenance for everyone. Written in about 1020, the following statement by Bishop Adalbero ofLaon, France, illustrates the tripartite nature of medieval society. Chapter 7 Th e Early Middle Ages 21 7

The community of the faithful is a single body, there a task to be done? Does anyone want to but the condition ofsociety is threefold in order. put himself out? We see kings and prelates For human law distinguishes two classes. No­ make themselves the serfs of their serfs; [but in bles and serfs, indeed, are not governed by the truth] the master, who claims to feed his serf, is same ordinance.... The former are the warriors fed by him. And the serf never sees an end to his and the protectors of the churches. They are the tears and his sighs. God 's house, which we think defenders of the people, of both great and small, of as one, is thus divided into three; some pray, in short, of everyone, and at the same time they others fight, and yet others work. The three ensure their own safety. The other class is that of groups, which coexist, cannot bear to be sepa­ the serfs. This luckless breed possesses nothing rated; the services rendered by one are a precon­ except at the cost of its own labour, Who could, dition for the labours of the two others; each in reckoning with an abacus, add up the sum of the his turn takes it upon himself to relieve the cares with which the peasants are occupied, of whole. Thus the threefold assembly is none the their journeys on foot, oftheir hard labours?The less united, and it is thus that law has been able serfs provide money, clothes, and food, for the to triumph, and that the world has been able to rest; no free man could exist without serfs. Is enJoy peace.

Ralph Glaber, Monk of Cluny FAMINE

Among the hardships burdening medieval peasants was famine, which particu­ larly afflicted the poor. The following passage by Ralph Glaber, monk of Cluny in France, describes the terrible famine of 1032-1034.

The famine started to spread its ravages and one eat. Some in order to escape death had recourse could have feared the disappearance of almost to forest roots and water-weed . Finally, horror the entire human race. The atmospheric condi­ takes hold of us listening to the perversions tions became so unfavourable that no suitable which then reigned among the human race. Alas! time could be found to sow seed, and that, espe­ o woe! Something rarely heard of throughout the cially because of the floods, there was no means ages: rabid hunger made men devour human of reaping the harvest. ... Continual rains had flesh. Travellers were kidnapped by people soaked into all the soil to the point where dur­ stronger than they were, their limbs were cut ing three years no one could dig furrows capable off, cooked on the fire and eaten. Many people of taking the seed. At harvest-time, weeds and who moved from one place to another to flee the ill-ornened tares had covered the whole surface famine, and who had found hospitality on the of the fields. A [half bushel] of grain sown, way, were murdered in the night, and served as where it gave the best yields, ... produced barely food for those who had welcomed them. Many a fistful. If by chance one found some food for showed a fruit or an egg to children, enticed sale, the seller could charge an outrageous price them into out-of-the-way spots, killed them, and just as he pleased. However, when they had devoured them. Bodies of the dead were in eaten the wild beasts and birds, the people many places torn out of the ground and equally started, under the sway of a devouring hunger, served to appease hunger.. . . Then people tried to collect all sorts ofcarrion [decaying flesh] and an experiment in the region of Macon which had other things which are horrible to mention to never before, to our knowledge, been tried any­ 218 Part Two The Middle Ages where. Many people took our of the ground a for a long time to seek their pittance among white soil which looked like clay, mixed it with men. And since it was not possible, as we said, what flour or bran they had, and made our of to bury each person individually because of the this mixture loaves with which, they reckoned, great number of the dead, in certain places men they would not die of hunger; this practice how­ who feared God dug what were commonly ever brought only an illusory hope of rescue and called charnel pits, into which the bodies of the an illusory relief. One only saw pale and emaci­ dead were thrown by the 500 or more, as many ated faces; many people had a skin distended as there was space for, pellmell, half naked or with swellings; the human voice itself became without any covering; crossroads and the edges thin, like the little cries of dying birds. The of fields served as cemeteries. Although some corpses of the dead, who were so numerous that heard say that they would find it better to take they had to lie scattered without burial, served themselves off to other regions, many were those as food for the wolves, who thereafter continued who perished along the way ofstarvation.

William of]umieges and Wace FAILED REBELLION

Occasionally, peasant anger at their treatment at the hands oflords led to open re­ bellion as illustrated in the following account by a Norman monk ofan uprising of Norman peasants in 977.

He had scarcely reigned or been duke for any hour's peace. Every day they were subject to [un­ length of time when there arose in that land a war just treatment by their lords). ... which was to cause great misery. The peasants There were so many provosts and beadles and villeins [partly freed serfs], those from the [lesser officials],' so many bailiffs, old and new, woodlands and those from the plains (I do not that they had no peace for a single hour; all day know through whose instigation it happened or long they descended on them. They could not de­ who started it in the first place), held a number of fend themselves in court; each one of them councils in groups of twenty, thirty and a hun­ wanted his due. These men had their beasts taken dred. They were devising a plan such that, if they by force and they did not dare take a stand or de­ could succeed in it and bring it to fruition, harm fend themselves. They could not go on living like would be done to the highest noblemen. They this; they would have to abandon their lands. discussed this in private and many of them swore They could get no protection against either their between themselves that never again would they lord or his men, who did not keep any agreement willingly have a lord or a governor. Lords did with them. them nothing but harm and they could get noth­ "Son ofa whore!" said some, "why do we put ing our of them, from either their produce or up with all the harm which is being done to us? their labours ; each day they were experiencing Let us free ourselves from their control! We are great suffering. They were enduring pain and men as they are; we have the same limbs as they hardship. Things used to be bad, bur now they do, we are their equal physically and are able to were worse; every day their beasts were being endure as much as they can. The only thing we taken to pay for aids and service. There were so lack is courage. Let us unite on oath, defend our many complaints and legal actions and so many goods and ourselves and stick together. If they old and new customs that they could not have an wish to wage war on us, against one knight we Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 219 have thirty or forty peasants, skilful and valiant. valiant count of Evreux and very skilled in many Thirty men in the flower of their youth will be things. cowardly and shameful if they cannot defend "My lord," he said, "do not worry; leave the themselves against one man, providing they are peasants to me, for you would only regret taking willing to join forces. With clubs and large stakes, action yourself. But send me your household arrows and staffs, axes, bows and pikes, and troops, send me your knights." stones for those who have no arms, let us defend "Willingly," Richard replied to him. Then ourselves against knights with the large number Ralph sent his spies and his couriers to many of men we have. In this way we can go into places. He did so much spying and had his spies woods, cut down trees and take what we will, make so many enquiries, with both the sick and catch fish in the rivers and venison in the forests . the healthy, that he caught and captured the We will do as we wish with everything, with the peasants who were arranging the meetings and woods, the ponds and the meadows." receiving the oaths. Ralph was very angry and did not want to bring them to trial; he gave them all cause to feel sad and sorrowful. He had Lords generally crushed these rebellions the teeth of many of them pulled out and others' with great ferocity. feet cut off, their eyes put out and their hands cut off; yet others he had branded on the ham­ With such talk and such words, and other strings. He did not care who died as a result. even more foolish remarks, they all agreed on The others he had roasted alive and others this plan and all swore they would join forces plunged into molten lead. He had them all so and defend themselves together. They chose I do well dealt with that they were hideous to be­ not know which or how many of the most intel­ hold . Henceforth, they were not seen anywhere ligent amongst them and the best speakers who without being easily recognised. Then the com­ would go round the country receiving oaths. But mune came to an end and the peasants made no a plan transmitted to so many people could not more moves; they all withdrew and abandoned be concealed for long. Whether it was from vas­ what they had undertaken, as a result of the fear sals or men-at-arms, women or children, through caused by seeing their friends injured and drunkenness or anger, Richard very soon heard maimed. The rich peasants paid for all this, but that the peasants were forming a commune and they settled their debt from their own purses; would take away what was rightfully his, from they were left with nothing which could be him and the other lords who had peasants and taken from them while they could still be put to [tenants). He sent for his uncle Ralph and re­ ransom. They reached the best agreements they lated the whole affair to him; Ralph was the very could with their lords .

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What hardships did medieval peasants face? 2. On the basis of these documents, how do you think lords viewed serfs?