DOCSLIB.ORG

Tongzhi in China: a Social Marker Or Not?

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Tongzhi in China: a Social Marker Or Not? Working Papers in Educational Linguistics (WPEL) Volume 27 Number 2 Fall 2012 Article 6 Fall 2012 Tongzhi in China: A Social Marker or Not? Yuzhi Chen University of Pennsylvania Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/wpel Part of the Education Commons, and the Linguistics Commons Recommended Citation Chen, Y. (2012). Tongzhi in China: A Social Marker or Not?. 27 (2), Retrieved from https://repository.upenn.edu/wpel/vol27/iss2/6 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/wpel/vol27/iss2/6 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Tongzhi in China: A Social Marker or Not? This article is available in Working Papers in Educational Linguistics (WPEL): https://repository.upenn.edu/wpel/ vol27/iss2/6 TONGZHI IN CHINA Tongzhi in China: A Social Marker or Not? Yuzhi Chen University of Pennsylvania This paper presents and discusses the use of the term tongzhi（同志）as an example of language change in progress in the People’s Republic of China (PRC). I review data from different historic phases based on previous research as well as data from past and contemporary media sources. These are presented to test Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog’s (1968) social marker theory concerning the unmarked and marked uses of the term. Furthermore, underlying social and economic motivations are taken into consideration as they relate to tongzhi’s semantic changes. From its reference to people with the same ideals to a term specifically referring to people in sexual minority communities, the term tongzhi has undergone tremendous shifts in semantic implicature. Thus, I argue that tongzhi has multiple meanings for different groups of speakers, and it does not always categorically fit into Weinreich et al.’s (1968) social marker theory. Given tongzhi’s distinct connotations, the pedagogical implication of the data analysis presented here is that it is advisable to integrate socioeconomic and cultural factors into the teaching and introduction of tongzhi to learners of Chinese. Introduction 1) Geming shangwei chenggong, tongzhi rengxu nuli 革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力。 As the revolution is not yet completed, all my followers must endeav- or to carry it out (Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s will, 1925, as cited in Fang & Heng, 1983, p. 496). 2) A scene cited from a renowned Chinese novel entitled Yehuo Chun- feng Dou Gucheng (Revolutionary Struggle in a Historic City; 野火春风斗 古城) is described as follows: 只要唤出’同志’这两个字来，送你们这二十里地就不算白费了. After the barber successfully deduced that those men are actually party members of the China’s Communist Party, he explained to Yang Xiaodong (the heroine) by saying that “as long as you call me Tongzhi (同志), I don’t care escorting you all the 20 miles.” (Li, 1981) 3) Kan le G&L duo xiang zanmei yi sheng: “Geming shangwei chenggong, tongzhi rengxu nuli! “ 看了《G&L》，多想赞美一声：“革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力!" After reading G&L Gay Magazine, I want to say: “As the revolution is not yet completed, tongzhi must endeavor to carry it out” (as cited in Wong, 2005, p. 770). 7 WPEL VOLUME 27, NUMBER 2 he above quoted three contexts where tongzhi（同志）is used lead to different interpretations towards the meaning of tongzhi. T Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the first president and founding father of the Republic of China left sentence 1 in his will, in which he called on his fellow revolutionists to carry on the revolution. Tongzhi in Sun’s will is used as an equivalent term for revolutionist followers. As for the second scene depicted above (sentence 2), identifying oneself as a tongzhi (comrade) who upheld the same political ideals as the Communist Party did was regarded as an honor at that time, a common phenomenon in some old Chinese novels and movies, especially in those that depict the Chinese Civil War (1945-1949). Here, tongzhi is used as a means to identify whether one is a party member or has the same revolutionary ambition. Thus, this usage of tongzhi involves stronger political and revolutionist connotations, and serves as an address term rather than a generic referent as it does in Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s will. Sentence 3 concerns the gay/lesbian activist’s stylized usage of tongzhi in G&L Magazine, a magazine created for a target audience of Chinese sexual minorities. Here, the address term tongzhi functions as a synonym of gay and lesbian. Therefore, from the above three examples, a huge discrepancy in the meanings of tongzhi can be spotted. The term tongzhi has been undergoing frequent semantic shifts over the years, along with the socioeconomic changes in the People’s Republic of China. However, as one may also notice, tongzhi still retains its specific meaning as comrade in given contexts (i.e., China’s political context). The major purpose of the present paper is to apply Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog’s (1968) theory of social markers to data collected from previous research (Scotton & Zhu, 1983, 1984; Wong & Zhang, 2001) as well as from past and contemporary media sources. Labov’s (1963) Vineyard study shows how phonological features of language use change in the course of immediate social interaction. Likewise, I delve into my case by reviewing the socioeconomic context of the given historic period. By recourse to this theoretical framework, I examine whether the term tongzhi as a language change in progress matches the features of a social marker. Also, this paper relates the phenomenon of language changes to underlying social changes. I conclude by presenting my personal insight into the pedagogical implications drawn from the results of the data analysis. Theoretical Framework Labov’s (1963) study of socially conditioned sound change in Martha’s Vineyard is a foundational work which delineates the role of sociolinguistic variation in diachronic change. In this study, Labov notes that the more “summer people” are around, the more phonological variations that the locals use diverge. It is through the use of centralized diphthongs that the speaker is marked as a “Vineyarder”. Hence, the centralization of diphthongs functions as a social marker to distinguish whether one belongs to “summer people” or the “local folks.” Moreover, Labov (1963) notes that “one cannot understand the development of a language change apart from the social life of the community in which it occurs” (p. 275), which clearly relates the language change to its underlying social motivations. Weinreich et al. (1968) further explore the role of sociolinguistic variation in diachronic change. According to Weinreich et al. (1968), the distribution of a 8 TONGZHI IN CHINA particular sociolinguistic variable with certain social features may be restricted to a limited number of people or a certain social group. The researchers thus argue that “linguistic forms may become social markers when they represent a language change in progress” (as cited in Scotton & Zhu, 1983, p. 478, emphasis added). According to their work, while a particular form may be affected by a language change in progress, the distribution of the given form is usually restricted to some level. And, if the usage of this form involves certain social features, then the particular form becomes a social marker, because it is accepted and used by a limited number of people or a certain social group similar to the “summer people” of Labov’s (1963) study. Labov (2001) later explains that social markers exhibit “social recognition… usually in the form of social stigma” (p. 197). He posits that markers vary based on the social characteristics of speakers (e.g., class, age, gender), and speakers generally have a social consciousness of using such particular linguistic forms. The Vineyard case in Labov’s (1963) study illustrates how phonological features of language use change in the course of immediate social interaction; this is closely related to underlying social and economic motivations. On the other hand, the term tongzhi has been undergoing tremendous semantic changes in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) since the 20th century. These changes are an example of shifts in semantic implicature. Despite the differences in my case and Labov’s (1963) Vineyard case (i.e. semantic shifts versus phonological shifts), one point that deserves attention is the fact that social context is of vital significance in understanding a (socio-)linguistic phenomenon. Furthermore, under different social circumstances, the distribution of a certain linguistic form may or may not be restricted to a given group of speakers. In the paper, I will analyze whether tongzhi in the PRC (from an address term to a word with gay and lesbian connotations) falls into Weinreich et al.’s (1968) conceptualization of social markers. Literature Review In communicative interactions, address terms can serve as the first message from the speaker to the addressee. The issue of address terms in America has been approached by various researchers (e.g., Brown & Ford, 1961; Ervin-Tripp, 1973 as cited in Zhu, 1992) since the 1960s. In China, address terms have also been long under close scrutiny. Cho Yueren (1956) delved into this issue in the 1950s. At that point, terms like xiansheng (Mr., 先生), taitai (Mrs., 太太), xiaojie (Miss, 小姐) were most commonly used among Chinese speakers. Similar to Cho’s (1956) findings, Zhu (1992) also observes that before the founding of the PRC, females according to their marital status were conventionally called taitai (Mrs., 太太) or xiaojie (Miss, 小 姐). However, the picture has changed after the 1949 Liberation, the address term airen (lover, 爱人) was commonly used for both males and females in marriage and is indicative of an equal social status (Zhu, 1992, p.151). The founding of the PRC generated the promotion of a new address term, tongzhi. Previous researchers have focused on the usage of address terms within the social structure as a whole, while there are a growing number of studies (e.g., Ju, 1991; Scotton & Zhu, 1983, 1984; Wong & Zhang, 2001) that explore address terms (especially tongzhi) from other perspectives.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 1 Comrade China on the Big Screen
    COMRADE CHINA ON THE BIG SCREEN: CHINESE CULTURE, HOMOSEXUAL IDENTITY, AND HOMOSEXUAL FILMS IN MAINLAND CHINA By XINGYI TANG A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN MASS COMMUNICATION UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2011 1 © 2011 Xingyi Tang 2 To my beloved parents and friends 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First of all, I would like to thank some of my friends, for their life experiences have inspired me on studying this particular issue of homosexuality. The time I have spent with them was a special memory in my life. Secondly, I would like to express my gratitude to my chair, Dr. Churchill Roberts, who has been such a patient and supportive advisor all through the process of my thesis writing. Without his encouragement and understanding on my choice of topic, his insightful advices and modifications on the structure and arrangement, I would not have completed the thesis. Also, I want to thank my committee members, Dr. Lisa Duke, Dr. Michael Leslie, and Dr. Lu Zheng. Dr. Duke has given me helpful instructions on qualitative methods, and intrigued my interests in qualitative research. Dr. Leslie, as my first advisor, has led me into the field of intercultural communication, and gave me suggestions when I came across difficulties in cultural area. Dr. Lu Zheng is a great help for my defense preparation, and without her support and cooperation I may not be able to finish my defense on time. Last but not least, I dedicate my sincere gratitude and love to my parents.
    [Show full text]
  • April 20, 1961 Memorandum of Conversation, Comrade Abdyl Kellezi with Comrade Zhou Enlai
    Digital Archive digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org International History Declassified April 20, 1961 Memorandum of Conversation, Comrade Abdyl Kellezi with Comrade Zhou Enlai Citation: “Memorandum of Conversation, Comrade Abdyl Kellezi with Comrade Zhou Enlai,” April 20, 1961, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Central State Archive, Tirana, AQPPSH-MPKK-V. 1961, L. 13, D. 6. Obtained by Ana Lalaj and translated by Enkel Daljani. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111817 Summary: Zhou Enlai expressed China's opinions on the result of the meeting of the Political Consultative Committee of the Warsaw Pact, China's support of the principles of Marxism-Leninism in several Soviet-Albanian conflicts. They also discussed issues of economic and military assistance. Original Language: Albanian Contents: English Translation At the meeting there were also present: From our side, comrade Mihal Prifti, from the Chinese side the comrades Deng Xiaoping, Luo Ruiqing, Vice Premier of the State Council and Chief of Staff, and Wu Xiuquan, Deputy Director of the CCP CC International Department. In the lunch that was given after the talks there was also comrade Tan Zhenlin, member of the Political Bureau of the CCP CC and dealing with agriculture issues, as well as Comrade Li Xiannian. Comrade Zhou Enlai: We took a look at the minutes of the meeting between [Chairman of the Ministerial Council and Member of the Political Bureau of the ALP CC] Comrade Mehmet Shehu and comrade Luo Shigao that they had after the meeting of the Political Consultative Committee of the Warsaw Pact that was held in Moscow. In addition, we have also seen the minutes of your meeting with comrade Li Xiannian.
    [Show full text]
  • 'Socialism in One Country': Komsomol'tsy
    Youthful Internationalism in the Age of ‘Socialism in One Country’: Komsomol’tsy, Pioneers and ‘World Revolution’ in the Interwar Period Matthias Neumann On the 1st of March 1927, two Komsomol members from the Chuvash Republic, located in the centre of European Russia, wrote an emotional letter to Comrade Stalin. Reflecting on the revolutionary upheavals in China, they attacked the inaction of the Komsomol and the party and expressed their sincere determination to self-mobilise and join the proletarian forces in China. ‘We do not need empty slogans such as “The Komsomol is prepared”’, ‘We must not live like this’ they wrote and boasted ‘we guarantee that we are able to mobilise thousands of Komsomol members who have the desire to go to China and fight in the army of the Guomindang.’ This was after all, they forcefully stressed, the purpose for which ‘our party and our Komsomol exist.’1 These youngsters were not alone in their views. As the coverage on the situation in China intensified in the Komsomol press in March, numerous similar individual and collective letters were received by party and Komsomol leaders.2 The young authors, all male as far as they were named, expressed their genuine enthusiasm for the revolution in China. The letters revealed not only a youthful romanticism for the revolutionary fight abroad and the idea of spreading the revolution, but often an underlying sense of disillusionment with the inertia of the revolutionary project at home. A few months earlier, in 1926 during the campaign against the so-called eseninshchina3, a fellow Komsomol member took a quite different view on the prospect of spreading the revolution around the world.
    [Show full text]
  • Esperanto, Civility, and the Politics of Fellowship: A
    ESPERANTO, CIVILITY, AND THE POLITICS OF FELLOWSHIP: A COSMOPOLITAN MOVEMENT FROM THE EASTERN EUROPEAN PERIPHERY A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Notre Dame in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Ana Velitchkova Omar Lizardo, Director Graduate Program in Peace Studies and Sociology Notre Dame, Indiana July 2014 © Copyright by ANA MILENOVA VELITCHKOVA 2014 All rights reserved ESPERANTO, CIVILITY, AND THE POLITICS OF FELLOWSHIP: A COSMOPOLITAN MOVEMENT FROM THE EASTERN EUROPEAN PERIPHERY Abstract by Ana Velitchkova This dissertation examines global, regional, state-, group-, and person-level processes involved in the growth of the movement formed around the constructed international language Esperanto. The Esperanto movement emerged in the global arena in the late nineteenth century as a response to inequalities in the nation-state field. In the course of several decades, the movement established a new global field based on the logic of equal communication through Esperanto and on the accumulation of cultural capital. While the field gained autonomy from the nation-state field, it has not been recognized as its equal. Persons endowed with cultural capital but lacking political and economic capital have been particularly drawn to Esperanto. Ironically, while attempting to overcome established unfair distinctions based on differential accumulation of political and economic capital, the Esperanto movement creates and maintains new distinctions and inequalities based on cultural capital accumulation. Ana Velitchkova At the regional level, the Esperanto movement became prominent in state- socialist Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century. The movement found unexpected allies among independent states in the Eastern European periphery.
    [Show full text]
  • Chinese Oral History Collections at Columbia: Toward Better Access1
    Journal of East Asian Libraries, No. 140, Oct. 2006 CHINESE ORAL HISTORY COLLECTIONS AT COLUMBIA: TOWARD BETTER ACCESS1 Chengzhi Wang Columbia University Introduction Source materials keep their scholarly value unabated with the passage of time. This is true of the Chinese Oral History collections at Columbia. Most of the collections were created, acquired in association with the Chinese Oral History Project undertaken about three decades ago, but they are still frequently inquired about and consulted by students and scholars researching modern China. All the original Chinese oral history collections are kept at the Rare Book and Manuscript Library (RBML) at Columbia. Some difficulties in accessing the collections from afar and at Columbia have been reported by new users. Among other problems, new users assume that records for these Chinese-language oral histories have been completely entered into CLIO (Columbia Libraries Information Online), Columbia’s online catalog, and converted to LC pinyin system, and so are searchable in CLIO, but in fact this is not true. Many authors and titles of the oral histories, if known, are not directly searchable. Some general titles of oral history projects are searchable, and the search results offer substantial useful information in great detail. Yet, few users would search CLIO using the correct general titles, and some specific personal papers and archives cannot be located this way.2 Moreover, it seems the Journal of East Asian Libraries and other library professional periodicals have not carried any articles focusing on this important oral history collection.3 The Chinese Oral History project at Columbia officially started in 1958 and ended in 1980.
    [Show full text]
  • GALE Program: Arabic to English Translation Guidelines
    GALE Program: Arabic to English Translation Guidelines Version 2.7 September 7, 2010 Linguistic Data Consortium http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/Projects/GALE NOTE: If for any reason translators are uncomfortable working with any particular document included in their assignment, please contact LDC at [email protected] to request a replacement. 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 3 2 Translation Teams ................................................................................................... 3 3 File Formats ............................................................................................................. 4 3.1 Source file......................................................................................................... 4 3.2 Completed translation file ................................................................................. 5 3.3 File Naming Conventions.................................................................................. 5 4 Delivery of Completed Translations ......................................................................... 6 4.1 Email Correspondence about Translation......................................................... 6 5 Specific Rules for Translation .................................................................................. 6 5.1 General Principles............................................................................................. 6 5.2 Proper Names..................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Final Program of CCC2020
    第三十九届中国控制会议 The 39th Chinese Control Conference 程序册 Final Program 主办单位 中国自动化学会控制理论专业委员会 中国自动化学会 中国系统工程学会 承办单位 东北大学 CCC2020 Sponsoring Organizations Technical Committee on Control Theory, Chinese Association of Automation Chinese Association of Automation Systems Engineering Society of China Northeastern University, China 2020 年 7 月 27-29 日，中国·沈阳 July 27-29, 2020, Shenyang, China Proceedings of CCC2020 IEEE Catalog Number: CFP2040A -USB ISBN: 978-988-15639-9-6 CCC2020 Copyright and Reprint Permission: This material is permitted for personal use. For any other copying, reprint, republication or redistribution permission, please contact TCCT Secretariat, No. 55 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P. R. China. All rights reserved. Copyright@2020 by TCCT. 目录 (Contents) 目录 (Contents) ................................................................................................................................................... i 欢迎辞 (Welcome Address) ................................................................................................................................1 组织机构 (Conference Committees) ...................................................................................................................4 重要信息 (Important Information) ....................................................................................................................11 口头报告与张贴报告要求 (Instruction for Oral and Poster Presentations) .....................................................12 大会报告 (Plenary Lectures).............................................................................................................................14
    [Show full text]
  • The Fourth Wave? a Critical Reflection on the Tongzhi Movement in Hong Kong
    13 The fourth wave? A critical reflection on the tongzhi movement in Hong Kong Travis S.K. Kong, Sky H.L. Lau, and Eva C.Y. Li Introduction In this chapter, we take a close look at the tongzhi movement in Hong Kong. Tongzhi, which literally means ‘common will’, is an adaptation of the Chinese term ‘comrade’. The term has been widely used in the context of political parties in both the Republican period and the People’s Republic of China. It has been re-appropriated as a synonym for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (or LGBT) in Hong Kong and has become very popular for LGBT self-identification in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China since the 1990s (Kong 2011: 14). As a former British colony, Hong Kong’s tongzhi movement has its own distinctive path different from Taiwan or China due to its colonial governance, religious influences, and the adaptation of Chinese families in such an environment. To date, there are many defining moments of tongzhi history in Hong Kong that are worthy of note. These include the initial criminalisation of ‘buggery’ (a generic term that includes male sodomy) in 1842 when the British took over Hong Kong; the apparent suicide of police inspector John MacLennan in 1980 that triggered the subsequent 10 years of public and legal debate over whether male homosexual conduct should be decriminalised; the arrival of AIDS in 1984 along with its alleged association with gay men; the decriminalisation of male homosexual conduct in 1991; the mushrooming of tongzhi organisations and the emergence of a substantial tongzhi consumption infrastructure, including bars, clubs, saunas, massage parlours, cafes, and bookshops since the 1990s; the equalisation of age of consent (from the age of 21 to the age of 16, as for heterosexuals) in 2005; International Day against Homophobia (IDAHO) marches since 2005; pride parades since 2008, and the inclusion of same-sex partners in a domestic violence ordinance in 2009.
    [Show full text]
  • More on the Differences Between Comrade Togliatti and Us (1963)
    MORE ON THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMRADE TOGLIATTI AND US – Some Important Problems of Leninism in the Contemporary World FOREIGN LANGUAGES PRESS P E K I N G From Marx to Mao M L © Digital Reprints 2007 MORE ON THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMRADE TOGLIATTI AND US — Some Important Problems of Leninism in the Contemporary World by The Editorial Department of Hongqi (Red Flag) FOREIGN LANGUAGES PRESS PEKING 1963 The original article, of which this is the English translation, appeared in Hongqi (Red Flag), Nos. 3-4, March 4, 1963. Printed in the People’s Republic of China C O N T E N T S I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. THE NATURE OF THE PRESENT GREAT DEBATE AMONG COMMUNISTS 4 III. CONTRADICTIONS IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD 11 Comrade Togliatti’s New Ideas 11 A Prescription for Changing the World in Which the Prescriber Himself Scarcely Believes 15 Two Fundamentally Different Views on Contradic- tions in the World 18 The Focus of Contradictions in the World After World War II 24 Has the Focus of World Contradictions Changed? 32 Workers and Oppressed Nations of the World, Unite! 38 Some Brief Conclusions 49 IV. WAR AND PEACE 53 The Question Is Not One of Subjective Imagination but of the Laws of Social Development 53 Is the Axiom “War Is the Continuation of Politics by Other Means” Out of Date? 58 What Has Experience Past and Present to Teach Us? 64 Historical Materialism, or the Theory That “Weap- ons Decide Everything”? 69 A Strange Formulation 78 The Chinese Communists’ Basic Theses on the Question of War and Peace 80 V.
    [Show full text]
  • Engaging with Socialism in China: the Political Thought and Activities of Chen Gongbo and Tan Pingshan, 1917-1928
    Engaging with Socialism in China: The Political Thought and Activities of Chen Gongbo and Tan Pingshan, 1917-1928 Xuduo Zhao PhD University of York History May 2019 1 Abstract This thesis investigates Chen Gongbo (1892-1946) and Tan Pingshan (1886-1956), two significant Cantonese Marxists who helped found the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1921. I use Chen and Tan as a lens to re-examine the dissemination of Marxism in May Fourth China and the underlying tensions in 1920s Chinese revolution. My study demonstrates that it was in the changing educational system in the early 20th century that Chen and Tan gradually improved their positions in the cultural field and participated in the intellectual ferment during the May Fourth period. At Peking University they became familiarised with Marxism. Their understanding of Marxism, however, was deeply influenced by European social democracy, as opposed to many other early communist leaders who believed in Bolshevism. This divergence finally led to the open conflict within the CCP between Guangzhou and Shanghai in the summer of 1922, which also embodied the different social identities among early Chinese Marxists. After the quarrel, Chen quit while Tan remained within the party. During the Nationalist Revolution, both Tan and Chen became senior leaders in the Kuomintang, but they had to face yet another identity crisis of whether to be a revolutionary or a politician. Meanwhile, they had to rethink the relationship between socialism and nationalism in their political propositions. This study of Chen and Tan’s political thought and activities in the late 1910s and 1920s offers a different picture of Chinese radicalism and revolution in the early Republican period.
    [Show full text]
  • 9789814779074
    SHORTLISTED FOR THE SINGAPORE LITERATURE PRIZE From rebel on the run to first president of republican China, the life of Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925) epitomizes his country’s turbulent struggle for modernity. For Review only hina is a land of superlatives: home to the fastest trains, the biggest The Unfinished Revolution is a superb new biography of Sun Yat-sen, whose standing army, and the most number life, like the confusion of his time, is not easy to interpret. His political C of millionaires. The world’s largest trading career was marked mostly by setbacks, yet he became a cult figure in China after his death. Today he is the only 20th-century Chinese leader to be power with vast holdings of U.S. sovereign widely revered on both sides of the Taiwan Strait. In contrast, many Western debt, China today is a global powerhouse The historians see little in his ideas or deeds to warrant such high esteem. with significant influence in shaping the world order. This book presents the most balanced account of Sun to date, one that UNFINISHED situates him within the historical events and intellectual climate of his time. This image is in sharp contrast to her state Born in the shadow of the Opium War, the young Sun saw China repeatedly REVOLUTION on the cusp of the 20th century, when she humiliated in clashes with foreign powers, resulting in the loss of territory — and sovereignty. When his efforts to petition the decrepit Manchu court to was rent asunder by predatory foreign institute reforms failed, Sun took to revolution.
    [Show full text]
  • Maximizing Soviet Interests in Xinjiang the USSR's Penetration In
    Maximizing Soviet Interests in Xinjiang The USSR’s Penetration in Xinjiang from the Mid-1930s to the Early 1940s READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS AND THEN PERFORM THE FOLLOWING STEPS IN ORDER 1. Click on the Office Button, select save as and save this document to your computer. THESIS 2. Double click on the copy of this file you just saved. Type the title of your document in the indicated area as instructed. Select other information as indicated – will highlight as your cursor rolls over them. 3. Read Chapter 1 4. Scroll to Chapter 2 to read about the automatic Table of Contents, Heading Styles, Tables, Figures, References and Appendices. 5. To remove this box, click on it, point to the out edge until you see the Move icon, click to select and press the Delete key. If you have questions regarding this document please call Graduation Services at (614) 292-6031. Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Liao Zhang Graduate Program in Slavic and East European Studies The Ohio State University 2012 Master's Examination Committee: David L. Hoffmann, Advisor Morgan Y. Liu Scott C. Levi Copyright by Liao Zhang 2012 Abstract This thesis seeks to examine the question of how the USSR established and maintained Soviet hegemony in Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, and made best the local governor’s pro-Soviet administration to maximize its national interests roughly from the mid-1930s to the early 1940s. In a broader sense, by studying the Soviet-Xinjiang relations during that period of time, this thesis attempts to illustrate how it is effective to transfer the Stalinist model to the areas outside the Soviet Union.
    [Show full text]