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j HORNE, Thomas F ra n k lin , 1947- AN ANALYSIS OF PROCEDURES FOR DEVELOPING AND ! CONDUCTING COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY SCUBA j DIVING PROGRAMS. j The Ohio State U n iversity, Ph.D., 1975 j Education, physical i s

| Xerox University Microfilms,Ann Arbor, Michigan 4B106

@ 1975

THOMAS FRANKLIN HORNE

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. PLEASE NOTE:

Page 101 is not available for photography.

UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS AN ANALYSIS OF PROCEDURES FOR DEVELOPING AND

CONDUCTING COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY

SCUBA DIVING PROGRAMS

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By Thomas F. Horne, B.S., M.S. *****

The Ohio State University 1975

Reading Committee: ed by Dr. Robert Bartels - Adviser

Dr. Donald Harper y i s v i j\- J Adviser Dr. Edward Coates --Physical Education Department VITA

March 8, 1947 ...... Born - Butler, Pennsylvania 1969 ...... B.S., Slippery Rock State College, Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania 1969-1971 ...... ” Physical Education Teacher, West Mifflin School District West Mifflin, Pennsylvania 1961-1975 ...... Teaching Associate, Physical Education Department, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Physical Education Studies in Recreation Leadership. Professor Charles L . Mand Studies in Professional Preparation of Physical Educators. Professor Charles L. Mand TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

VITA ...... ii

LIST OF TA B L E S ...... v

LIST OF F I G U R E S ...... vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... vii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Statement of the Problem ...... 6 Sub-Problems ...... 6 Significance of the Problem...... 6 Definitions ...... 7 Assumptions ...... 8 Limitations ...... 8

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 10 Recent History of Scuba Diving ...... 10 Development of Certification and Certifica­ tion Agencies ...... 11 Role of College and Universities in Scuba D i v i n g ...... 13 S u m m a r y ...... 19

III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES...... 23 Institutions. S u r v e y e d ...... 23 Construction of the Data gathering I n s t r u m e n t ...... 24 Collection of D a t a ...... 25 Treatment of D a t a ...... 26 Construction of the Developmental Model . . 27 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE DATA ...... - 30 Areas, Facilities, and Equipment ...... 31 Program Specifications ...... 35 Program Finances and Special Fees ..... 44

iii CHAPTER Page V. THE DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL ...... 47

Conceptual framework ...... 47 The Developmental Model ...... - . . 50 Needs Assessment Phase ...... 53 Resource Availability Phase ...... 55 Organization Phase ...... 63 Program Specification Phase ...... 73 Evaluation End Revision Phase ...... 95

VI. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 104 Growth of Scuba Diving ...... 104 Scuba Diving as an Educational Activity . . 105 Role of Colleges And Universities in Providing Scuba Diving Programs .... 105 The Questionnaire...... 106 The Developmental Model ...... 10 7 Recommendations ...... 110 Suggested Related Research ...... 113 C o n c l u s i o n ...... 114

APPENDIX A ...... 116 B ...... 124 C ...... 133 D ...... 134

BIBLIOGRAPHY 135 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page 1. Minimum Certification Requirements of the Four Nationally Recognized Scuba Certification A g e n c i e s ...... 36 2. Summary of Scuba Diving.Course Watermanship Prerequisite Skills Required by Colleges and Universities Responding to the Questionnaire . . . 38

3. Summary of Scuba Diving Course Specifications of the Colleges and Universities Responding to the Questionnaire ...... 39 4. Approximate Costs of Scuba Diving Gear and Related Equipment Commonly Used in Conducting Scuba Diving Programs ...... 86

v LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page 1. Scuba Diving Program Developmental Model Flow Chart ...... 52 2. Summary of Recommended and Optional Features for Areas and Facilities Needed to Conduct a College or University Scuba Diving Program 60 Administrative Flow Chart of the Program of Outdoor Pursuits of The Ohio State University . . 66

Administrative Flow Chart of the University of Rhode Island Scuba Diving Program ...... 67 Administrative Flow Chart of the California State University and College Scuba Diving Program ...... 68 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAHPER - American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation CNCA - Council for National Cooperation in Aquatics

NASDS - National Association of Skin Diving Schools

NAUI - National Association of Underwater Instructors PADI - Professional Association of Diving Instructors

POP - Program of Outdoor Pursuits - The Ohio State University SCUBA - Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

YMCA - Young Men's Christian Association CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

One of the first records of man venturing underwater is found in the writings of the Greek historian Herodotus. He tells of a diver in the 5th Century B.C. who was employed by the Persian King Xerxes to recover sunken treasurer. Early divers were also used in salvage operations, clearing operations, clearing harbors, and military operations, such as, cutting anchor lines and boring holes in the bottoms of enemy ships. The technique used by these primitive divers was simply holding the breath and descending with a rock. The dives usually lasted one to two minutes with an average depth of 80 to 100 feet. (1} The first truly safe and efficient self-contained under­ water breathing apparatus (SCUBA) was designed by the team of Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan in the early 1940fs. For the first time in the history of man, it was now possible for any person in reasonably good health to venture into the underwater world. (2) Although scuba diving has many practical applications for science, industry and defense, most scuba diving is done by sport divers. Scuba diving offers unique opportunities

1 2 for photography, nature study, vigorous physical exercise, aesthetic experiences, and adventure. The multi-colored aquatic plants and animals make excellent subjects for photographers and nature study. Exploring the wonders of the underwater world provides an opportunity for a thrilling and exciting experience which is difficult to match in any other setting. Scuba diving has something interesting and exciting to offer almost anyone who ventures into the underwater environment.

Growth of Scuba Diving Technical advances in scuba diving equipment and the natural appeal of the sport are only two of the reasons for the growth of sport diving. Today, there are nearly 2 mil­ lion certified scuba divers in the United States; almost half of these have been certified since 1970. C3) Diving is no longer limited to those who live very close to water. The automobile and the airplane have made diving areas accessible to almost everyone. Automation, mechanization, and a changing work ethic have shortened the work week and expanded most people's leisure time. Not only do most individuals have the time, many now have the financial resources to participate in this relatively expensive sport. (4) This combination of technical advances, natural appeal, increased leisure time, and increased standard of living account for the rapid growth of the sport of scuba diving. 3

Role of Colleges and Universities Physical Education and scuba objectives. Although there are many fine courses offered in the United States outside the realm of colleges and universities, colleges and universities should make a consciencious effort to provide

scuba diving programs when student needs indicate and the resources are available. Jean McCarthy (5) points out that

scuba diving meets the objective of most physical education

programs, including: 1. Scuba possesses a unique body of knowledge to be mastered. 2. Physical skills must be developed to participate in the sport. 3. Scuba provides an opportunity for vigorous physical activity. 4. Scuba contributes to social competencies. 5. Scuba qualifies as a worthy use of leisure time and is considered a lifetime sport activity. Scuba diving objectives are congruent with those of physical

education, and they overlap the objectives of other disci­ plines . Although scuba diving clearly meets the objectives of a physical education program, some objectives have been voiced because of the potential dangers in the sport. (6) Lansche (7) states that scuba diving has been found to be 96 times as dangerous as driving a car. It is felt by some 4 that scuba diving instruction should be left to the Y.M.C.A. and commercial dive shops. The Y.M.C.A. offers its own nationally recognized certification and most dive shops offer

Y.M.C.A. or another nationally recognized certification, such as National Association Underwater Instructors (NAUI), National Association of Skin Diving Schools (NASDS) f and/or Professional Association Diving Instructors (RADI). These programs of scuba diving certification are basically sound, but need not be limited to Y.M.C.A.'s, commercial dive ships, or private organizations. A scuba diver must be prepared to handle possibilities , of drowning, scuba equipment failure, buoyancy problems, effects of breathing compressed air, effects of increased pressure, hazardous marine plants and animals, and problems caused by panic. These are serious dangers that can be minimized only by education and diving experience.

Potential resources of colleges and universities. In a college or university setting, every instructor should have a nationally recognized scuba instructor's certificate plus a more than adequate background in teaching and/or natural sciences involved in the theory of diving. Most instructors would have a minimum of a B.S. and many would have a Master's degree or a Ph.D. with considerable classroom experience. As Jean McCarthy states, "It is easier to make a diver out of a teacher, than a teacher out of a diver." (8) 5

The quality of instruction is only one advantage colleges and universities can offer in teaching a scuba course. Other advantages can be summarized as follows:

1. Colleges and universities are basically and purpose­ fully designed for the development, implementation, and constant evaluation of educationally sound instruction and programs. 2. Academic credit can be offered for scuba courses. 3. The resource personnel at a university, i.e., medical doctors, physiologists, physics professors, and marine biologists, are difficult to match. 4. Schools presently having aquatics programs can offer scuba as a part of a progressive series of aquatic offerings. Prerequisite opportunities such as swimming, senior lifesaving, and -W.S.I. would be available to develop necessary prerequisite aquatic skills. 5. In many cases students will take physical education as a part of their academic program. For a student who chooses to or must take physical education, scuba certification will be a bonus. The cost of certification under these circumstances is usually considerably less than that available through other agencies.

6. The close proximity of a hospital health center, or other medical facility provides most campus scuba programs with a safe situation in case of an acci­ dent or emergency. 7. Outstanding facilities, including pools, equipment rooms, lockers, and lecture rooms are generally available on college and university campuses and are usually located in a single building. This factor would help minimize cumbersome equipment transportation. The potential resources that a colleges or universities have to offer are difficult to match. In view of the growing demand for scuba diving, scuba would be a valuable and stimulating addition to the overall physical education 6 program at the colleges and universities conducting scuba programs.

Statement of the Problem The problem in this study is to establish a model for developing and conducting college or university scuba diving programs.

Sub-Problems (1) To analyze the policies and procedures for conduct­ ing scuba diving programs at a selected group of colleges and universities. (2) To compare, contrast, and integrate the data gathered by the questionnaire with the writer's model for developing and conducting college and university scuba diving programs.

Significance of the Problem The potential dangers of scuba diving require that each student must be prepared to handle the possibility of drown­ ing, equipment failure, buoyancy problems, the effects of breathing compressed air. at depth, hazardous marine life, and the problems panic may cause. Only an educationally sound comprehensive scuba diving program can begin to prepare the student to handle these situations. Conducting a college or university scuba diving program to prepare students for these situations presents the instructor and administrator with some difficult tasks. They have the difficult, but important task of developing their potential resources once a commitment has been made to 7

develop a scuba diving program. School administrators,

curriculum developers, and instructors have to: (a) provide adequate scuba areas, facilities and equipment, (b) hire or

train qualified scuba instructors, (c) develop educationally sound curriculum outlines, and (d) supply opportunities for

advanced open water diving experiences. Although there are numerous scuba instructional programs, no specific comprehensive guide is available to instructors and/or administrators to aid them in developing or conducting scuba diving programs.

Definitions

Certified Instructor of Scuba Diving - a person who has complied with the requirements for certification or recerti­ fication by a recognized certifying organization...... r -

College and/or University - any accredited four year institu­ tion. Open Water - any body of water considerably larger than a swimming pool with appropriate water conditions to offer a realistic diving experience. Recognized Certifying Organization - an organization whose requirements for certification and recertification of scuba divers and instructors of scuba diving have been recognized by CNCA and NSTC as meeting the requirements set forth in these standards. Scuba Diving - underwater swimming with an open circuit self-contained underwater breathing apparatus. (Open circuit indicates that compressed air is breathed and then expelled into the environment). Scuba Diving Program - a program that would include,the teaching of the cognitive areas essential to diving and the development of physical skills necessary in sport diving. The cognitive and basic skill areas are delineated in any of the nationally recognized scuba certification manuals. A comprehensive program would also include opportunities foT such activities as quarry diving, ocean diving, night diving, ice diving, cave diving and underwater photography.

Assumptions

(1) It is assumed that the questionnaire used in this research effort will supply the kinds of data desired.

(2) It is assumed that recommendations made from this study will aid colleges and universities in developing and conducting scuba diving programs.

(3) It is assumed that the questionnaires not returned would not have significantly changed the results of the data collected.

Limitations Cl) The questionnaire data are limited to selected colleges and universities. (2) Only accredited four year institutions found within the continental United States were considered for selection.

(3) This study will focus on scuba programs primarily under the auspices of a college or university physical education department. 9

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 1

1U.S. Navy Diving Manual, Vol. I (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, September, 1973), pp. 1-2. Donald D. Harper, Skin and Scuba Diving Fundamentals, (Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1968) , pp. 1-4. 3Carl I. Sisskind, "National Scuba Safety Report No. 3," Skin Diver Magazine, Vol. 24, No. 7, p. 13. ^Richard Kraus, Recreation Today, (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts , 1966) , pp. 9- lfT. 3Jean J. McCarthy, "Scuba-Physical Education Activity," Physical Educator, Vol. 19, No. 3, October, 1962, pp. 104-105. ^I.F. Naglow, "Scuba Diving - Physical Education Activity?," Physical Educator, Vol. 19, No. 2, May, 1962. 7 James M. Lansche, "Deaths During Skin and Scuba Diving in California in 1970," California Medicine, Vol. 116, No. 6, June 1972, p. 18. ®Jean J. McCarthy, "School Scuba," Physical Educator, Vol. 25, No. 2, May, 1968, pp. 59-60. CHAPTER 2

HISTORY AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE No one knows the exact origin of man's initial attempt to venture underwater,but the beginning of diving can be

traced back more than 5000 years. (1) Since then diving has evolved from crude breath-holding dives to a very technical activity requiring sophisticated apparatus and specific training. Today's diver must have a broad understanding of the principles of physics, chemistry, and physiology and

their application to diving. He or she must also accumulate practical diving experiences to develop his skills and con­

fidence.

The literature pertaining to the evolution of diving,

the growth of the sport of diving and diving certification, and the role played by colleges and universities will be

explored in this section.

Recent History of Scuba Diving Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnaii created the first truely efficient and safe open-c^rcuit scuba unit in the early 1940's. Their work was the cumulation of hundreds of years of progress and blended the work of numerous pioneers in the field of diving. As a result of their work a suitable

10 11

apparatus is now available to almost everyone, making the

underwater world open to anyone with suitable training and the necessary physical abilities. (2)

The growth of scuba diving. The underwater mobility

brought about by the development of SCUBA has lead to a rapid growth of diving, expecially sport diving. Today, nearly two million persons have been certified as scuba divers in the United States. (3) In the period 1970-74, nationwide, nearly a million divers were certified; that

figure nearly matches the total number of divers certified

in the previous 20 years. C4) These figures clearly indicate

that the number of nationally certified divers in increasing rapidly in this country.

Development of Certification and Certification Agencies

As the popularity of diving grew, the inherent risks to

persons diving with inadequate training became known. There were 503 known scuba related fatalities in the United States between the years 1946 and 1970. (5) Diving had become a popular recreational activity, and the need for training these potential divers became apparent. The first formal training course in the United States took place at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1951-52.

In late 1953 some of the graduates of this first training course developed the first recreational diver training/

instructor training course in the United States, under the 12

auspices of the Los Angeles County Parks and Recreation

Department. (6) In 1954, the Council for National Cooperation in Aqua-.:

tics (CNCA) was encouraged by a group of YMCA, Red Cross, and National Academy of Science experts to take a look at the safety aspects of this rapidly growing activity. At a meet­ ing at Yale University in 1954 the first draft of a scuba diving test was assembled by a group of scuba experts. This material was tested and revised and in 1957 The Science of

Skin and Scuba Diving was published, providing the first recognized authority for sport divers. (7)

Since the CNCA only made material available, without attempting to tell the membership organizations how to use it, the member organizations had to decide how the material was to be presented. The YMCA, already involved in the CNCA and the publica­ tion of The Science of Skin and Scuba Diving, developed its own course of instruction in 1959. (8) In 1960, a group of divers from Los Angeles founded the National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI). (9) Four years later in 1964, The National Association of Skin Diving Schools (NASDS) was formed combining training and retail equipment sales. The last of the 4 major organizations to be developed was the

Professional Association of Diving Instructors (RADI) which formed in 1966 in the midwest and east where other certifica­ tions were not easily available. (10) 13

Today, these are the four major nationally recognized scuba certifying agencies. They have all become members of the CNCA and have combined their efforts in the American

National Standards Xnstutute Z-86 Committee (hereafter referred to as the Z-86 Committee), a subcommittee of the

CNCA, in an effort to establish national standards for train­ ing sport divers. These four agencies, working through professional

diving, YMCA's, recreation programs, private instructors, the CNCA, and colleges and universities, train most of the

divers being certified today.

Role of Colleges and Universities in Scuba Diving Historical Development. Many early college and university scuba diving programs were geared toward science and the need for underwater work in connection with scienti­ fic studies and/or research. The first formal scuba train­ ing course for example, was taught at Scripps Institute of Oceanography in Southern California. (11) Other institutions involved in extensive underwater research have also developed scuba programs geared toward research. Institutions such as the University of Michigan, The California State College, Texas ASM, and the University of Rhode Island have exten­ sive scuba diving programs designed primarily to facilitate scientific underwater studies. (12) Other institutions, have developed diving programs that are designed primarily to train recreational divers. In most 14 instances these programs are conducted under the auspices of the Physical Education Department. McCarthy (13) discusses the merits of scuba diving being offered as a physical education activity. McCarthy sees the general objectives of scuba diving and those of most physical education programs as being quite similar. Scuba diving and physical education both: (a) provide organic stimulation, (b) develop a body of knowledge, (c) require the mastry of physical skills and (d) provide opportunities to develop social competancies. In a later article (1968) he writes about the lag between the amount of scuba offered in the colleges and universities and the demand for the activity. He supported his view by noting that there were 8 million skin divers, 1 million scuba divers, and 1000 dive clubs at that time. (14) The current trend toward elective physical education programs has necessitated that physical education programs appeal to the students and to their mode of life. There has been an upsurge of new activities being offered at colleges and universities to meet these needs. Activity offerings, from spelunking to scuba diving show that activities which were once regarded as "... sophisticated pursuits of an exclusive leisure class ... now represent an essential com­ ponent of a liberal education for all." (15) Stanley (16) surveyed over 200 institutions known to offer unique programs. He found that over 50% of these 15

institutions offered courses in scuba diving. He feels that

unique offerings such as skiing, sailing, bicycling, and -scuba diving provide the student with unique opportunities

for challenging adventures in the natural environment.

Advanced offerings. Tzimolis (17, 18) has written a number of editorials on scuba diving certification. He feels

that the present certification standards for scuba diving have some marked deficiencies. His major objection is that most certifications require only two open water experiences before the neophyte diver is certified to dive anywhere in the world. He points out that the additional problems of taste, smell, buoyancy, water movements, and hazardous marine

life in open water may put the inexperienced diver in a situation that he was not trained to handle. He suggests certification cards with depth limits and environmental restriction limits would help. Pool sessions, lecture ses­ sions, and two open water experiences, in his opinion, simply do not prepare a diver to handle himself safely at various depths in oceans, lakes, or rivers. Courses that do not include or lead directly to open water checkouts and some type of recognized certification should be avoided. Some college and university programs already have multi­ ple certifications. The University of Rhode Island, for example, has three types of certification: (a) learner’s permit, (b) scuba diving certificate, and (c) temporary 16 diving certificate. Any person diving under the university’s auspices must have one of the certifications. Both of the actual diving certifications include an environmental authorization (marine or fresh); a depth authorization, the date of the latest medical examination (required annually) and an expiration date. (19) It seems apparent that advanced experiences are highly desirable for the basic scuba diver. Most certifying agencies that offer a basic certification also offer some type of advanced certification. These advanced certifica­ tions provide the diver with an opportunity to increase his knowledge, skills, and experiences under controlled condi­ tions. Colleges and universities offering scuba diving should make every effort to afford their students -an opportunity to improve their skills and gain experience in open water. McCarthy emphasizes the importance of adequate preparation by stating, "a weak backhand may cost a game; inadequate diving skills or knowledge could cost a life." (20)

Legal implications. Tunis states, "Diving instructors are particularly susceptible to claims because they engage in teaching what can easily be termed a hazardous activity.” (21) A student injury or death resulting from a negligent act on the part of an instructor or his assistant may result in a claim against the instructor and/or his sponsoring 17 organization, i.e., dive shop or educational institution.

Riedman (22) summarizes the application of negligence to scuba diving instruction as follows: 1. The instructor must exercise reasonable and prudent judgment: in conducting all aspects of the diving program. Reasonable and prudent judgment in the rr case of scuba diving instruction requires the utmost care and diligence for the safety of the students. 2. The instructor is responsible for acts or omissions of his assistant instructors during class time.

3. If an instructor is acting as an agent or employee of a dive shop or other sponsoring agency, i.e., a college or university, this organization will be held responsible for each and every act of omission of the instructor or of the instructor’s assistant. This would not be applicable where the college or university are exempt by law from prosecution. Riedman also suggests that all instructors carefully select a personal liability insurance policy and that agen^ cies employing these instructors should consult legal counsel concerning their legal status. The sponsoring agencies should consider the need for special types of insurance, including workmans compensation, trip insurance, automotive insurance, and boat insurance. The individual circumstances of each agency will determine the need for these kinds of insurance. Eisenstat (23) further clarifies the concept of negli­ gence and its application to scuba diving instruction. He discusses the application of negligence to the following aspects of instruction: (a) supervision, (b) equipment,

(c) skill, (d) subject matter coverage, (e) judgment, 18

(f) screening, and (g) completed operations. He goes on to identify 10 considerations that can provide legal protection for the instructor and his‘employer. These 10 suggestions will not only protect the instructors, they will also protect the student and improve the instruc­ tional program. There is no substitute for an accumulation of the following:

1. A complete application

2. Verification by a physician that the student is fit to engage in the sport of scuba diving. 3. A waiver, release, or indemnity form signed by the student.

4. Records of the prerequisite swimming test. 5. A complete and accurate course outline.

6. Information on assistants to be used. 7. Record of student performance and test scores.

8. Concise accident reports. 9. Schedules of equipment use, repair, and maintenance. 10. A list of local experts qualified to verity the worth of the instructional program. A soundly conceived and carefully conducted program will minimize the chance of any legal claims being filed against the instructor or his employer, but the instructor and his employer should be aware of the legal ramifications of teaching scuba diving. Those involved with teaching or administrating a scuba diving program should be cognizant of the legal defenses available to them if a claim is filed. 19

Riedman*s (24) discussion of assumption of risk and contri­ butory negligence provides useful insights into these defenses. The assumption of risk defense is based on the

student*s prior knowledge of the potential dangers of scuba diving and voluntarily participating with this knowledge.

Contributory negligence is based on the premise that the

student's errors or faulty judgment contributed to the accident or injury. Under these circumstances the instructor will be absolved of all or part of the blame. He will be required to pay no compensation or, in some cases, only a percentage of the judgment, based on the percentage of guilt determined by the court.

Summary In the early 1940's the first truly safe and efficient scuba unit was designed by Cousteau and Gagnon. Their work provided the technology that opened the underwater world to almost anyone with suitable training and the necessary phy­ sical abilities. The sport of scuba diving has grown rapidly in the last 25 years. As early as 1950 the need to regulate the growing sport was recognized. In 1954, the CNCA launched an effort to study the safety aspects of scuba diving. The results of their effort was The Science of Skin and Scuba Diving, which provided the first recognized authorative scuba diving text. The CNCA only made material available and did not attempt to tell its member organizations how to present the 20 material. To fill this need, four major certifying agencies developed. The YMCA.was the first organization to develop a scuba diving program (1959), followed by NAUI (1960), NASDS (1964), and PDI (1966). Today, these agencies train and certify most of the scuba divers in this country. A growing number of colleges and universities are expanding their physical education programs to include innovative and exciting activities. The trend toward elective physical education programs and the increasing student interest has resulted in the growth of classes in canoeing, camping, backpacking, cycling, skiing, and scuba diving. (26) . Other institutions have developed extensive scuba diving programs to facilitate other programs. Oceanography, marine biology, geology, and archeology are often dependent upon scuba diving to provide the capacity for underwater work and study. In order for colleges and universities to meet the student's recreational and academic needs, sound educational programs must be developed and conducted at these institu­ tions. This study will investigate the policies, procedures, and the organizational structures required for colleges and universities to develop and conduct scuba diving programs. 21

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 2

Hj.S. Navy Diving Manual, Volume I, (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, September, 1973), p. 1-5. 2 Donald D. Harper, Shin and Scuba Diving Fundamentals, (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1968), pp. 1-4. ^Hilbert V. Schench, Jr., and John J. McAniff, "United States Underwater Fatality Statistics - 1972," (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, December, 1973), pp. 2-3. ^Carl I. Sisskind, "National Scuba Safety Report No. 3," Skin Diver, Vol. 24, No..7, July, 1973, p. 13. ^Hilbert V. Schench, Jr. and John J. McAniff, "Diving Accident Survey, 1946-1970," University of Rhode Island's Safety Report, No. 5, 1971. ^Sisskind, o£. cit., pp. 12 and 13.

7Ibid., p. 13. O Young Men's Christian Association, YMCA Scuba Leader­ ship Manual, (Atlanta: Published by National YMCA Scuba Committee-, 1974), p. 14.

^H. Ross Bachman, (ed.) National Association of Under­ water Instructors - Instructor Handbook,. (Published by the National Association of Underwater Instructors, May 1969), p. 2. ■^Sisskind, oj>. cit. , p. 13.

11Ibid., p. 12. ■^John J. McAniff, "University Guide for Diving Safety," (Unpublished paper, University of Rhode Island, 1971). 1 ^ Jean J. McCarthy, "Scuba Physical Education Activity!," Physical Educator, Vol. 19, No. 10, October, 1962, pp. 104- lt f T . ■^Jean J. McCarthy, "School Scuba," Physical Educator, Vol. 25, No. 4, May, 1 9 6 8 , pp. 59-60. ■^Robert Newton, "Outdoor Education in the 60's," Out-: doors, (a publication of the Physical Education Association of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Vol. 40, No. 1, December, 1969, pp. 34-35. 22

1 fi Phillip L. Stanley, "Implementation of Off-Campus and Unique Activities," (Paper presented at 74rd Annual Meeting of the National College Physical Education Association for Men, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, January 7, 1973), pp. 1-18. 17 Paul J. Tzimoulis, "Editorial - It Takes More than a C-Card," Skin Diver Magazine, Vol. 22, No. 7, July, 1973, p. 4. 1 8 Paul J. Tzimoulis, "Editorial - An Incomplete Pic­ ture," Skin Diver Magazine, Vol. 21, No. 10, October, 1972, p. 4. "^McAniff, o£. cit., pp..18-20. 7 n John J. McCarthy, "Rationale for Utilizing Selected Skin and Scuba Diving Instructional Programs," Physical Educator, Vol. 30, No. 5, May, 1973, pp. 25-27. 2^Irwin L. Tunis, "Why Liability Insurance?,” NAUI News, Vol. 11, No. 3, March, 19 71, p. 3. 22Fred L. Riedman, "Legal Aspects of Diving Instruction," Legal Aspects of Underwater Instruction, (a publication of the National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI), 1972), pp. 9-10. 7 *7 Gerald M. Eisenstat, "Personal Liability for Scuba Instructors," Legal Aspects of Underwater Instruction, ( a publication of tne National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI), 1972), pp. 3-5.

*y j Riedman, op♦ cit., pp. 13-14. 25 Stanley, o£. cit., pp. 1-2. CHAPTER 3

METHODS AND PROCEDURE

Recreational diving in the United States is growing at an incredible rate, and is being offered in an increasing number of higher education prdgrams. Cl) There is presently no comprehensive developmental model to guide the efforts of these institutions in developing and conducting their programs. This study will attempt to establish a develop­ mental model based upon a survey of currently successful college and university scuba diving programs, current literature in the field, opinions of scuba diving experts, and the personal expertise of the writer. This chapter will outline the methods and procedures followed in the research effort.

Institutions to be Surveyed A form letter was mailed to numerous aquatic organiza­ tions, all major scuba certifying agencies, scuba equipment manufacturers, and professional physical education organiza­ tions in search of a comprehensive listing of colleges and universities offering scuba diving. Although some reference material was received, no comprehensive listing of U.S. colleges and universities offering scuba programs is currently available. 23 24

As an alternative, sixty colleges and universities from four geographic regions were selected for this study. The

institutions selected were chosen from those included in a study done by Stanley (2) on off-campus and unique physical education activities, those suggested in personal interviews with local scuba leaders, and from those known prior to the study. Fifteen schools from each of four regions in the

continental United States were selected in order to gatheT information on a nation wide basis.CSee Appendix C).

Construction of the Data-gathering Instrument As Best states, "Many questionnaires include both open and closed type items. Each type has its merits and limita­ tions, and the questionnaire builder must decide which type is more likely to supply the information he wants." (3) The required information for this study required both the open and closed form items. Most items were designed to be closed-type to minimize the time necessary to complete the questionnaire, but some items were best answered usirg an open-type format (See Appendix A). The body of the questionnaire was divided into the following sections: I. Introductory cover letter. II. Areas, Facilities and Equipment A. The pool B. Scuba Equipment C. The Scuba Room D. Security E. Medical Facilities 25

III. The Scuba Program A. Course Prerequisites B. Course Cost (Special Fees) C. Program Specifications D. Instructors E. Program Development

IV. Program Finances V. Legal Liability and Insurance

The Questionnaire was written and revised under the guidance of The Ohio State University Research Counseling

Center, the writer’s graduate committee, and other profes­ sional associates.

Collection of Data A copy of the survey and a self addressed stamped envelope was mailed to each of the institutions selected. In most cases the questionnaire was mailed to the .chairperson or director of the physical education department. The chair­ person or director’s name was obtained from the Athletic

Blue Book (4). Mailing the questionnaire to the chairperson or director of the department had the following advantages: 1. It was felt that, department chairperson or direc­ tor, generally is a conscientious professional, who would either complete the questionnaire person­ ally, or assign it to an appropriate staff member. 2. Staff members receiving the questionnaire from the administrative head would be more likely to complete and return the questionnaire than one who simply received it in the mail. 3. In some instances, the administrative head may be the only person with access to the desired informa­ tion. 26

4. Most chairpersons and directors are on twelve month contracts, which would help minimize nonreturns because of term.breaks and/or vacations.

In some cases, where responsible individuals in the scuba program were known to the author, the questionnaire was mailed direct. A follow-up letter and an additional copy of the survey was mailed to the institution not returning the survey within four weeks. Two additional weeks were then allowed for the remainder of the questionnaires to be received, making a total of six weeks for the respondent to reply.

Treatment of the Data Due to the variety of types of information requested, several processes were used in the analysis of the data. The data were analyzed to yield four basic types of information: 1. The percentage of institutions utilizing certain percedures, facilities, and equipment. 2. The criterion specifications for establishing cer-;. tain aspects of the scuba program. 3. Financial estimates for conducting various scuba programs. 4. Recommendations from experts in the field, on technical matters involved in conducting a scuba program. Data gathered by the questionnaire was used to assess current practices being used by existing college and univer­ sity scuba diving programs-. Those policies and procedures found to be successful were integrated into the writer's development model. 27

Construction of the Developmental Model Conceptual framework. The developmental model was pri­ marily constructed from the literature in the field of

educational development. The work of Tyler (5), Taba (6), and The Ohio State University Evaluation Center (7) were the major sources of the modelfs conceptual framework.

Jury of experts. A jury.of local experts was inter­ viewed to gather recommendations on material to be included in the model’s components. Nationally certified scuba instructors from The Ohio State University and The Central Ohio School for Diving provided considerable information on administrative procedures, scuba diving course content, and scuba diving agencies and resources.

Questionnaire data. The data gathered by the question­ naire provided recommendations from scuba diving experts from across the nation and information on administrative and instructional policies and procedures used by existing institutional scuba diving programs. The influence of the questionnaire data permeates the entire developmental model.

Personal expertise. The writer’s involvement with the scuba diving program at The Ohio State University as a diver, instructor, and administrator, provided some insights into 28 the problem of conducting and expanding a university scuba diving program. These insights influenced all aspects of the developmental model. 29

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 3

John L. Cramer, Glen H. Egstrom, and Lee H. Somers, "Minimum Standards for Courses of Basic Skin and Scuba Diving," Journal of Health, PhysicalEducation, and Recrea­ tion , Vol” 45 , No'! 10, October , 19 74, pp. 83-87. 2 Phillip L. Stanley, "Implementation of Off-Campus and Unique Activities," (paper presented at 73rd Annual Meeting of the National College Physical Education Association for Men, January, 1973, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). 3 * John W. Best, Research in Education (2nd ed.; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970), pp. 163. ^The Athletic Bluebook of College Athletics for 1975-74, (Cleveland: Rohrich Corporation, 197 3-74). 5Ralph W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, 1950) , pp. 1-83. fi Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development Theory and Practice, (New York, Chicago"!! San Francisco, and. Atlanta: Harcourt Brace and World, 1962), pp. 9-14. 7 The Ohio State University Evaluation Center, Instruc­ tional Development at The Ohio State University Evaluation Center! (Unpublished report of The Ohio State University Evaluation Center, August 1972), pp. 1-17. CHAPTER 4

The questionnaire was designed to yield data on college and university programs across the continental United States.

A large amount of data were gathered from the questionnaire, but only the portions of the data that can be applied directly to the writer’s developmental model will be consi­ dered in this analysis.

Sixty colleges and universities from across the nation were selected for inclusion in the study. Each institution was mailed a copy of the scuba program questionnaire (See Appendix A) and a self-addressed stamped envelope. Of the 60 colleges and universities mailed surveys, 38 schools responded; however, 6 of these responses yielded incomplete or no data due to the absence of a scuba program inaccessi­ bility of the desired information, or failure of the respon- dant to complete the questionnaire items. Usable responses were therefore limited to 32 out of 60, providing a 532; usable data return rate. In some instances, portions of the questionnaire were not completed for various unknown reasons, further limiting the number of responses. Notation of these instances will be included in the discussion of the question­ naire items1:.

30 31

Best states'that "It is difficult to estimate, in the abstract, what percentage of the questionnaire responses is

to be considered adequate or satisfactory." (1) Since the data gathered in the questionnaire are to be used primarily as supportive data, rather than proof of significant data, a 53% usable data return rate is deemed adequate to be of value to this study.

Areas, Facilities, and Equipment

Pools. The swimming pool is one of the primary physical resources needed to conduct a scuba diving program. Ques-* tionnaire data show that 94% of the institutions surveyed used pools located on campus for teaching scuba diving classes. The remaining 6% of the institutions surveyed used pools off campus in conjunction with an outside agency contracted to conduct scuba classes. The dimensions of the pools used by the surveyed institutions varied considerably; however, most ranged in depth from 10-14 feet deep. Respondants were asked to provide their personal recommendations for outstanding pool features for pools used in teaching scuba diving classes. A summary of the recommendations included: (a) underwater windows; (b) underwater speakers; (c) underwater lighting; gradu­ ally sloping bottoms with suggested depths of 10-16 feet; (e) a safety ledge around the pool: and (f) a video tape system for use above water and through the underwater window. 32

Scuba equipment. An analysis.of the questionnaire data provides some insight into what items of equipment are needed to conduct a scuba diving program and how the equipment is usually supplied. Equipment is usually supplied by the institution, rented from a commercial agency, or purchased by the student. Scuba outfits (tanks, backpacks, regulators, and floatation vests) are supplied by 691 of the institutions surveyed, but only 34% provided masks, fins and snorkels. These figures indicate that institutions usually provide scuba gear, but not skin diving gear. Weight belts were provided by 50% of the institutions surveyed. The 30% of the institutions not supplying equipment, either rented the equipment outright or as part of a package deal with a commercial firm. No institution required the students to supply all of their own equipment. The cost of equipment rental in these cases was usually paid by the stu­ dents in the form of a special fee. Special fees will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. Some institutions kept a limited inventory of scuba gear not required to teach a basic scuba diving class. Most programs do not require each student to have a wet suit, depth gauge, knife, or underwater light for class use, although these items may be used for the open water checkouts. Of the schools surveyed, 12% supplied wet suits, 12% had a small inventory of depth guages, 28% provided tank pressure 33

gauges, 15% had a small quantity of underwater lights, and

one institution kept a knife for class demonstration pur­ poses .

Most institutions, 96%, indicated that equipment

purchases and program development took over one year to

achieve present levels. This figure indicates that most

colleges and universities build equipment inventories over a period of years rather than trying to purchase all the

necessary scuba equipment at once.

Storage areas and compressors. Due to the relatively high cost of scuba diving equipment and its potential danger in the hands of untrained persons, scuba equipment should be stored in a well secured area that is dry, cool, and out of

direct sunlight.

The respondants were asked to briefly describe the

security measures employed by their institution. Their

recommendations were: (a) provide an area exclusively for scuba diving equipment; (b) install secure locks and limit the number of keys; (c) employ or assign one person the job of passing out equipment; (d) label or number all pieces of equipment; and (e) stress the importance of security to all instructors and assistants. The compressor and cascade system are one of the largest single investments made in the scuba diving program. Despite the relatively high cost of a compressor suitable for filling 34

scuba tanks £ o t a class C$2,000-$5,000) , 62% of the institu­

tions surveyed owned their, own compressor. The average cost

of the compressors used by these institutions was about $4,000.

Compressors are relatively large investments and should

be maintained properly (See Appendix D). Maintaining the

compressor system may be assigned to one of the scuba instructors or it can be assigned to the institutions’ maintenance crew. Only those authorized should be permitted

to operate or care for the compressor and this group should be kept small. Questionnaire data shows that 78% of the colleges and universities that have their own compressor have two or less people authorized to operate the compressor

and 94% have three or less.

Medical facilities. The availability of medical facil­

ities and emergency procedures was also surveyed in the questionnaire. These problems seem minimal for colleges and universities in light of the questionnaire data. According to the results of the questionnaire, every institution sur­ veyed had a health center, hospital, or some type of medical facility on campus. Additional data revealed that 93% of these medical facilities are less than one mile from the pool used to conduct scuba classes. Another feature offered by 79% of the colleges and universities surveyed was a campus emergency squad. 35

Program Specifications

Instructors. All of the instructors in the institutions surveyed except three, were certified by the four major certifying agencies (YMCA, NAUI, PADI, and NASDS). The questionnaire data show that, of the 68 certifications held by the instructors, 46% are NAUI, 31% YMCA, 19% PADI, and

4% NASDS. Many of the instructors have more than one nationally recognized instructor certification making it difficult to determine accurately which agency's course outline is more influencial in the institutions' program. Figures on the status of the instructors at the colleges and universities show that 68% of the scuba instructors are regular employees of the institution and 32% were hired from off campus.

r Course content. Since the vast majority of the instruc­ tors teaching in the colleges and universities surveyed are certified by the four major certifying agencies, the course content of these organizations will be included with the analysis of data. A summary of their course specifications can be found on Table 1. Outlined in this table are the minimum certification standards for certification required by these agencies. A comparison of the course requirements prescribed by these organizations and those followed by the colleges and university programs surveyed, indicates that the college and TABLE 1 Minimum Certification Requirements of the Four Nationally Recognized Scuba Certification Agencies

Standards YMCA NAUI PADI NASDA

H '!• Age 15 15 15 15 2 2. Medical History Yes Yes Yes Yes J 3. Swimming 300 Yards 220 Yards 100 Yards 200 Yards A 3 min (30 . t 4. Tread water sec one.hand.n

W ^ 5. Survival float 15 minutes T E 6. Victim tow 25 yards R M A N 7. Underwater Swim 15 yards (no 10 yards (no S push off) push off) H I 8. Surface Dive P

q 9. Lectures 14 hours 10 hours 12 hours 12 hours N j 10. Pool sessions 18 hours 12 hours 12 hours 12 hours E N 11. Openwater 1 skin; 2 2 scuba 2 scuba 1 skin; 2 T Check outs scuba scuba ; 37

university programs meet or exceed the recommended minimum

standards in almost every instance (See Table 2.and 3). Meeting the minimum age requirement is little or no

problem for the college and universities, since there are

very rarely any students who are not already 15 years old, the minimum age required by all four of the certifying

agencies. Medical examinations or a medical history form is

required by all of the certifying agencies. Physical exam­

inations were required for entrance into scuba diving courses

by 87% of the institutions surveyed. It is suspected that

this figure may be even higher if all institutions responding would have considered the physical examination required by many colleges and universities as meeting the physical

examination requirement. A further breakdown of medical

fitness requirements of the survey group found that 70% required a medical history form to be completed by the student, 40% required a blood test, 53% required a blood pressure check, and 30% required chest X-rays. The most

distressing aspect of these figures is the relatively low number of colleges and universities that require a chext X-ray for entrance into the scuba class. Dr. Walton R. Garner, M.D. (Chief of Preventive Medicine, Ohio State Univer­ sity Health Center) strongly recommends that scuba divers, especially student divers, have a chest X-ray every year. TABLE 2 Summary of Scuba Diving Course Watermanship Prerequisite Skills Required by Colleges and Universities responding to the Questionnaire

No. of Per cent of Requirement Inst. Inst. Specifications Requiring Requiring

Distance Swim 26 87 Distance Required: 200 yds 2^;300 yds 12/, 400 yds 11 Underwater Swim 21 70 Distance Required: less than 45 1; 45-55 13; 55-75 7 "

Victim Tow 10 33 Distance Required: 75T 3_; 100* 5/ 150+ 2

Surface Dive . 14 47 Depth of pool: Range - 10* to 15’ Tread water 19 63 Time: 3 min. 7; 5 min. 8: 10 min. 2; 15 min. 2

Survival Float 13 43 Time: 10 min. 4; 15 min. T\ 20+ min. £ Livesaving 5 17 Certification First Aid 12 40 Certification Swimming Strokes 12 40 Free, Side, Breast, Back, arid/or Butterfly

w 00 39

TABLE 3

Summary of Scuba Diving Course Specifications of Colleges and Universities Responding to the Questionnaire

Program Item Per cent Specification -

SKIN DIVING COURSES

No. of required-courses 20 14 to 23 hours

SCUBA DIVING COURSES

Average ho. of courses per year Seven Credits offered 100 1 credit 54; 2 credits 38; 3 credits 8

Clock hours Range: 24-50 hrs. Ave. 38 Lecture hours Range: 6-30 hrs; Ave. 16 Pool hours Range: 12-38 hrs. Ave. 2_2 No. of students per class Range: 14-30 hrs. Ave. 20

Special Fees Charged 60 Range: $10-80; Ave. $35.00

OPEN WATER CHECKOUT DIVES

No. of Required Courses Average 6 opport. per year.

ADVANCED OPEN WATER COURSES

No. offering courses 30 Average 3 courses per year. 40

Watermanship requirements for the certifying agencies

are found on Table 1 and the results of the surveyed insti­ tutions1 requirements can be found on Table 2. The only watermanship requirement required by all four certifying agencies is a distance swim, ranging in distance from 100 yards (PADI) to 300 years (YMCA). Eighty-seven per cent (87%) of the college and university scuba programs require a swimming test (See Figure 2). This figure may even be higher since some institutions indicated they accept varsity swim­ ming experience, an "A" in a previous swimming class (above beginning swimming), or successfully completing the program*s skin diving course as a proof of watermanship. Required distance swims were considerably longer than those recoin--- mended by the certifying agencies. Only two institutions of those that required a swimming test required a test less than 300 yards, while 12 required a 300 yard swim and 12 others required a 400 yard swim. Various stroke requirements are used by 40% of the institutions in addition to a distance requirement. Although slightly different specifications, concerning pushing off from the side, diving from the sides, and using surface dives distort the figures slightly, the data indicate that the institutions' requirements exceed the minimum standards prescribed by YMCA and PADI, the only two agencies requiring an underwater swim. YMCA requires a 45 foot swim with no pushoff and PADI requires a 30 foot swim with no 41 pushoff, while 13 of the institutions1 programs required underwater swims of between 45 and 55 feet plus 7 between 55 and 75 feet. This leaves only one program that requires less than a 45 foot underwater swim. Since scuba diving should be done in buddy teams (groups or two) a buddy may be called upon to rescue his partner. Potential scuba diving students should have the basic skills to tow their respective partners to shore. The YMCA requires its potential scuba divers to tow a victim 25 yards. A victim tow test is required by 33% of the institutions sur­ veyed, ranging in distance from 75 feet to over 150 feet. Treading water and survival floating are otheT ways of evaluating a student’s watermanship. Treading water is the more active of the two processes calling for the ability to maintain the head above water without traveling. Addi­ tional restrictions can be placed on treading water, for instance the YMCA test calls for 3 minutes of treading using feet only and PADI requires 3 minutes of water treading, 30 seconds of which one hand must be out of the water. Water treading time is required by 63% of the surveyed institutions with the following time requirements: 3 minutes - 7 pro­ grams; 5 minutes - 8 programs; more than 10 minutes - 4 pro­ grams . Survival floating is keeping afloat for a prescribed period of time, with no restrictions on movement or body parts used. Fewer institutions required survival floating, 42

43% ranging in duration from 10 to 20 minutes. Only YMCA requires survival floating (15 minutes is the required time).

No certifying agencies require a surface dive ass a course prerequisite, but 43% of the institutions include a 10 to 15 foot surface dive. The surface dive not only helps evaluate the student*s watermanship, it also may help identify students who may have problems with their ears. Lifesaving certification was required by 17% of the institutions surveyed and 7% required a first aid certifica­ tion. These types of requirements would be unreasonable in most settings, but the availability of these courses at the college or university make this requirement feasible.

Course structure. The structure of the course as well as the prerequisite skills can effect the student diver’s readiness to dive. The basic structure of scuba courses includes lecture classes on the theories and principles of scuba diving, pool sessions to develop diving skills, and an open water checkout to provide a supervised experience on an open water dive. The exact minimum hour requirements for these sections varies with the type of certification being offered (See Table 1). Minimum hour requirements for the scuba certification agencies vary from 12-14 hours of lecture, 12-18 hours of pool time, and various procedures for conducting checkout dives are employed. The greatest mini­ mum hour requirement by the certifying agencies is YMCA, 43

with 14 hours of lecture, 18 hours of pool, and a checkout including 1 skin dive and -2 .scuba dives. ' (A total of 32 hours plus a checkout dive.)

Only two of the schools surveyed had programs of less than 30 hours, one 28 and the other 24. The average scuba

course lasted 38 hours and included an average of 22 hours of pool work and 16 hours of lecture sessions (See Table 4).

These figures show that in nearly every case the college and university scuba programs meet or surpass even the most

demanding minimum requirements. The relatively low percentage of schools (56%) indicat­

ing that they conduct checkout dives could be due to a number of factors. A failure of the respondents to record question­ naire data accurately may have lowered the percentage. Some institutions included the checkout dive as part of their basic scuba offering; so they may have simply failed to indicate that the check out dive was included in the basic course. Another factor that could limit the number of institutions providing checkout dives is the additional specialized equipment used for these dives. Such items as wet suits, boots, gloves, divers* flag, and a safety line used in checkout dives may not be available to colleges and universities. Some institutions provide opportunities for checkout dives through local dive shops; therefore, they may have no academic status and were not recorded on the questionnaire. 44

These are at best, educated guesses. It is hoped that more than 56% of the institutions offering basic scuba

courses provide some type of open water checkout and an

opportunity to become certified.

Program Finances and Special Fees r A special fee was charged by 60% of all of the institu­ tions surveyed. The cost to the student averaged about $35.00 with a range in costs of $10.00 to $80.00. In most

cases these fees were used for equipment rental and airfills,

although, in some cases, the fee was used for meeting the

cost of instruction. Many institutions can not afford to purchase the equipment required to conduct a scuba program. When asked

to estimate their institutions' capital outlay for the scuba program, 15 institutions supplied estimates. The average

capital investment of these institutions to develop a scuba program averaged slightly over $6,000.

Legal Status Only 15 of the 32 respondants provided information on their institutions* legal status concerning scuba diving.

Three areas of liability insurance were surveyed: Ca) University*s legal status, (b) scuba instructor's legal status, and (c) source of liability insurance. Results found that 65% of the institutions could be sued due to the current trend to remove legal immunity from

colleges and universities. 45

Instructors should also provide themselves with legal protection in case of an accident or injury. Tunis in an article in NAUI News states, "The diving instructor is unfortunately in an excellent position to have a claim or claims lodged against him by a responsible and at times irresponsible party.”C3) Although teaching scuba diving is a high liability risk activity, 18% of the instructors teaching at the universities surveyed did not indicate that they have liability insurance. 46

NOTES FOR CHAPTER 4

^John W. Best, Research in Education , (2nd, ed.; Engle­ wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1970), p. 172. o Dr. Walton R. Garner, M.D., Personal' Interview, January 1975. ^Irwin L. Tunis, "Why Liability Insurance?," NAUI News, Vol. 11, No. 3, March 1971, p. 3. CHAPTER 5

THE DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL

In an effort to aid college and university personnel in developing and conducting a scuba diving program, the writer has chosen to outline the steps and priorities in designing

and implementing a developmental model for college and uni­ versity scuba diving programs. It is realized by the writer that no single model can effectively deal with the multitude of unique situations and problems that may be encountered in a developmental effort of this scope and magnitude; therefore, the writer will emphasize fundamental aspects of program development and course content.

Conceptual Framework Stufflebeam has defined development as "the process of converting existing knowledge into useful operational pro­ grams." (1) He contends that programatic change, including developing new educational programs, can best be achieved by using a sequential or a systematic approach. To provide a series of logical and sequential steps in reaching a desired goal one should establish a developmental model. Numerous outlines and models have been constructed to aid educators in developing curriculua and educational

47 48

programs. In establishing a model for developing and conducting a college or university scuba diving program this writer will draw primarily from the following three sources:

1. Ralph Tyler’s work on curriculum and instruction

2. Hilda Tabafs theories on curriculum development 3. The Ohio State University Evaluation Center’s systematic processes for developing educational products.

Tyler’s model for developing curriculum. Tyler was involved in the Eight Year. Study (1932-1940) of thirty schools done by the American Council on Education. (2) His responsibility was to establish a rationale for developing curriculum. As a result of his work with this

$ project, he produced a curriculum development model. The components of his model can be summarized as follows: Step 1: Determine what educational purposes the program should seek to attain by diagnosing student needs and formulating objectives. Step 2: Select learning experiences which are likely to be useful in attaining these needs and obj ectives. Step 3: Organize the learning experiences so that they will be presented effectively. Step 4: Evaluate to what extent the educational objectives are being realized. Step 5: Modify the components so they more effectively accomplish the desired objectives. (3)

These components should continually be updated according to the nature of society, changes in the educational setting, and the results of the ongoing evaluation process. 49

Taba's curriculum development model. Taba worked with 1 Tyler on The Eight Year Study. During the project they began to develop an elaborate scheme of questions to be asked and an order of steps to be taken in planning curriculum. OveT a period of years Taba continued testing and refining this curriculum development model. Her concepts of curriculum development requires orderly thinking, which examines both

the order in which decisions are made and the way in which

they are made. The order suggested by Taba for planning and developing educational programs is as follows:

Step 1: Diagnosis of needs

Step 2: Formulate Objectives

Step 3: Selection of Content Step 4: Organization of Content

Step 5: Selection of learning experiences Step 6: Organization of learning experiences Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and of how to do it. (4} Taba's model includes two steps not included in Tyler's model, selection of content and organization of content. She included these as separate steps to stress the importance of considering the continuity and sequence of learning and the variations in the capacity to learn.

The Ohio State University Evaluation Center's instruc­ tion development model. The Center Instructional Development CCID) Model was developed by The Ohio State University 50

Evaluation Center to delineate the processes followed by the center in developing and evaluating instructional products.

(5) The CID Model is divided into the following four phases: 1. Context Phase - This phase delineates the needs, opportunities, and problems confronting the evalua­ tion center when undertaking a developmental task.

2. Input Phase - This phase is concerned with prepar­ ing a design of a specific product and a detailed summary of the resources necessary to implement the design. 3. Process Phase - This phase develops and refines the product so that it is satisfactory for field testing. 4. Product Phase - This phase empirically establishes that the instructional product does not meet the need that it was intended to meet. Under ideal conditions, where developers are not hampered by unrealistic financial constraints, time limits, personnel problems, and antiquated facilities, the model may be followed in a consistant linear fashion. The model and processes presented by the center do reflect a standard course of development, but due to realistic conditions a strict linear use of the model is not always feasible.

The Developmental Model The writer's developmental model will draw on the works of Tyler (6), Taba (7) and The Ohio State University Evalua­ tion Center (8). It will consist of five major phases: (a) Needs assessment phase; (b) Available resources phase; (c) Organizational phase; (d) Program specification phase; and (e) Evaluation and revision phase. The subdivisions of 51 these phases can act as an outline for sequencing and establishing priorities in developing a model scuba program.

(See Figure 1). The following outline delineates the steps recommended in developing a college or university scuba program.

Scuba Program Developmental Model I. Needs Assessment Phase A. Survey students - (empirical evidence) B. Develop needs assessment statement II. Survey Available Resources A. Financial Resources Phase B. Human Resources 1. On campus 2. Others C. Physical Resources 1. Facilities a. Pool and storage area b. Locker room c. Lecture room d. Medical facilities 2. Transportation 3. Open water area III. Organizational Phase A. Departmentation and Organizational Pattern B. Establish Relationships 1. Within the program 2. Within the department 3.. Within the institution C. Examine legal ramifications IV. Program Specifications Phase A. Course Outline 1. Scope and focus of program course outlines 2. Agency programs available 3. Course prerequisites a. Medical b . Watermanship 4. Course segments a. Pool b. Lecture c. Checkout 5. Text B. Instructional Strategy 1. Scheduling configuration 2. Student instructor ratio (class size) 3. Instructor specifications Process Needs • Needs Assessment t Phase Needs St:atement >

Human Financial Physical Resource Resources Resources Resources Availability Phase ------!t------H .Resourc e Report[ f Organize Organizational Development Phase

r..... X Organizational^ Guidelines Program i Specification Program Needs and Phase Instruction Content Finances v i Fiel

Major Components of each Developmental Phase Written reports, guidelines or < Z > Recommendations Directional Flow Lines Feedback loop for process or product refinement

Figure 1 Scuba Diving Program Developmental Model Flow Chart 53

4. Instructional format a. Class location 1. Pool 2. Lecture room 3. Open water b. Instructional method employed 1. Lecture 2. ' Team teaching 3. Media lab 4. Pool C. Specify Program Needs and Finances - Budget 1. Capital investments a. Pool b. Scuba room 1. Compressor and cascade system 2. Storage racks, shelves, or cabinets 2. Expendable equipment - (See Figure 5) 3. Maintenance and repair 4. Transportation 5. Instructor costs V. Evaluation and Revision Phase A. Field testing 1. Prototype 2. Ongoing B. Evaluation C. Revision

Needs Assessment Phase

Determining a need and developing a need statement. Developing a needs statement is both an awesome and exciting prospect; awesome in that accurately measuring student needs may be difficult and exciting in that doing so may make possible more relevant and meaningful educational programs. An accurate assessment and a concise statement of student needs is the first step in developing and implementing new programs. In some instances determination of student demands may require little investigation. Interest groups such as 54 clubs, scouts, YMCA's and others may foster a demand at the college or university for certain activities. In other cases student needs may not be as evident. These needs may grow out of discontent with present offerings rather than a demand for a specific program. Empirical support such as survey data, documenting the existance of these specific needs should be gathered. Colleges and universities have an obligation to become aware of these student needs and develop programs contingent on these needs. Empirical data on student needs must be gathered and organized if they are to influence program offerings. Sweigert (9) stresses the necessity of an accurate assessment and concise statement of student needs. He gives the following characteristics of a needs statement: 1. The statement must be concerned with a student need, rather than an institutional need or solution.

2. The statement must designate a need which is appropriate to the response capability of the decision making body that must deal with it, in terms of resources at their command. 3. The statement must indicate who the students are who have the need, what their relative character- istics are, and how many of them there are, and where they are located. 4. The Statement must indicate how critical the need is in terms of the cost of ignoring the problem. 5. The Statement must include criteria which shows what the present situation is in respect to the need and provide a-basis for determining eventu­ ally how much progress has been made in meeting it. 55

These kinds of data about a need are necessary to establish enough basis for setting priorities. Regardless of the administrative body responsible for adopting new course offerings it is necessary for them to assimilate these kinds of data in their decision making process.

Resource Availability Phase

After establishing and delineating student needs, the university's potential to meet them should be explored.

Program development requires: (a) human resources; Cb) financial resources; and (c) physical resources.

Human Resources. In the case of scuba program develop­ ment, one should seek out and tap every available human resource. Many colleges and universities have tremendous human resources on campus. Talents of such individuals as educational curriculum and foundations personnel, teaching personnel, educational change experts, instructional program developers, lawyers, health service personnel, physiologists, biologists, geologists, aquatics experts, and financial planning specialists should be applied in the program development effort and incorporated in the program. Experts outside the university, in the community and

r surrounding areas, can also provide needed expertise. Local divers, dive shop owners, diving clubs, equipment manufact­ urers representatives, doctors, lawyers, insurance agents, and others can be a source of valuable information. In 56

some instances these sources have a vested interest that

could be reflected in their information. For this reason,

information acquired through these sources should be care­

fully analyzed.

Although colleges and universities have exceptional human resources to act as consultants, evaluators, and reference personnel there may be a deficiency in qualified scuba instructors. Only certified scuba instructors, individuals currently certified as instructors by a nationally recognized certifying organization (member of

National Scuba Training Council), should actually teach a scuba class. Many colleges, universities, and more specific­ ally physical education departments, do not have a certified scuba instructor on their faculty or staff; therefore, they must rely on outside expertise or train their own personnel.

Questionnaire data show that only 68% of the scuba instructors teaching in colleges and universities are regular staff members; the remaining 32% are on special contracts.

An internal as well as an external search should be conducted and a list of certified scuba instructors should be compiled. Certified instructors within the physical educa­ tion department and university faculty in most instances should be used because: (a) of their teaching and profes­ sional background; (b) easier communications; (c) ease in evaluation; and (d) legal considerations. 57

Instructors from outside the university may be

effectively used if: (a) a professional educator; a college or university supervisor, monitors the education program; (b) the outside instructor possesses an exceptional expertise

and teaching ability not available within the institution; (c) logistical arrangements favor the services of an outside agent; and (cl) financial arrangements are feasible.

Concern over using outside contractors has been voiced by Cramer, Somers, and Egstrom (10). They found that programs conducted at colleges and universities by outside contractors often fall short of necessary standards, resulting in serious safety problems and legal ramifications. Those responsible for these programs must insure that the students receive sufficient and proper training to become safe, effective divers. Although going off campus to recruit certified scuba instructors presents some problems, in some cases it is the best procedure. Certified instructors both within and out­ side the institution may have exceptional talents. Only detailed selection criteria, and accurate assessment of the instructors' qualifications will provide the program devel­ oper with sufficient information to select scuba instructors.

Financial resources. In addition to defining human resources available, program developers must determine the sources and amount of financial resources available. Usually the program will be funded through general department funds 58

that are divided among the various programs offered by the

department. Consultation with the institution's financial

allocations body concerning departmental funding should be conducted. Once departmental allocations have been estimated,

the amount of funding for a scuba program should be estimated.

One's approach to program development is definitely

contingent upon the availability of funds.

The program developers should also explore the pos­

sibility of acquiring additional funding from institutional agencies, such as, the developmental fund or research foundation. The appropriate person in the agency should be contacted in order to determine if the scuba diving

program qualifies for funds.

Physical resources. Following an accurate assessment

of student needs and human and financial resources available, the program developer should determine the physical resources available for use in the program. In determining what physical resources that are avail­ able for use in a scuba program, one must define the physical resources sought, then establish minimum criteria for

inclusion, and record positive and negative facility features. Physical resources to be surveyed for potential inclusion in the scuba program would be areas and facilities, transportation, and open water areas. 59

Areas and facilities would include the pool, locker

rooms, classrooms, storage areas, and medical facilities (See Figure 2). When assessing a pool's potential useful­ ness to a college or university scuba program one should be

certain that the pool meets the standard requirements for pool management established by the State Board of Public Health. Most states, counties and cities have a Board of

Public Health or a similar body responsible for monitoring swimming pool management. Safe standards are established for water circulation, filtration techniques, wateT treat­ ment, general sanitation, safety equipment, and drainage systems. Checking with the controlling health board is necessary before a pool can be considered for program use. There must also be adequate lifeguard supervision available. They may be supplied with the pool or they may have to be recruited for use in the program.

Scuba requires areas around the pool to set equipment, don gear, practice land drills, and gather for instruction. The minimum walk width dimensions should be 6 feet on each side, 10 feet at the shallow end, and 15 feet at the deep end. (11) Other safety features required are ladders in each corner to provide for easier exits, a gradually sloping pool with both a shallow (maximum of 5 feet) and a deep end, and a telephone for emergencies. Pools Locker Rooms Storage Areas Classroom Medical Facilities

Required Features Required Features Required Features Required Features Required Features

1. Meets the health 1. Restroom facili­ 1. Cool 1. Chairs 1. Medical doctor on boards regulations. ties 2. Dry 2. Writing surface duty a. water circulation 2. Secure lockers 3. Shielded from 3. Chalkboard 2. 24 hour access b. filtration 3. Meets health direct sunlight 4. Adequate lighting 3. Reasonably close c. water treatment boaTd regulation 4. Adequate drainage to where classes d. sanitation on sanitation 5. Secure locks are taught e. safety equipment f. drainage 2. Lifeguards 3. Ladders 4. Gradually sloping * sides 5. Telephone

Optional Features Optional Features Optional Features Optional Features Optional Features

1. Underwater windows 1. Towel service 1. Cabinets or bins 1. Movie screen 1. Recompression 2. Underwater speakers 2. Good lighting 2. Close to pool 2. Air condition­ chamber 3. Underwater lights 3. Good ventilation 3. Good lighting ing 2. Ambulance or 4. Good acoustics 3. Storage areas emergency service 5. Effective ventila-' 4. Close proximity tion to pool 5. Good acoustics

Figure 2 Summary of Recommended and Optional Features for Areas and Facilities Needed to Conduct a College or University Scuba Diving Program 61

In addition to the required features listed, a record of optional positive features should be kept. Features recommended by* the questionnaire respondants are underwater windows, underwater speakers, underwater lights, good acoustics, and effective ventilation systems. These features are not required to teach a scuba course, but they would create an enriched atmosphere for instruction.

The pool is the most important facility; but features of locker rooms, classrooms, storage areas and medical facilities should also be checked. Locker rooms must have restroom facilities for the estimated size of the classes. Chairs and a writing surface, chalkboard and eraser, and adequate lighting are required for the classroom used for lecture sessions. Optional features to look for include a movie screen, air conditioning, storage areas, and close proximity to the pool. All colleges and universities have some storage areas for physical education equipment and audio-visual aids. Instructional media materials can be stored in a general storage area, but scuba equipment should have a separate storage area due to its relatively high cost and its potential danger if used incorrectly. The respondants to the question­ naire data recommended that the equipment be stored in a well secured area, that is cool, dry and close to the pool. They also suggested that equipment bins and/or cabinets be used for storage since bins and cabinets aid in prolonging 62

equipment life and in helping to keep equipment organized. The availability of medical facilities is extremely

important in case of an accident. Some type of medical

facility with a doctor and ambulance service should also be available. According to the Questionnaire data, 100% of the institutions surveyed had a medical facility on campus,

93% of which were less than one mile from the pool used to teach scuba, and 79% of the institutions had a campus emer­

gency squad. In light of these figures, the problem of

basic medical facilities for colleges and universities would

be minimal. A recompression chamber would be ideal, but the expense of purchasing and operating a chamber and the skilled personnel needed to operate it are usually prohibitive. The

closest recoinpression chamber should be located and

emergency procedures for reaching and using it should be

developed. Transportation is another physical resource that may have to be provided in order to teach scuba diving classes. If transportation has a chance of being needed, one should

determine what sources of transportation are available and which would be most appropriate for the program. Transpor­ tation that may be used included university vehicles (cars, busses, trucks, and/or vans), commercial vehicles, and student owned vehicles. The legal ramifications of using 63

each of these means of transportation as well as their cost

should be carefully considered. An open water diving site is the final physical resource

that should be located. All nationally recognized certifying agencies require open water experience to become certified.

For this reason, colleges and universities should seek a body of water considerably larger than a swimming pool with

appropriate water conditions to offer a realistic diving

experience. The best source of information on open water diving sports in the area would be the local dive shops, local divers, and local instructors. Open water dive spots

for basic scuba check-out dives would include such features as easy point of entry, easy access to the highway, easily accessable from campus, relatively clear water, absence of dangerous currents, and a suitable depth (20-30 feet). Any time an open water site is being considered, the owners' permission must be secured in advance. If a site is to be used by a university program, some type of written agreement should be signed specifying the terms of agreement.

Organization Phase Newman (12) states that, "The administrative process of organizing an enterprise or any of its parts consists of: (a) dividing and grouping the work that should be done (including administration) into individual jobs; and (b) defining the established relationships between individuals 64 filling these jobs." Voltmer and Esslinger (13) expand on

Newmanfs views to include departmentation, delegation, and administrative staffing.

Applying these concepts to developing scuba programs, the program developer should (a) determine where scuba fits in the organizational pattern of his institution and/or department, (b) develop job descriptions for scuba diving program personnel, and (c) establish relationships and lines of authority within the program.

Organizational patterns. The variations of organiza­ tional structures and patterns of college and university scuba diving programs are as numerous as the number of institutions offering scuba programs. Although no two

I programs are exactly alike there are some common features and some unique features worthy of examination. Many scuba diving programs are housed within the service program of the Physical Education Department.

Programs offering only a basic skin and scuba diving class or a limited program can be handled quite well in this structure. As programs increase their offerings to include open water checkouts, ocean and lake dives, and interdisciplinary ventures, the scuba program may require a more elaborate organizational structure. The scuba diving program at Ohio State University has been expanded.over the past 5 years to include both open 65

water checkouts and extended diving excursions to the tropics.

Scuba diving policies and procedures for the service program

as well as the scuba living trips is developed with the help

of the Program of Outdoor Pursuits (POP) Committee (Figure 3). The POP committee regulates scuba diving policies as well as the policies for numerous other outdoor activities. (14) The University of Michigan, Scripps Institute of Ocean­

ography, Texas A § M, California State Colleges and Univ­ ersities and the University of Rhode Island have a more

sophisticated scuba diving administrative procedure. The University of Rhode Island has prepared a University Guide for Safe Diving (15) which establishes a Diving Control Board that is appointed by the president of the university.

The Board is composed of the Diving Officer, the Chairman of

the Department of Ocean Engineering, a faculty member with extensive diving experience and a medical advisor who is an

ex-officio member (Figure 4). In this structure the Diving

Control Board has the most responsibility and authority. The California State Universities and Colleges (CSUC) "Minimal Standards for Diver Certification and Operation of Diving Programs" (16) was developed to regulate scuba diving programs in the California State University and College (CSUC) system. This organizational structure is very similar to that of the University of Rhode Island (Figure 5). A Diving Control Board undeT the authority of the college or university president and Board of Trustees works with a 66 Board of Trustees OSU

University President

Div. of Phys. Ed. Chairperson

Basic Phys. Ed. Chairperson

POP Committee Administrative Head of Program of Personnel Outdoor Pursuits (POP) in Phys. Ed.

Area Activity P i-ogram Major ProgramRec. Planning Coordinators

“ Head instructor and/or Supervisor

Assistant Instructors

Recreation Personnel Supervisors

I.F.S. Personnel

Auxiliary Faculty Outside Faculty,

Figure 3 Administrative Flow Chart of the Program of Outdoor Pursuits at The Ohio State University aI.F.S. (International Field Studies) - A nonprofit organiza­ tion designed to aid groups in conducting educational field trips. 67

Board of Trustees-Univ. of R.I.

University President

Diving Control Board

(a) Diving Officer Chairperson of the Dept, of Ocean Engineering Certified Diver

(b) Medical Adviser

Certified Scuba Instructors

Learners Permits Diving Permits Temporary Permits

Figure 4 Administrative Flow Chart of the University of Rhode Island Scuba Diving Program

(a) The Diving Officer has a leadership role within the Diving Control Board, but has few independent powers. (b) Denotes an ex-officiary member 68

Board of Trustees-CSUC

College or University President

^ -^Diving Control Board Diving officer Diving Officer Safety Officer-EHSC . Select Local Divers

Certified Instructors

Learners Diver Training Temporary Research Permits Permit Permit Diver

Figure 5

Administrative Flow Chart of the California State University and College Scuba Diving Program

^•a^The Diving Control Board may be housed in the campuswide Environmental Health and Safety Committee (EHSC). A Chairperson and a Secretary will be chosen from the membership. ^•^The Diving Officer is granted independent authority, above and beyond those assumed as part of the Diving Control Board. 68

Diving.Officer as the regulating body. The Diving Officer

under this system commands greater authority than the diving

officer at the University of Rhode Island. The following

excerpt from the CSUC operating manual indicates the extent

of his authority: The Diving Officer shall be guided in the performance of the required duties by the advice of the Diving Control Board, but the operational responsibility for the conduct of the local.diving program will be retained by the diving officer.(17) A small scuba diving program might well fit into the existing organizational structures of the Physical Education Department. As the programs grow a more elaborate administra­

tion may need to be incorporated into the existing structure,

as was, done at The Ohio State University, or a university

wide controlling group developed as those at CSUS .and Rhode

Island. No one organizational structure will be suitable for

all college and university scuba diving programs. A workable

structure should be developed for the existing or a new pro­ gram that includes enough flexibility for future expansion.

Personnel. Knowing the scope of the program will enable

the program developers to calculate the amount of administra­ tive manpower required to operate the program. The work load

should be divided among the human resources according to their abilities and availability. An accurate job descrip­ tion should be drawn up, detailing the responsibilities and relationships of each individual. 69

The University of Rhode Island, for example, has a

"medical advisor" who serves as an ex-officio member of the

Diving Control Board, the administrative organization for

all diving under the auspices of the University. His authority and responsibilities are delineated in the "University Guide for Safe Diving" as: 1. Authority a. The Medical Advisor has the authority to suspend diving programs that are unsafe.

2. The Medical Advisor is responsible for: a. General surveillance over the health and safety aspects of the diving program in accordance with university policies govering safety and the use of humans for research. b. Provides audit of all diving program records pertaining to safety.(18) A job description and designation of authority similar to the aforementioned example should be developed for each

individual involved in the diving program.

Legal Implication of Conducting a Scuba Diving Program

After an extensive investigation, Riedman (19) found almost a total absence of legislative laws, court law, as well as textbook information on legal aspects of scuba diving instruction. An analysis of the application of current laws to diving requires drawing comparisons from laws on activities similar to diving. He indicates that the court's decision whether or not the diving instructor or the institution is liable and must pay damages because of death or injury to a student is primarily based on proof of negligence. 70

"Negligence" is a far reaching concept over which hundreds of text, treatices, and reviews have been written

as well as thousands of court cases. Riedman (20) has

summarized the application of negligence to scuba diving instruction as follows: 1. The instructor must exercise reasonable and prudent judgment in conducting the diving program. In the case of scuba diving instruction the utmost care and diligence for the safety of the students is required. 2. The instructor will be held responsible for acts of his assistants during all class time. 3. If an instructor is acting as an agent or employee of a dive shop or other sponsoring organization, i.e., a college or university, this organization will be held responsible for each and every act or omission of the instructor and of the instructors assistants. This would not be applicable where colleges and universities are legally exempt from prosecution. .. Eisenstat (21) concurs that a scuba instructor and/or his sponsor may be held liable for negligence by failing to exercise reasonable care and skill under the circumstance

in question. He provides the following list of categories of negligence applicable to scuba diving instruction: 1. Supervision a. lack of b. inadequate c. student/teacher ratio d. assistants not qualified 2. Equipment a. faulty equipment b. lack of equipment c. inadequate equipment 3. Skill a. overall ability b. training c. experience 71 4. Subject matter coverage a. correct information b. inadequate coverage of subject matter 5. Judgement 6. Screening a. inadequate application b. failure to analyze application and medical form c. failure to reject persons not intellectually, physically, or psychologically capable of engaging in scuba diving d. inadequate physical screening 7. Injuries to a third person due to inadequate or improper instruction of a student He goes on to provide a list of procedures to follow

to avoid being found negligent if an accident should occur. The following precautions should be followed to protect the student and the instructor: 1. Require each student to provide a medical report, signed by a physician, clearing the student to participate in scuba diving activities.

2. Have each student sign a waiver of liability Agreement. A student cannot sign away his legal rights, but he will have been made aware of the document’s legal ramifications and of the dangers in scuba diving. 3. Keep accurate records of the students performance on the prerequisite skills test. 4. Prepare and follow a detailed course outline. Accurate records should also be kept on the students attendance to all classes. 5. Carefully screen assistant instructors and keep records of when, where, and how they are used. 6. Keep records of the test scores and class perform­ ance after the class has been finished. 7. Develop an accurate accident report form and record any accidents that may occur during the course. 8. Maintain schedules of equipment used in instruction, dates and places of purchasing, maintenance, and repairs. 72

Conforming to these guidelines can provide substantial

legal protection by establishing grounds for a sound defense. Two main legal defenses are available to an v

instructor in an action against him for negligence, assump­

tion of risk and contributory negligence. Riedman's (22) discussion of these defenses can be summarized as follows: 1. Assumption of Risk - This defense is based on the premise that the student was made aware of the potential dangers of scuba diving and voluntarily chose to participate in the activity. The instructor must show proof that the potential dangers of diving were made known to the student. 2. Contributory Negligence - This defense is based on the premise that the accident or injury was partially or totally due to poor judgement on the students part. This defense may totally absolve the instructor of legal responsibility or a compar­ ative negligence judgment may be made. In a comparative negligence ruling a percentage of guilt is made for the instructor and the student and the compensation is awarded on these percentages.

Scuba diving instructors are unfortunately in an excellent position to have a claim or claims lodged against them because they are engaged in teaching what can easily be termed as a hazardous activity. Tunis (23) states that, ”It is doubtful whether any of us can stand a money judg­ ment without being forced to contemplate some rather distressing financial alternatives." The cost of attorney fees, investigation of the claim, and the claim itself (whether it results in a court award or a compromise) can be quite expensive. 73

Riedman (24) also feels that adequate insurance coverage

should be maintained. He feels that insurance coverage not only covers the instructor and in some cases his sponsor, but also benefits his students. In selecting insurance one

should carefully review the monetary limits for bodily injury or death, property damage, first aid payments, yearly

claim limits, in addition to the activity limits. Many policies will not include coverage of such scuba related

accidents as boat injuries and equipment failure. In addition to insurance for the individual instructor, Riedman suggests that workman's compensation insurance, personal comprehensive liability trip insurance, automobile insurance, and boat insurance should be considered by

individuals or organizations to determine if these additional types of coverage are needed. Colleges and universities offering scuba diving courses should require their instructors to carry personal liability insurance and they should obtain legal counsel to determine their legal status in case of an accident. They should also require all instructors to maintain accurate records which will be checked periodically for accuracy and completeness by a designated member of the scuba program's govering body.

Program Specification Phase

The educational program. Teaching scuba diving, like all subjects, in colleges and universities should involve 74 more than simply presenting material. Vannier and Fait (25) state that teaching includes sharing, guiding, training, changing behavior,.impressing, disciplining, counseling, developing, directing and inspiring. They stress the impor­ tance of studying and understanding the goals of physical education, student growth and development patterns, learning theories, teaching aids, teaching techniques, and administra­ tive procedures in addition to subject matter.

Frost (26) also sees education as far more than simply presenting information to the students. He uses the analogy of a house being education and the related aspects being the footings and foundation stones. Simply stated, teaching is more than telling. If scuba diving, or any other subject, is to be included in the col­ lege or university educational program, it should ascribe to the highest educational specification of the institution.

Course outline. The writer will begin by analyzing the procedures followed in selecting and/or developing appro­ priate course outlines, since the instructional strategy and necessary resources are particularly dependent on the course outline adopted. Minimum course content for safe scuba diving instruction has been established by the American National Standards Committee, Z-86 (27). The’Z-86 Committee, working under the Council for National Cooperation in Aquatics, combined the knowledge and experience of the leaders in the field of scuba 75

from across the nation to establish nationally recognized minimum standards. Nationally recognized scuba instructor certification

agencies, which are represented on the Z-86 Committee, have also developed detailed course outlines for their programs (See Table 1). Instructors certified by these agencies are required to conform to these course outlines. Instructors are encouraged to go above and beyond the standards and material specified in the instructions manual, but all instructors are obligated to cover at least the prescribed minimum performance and content standards. The foundation of the course outline to be included in the program will therefore be determined in a large part by the instructor’s rating or ratings held by the course instructor. Cramer, Engstrom, and Sommers (28) have combined their professional expertise in a study of existing course outlines and have developed a course outline for the American Alliance of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. This outline is one of the most complete outlines available and can serve as an outstanding model for college and university basic scuba diving courses. As stated earlier, when determining the program’s organizational structure, student needs and available resources indicate where the program should be focused. In addition to influencing the program’s organizational pattern it also should effect course content and offerings. The 76 type of program suitable for marine biology research would be quite different from the program required to train rescue divers. The focus of the program content should be aimed at meeting specified goals and objectives suitable for the target audience. Capper (29) has developed a basic scuba course in the behavioral objective format which can aid the program developers in establishing appropriate goals and objectives for the scuba courses.

Prerequisites. The safety of the student during scuba class and when the course is completed is of paramount importance. The New Science of Skin and Scuba Diving begins by stating, "with or without scuba, diving and underwater swimming make unusual demands on the participant both physically and psychologically." (30) Good physical condi­ tion and emotional stability are necessary prerequisites to entering a scuba diving course. Developing a prerequisite watermanship test that accurately indicates a studentfs potential capabilities as a scuba diver is a different task. Many books and agencies have developed sets or prerequisites for entry into scuba programs. Each instructor should require all students to meet the minimum requirements in accordance with his instructor's rating. When feasible, he should select only the best prepared students to enter class. The demand for scuba courses in institutions is often greater than the number of students 77

that can be handled by the program. This puts the college

or university into a situation where students who can meet minimum qualifications for the scuba course must be turned

away. This rarely happens in commercial programs, since turning away qualified students would be financially unsound.

Colleges and universities can therefore select only the most qualified students to be eligible for the course by increas­ ing their minimum qualifications to enter the course.

Selecting students with outstanding watermanship skills can help minimize student inabilities in class and produce more

confident and competent divers. In addition to swimming and watermanship prerequisites

each student should show proof of his medical and psycholo­

gical fitness. Again most books and certifying agencies have some type of medical history form for the students to complete and some have a physical examination form for use

by the physician. University of Rhode Island’s University

Guide for Safe Diving (31) contains one of the most exten­ sive medical history and physical examination forms. Other forms can be found in The New Science of Skin and Scuba Div­ ing (32) and Skin and Scuba Diving and Related Marine Biology

(33). Knowing that a student is fit for scuba diving helps protect the student from injury and also affords the

instructor some legal protection in case of an accident. In some institutions, the university health center’s cooperation can be enlisted in examining students. Working 78 with the health center can have the following benefits:

Cl) A physician dealing with many scuba physicals

is more likely to be knowledgeable concerning the pressure related implications of diving than

the average physician. (2) Health center records can be checked to varify

that :the scuba physical was done by a bonified

M.D. (3) In many cases the cost to the student would be

less than the cost of going to an off campus

physician. (4) Communications with the physician in case of an

accident or injury would be facilitated and the

doctor would have a medical record of the

student on file. A cooperative venture like this would require considerable coordination between the scuba director and the medical personnel, but the potential benefits make the effort worth­ while .

No matter what form is used or how the information is gathered, every student should present proof of his physical, medical, and mental condition. Protection is provided for the students health and well being and at the same time, providing legal protection to the instructor. 79

Text selection. The selection of the appropriate text

is usually made by the instructor. The instructor should

choose a text that will: (a) neither talk down to the average college students nor confuse them with too much

detail, (b) include material on advanced diving for future

reference, (c) be available at a price which will not be a

financial burden on the student and, (d) cover the material in the course outline. Additional references should be provided in depth information to supplement the material

provided in the course.

Instructional strategy. Specifying the instructional

strategy is the next step in integrating the scuba program into the existing departmental structure. In order to establish a workable instructional strategy the program developers and the program personnel must determine: (a) when scuba courses will be offered; (b) how many students will be in each class ; (c) who will be the instructor; ( d) where the course will be taught and; (e) how the course will be taught.

• The amount of course credit given for scuba classes will effect the time allotted to cover the required material. Enough course credits should be given so that the scuba course will meet the minimum standards for pool experiences and lecture sessions. The'type of certification being sought will give minimum time requirements needed (See Table 1 and 3 pages 36 and 39). 80

Program needs and finances. As in all college and uni­

versity programs, budget and finance are of crucial importance

to the program's success. Poor financial management or

inaccurate budgeting may result in low quality of unsatis­

factory instruction leading to termination of the program. Howard and Masonbrink (34) divided budgeting into two major categories: (a) the capital budget and (b) the operat­

ing budget. Within each of these categories many

subcategories may exist, depending upon the particular needs of the program or institution. According to Howard and Masonbrink . the budget for a college or university program like a scuba diving program is usually a part of another .

larger budget such as the physical education department budget or the university budget. In some cases the entire budget is prepared by some central agency, but in most cases it is an aggregate of the smaller budgets prepared by the using agent. In the case of scuba diving, a scuba diving instructor, dive officer, or diving control board will usually be charged with making a budget. Voltmer and Esslinger (35) have also subdivided budgets into a capital expense budget and operating budget. As they define budget items, the capital investments budget would include such items as the pool, the scuba room, the compressor, and a boat. The operating budget would include "expendable equipment” (masks, fins, regulators, etc.) and maintenance and repairs. Items like fuel costs, secretarial 81

help, and office supplies are usually found in the operating

budget, but for the purpose of this study these items will

not have to be accounted for in the budget. Comprehensive and accurate inventories and cost analyses

are also stressed by Voltmer and Esslinger. A sound justi­ fication for each item on the budget is essential. One

must also be cognizant of available monies and priorities should be established on what items are most expendable in the case of a decrease in expected funds. Not all budgets in conducting a scuba diving program pertain to the entire program. Special fees may be charged for scuba diving classes, especially those held off campus or those for diving trips. Special fees were charged by 63% of the institutions surveyed. These fees ranged from $10-$80 and averaged $35.00. Stanley (36) conducted a study of off campus and unique programs in physical education, including scuba diving. He requested information on such items as fees, transportation, types of instructors, and facilities. Results indicated that a special fee was sometimes charged to the student to cover the cost of equipment rental, travel expenses, lodging, and in some cases food. The Ohio State University was one of the institutions surveyed that offered diving excursions. These trips were designed to be relatively financially self-supporting. Some university equipment is used and the university instruc­ tor’s salary is paid by the department. The Trip Planning 82

Guide, developed by the Program of Outdoor Pursuits Committee, acts as a guide for instructors budgeting for a trip.(See Appendix B). The planning guide helps the instructor budget accurately for all required items and to aid him in his organizational efforts. Whether working with the entire physical education department's budget, the budget for the scuba diving program, or the budget for a diving excursion, one should be aware of the available funds and should budget as accurately and completely as possible.

Capital outlays. Capital outlays for beginning a scuba program can be quite sizable. Items such as a pool, an air compressor and filters, cascade system, and scuba storage area are considered capital outlays. If the physical education department is committed to a scuba program and the funds are available, these items should be purchased. Air compressors suitable for use in a scuba program usually range in price from around $2,000 to around $5,000. The average price of the compressors used by the institutions surveyed was $4,000. A cascade system, a series of high pressure air storage tanks used to fill scuba tanks, depends largely on the number of tanks in the system. A cascade system usually contains from 4 to 10 tanks, which would make the price range approximately $1,000 to $3,000. 83

The scuba room will rarely require adding a new room

to existing facilities. An existing area can be adapted for use as a scuba room. The scuba room should have storage shelves, bins, and cabinets to store the equipment and a

secure door and lock. It is recommended that a special

lock be provided for the scuba room because of the cost of

equipment and because of the potential danger scuba equip- % ment presents if misused. The pool is also considered part of the capital budget.

Rarely, if ever, will a college or university build a pool expressly for scuba diving. Either the pool used is already in existence or an off campus pool will be used for the

scuba program, so the pool would not usually be part of the scuba program's capital budget. Pool rental might have to be included in the program's finances, but it would not be included as a capital investment. If a new pool is being built the scuba program per­

sonnel should provide some recommendations for features that would be useful in teaching scuba. Features such as under­ water windows and underwater speakers can be very helpful when teaching scuba.

If funds are limited or a sincere commitment to developing a scuba program is lacking, a large capital out­ lay for a compressor, storage area, and scuba equipment may be unwise or impossible. This situation would suggest that the program either partially or entirely be conducted 84

off campus. A.program conducted on campus, except for the

open water dive, staffed by college or university personnel is preferable, but a program partially or totally off campus

may be more feasible in some cases.

The University of Dayton, for example, offers a scuba

diving course that is taught entirely off campus. A con­

tract was signed with a local dive shop to conduct the

entire scuba program. Each student talcing the course pays $65.00 to the dive shop. All costs of running the program

are taken out of the special fee paid by the students, except

the salary of the university supervisor who monitors the classes. The physical education department has very few expenses or complications. Although this process of handling the scuba diving program has some merits, an ethical question can be raised about paying twice for instruction. In many cases, at least part of the students fee goes to the

instructor from the outside agency; therefore, the student has paid twice for instruction, once with his tuition and

again with the special fee. This may be a violation of a college or university's policies. A careful investigation

should be conducted before a program of this type is adopted.

Equipment and facilities. In order to budget accurately for a college or university scuba diving program an assess­ ment of equipment needs is' necessary. The U.S. Navy Diving Manual (37) has set the following minimum -equipment standards 85 for its divers: (a) open circuit scuba regulator, (b) face mask, (c) life preserver, (buoyancy compensator), (d) weight belt, (e) fins, (f) tank, (g) knife and scabbard, (h) watch and (i) a depth gauge. The Navy standards were established for open water diving and exceed the equipment requirements for conducting a basic scuba diving class. For class pur­ poses, a knife and scabbard, a watch, and a depth gauge for each buddy team (two divers) are not essential, although at least one of each of these items should be available for class demonstration purposes.. (See Table 4). Purchasing procedures depend upon department policies and the types of equipment to be purchased. According to Voltmer and Esslinger (38) equipment is often purchased by submitting equipment specifications and putting the items out on bids. Bids may save money and get quality merchandise only if accurate specifications are drawn up. Bids may also allow lower quality equipment to be purchased or equip­ ment with poor guarantees, or equipment that will require considerable service and repairs. It may be more economical to buy higher priced equipment because of its durability and low maintenance and repair costs. The Athletic Goods Manufacturing Association (39) has recommended the following basic considerations in selecting athletic equipment: (1) The design and material - the equipment should be practical as well as thoroughly serviceable. Fancy frills that serve no useful purpose should be avoided. 86

TABLE 4 Approximate Costs of Scuba Diving Gear and Related Equipment Commonly used in Conducting Scuba Diving Programs

Type of Average Usually Sometimes Equipment Price Range Supplied Supplied

Mask $ 5 $ 10 Yes

Fins $ 10 $ 15 Yes

R Snorkel $' 2 $ 5 Yes E Q Regulator $ 65 $ 85 Yes Yes u I Tank $100 $140 Yes Yes R E Weight Belt $ 8 $ 11 Yes Yes D Floatation Vest $ 25 $ 40 Yes Yes

Totals $216 - $306 198-276 216-306

Source Approximate Cost

Wet Suits Rented $6 - 12 per day Knive s Rented .50 per day

Watch (minimum quality) Student $20 - 30 $5 - 50 0 Depth Guage Student P Light Rented $1 per day and T battery I 0 N compressor Purchase $2000-$5000 A L Cascade Purchase $1000-$3000 87

(2) Utility and cost of maintenance - equipment should be selected that will clean-up easily, require minimal reconditioning, and have low maintenance costs.

(3) Quality and workmanship - quality workmanship will add to the products durability, and in the long run these products will be more economical and give better service.

(4 ) Price - price is often a limiting factor when purchasing, but equipment should never be pur­ chased on price alone. (5) Purchase from a reputable dealer - buying from a reputable dealer will help assure the buyer that goods purchased will be serviced and all guarantees honored. Quality products and service are worth paying for.

Voltmer and Esslinger (40) corroborate the suggestions of the Athletic Goods Manufacturing Association and add tak­

ing advantage of legitimate discounts, ordering early, and standardization of equipment to the list of sound .purchasing procedures. No matter what procedure is used to purchase equipment the primary goal is to get the best possible equipment with the available funds. Almost every scuba diving text will have a section on equipment features. Tillman (41), Harper

(42), Owens (43), the Council for National Cooperation in Aquatics (44), Strykowski (45) and others have brief equip­ ment descriptions in their publications that may be of some aid in equipment selection, but these brief descriptions are generally not specific enough to be of significant value. The U.S. Navy Diving Manual (46) contains an index of equip­ ment approved for Navy use. The Navyfs stringent standards 88 for scuba diving equipment can act as a type of consumers report for scuba diving administrators.

Catalogues published by the manufacturers can provide the potential buyer with detailed information about each piece of equipment. Since these catalogues are designed to sell the equipment one must carefully scrutinize the information provided. Numerous articles have been published in diving maga­ zines, scientific journals, educational publications, and other publications on equipment cost, durability, efficiency, and overall performance. S.M. Luria and others (47) have done extensive study on vision through various types of face masks. The standard oval, kidney shaped, goggle type, wide field, and compensator mask were tested for field .of vision, distortion, and effect on hand-eye coordination. Detailed articles such as this can provide substantial data needed to choose the best mask to fit the institution’s needs. Gramling's (48) writing in the DGWS Aquatics Guide (1963) provides a less technical set of recommendations for selection of equipment. Personal testimony of trusted individuals who have an expertise in scuba diving equipment can be used to supple­ ment the information provided by published materials. Records of how well the equipment performed in courses previously taught can be an additional source of criteria for selecting certain types of brands of equipment. 89

Maintenance and Repairs. Once equipment has been

purchased it must be kept in good working order to insure student safety and to prolong the life of the equipment.

Again, most basic scuba texts will supply some general information on equipment care. More detailed maintenance

procedures often come with the equipment or are available from manufacturers. A1 Thompson (49) , in a skin diver "Mini Manual" devoted entirely to scuba repair and maintenance, outlines procedures

for inspecting, storing, cleaning, testing, and generally caring for all types of scuba equipment and gear. He states:

We must keep in mind that our scuba equipment is subject to an environment which destroys most man-made articles. While it is obviously unsafe to disregard the care and maintenance of your scuba gear, it is also an expensive oversight which could result in.the . replacement of equipment. (50) Skin diving equipment, masks, fins, and snorkels,

require only a little care and maintenance to keep them

functioning properly and last longer. Most problems with skin diving equipment are due to the deterioration of the rubber parts, especially straps and the purge value of the

mask. Most problems of rotting can be prevented by thoroughly rinsing the equipment in fresh water after it has been used in salt water or the chlorinated water of a pool and storing the equipment out of direct sunlight.

Additional protection can be afforded by spraying the rubber parts with a silicone spray. 90

Weight belts would seem to require-almost ho maintenance, but problems with the buckles and fraying of the ends of

the belt should be repaired. All weight belts should have a quick release buckle which should be rinsed thoroughly

after use in salt or chlorine water and sprayed with silicone

periodically. The weight belt should be stored where it will dry to prevent rotting. Frayed edges should be trimmed and the end burned with a flame if the belt is made of

nylon. A1 Thompson (51) provides detailed safety and mainten­ ance procedures for regulators, tanks and buoyancy control vests. He begins by comparing maintenance procedures of a single hose regulator with those of a double hose. Single hose regulators were found to be a little less expensive to maintain. Most of the damage to the hoses is due eitheT to deterioration of the rubber or from too much pressure bending

the hoses. Internal damage may also be caused by water, expecially salt water, getting into the body of the regulator. Rust or other deposits may form and cause the regulator to malfunction or to wear excessively. Thompson suggests that regulators should (a) be rinsed thoroughly after use; (b) be stored away from direct sunlight; (c) be stored in a ventilated area; (d) not be hung up, due to excessive strain on the hoses; and (e) be inspected at least once a year, preferably every six months, by a person trained in regular repair. 91

In selecting a tank to be used in the program, one

must carefully evaluate all of its positive and negative

features. The first decision .will be the choice between

aluminum and steel tanks. The greatest drawback of the

steel tank is its susceptability to rust. Rust may be caused by allowing the tank to become completely drained

which lets moist air into the tank, failure to clear water

out of the valve before filling the tank, or having the

tank filled with air contaminated air from a faulty

filling station. Steel tanks should be visually inspected

for rust at least once a year and should be hydrostatically tested, a test for side wall strength of tanks, every

five years. The Department of Transportation requires air cylinders to by hydrostated every five years.. If any

signs of rust are present the tank should be tumbled, a

process of removing rust from inside tanks.

When budgeting for maintenance of steel tanks, approx­

imately $2.00 for visual inspection (every 6 months to a

year), $9.00 for hydrostatic testing (every 5 years), and $6.00 for tumbling (as needed) should be set aside. Aluminum tanks require less maintenance, but are usually more expensive than steel tanks. Aluminum cylinders will not rust and have an anodized protective coating to prevent aluminum oxidation. This anodized coating may be scratched or gouged, with the result that oxidation will form on the damaged portion preventing further corrosion. 92

These oxide deposits may come loose in the tank and be forced

into the tank valve and/or the regulator; therefore, aluminum

tanks should be inspected annually. Although there are fewer maintenance problems with

aluminum tanks, its higher cost and poor floatation qualities,

especially when empty, make the decision of buying steel or aluminum tanks a matter of personal preference.

Personal floatation devises come in a wide range of prices and styles. Generally, the larger the volume of

the vest the more expensive. If a vest is going to be used exclusively in a pool, the small volume vest, costing

about $25 - $35 is more than adequate. Vests to be used in rough seas, deep water, or extreme conditions should have a larger volume to insure personal safety. The price of large volume vests usually ranges between $50 and $75. Selection of the appropriate vest will depend on the type of

diving for which they will be used.

Care of the bests is very important in extending the equipment's life, moreover, a diver's life may depend upon the vest's functioning properly. Vests should be thoroughly rinsed with fresh water after being in salt or chlorinated water. Water that naturally gets into the vest when it is orally inflated should be drained and then the inside of the vest should be rinsed. Silicone spray applied to the outside of the bladder and to the rubber parts will help prevent the rubber from deteriorating. 93

Probably the most troublesome feature of the floatation vest is the CO 2 mechanism built into many vests for emer­ gency inflation purposes. "A.conservative estimate of

50% of the vests now being used would not inflate if the

CC>2 mechanism lanyard was pulled.” (52} There are many causes for the poor performance record of CO 2 mechanisms. Often the CO 2 cartridge is punctured without the divers* knowledge or the passages through which the CO 2 must travel before reaching the vest may be blocked. This blockage may be caused by water mixing with the powder on the inside of new vests; this process results in a pastey substance which blocks the passage when it dries.

To prevent malfunctions in a CO 2 vest it should be rinsed thoroughly after each dive, the CO 2 cartridge should be checked before each dive, and the vest should be transported and stored in a manner that would keep the cartridge from being punctured accidently. Those programs that have their own compressor should make certain it is kept in good working order. A faulty compressor may break down and lead to an expensive repair bill; worse yet, it could pump contaminated air into the scuba tanks. An instruction manual which comes with every compressor details maintenance procedures. Compressor recommendations and maintenance schedule can also be found in Appendix D. Most scuba instructors are not qualified to handle some of the maintenance and repairs listed. One of 94

the instructors should be trained or a college or university maintenance man could be trained to handle compressor main­ tenance. In some cases a factory representative is available and can be assigned the responsibility of compressor main­ tenance and rapair. Some scuba programs are conducted entirely on campus and require no transportation, but in many instances transportation of either students or equipment is necessary. Courses requiring an open water checkout almost always require some type of transportation. The program developers should refer to the physical resource availability study to determine which kind of transportation, if any, would be most appropriate to meet the program's needs. In some cases where providing transportation is not feasible, stu­ dents may be required to provide their own transportation. Checking with the institution's legal counsel before requiring students to supply their own transportation is strongly advised. The final item to be accounted for in specifying a scuba program's needs and finances is instructor costs. If the scuba instructor that will be teaching the course is already on the teaching staff, then the instructor's salary would be included in his regular teaching salary. The class schedules would simply have to offer scuba when the instructor has no previous committments. The instructor's salary may or may not be considered a part of the total 95 scuba budget, depending upon the administrative procedures established within the department. Instructors from off campus or out of the department may require a different salary procedure. Again it depends upon institution and department policy how the instructor i will be paid and on what salary scale.

Evaluation and Revision Phase -

Oberteuffer and Ulrich (53) state that, "It is impos­ sible to ascertain the progress of any program unless there is some method of evaluation." Voltmer and Esslinger (54) corroberate in stating, "Undoubtedly the best measure of a quality physical education program is the extent to which it meets its goals." In order to evaluate the scuba program*s success in meeting its goals and objectives an evaluative procedure must be established. The following steps should be followed in order to produce useable results from the evaluative effort: 1. Establish what is to be evaluated 2. Construct an instrument to measure what is supposed to be measured 3. Determine the criteria of evaluation 4. Apply the test and record the conclusions 5. Interpret the data and the extent to which the program*s goals have been fulfilled. 6. Apply the results to improving the program. This evaluation process should be an ongoing part of the scuba program, providing data which can guide the improvement and future .development of the program. . 96

The evaluation effort should be directed at the effec­

tiveness of the administrative procedures and the instruc­ tional program. Administrative aspects -to be evaluated would include such items as: (a) ease in communications, (b) fair

handling of staff, (c) opportunity for inservice training, and (d) effective spending of allocated funds. Program

evaluation would include such items as: (a) the extent to

which students needs as defined in the student needs

assessment study are met, Cb) the extent of meeting general

physical education objectives, (c) the extent of meeting specific course objectives, (d) the effectiveness of the instructor and teaching methods, and (e) the effective use of

resources available. The program's progress can only be measured if appro­ priate criteria have been established. Following the writer's developmental model will generate much of the desired criteria in the student needs assessment phase, the

organizational phase, and the program content phase. Over the years a number of instruments, rating scales or criteria have been developed to evaluate entire physical educational programs, but none have been established exclusively for scuba programs. Daniels (55) has constructed a detailed instrument to evaluate secondary school programs and the departments of education in New York (56) and California (57) has also developed evaluation tools. 97

The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (58) has developed criteria for appraising

college instructional programs.. These evaluative models may be used or adapted- in evaluating the scuba program, but in most cases an appropriate instrument to evaluate the program will have to be constructed. The test instrument is then employed and appropriate

data should be obtained and recorded. The data should be analyzed and distributed to the faculty, staff, and adminis­ trators so appropriate improvements may be initiated.

Results should also be available to students and concerned persons.

As Oberteuffer and Ulrich state, "Evaluation can be the physical educators best educational friend for. it will give him an honest answer to those questions which are most important to his desire to make his program one of worth." (59)

Conclusion The developmental program just presented and discussed by no means provides all the answers to developing a scuba program. It was constructed as a functional guideline for any college or university to use when developing or revising a scuba program. The five phases of the model: (a) Needs

Assessment Phase; (b) Resource Availability Phase; (c) Organizational Phase; (d) Program Specification Phase; and (e) Evaluation and Revision Phase, provide a logical sequencing of developmental steps, insight into course content, and a basis for establishing procedures and priorities. NOTES FOR CHAPTER 5

Daniel L. Stufflebeam, "Programatic Change" (paper presented at the annual convention of the American Vocational Association, December 3, 1970, New Orleans, Louisiana) ^Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development Theory and Practice, (New York, Chicago^ San Prancisco, and Atlanta: Harcourt Brace and World, 1962), p. 9. Ralph W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, (Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, 1950), pp. 1-10.

^Taba, oja. cit. , p. 1-14. SThe Ohio State University Evaluation Center, Instruc­ tional Development at The Ohio State University Evaluation Center" (Unpublished report of The Ohio' State University Evaluation Center, August 1972), pp. 1-17. g Tyler, oj>. cit. , pp. 1-83. 7 Taba, oj>. cit. , pp. 1-30. 8 The Ohio State University Evaluation Center* ££. cit., pp. 1-23. q Ray L. Sweigart, Jt ., Needs Assessment - The First Step Toward Deliberate Rather Than" impulsive Response to ProblemsT (paper presented at a conference of the Interstate Project^lror State Planning and Program Consolidation, U.S. Office of Education, April, 1968, San Francisco, California.

“^John L. Cramer, Glen H. Egstrom, and Lee H. Somers, "Minimum Standards for Courses of Basic Skin and Scuba Diving," Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recrea^ tion, Vol7 45, No. 10', October, 1974, p7 84. 11 The Athletic Institute, Planning Areas and^Facilities for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, (Chicago, The Athletic Institute, 1965) , p. 173. 12 William H. Newman, Administrative Action: The Techniques of Organizing and Management, (2nd ed.; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc7, 1963), p. 51.

99 100

13 Edward F. Voltmer and Arthur A. Esslinger, The Organi­ zation and Administration of Physical^Education, (4 th edT, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 196/J , p . 5o. 14 Program of Outdoor Pursuits Committee, "Program of Outdoor Pursuits Policy Statement;" (unpublished paper, The Ohio State University, Columbus; Ohio, 1974).

*^John J. McAniff, "University Guide for Diving Safety" (unpublished paper, University of Rhode Island, January 1971), pp. 21-23.

^^The California State University and College Minimal Standards for Diver Certification and Operation of Programs," (Results of a meeting October, 1974, California State University, Long Beach).

*^Ibid. , p. 2. ■^McAniff, op. cit., pp. 21-22. 19 Fred L. Riedman, "Legal Aspects of Diving Instruction," Legal Aspects of Underwater Instruction, (a publication of the National Association of Underwater Instructors, 1972), pp. 9-10. 20 , Ibid., p. 11. 21 Gerald M. Eigenstat, "Personal Liability for Scuba Instructors," Legal Aspects of Underwater Instruction, (a publication of the National Association of underwater Instructors, 1972), pp. 3-5. 22 Riedman, oj>. eft., pp. 13-14. ^3Irwin L. Tunis, "Why Liability Insurance?," NAUI News, Vol. 11, No. 3, March 1971, p. 3. M Riedman, op. cit., pp. 20-22. 25 . ‘ . Maryhelen Vannier and Hollis F. Fait, Teaching Physical Education in Secondary Schools, • (2nd ed.; Phila­ delphia : W . B . Saunders Company, 1966), pp. 3-55.

O / J Reuben B. Frost, Physical Education Foundations- Practices, (Reading, Massachusetts; Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1975), pp. 3-29. 2 7 Bernard B. Empleton and others (ed.) The New Science of Shin and Scuba Diving, (4th ed., Northfield, Illinois: Dacor Corp., 1974), pp. 270-273. 102

^®Cramer, op . cit.., pp. 83-87.. op Michael R. Capper', "Instructional Objectives for a Junior College Course in Physical Education (Golf, Condition­ ing, Tennis, Swimming, and Scuba Diving).," (Eric Microfiche, No. Ed033709, 1969). 30 Empleton (ed.) oj). cit., p. 19. 31 McAnniff, op. cit., Appendix. ■^Empleton (ed.) oja. cit., pp. 21-23. 33 Mary Jo Ruggieri and Susan Cook, Skin and Scuba Diving and Related Marine Zoology, (Minneapolis, Minnesota; Burgess Publishing Company, 19 73), pp. 118-119.

7 A Glen W. Howard and Edward Masonbrink, ed. D.E. Oberteuffer, Administration of Physical Education, (New York and Evanston: Harper 6 Row Publishers, 1963), pp. 109-128. 35 Edward F. Voltmer and Arthur A. Esslinger, The Organization and Administration of Physical Education, (4th ed.) (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967), pp. 390-419. Phillip L. Stanley, "Implementation of Off-Campus and Unique Activities" (paper presented at 73rd Annual meeting of the National College Physical Association for Men, January 1973, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). ^ U.S. Navy Diving Manual, Vol. I (Washington: U.S. Government PrintTng Office, September 1973), p. 5-1. 38 Voltmer and Esslinger, oja. cit. , pp. 421-431. 39 Athletic Goods Manufacturers Association, How to Budget,Select, and Order Athletic Equipment (Chicago, Athle­ tic goods Manufacturer's^Association, 1962) , pp. 14-17. 40 Voltmer, oja. cit. , pp. 422-425. ^Albert A. Tillman, Skin and Scuba Diving, (Dubnque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Co. Publishers, 1966), pp. 27-30. 42 Donald D. Harper, Skin and Scuba Diving Fundamentals, ed. Lew A. Hess, (Columbus., Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publxsh- ing Company, 1968), pp. 42-51. A *Z Owen Lee, The Complete Illustrated Guide to Snorkel and Deep Diving, (2nd ed.; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company, Inc. 1967), pp. 9-28. 103

^Empleton, (ed.) oj). cit.

^J o e Strykonski, .‘A-Complete Textbook for Studies, Instructors, arid 'Advanced Divers,. (4th Rev. Ed.; Northfield, Illinois: Dacor Corp. , 1974), ,pp:. 36-50.

^ The U.S. Navy Diving Manual, op. cit. , pp. D-l-7.

^S.M. Luria and Others, "Vision Through Various Facemasks" Human Factors, Vol. 16, No. 4, April 1974, pp. 395-402. 4 8 Homer Gramling, "How to Present a Course in Skin and Scuba Diving - and Why," DGWS*Aquatics Guide, July, 1963, pp. 18-30. 49 A1 Thompson, Scuba Equipment Care and Maintenance, (Los Angeles: Perterson Publishing Co., 1973) 50Ibid., p. 2. 51 A1 Thompson, Scuba Equipment Care and Maintenance, (Los Angeles: Peterson Publishing Co. , 1973) , pp. 5-40'.

52Ibid., p. 52.

C “Z Delbert Oberteuffer and Celest Ulrich, Physical Education, (4th Ed.; New York and Evanston: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1970), p. 303. ^Voltmer, oj>. cit. , p. 523. 55 Arthur S. Daniels, Evaluation Criteria for Physical Education: A Self-Appraisal Check List for Ohio Secondary School~ (Columbus, Ohio, The Ohio State University, 1954). 5fi State Department of Education, Division of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, A Check List for Physical Education, (Albany, New York). 5 7 Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards, Evaluative Criteria (Washington, D.C.: Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards, 1960). 58 American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation for College Men and Women, Washington Confer­ ence on Physical Education-for College Men and Women (Washington, Dec., 1954) , pp. 36-40. 59 Oberteuffer, oj>. cit. , p. 314. CHAPTER 6

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Growth of Scuba Diving

The sport of scuba diving has grown tremendously in the last ten years. This increase is due to scuba diving’s natural appeal, the increase in leisure time, numerous technical advances in scuba equipment, increased exposures to

scuba in television and films, the generally higher standard of iiving, and the availability of transportation to diving areas. The growth of scuba diving has caused increasing requests for scuba diving programs in the colleges and universities. Many colleges and universities now have an elective physical education program. An elective program must contain offerings that appeal to students, are relevant to their needs, and will provide life time activities. Programs that provide the students with exciting, challenging, and inter­ esting offerings are the programs that will receive student support; scuba is such an activity. It was therefore the problem of this study to establish a model for developing and conducting college and university scuba diving programs.

104 105

Scuba Diving as an Educational Activity Scuba diving contributes to the general objectives of a college or university's physical education-program. The

\ objectives of a scuba diving program are congruent with those of most physical education programs.

1. Physical education and scuba diving programs possess a unique body of knowledge to be mastered.

2. Physical skills must*be developed to participate in physical education and in scuba diving. 3. Physical education and scuba diving progiams provide an opportunity for vigorous physical activity. 4. Physical education and scuba diving programs can contribute to social competencies. 5. Physical education and scuba diving programs pre­ pare students for a worthy use of leisure time. 6. Physical education and scuba diving programs seek to develop lifetime activities.

Role of Colleges and Universities in Providing Scuba Diving Programs In most cases, colleges and universities have the poten­ tial resources to provide outstanding scuba programs. The human resources, such as, marine biologists, medical doctors, physics professors, and physiologists are different to match.

Outstanding physical resources like pools, classrooms, audio­ visual equipment, and medical facilities are also usually available. These resources should be developed into safe and complete scuba programs. No comprehensive guidelines were available to aid college and university personnel in developing these scuba 106

programs. This study provides an outline of procedures to -

follow in developing .and conducting college and university

scuba diving programs.

The Questionnaire . The scuba diving program questionnaire (See Appendix A)

was mailed to sixty selected colleges and universities.

Policies, practices, and procedures used by these institutions

were analyzed and the results were used to support, supple­ ment, and create the developmental model. The questionnaire

gathered data on.the following aspects of a scuba diving program. I. Areas, Facilities and Equipment A. The Pool B. Scuba Rooms C. Medical Facilities D. Scuba Equipment E. Security Procedures II. The Scuba Program A. Course Prerequisites B. Course Costs (Special Fees) C. Program Specifications 1. Course Credit Offered 2. Length of courses 3. Number of students per course 4. Number of Courses Offered per Year D. Instructor's Ratings and Institutional Status E. Program Development

III. Program Finances IV. Legal Liability and Insurance (Both open-type and closed-type items were included in the questionnaire.) Of the sixty questionnaires sent out, 38 were returned, but six of the responses yielded unusable data. The usable data return rate was therefore 53%. Since the questionnaire 107

data was to be used to support and supplement the scuba

program developmental model rather than provide some type of

statistical proof, a 53% usable data return rate is deemed

sufficient to make the data of value.

The scuba program development model was designed to provide a logical, sequential outline of the steps to be

followed in developing a scuba program on the college and university level. Developing a basic scuba program was the primary emphasis, but recommendations for developing advanced offerings were also included.

The Developmental Model The model was based on the questionnaire data, current literature in the field, personal interviews with local lead­ ers in the field, and the writer's personal experiences and i expertise. The Scuba Program Developmental Model consists of five major phases: needs assessment phase, resource avail­ ability phase, organizational phase, program specification phase, and evaluation and revision phase.

Needs assessment phase. The needs assessment phase requires the program developers to gatheT empirical evidence * of student needs and then develop a needs .statement. The following are characteristics recommended for a needs state­ ment : 1. The statement must be concerned with a student need, rather than an institutional need or solution. 108

2. The statement must designate a need which is appropriate to the response capability of the decTsion making- body. 3. The statement must indicate who the students are who have the need, what their relative character­ istics are, how many of them there are, and where they are located. 4. The statement must indicate how critical the need is in terms of the cost of ignoring the problem. 5. The statement must include criteria which shows what the present situation is in respect to the need and provide a basis for determining eventually how much progress has been made in meeting it.

Resource availability phase. After the needs assess­ ment statement has been develop, the human,, financial, and physical resources that are available for use in the scuba program should be explored. Resources both on and off campus should be investigated and notes on the strengths and weak­ nesses of each resource should be recorded.

Organizational phase. If sufficient resources are available to support a. scuba diving program, some type of organizational phase that included: (a.) determining where the scuba diving program will fit in relation to the existing organizational patterns of the institution and department; (b) developing job descriptions for the persons involved in the scuba diving program; and CO establishing lines of authority and relationships within the program, should be conducted. 109

Program specification phase. The program specification

phase is the most complex phase of the development. It was not within the scope of this study to provide detailed

explanations of every aspect of'this phase, but a general coverage of them is provided. The course outline adopted is one of the most important aspects of program specification. The programs of the major

nationally recognized scuba certifying agencies and the programs of the institutions were reviewed.(See Table 1, p. 36).

Course prerequisites, both medical and watermanship were discussed in detail.

Instructional strategy was also discussed. The dis­ cussion included scheduling configurations, student instructor ratio, instructor specifications, and instructional format. The final aspect of the program specification phase was program needs and finances. Capital investments, including the pool, scuba room, compressor, and cascade systems were investigated. Equipment needs and costs were outlined (See Table 1, p.36). Additional consideration was given to maintenance and repairs, transportation, and instructors costs.

Evaluation and revision phase. Initially a pilot pro­ gram should be evaluated, but the adopted program should also « be continually evaluated. In order to evaluate the scuba program's success in meeting its goals and objectives an evaluative process was outlined. The following steps should 110 be followed in order to produce useable results from the evaluative effort: 1. Establish what is to be evaluated. 2. Construct an instrument to measure what is supposed to be measured. 3. Determine the criteria of evaluation 4. Apply the test and record the conclusions 5. Interpret the data and the extent to which the program's goals have been fulfilled 6. Apply the results to improving the program

Both the administration processes and the instructional program should be included in evaluation. The evaluative processes should be an ongoing part-of the scuba program, providing data that can guide the improvement and future development of the program.

Recommendations

During the course of this study the author has formu­ lated a number of recommendations concerning developing and conducting college and university scuba programs. Although most of these recommendations can be found in the body of this study, the writer feels that some of the major recommendations merit special emphasis.

College and university scuba diving programs. Today's college student is demanding physical education programs that are interesting, exciting, and meaningful. Activity offerings from spelunking to scuba diving are becoming more common in colleges and universities across the nation. These types of activities, especially scuba diving, should be offered by Ill all institutions where student needs indicate and the resources to offer.quality programs are available. The potential resources at inost colleges and univer­ sities are difficult to match .'in any other setting. Their fundamental purpose is to design, develop, implement, and evaluate educationally sound programs, making them an ideal setting to offer scuba programs. The availability of related aquatic courses, medical facilities, resource personnel, reference materials, pools, classrooms, and lockers at most institutions would supply a scuba.program with outstanding resources. In view of the growing demand for scuba courses and the resources available at colleges and universities, scuba diving would provide a stimulating addition to an institu­ tion’s physical education program.

Advanced experiences. The basic scuba diving course should be only the beginning of a scuba diver’s training. Numerous authors have expressed concern about basic certi­ fication programs. The basic certification programs of the four major certifying agencies require only one skin dive and two scuba dives in open water before a diver is certified to dive anywhere in the world.. These limited exposures are not sufficient to prepare the novice scuba diver to handle the additional hazards of diving in lakes, rivers, springs, quaries, and/or oceans. 112

Colleges and universities should do everything within their capabilities to provide advanced open water training and supervised open water diving experiences. Only good training and diving experience can- adequately prepare a diver for safe and enjoyable diving.

Program evaluation. Concise goals and objectives should be generated in the student needs assessment phase, the organizational phase, and the program specification phase of the writer's developmental model. The ultimate success of any scuba diving program will be measured by the extent to which these goals and objectives are reached. Measuring the extent to which a program is meeting its goals and objectives should only be a part of the total evaluation scheme. The true value of an evaluation program can only be assessed by the degree to which its results are applied to improving the program. The evaluation program should be an ongoing program continually supplying informa­ tion that is in turn applied to improving the program. Ongoing evaluation is especially necessary in college and university scuba programs because students1 needs are continually changing and the technology in the field of scuba diving is rapidly advancing. The consequences of inadequate scuba programs, student injury or death, also'necessitates effective evaluation programs to insure safe scuba diving programs. 113

Legal implications of scuba instruction. Scuba diving

instructors are unfortunately in an excellent position to have a claim or claims filed .-against .them because they are

engaged in an activity that can easily be termed hazardous.

Each instructor should be cognizant of his legal status in

case of an accident. He should carefully analyze his legal responsibilities and understand the application of the laws

as they apply to scuba diving. Colleges and universities who employ scuba instructors can in some instances be held responsible for the actions of the instructors working for them; therefore, they should also be aware of these legal implications. Both the individual instructor and the employing institution should consult legal counsel concerning their status in their particular situation. Instructors and institutions should also carefully analyze their needs for legal liability insurance. Most claims associated with scuba diving would spell financial disaster for the instructor or the college or university involved.

Suggested Related Research The need for additional related research became apparent to the author during the course of this research effort. A nationwide study,.including all colleges and universities offering scuba diving, should be conducted to determine accurately the state of the field of .scuba diving in these institutions. 114

A more specific area warranting additional research, is scuba diving course.prerequisites. Medical experts should establish detailed medical criteria necessary to engage in scuba diving and definite procedures for evaluating the students ability to meet these criteria. A study on the validity of the prerequisite watermanship tests should also be conducted. Presently there is little or no empirical evidence that the watermanship tests provide a valid test of the student’s readiness to engage in scuba diving. Further study should be done on the legal implications of scuba diving instruction, especially in a college or university setting. A special effort should be made to pro­ vide information on the most recent legal dicision relating to scuba diving. These studies should also investigate the need for liability insurance by scuba instructors and their sponsoring organization. The final study recommended by the xtfriter is the develop­ ment of a needs assessment tool and a program evaluation tool especially designed for college and university scuba diving programs. These tools, prepared by experts in the fields of needs assessment and evaluation would facilitate the applica­ tion of the writer’s developmental model.

Conclusion Following the writer’s developmental model can provide the college and university program developer with a set of 115 sequential steps in developing a scuba diving program. Approximate costs, recommended maintenance procedures, suggestions of course prerequisites' and content, and organi­ zational patterns have been discussed. No single outline can effectively deal with the multi­ tude of unique situations and problems that may be encountered in a development of a scuba program, so this investigation was designed to provide general guidelines to aid scuba program personnel in developing and expanding scuba offerings in the colleges and universities. APPENDIX A

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY SCUBA PROGRAM QUESTIONNAIRE

May 22, 1975

Dear Colleague: This questionnaire has been designed to gather data that can be used to implement new college and university scuba programs and to improve existing programs. My involvement in the scuba program at The Ohio State University has made me aware of many complex organizational, instruc­ tional, and administrative considerations in conducting a comprehensive sport scuba diving program. With your help, I plan to analyze policies and procedures currently used by a select.group of colleges and universities offering scuba diving programs and develop a set of organizational and administrative guidelines for such programs. Please complete and return this questionnaire in the stamped envelope at your earliest convenience. If the questionnaire asks for information not available to you, simply reply "information not available" and complete the remainder of the questions. Your cooperation and contribution will be most helpful and appreciated.

Thomas Horne Scuba Instructor Ohio State University

116 Name of Institution 117 Name of Respondent Position AREAS, FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT Pool Yes No Do you have your own pool or pools? 97% 3% Is it used for the scuba program? 94% 6% What are the dimensions of your pool or pools used for scuba?

Pool 1 Pool 2 Pool 3 * Length Width Min. Depth Max. Depth Any additional pertinent information concerning pool (i.e, diving well, underwater window, etc.) 1. Underwater window 4. Video tape system 2. Underwater speakers 5. Safety ledge 3. Underwater lights 6. Gradually sloping bottom Please provide your personal recommendations for outstanding pool features for teaching scuba classes (i.e., depth, design, materials, etc.)

THE SCUBA PROGRAM Course Prerequisites: Please put a beside the skills required to enter a scuba course and give specifications of the requirement.

Prerequisite Skill Specifications

1. Distance swim 81% Distance Time 2. Underwater swim 66% Distance 3. Victim Tow 31% Distance 4. Surface Dive 44% Depth __ 5. Tread water 59% Time ___ Other 6 . Survival floating 44% Time Other 7. Lifesaving certification 19% 8 . First Aid Cert. (Red Cross) 6% 9. Swimming Strokes 41% Strokes Required 10. Other

*Averages: 25 Yards, length; Min. Depth, 3 1/2 ft.; Max. Depth, 12 ft. 118

Are students required to have a physical examination before entering a scuba class? Yes 88% No 12%

Please items required for the scuba physical examination. 1. Chest x-ray 31% 2. Blood test 41% 3. Blood pressure 56% 4. Medical history 72% 5. Other

. Special Fees

If a special fee charged to students taking scuba related classes? Yes 63% No 37%

Please summarize the special fee cost breakdown on the following chart. Indicate approximate costs or range, i.e., $10 - $20.

Averages Other Course Trans. Equip. Instruction ' Total Rental Item Amount Cost

Skin Diving Only $10-$25 A AAAA Skin § Scuba Diving $10-$80 A A AAA Open Water Checkouts $10-$25 AAA A A Inland Water. Dives AAAAAA Ocean Diving A A AA A A

Interdisciplinary offerings AAAAA A Other AA AAAA

Program Development How long did it take to develop your current scuba program? Less than 1 year 13% 1-3 years 40% 3-5 years 12% 5 years or more 30%

*Denotes incomplete, insufficient, on no data .returned Program Specifications: The chart contains a list of course descriptions and a series of questions about each course. In each column provide the following information: Column 1 - the total number of courses offered per year. Column 2 - the amount of academic credit given for each course. (Please give the number of credits and type of credit offered, i.e., semester hrs, or quarter hrs.) Column 3 - the maximum number of students per class. Column 4 - the total number of clock hours for each course. Column 5 - the total number of clock hours spent in lecture. Column 6 - the total number of clock hours spent in pool work sessions. Column 7 - the number of nationally certified scuba instructorsper class. Column 8 - the location of the instruction.

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Column 7 Column T~ Courses Max. # of Credit Clock hrClockhrh. Clock hrs. Certified Location of per year Students Hours Total Lecture Pool Instructors Course

Skin Diving Average Average 14-23 5 11 1 Campus Only 4 23 1 Skin § Scuba Average Campus or Average Average 1 or 2 Average Average 1 Diving Pool/ 20 16 22 Both Lecture 7 38 Average Average Open Water 12 a A A A Off Campus Checkouts 6 2 Inland Diving Water Experience 3 12 A AA A A Off Campus Rivers, Lakes A AA AA Off Campus Ocean Diving 3 15 119

Interdiscipli­ * A AA A A A A nary Offerings *Denotes incomplete, insufficient, or no data returned. Instructors 120

Please indicate the number of scuba instructors teaching in your program. Indicate any and all scuba instructors certi­ fications they hold and their status with your college or university.

Instructor Scuba Instructor Ratings • University Position

Oth&r -i.0 * ,i • YMCA NALJI NASDS PSDI LA. 00. Please Instructor*/ Specity Lecturer, None

0. Example X X Assoc. Prof.

1. 21 31 3 13* 2.

3. 4. 5.

Percentage 31% 46% 4% 19%

Medical Facilities Is there a health center, hospital or other medical facility on campus? Yes 100% No 0% How far is it from where scuba classes are taught? 93% - less than 1 mile It there a university emergency squad? Yes 79% No 21% Scuba Equipment

Please check the scuba equipment, if any, supplied by the university and give the approximate inventory of the items provided. Item Supplied Inventory Item Supplied Inventory

1.Mask 34% 7. Wet Suits 12% 2. Fins 34% 8. Wt. Belt 50% 3. Snorkel 34% 9. Depth Guage 12% 4. Tank § Pack 69% 10. Tank Guage 28% 5. Regulators 69% 11. Lights 15% 6. B.C. Vest 69% 12. Other

*No equipment is supplied. Security What measures had your department taken to prevent equipment theft and loss?

1. Separate equipment room 4. Equipment man 2. Sturdy locks S. Storage cabinets 3. Limited number of keys How much would you estimate your equipment loss to be each year? 1. 0-$50 72% 4. $250-$500 0% 2. $50-$100 5% 5. $500 or more 3. $l00-$250 23%

Scuba Room . '

Briefly describe your scuba equipment checkout system and your equipment storage system.

Do you have your own air compressor? Yes 62% No 58% Please give the details of your compressor system 1. What was the compressors initial cost? $4,000 Average 2. What is its make and model? *_____ 3. What is its capacity rating? * 4. Is the compressor vented? Yes * No * 5. How many people are authorized to run the compressor 3 or less - 94% 6. Do you have a cascade system? Yes No * 7. How many tanks are in the cascade system * 8. What is the approximate yearly cost of maintaining your own compressor system $20 - $155 9. Briefly describe the maintainance procedures.

FINANCES Please estimate your department capital investment in the scuba program Average - $6,400 What is the approximate annual expense of conducting your scuba program *____ What is the cost breakdown of your annual spending 1. Maintenance * 2. Equipment purchasing * 3. Instruction * 4. Transportation * 5. Other *

* Denotes incomplete, insufficient, or no data returned. 122

Legal Liability and Insurance

1. Can your university be sued for negligence? Yes 64% No 54% If it can, does it have a liability insurance policy that -would cover scuba accidents? Yes 64% No 39%

2. Does your school supply instructors with liability insurance that would cover a scuba accident? Yes 61% No 39%

3. What type of liability insurance does your scuba instructors have? Scuba Certification Agencyfs______

4. Have you found any policies that supply superior coverage? * Yes * No * If so, describe the policy and cost.

In the remaining space please provide any additional pertinent informa­ tion concerning your scuba program, i.e., unique features, strengths, weaknesses, problems, etc.

Check out dives Lack of Instructors Lack of Compressor

* Denotes incomplete, insufficient, or no data returned. 123

Follow-up Letter

June 12, 1975

Dear On May 24, 1975 a questionnaire concerning your institution's scuba program was sent to you. The questionnaire is part of a study being done on college and university skin and scuba diving programs across the nation. Understandably circumstances such as final exams and term breaks may have delayed your response. If you or a member of your staff have not already completed and mailed this questionnaire, we would appreciate your doing so at your earliest convenience.

Your cooperation in this important matter will be very helpful and greatly appreciated.

Sincerely,

Thomas F. Home Scuba Instructor Ohio State University 124

APPENDIX B

PROGRAM OF OUTDOOR PURSUITS TRIP PLANNING GUIDE

This manual is designed specifically to aid POP Head

Instructors and Assistant Instructors in trip organization.

Please follow the entire manual carefully, so that your trip will be free from all organizational and mechanical faults.

We have tried to remember those items you might forget. As

Head Instructor you should: A. Do preliminary planning well in advance of the

trip. 1. Submit "Trip Planning Guide" at least one quarter ahead of time to be approved by POP

Administrative Head. 2/ Make up an information flier for registration. Include pre-training dates and be sure tjiat

room needed for pre-training are cleared with

the Intramural Division. 3. Assist with registration if so assigned. Immediately following registration, check all student applications for proper course credit, insurance coverage, and completeness. Also check waiting lists to be sure those people have filled out applications properly. B. Plan with assistants in detail after registration. 1. Discuss with Assistant Instructors the booklet on POP policies. Note administrative line,

faculty and student involvement, pre-training,

equipment, etc. 2. Meet with Assistant Instructors, supervisory

personnel and outside specialists to discuss

trip procedure in detail prior to first pre-

training. 3. Submit projected equipment needs to Administra­

tive Head before first pre-training. 4. Obtain Form I from Basic P.E. Secretaries, Room 124 in the P.E. Bldg., mail the pre­ training reminders to the students. You should

send reminders to the top people on the waiting

list, too. Conducts Pre-training - Content of pre-training sessions will vary according to course objectives, but the' following must be included: 1. For weekend excursions collect total payment at the first pre-training session. Do not accept cash. Clip check or money order to application and file with Basic Physical Education Secre­

taries. 2. Stress that all trip fees are a package deal. Any variations from trip schedule must be approved by Head Instructor (i.e., someone who wishes to meet trip after it has left campus). 126

Also stress that no refunds will be authorized

unless the places.can be filled. Exception:

deposits will be refunded to those on the

waiting list after the trip has left. 3. State that University rules and regulations

governing student conduct will apply. 4. Make students aware of all safety aspects of

the activity (particularly important for protecting yourself against suit in event of

an accident). 5. Be sure to document educational aspects of the course, such as visiting experts, reading

assignments, and the like. 6. Have a "tune up" trip or similar prertraining

experiences to check qualifications and to

improve conditioning.

7. Following pre-training complete (pre-evaluation check) and file it with the Administrative Head. D. Perform the following functions prior to departure: 1. File one set of student applications with Basic P.E. Secretaries in Room 124, P.E. Bldg. after first pre-training. 2. Fill vacancies from waiting list whenever they

occur. (On interim trips a deposit is due at time of registration and the remainder on a specific date. Check immediately after the payment date to insure that all are paid in

full. If not, replace them with students on

the waiting list. 3. Direct those requesting refunds to the Basic Physical Education Secretaries and send with them a note containing any pertinent informa­

tion. 4. File equipment sign out sheet with Administra­

tive Head two days before leaving. This is Form F. 5. Be sure Assistant Instructors and supervisory personnel understand emergency procedures and have in their possession all university contact

numbers. This is Form A. 6. Be sure to have one set of student applications forms (with all insurance numbers) with you.

This is Form C. Perform the following functions during the trip: 1. If there is any deviation from the trip plan or if emergency procedures are needed, inform University contact immediately. 2. Keep receipts on all expenditures. 3. Teach 4. Obtain student evaluations of the trip. Perform the following functions after the trip: 1. Sign in all equipment. File equipment sheet with Administrative Head. 128

2. Within two weeks following the trip, complete

post-evaluation form and file with Administra­

tive Head. POP Committee members or Administrative Head should be contracted if there are any further questions. Have a safe journey. As Head Instructor, for your own liability's sake, you should do the following: have personal liability insurance, follow the POP procedures completely, and make sure all your pre-training sessions are absolutely detailed as far as screening, safety, trip plans, and skill instruc­ tion are concerned. If something happens and you have not filed or followed POP forms (e.g., emergency procedures) you are responsible. 129

TRIP PLANNING GUIDE OUTLINE

ACTIVITY: __ HEAD INSTRUCTOR: " ' PLACE: ____ _ ASSISTANT INSTRUCTOR: SUPERVISORS:

1. Dates, Times and Places A. Leave B . Return C. Expected Departure Time and Place ______D. Expected Returning Time and Place ______

2. Equipment Needed by Students

3. Cost Breakdown: Min.# .of Stud. Max.# of Stud. A. Transportation Air ______* i Land ______B. Lodging '______

C. Meals: Trip ' '

Travel ' __ D. Equipment Expenses______

E. Rental Services ' ’

F. Audio-Visual Aids______G. International Field Studies______H. Insurance ______I. Emergency Money______

J. Extra Miscellaneous______TOTAL ______TOTAL PER STUDENT 130

4. Discription of Place and Housing

a. Total Mileage to.and from

5. Required Texts: ______

6. Credit Hours ______

7. Pre-Registration Dates and Places

8. General Course Description

9. Additional Information

10. Estimated Income and Participants

# of People Cost Income

A. Number of regular paying people _____ B. Number of people with discounts ______C. Number of people going for trip price______

D. Number of paid personnel ______TOTAL Cach Advance for- Instructor or Pre-Payments

1...... AMOUNT ' ' '

2. ______' ' ' ' , AMOUNT......

Payments to: (After trip)-(Excerpt -from total financial.breakdown)

1. ______AMOUNT DUE 2. ______AMOUNT DUE ______

3. AMOUNT DUE 11. Emergency. Procedures (Completed prior to trip departure)

A. First-Aid

B. Trip locations during travel

C. Emergency Numbers and Addresses

1. University Contact ______2. Nearest Medical Facility ______3. Police contact ______

4. Others

Checklist Yes No Comments:

1. Emergency procedures covered with students______2. All members insured ______

3. Transportation cleared______4. Pre-Training complete ______5. Health ratings checked______6. Food and. Personal gear checked______132 E. Transportation:

1. Vehicles and license numbers

2. DriverX names and number on-licenses

F. Student deviations from trip

12. Post Evaluation of Trip (To be completed no later than 1 week after trip) A. Total mileage covered . ______B. Emergencies with vehicles or personnel

C. Brief summary of trip (include locations, personnel used, equipment, practicality, course content and future recommenda­ tions, if any)

* An Equipment sign at sheet should accompany the trip planning guide. APPENDIX C

COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES SURVEYED

East Mid-West 1. Penn State University Yes 1. Mankato St. College Yes 2. SUNY - Binghamton Yes 2. Ball State University No 3. University of Florida Yes 3. Indiana State University Yes 4. Univ. of Southern Florida Yes 4. Tulane No 5. Florida State University No 5. University of Iowa Yes 6. University of Miami No 6. University of Illinois Yes 7. S. Connecticut State C. No ; 7. Drake University Yes 8. Univ. of North Carolina Yes 8. Bowling Green No 9. Towsen State College Yes 9:.- Auburn University No 10. Duke University Yes 10. Univ. of Wisconsin No 11. Northwestern University Yes 11. University of Iowa No 12. Brooklyn College No 12. Youngstown St. Univ. No 13. Univ. of Maryland Yes 13. Denison University Yes 14. Univ. of Georgia No 14. Ohio State University Yes 15. Harvard No 15. Slippery Rock State Yes Plains and Mountain West

1. University of Utah * 1. University of San Diego No 2. Oral Roberts University Yes 2. University of Oregon Yes 3. University of Tulsa Yes 3. Cal. State-Long Beach Yes 4. North Arizona * 4. South Oregon College No 5. Arizona State University Yes 5. Univ. of Cal. -Santa Cruz Yes 6. Texas Christian Univ. No 6. Cal St. - Fresno No 7. Kansas St. Teachers Co. No 7. Williamette University * 8. University of Oklahoma * 8. U.C.L.A. * 9. Oklahoma State University Yes 9. Cal. State-Sonoma A 10. Kansas State University Yes 10. San Jose State Univ. Yes 11. University of Kansas Yes 11. San Francisco State U.. No 12. Rice University Yes 12. Oregon State Univ. Yes 13. University of Arkansas Yes 13. Cal. State-Dom. Hills No 14. Univ. of Albuquerque No 14. Univ. of Cal.-Berkley No 15. New Mexico St. Univ. Yes 15. San Diego St. Univ. Yes * Yielded unusable or no data. Totals: No. of institutions supplying usable information 32. No. of institutions supplying unusable information 6 No. of institutions not responding 22

133 APPENDIX D

COMPRESSOR MAINTENANCE AND RECOMMENDATIONS

University of Illinois Compressor . . Maintenance Schedule

1. Every half hour: Drain the filters

2. Every 8 hours: Check oil levels Look for leaks Check for proper operation of the contents

3. Every 250 hours: Change oil Clean filters Clean dust from coolers 4. Every 500 hours: Check belt tension and wear Tighten nuts and bolts 5. Every 1000 hours: Replace worn parts University of Rhode Island Compressor Recommendations

1. A log should be kept showing operation, repair, overhaul, filter maintenance, temperature adjustment, and results of all gas analyses and air tests. 2. Water lubricated compressors are preferred if service and parts are readily available. 3. Air intakes must be provided with a filter and located to supply clean air, free from contaminating fumes, smoke, etc. 4. The discharged compressed air must pass through filters designed to remove carbon monozide, dust and droplets of oil and water. 5. Oil lubricated compressors and coolers must be ventilated or otherwise cooled to prevent high temperatures that may cause carbon monoxide to be formed.

134 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Allen, Barry. Sports Illustrated Skin Diving and Snorkeling. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1973. Athletic Goods Manufacturer's Association. How to Budget, Select, and Order Athletic Equipment. Chicago: Athletic Goods Manufacturer's Association, 1962. Athletic Institute. Planning Areas and Facilities for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Chicago: The Athletic Institute, 1965. Bachman, H. Ross, fed.). National Association of Underwater Instructors - Instructor Handbook. Published by the National Association of Underwater Instructors, May 1969. Best, John W. Research in Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 19 70. Carrier, Rick. The Complete Book of Skin Diving. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1973. Cramer, John L., Glen H. Egstrom, and Lee H. Somers. "Instructors of Skin and Scuba Diving," Professional Preparation in Aquatics Education - Curriculum GuiHe. Washington: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation Publications, 1974.

Empleton, Bernard E. and others (ed.) The New Science of Skin and Scuba Diving. 2nd ed. New York: Associated Press, 1974. Frost, Reuben B. Physical Education Foundations - Practices- Principles. Reading, .Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 19 75. Gaffney, John and The National Association of Skin Diving Schools. Instructors Manual. Published by National Association of Skin Diving Schools. Harper, Donald D. Ph.D. Skin and Scuba Diving Fundamentals. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1968.

135 136

Howard, Glenn W. and Edward Masonbrink. Administration of Physical Education. New York: Harper and l^ow Publishing, 1963. Kraus, Richard. Recreation Today. New York: Appleton C entury-Crofts, 1966.

Lee, Owen. The Complete Illustrated Guide to Snorkel and Deep Diving. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, T967. Newman, William H. Administrative Actions: The Techniques of Organizing and Management^ 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1963. National Association of Underwater Instructors. Legal Aspects of Underwriter Instruction. National Associa­ tion of Underwater Instructors, T§72. Oberteuffer, Delbert and Celeste Ulrich. Physical Education. 4th ed. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1§70.

Professional Association of Diving Instructors. "Standards and Procedures Manual." Published by the Professional Association of Diving Instructors, 1972.

Ruggieri, Mary Jo and Susan Cook. Skin- and_Scuba Diving and Related Marine Zoology. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company, 19 737 Strykowski, Joe. Diving for Fun: A Complete Textbook for Students, Instructors, and Advanced Divers. Northfield, Illinois: Dacor Corp., 1974. Taba, Hielda. Curriculum Development Theory and Practice. New York: Harcourt Brace and World, 1962. Tead, Ordway. The Art of Administration. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1951. Thompson, Al. Scuba Equipment Care and Maintenance. Los' Angeles, California: Peterson Publishing Company, 1973. Tillman, Albert A. Skin and Scuba Diving. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company, 1966. Tillman, Albert A. Underwater Education. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company, 1962. Tyler, Ralph W. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruc­ tion. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1950. 137

U.S. Department of the Navy, U.S. Navy Diving Manual. Volume I, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973.

Vannier, Maryelen, Ed.Q: and Hollis F. Fait, Ph.D. Teaching Physical Education in Secondary Schools. Philadelphia: W . B . Sanders -Company, .1966., . - I Voltmer, Edward F. and Arthur A. Esslinger, The Organization and Administration of Physical Education"! 4th ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts , 1967 . Young Menfs Christian Association. YMCA Scuba Leadership Manual. Published by the National YMCA Scuba Committee 1974.

Periodicals

Bellarts, Leo G., Jr. "How Pure is the Air You Breath?," Skin Diver Magazine, XXIII (September 1974), 45-51. Cramer, John L., Glen H. Egstrom, and Lee H. Somers. "Minimum Standards for Courses of Basic Skin and Scuba Diving," Journal of Health, Physical Education, 1 and Recreation, XL (October 1974), 83-&8.

Gramling, Homer. "How to Present a Course in Skin and Scuba Diving and Why," DGWS Aquatics Guide (July 1961- 63), 18-30.

Katz, Robert. "Skills of an Effective Administrator," Harvard Business Review, XXXIII (January-Februaty 1955) , 33-42. “

Lansche, James M. "Deaths During Skin and Scuba Diving in California in 1970," California Medicine, CXVI (June 1972), 18-23. Luria, S.M. and others. "Vision Through Various Facemasks," Human Factors, XVI (April 1974), 395-403. McCarthy, Jean J. "Rationale and Standards for Utilizing Selected Skin and Scuba Diving Instructional Programs," Physical Educator, XXX (May 1973), 42-46. "School Scuba," Physical Educator. XXV (May 1968), S9-60. ______. "Scuba-Physical Education Activity,"-Physical Educator, XIX (October 1962), 104-105. 138 •

Neglow, I.F. "Scuba Diving - Physical Education Activity?," Physical Educator, XIX (May 1962), 64-65. Shelford, O.W. , Captain. "Ohgushi's Peerless Respirator," Skin Diver Magazine, XXII (.November 1972), 32-34.

Sisskind, Carl I. "National Scuba Safety Report No. 3," Skin Diver Magazine, XXIV (July 1975), pp. 12-21.

Tunis, Irwin L. "Why Liability Insurance?," NAUI News, XII (March 1971), 3. Tzimoulis, Paul J. "Editorial - It Takes More Than a C-Card," Skin Diver Magazine, XXII (July 1973), 4. "Editorial - It's Working," Skin Diver Magazine, XXII (February 1973), 4. _____ . "Editorial - An Incomplete Picture," Skin Diver Magazine, XXI (October 1972), 4. Weltman, Gershon and Glen H. Egstrom. "Personal Autonomy Of Scuba Diver Trainers," Research Quarterly, XV (March 1969), 613-618.

Unpublished Works

American Association for Health., Physical Education and Recreation for College Men and Women. Report of Conference on Physical Education for Men and Women. December 1954.

* "California State University and College Minimal Standards for Diver Certification and Operation of Programs." Results of a meeting at California State University, Long Beach, October 1974. Capper, Michael R. "Instructional Objectives for a Junior College Course in Physical Education (Scuba Diving)," ERIC Microfiche, No. ED033709, 1969. Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards. "Evaluative Criteria" Washington: Cooperative Study on Secondary School Standards, 1960. Daniels, Arthur S. "Evaluative Criteria for Physical Education: A Self-Appraisal Check List for Ohio Schools," Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, 1954. 139

McAniff, John J. "University Guide for Diving Safety." Unpublished paper, University of Rhode Island, 1971.

Program of Outdoor Pursuits Committee. "Program of Outdoor Pursuits Policy Statement." Unpublished paper, The Ohio State University, 1974. ______. "Trip Planning Guide." Unpublished Paper, The Ohio State University. Stanley, Philip L. "Implementation of Off-Campus and Unique Activities." Paper presented to the 73rd Annual Meeting of the National College Physical Education Association for Men, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, January 1973. State Department of Education, Division of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. "A Check List for Physical Education." Albany, New York.

Personal Interviews

Gardner, Walton R., M.D. Personal 'Interview, January 1975.

Jacques, Joseph J. Personal Interview, April 19 75.

Ruggieri, Mary Jo. Personal Interview, February 1975.

Stanley, Philip L. Personal Interview, February 1975.