The Moldovan linguistic question

Language and identity in a post-Soviet state that is balancing between East and West

Master Thesis – Final Version L.M.C. Sengers MA Literature and Culture: Slavonic September 17, 2014 University of Amsterdam Supervisor: A. J. Drace-Francis Contents

Introduction 4

CHAPTER 1: Language and identity policies in Moldova’s recent history 8

1.1 Brief history of Moldova before 1940 8 1.1.1 Bessarabia (1812-1917) 9 1.1.2 Greater Romania and the MASSR (1917-1940) 9 1.2 From an imposed identity too an identity crisis 11 1.2.1 The Soviet Era (1940-1991) 11 1.2.2 Independent Moldova (from 1991) 14 1.3 The significant other: identity versus language and power 17 1.4 Moldovans about their language and identity 19 1.4.1 Ciscel’s study 19 1.4.2 Surveys 20

CHAPTER 2: Present Moldova: demography, language, policies and problems 23

2.1 Demography and language statistics 23 2.1.1 Demography 23 2.1.2 Language 25 2.2 Language legislation, policies and politics 27 2.2.1 Language rights and legislation 27 2.2.2 The official state language: Moldovan or Romanian? 28 2.2.3 Language and education policies 29 2.2.4 Language attitutes in politics 31 2.2.5 Language bill of May 2013 32 2.3 Linguistic problems 33 2.3.1 The Russian language in Moldova 33 2.3.2 Recent incidents 34 2.4 “Moldovan linguist conflict”? 35

CHAPTER 3: The special case of Transnistria 37

3.1 Language laws leading to civil war 38 3.2 Transnistria between and Russia 39 3.2.1 The relation with Russia 40 3.2.2 The relation with Moldova 41 3.3 Problems of language education 42 3.4 The creation of a national Transnistrian identity 46

Conclusion 48

2

Bibliography 50

Attachments 56

Attachment I: English survey and results 56

Attachment II: Russian survey and results 59

Attachment III: English translation of Russian survey and results 85

3

Introduction

The Republic of Moldova is a land-locked country which used to be part of the Soviet Union. The biggest part of the territory lies between two rivers: the Prut River on the western border with Romania and the Nistru River on the eastern border with Ukraine. Moldova has a Romanian- speaking majority and a sizeable urban Russian minority. The country is divided: one could say that there are actually three Moldova’s: the districts of Moldova and the autonomous regions of Gagauzia and Transnistria (also called Pridnestrovie or Dnestr Region), the latter being a small, unrecognized autonomous republic that still operates according to the Soviet model. Since its independence in 1991, the Republic of Moldova has struggled to maintain an uncertain balance between European aspirations and traditional ties with Eurasian countries. The existence of two breakaway regions has made this balancing act even more difficult. Besides that, the impoverished, largely agricultural Moldovan economy is the poorest in Europe. Also, the Moldovan identity is more contentious and less well-established: many Moldovans consider themselves and their language to be Romanian. In summary, the instability, poverty and identity crisis undermine this independent country that has emerged from totalitarian communism only two decades ago. After an impasse of over two years, Nicolae Timofti was elected president of Moldova in March 2012. Since May 2013, the Pro-European Coalition has been the ruling coalition. Iurie Leancă (Liberal Democratic Party) is the current Prime Minister. At the moment, his government is eager to integrate into Europe. In June 2014, it signed the Association Agreement with the EU, which means a closer political and economic relation between both According to countless stickers in Bucharest, ‘Bessarabia is Romania !’ (photo from own collection) parties. The most important part is the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area, which will create more possibilities for trade and economic growth. Also, from April 28th 2014, Moldovans with a biometric passport are able to travel visa-free to the EU-countries. The parliamentary elections on November 30, 2014, however, are very important for Moldova’s EU-integration. According to recent polls, the Communist Party is in a winning position: about 42% of the voters would vote for it.1 If the Communists win and a less pro-EU coalition will be formed, the European path is not so obvious anymore. Besides, the current problems in neighbouring country Ukraine complicate Moldova’s European aspirations. The annexation of the Crimea by Russia and the unrest among the pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine are important in this context: many fear that similar events will happen in the breakaway regions of Transnistria and Gagauzia and that President Putin will focus his attention on these regions after the Crimea-crisis. Especially Transnistria impedes the process of European integration: although

1 Allmoldova.org: If elections were held next Sunday, five parties would enter Parliament (21-05-2014) http://www.allmoldova.com/en/moldova-news/1249058238.html 4 the region has all the features of a ‘real’ country (government, currency, flag), it is not recognized by any country in the world. Transnistria itself has already made its choice: on March 18th and April 16th this year, pro-Russian politicians and activists requested the Russian parliament to adjust a law through which adding their territory to Russia could happen in a legal way.

The past year, I was able to visit this fascinating country: in 2013, while travelling through Russia and Ukraine, I made a side trip to Moldova’s capital Chişinău. On the train from Odessa to Chişinău, I met an old lady travelling on her own back home after vacation and I spoke with her for a while in Russian. Although she was born and raised in Moldova (back then part of the Soviet Union), she never learnt to speak Romanian, but nevertheless did consider herself to be ‘Moldovan’: “Я молдованка”, she firmly said, meaning ‘I am a Moldovan woman’. In March 2014, during my internship at the Netherlands Embassy to Romania and Moldova in Bucharest, I had the chance to join my colleagues on a diplomatic mission to Chişinău and Tiraspol, the capital of Transnistria. Moldova appeared to me as a country that is difficult to define. What is Moldova exactly? Is it Romanian, is it Russian, is it a mixture between both? Or is it something completely on its own, ‘Moldovan’? What struck me most was the seemingly effortless existence of both the Romanian and Russian language in public areas. While I could hear most people in the streets speaking Romanian, it was no problem to make myself clear in Russian. The case was very different in Tiraspol, where all the signs and banners were in Russian and the sound of Romanian was rarely heard.

These visits stirred up my interest for Moldova but raised many questions at the same time. What is exactly the Moldovan linguistic situation? Is there a ‘linguistic conflict’? If yes: how does this conflict affect the daily life of the inhabitants of the country? What was and is Russia’s role in this small country? Is there a ‘Moldovan’ identity? And, considering the European aspirations, the events in Ukraine and Putin’s recent policies, what do these language and identity questions mean in the Statements like these are easy to spot on walls in present geopolitical context? In this Master thesis, I will Chişinău: “I am Moldovan! I speak the Moldovan try to answer these questions. language!” (Source: Chişinău, Seriously?)

This thesis will start with the language and identity policies in Moldova’s recent history. Besides the economic crisis, the national identity crisis (Moldovan, Romanian or Russian?) is one of the main crises in Moldova today. According to some scholars, the identity crisis is even the most important hindrance for democracy.2 The Soviet policy of nation-building will be explained, a concept that was necessary in the evolution of the Moldovan identity and language, in order to separate the Moldovan identity from the Romanian one. Language and symbols were very important in this policy. Furthermore, Jenkins’s theoretical concepts of similarity versus difference and asymmetrical power relations are relevant.

2 Loredana M. Simionov, ‘How did language in Moldova lead to an identity crisis instead of establishing an identity?’ (2012), 1. 5

In the second chapter, the current situation will be described: the minorities, the language policies and the linguistic problems in Moldova of today. At the end of this chapter, I will discuss whether the linguistic situation could be called a ‘conflict’. A well-known linguistic conflict is the Belgian conlict, studied by Kenneth D. McRae3 among others: in Belgium, the language question began shortly after the beginning of the country’s existence in 1830, due to the Francization and the subsequent Flemish movement against this development. The linguistic conflict even led to the federalisation of Belgium: in 1963, an official language border was established between the Dutch- speaking northern region Flanders and the French-speaking southern part Wallonia. In the 1950s and 1960s, phenomena like language contact, language dominance and language conflict became more and more explored by linguists. Uriel Weinreich’s Languages in contact (1953) formed the fundamental basis for studies of multilingual communities. Einar Haugen introduced his ideas on language planning and the ecology of language in Language conflict and language planning: the case of modern Norwegian (1966). In the 1980s sociologists, political scientists (e.g. McRae) and linguists (e.g. Peter Nelde) followed their example. According to Nelde, a language often develops into a symbol of social conflict in minority settings, even when it is not the direct cause of the conflict. In this way, language conflicts could be characterised as redirected social conflicts which sometimes appear as open conflicts, but in other cases are considered as subcutaneous conflicts that could evolve into manifest conflicts.4 The above mentioned scholars examined how language conflicts can be the result of political, economic or socio-cultural power structures. However, none of the works I consulted (except for perhaps Nelde, although he focuses on ‘redirected social conflict’) provides one clear definition of a language conflict. McRae uses the term ‘social tension’ but does not define it.5 In this thesis, I perceive the term ‘linguistic conflict’ as a social or political conflict about the language(s) that should be used in a particular country or situation. A language conflict could influence a people’s culture, identity and economic prospects, and could have consequences for the geopolitical situation of a country. In the third and last chapter, special attention will be given to the autonoumous region of Transnistria, which has a peculiar status within the Republic of Moldova. The discrimination of Romanian-language schools in this region will be elaborately discussed.

In order to write this thesis, I made use of a variety of sources. In the first place, several works and articles, of which those by Matthew H. Ciscel, Charles King and Wim van Meurs were the most important, provided the basic background of the current Moldovan situation. These scholars have devoted years to their detailed works about language and identity in Moldova. In my thesis, I attempt to build further upon these works: Van Meurs’ The Bessarabian Question in Communist Historiography was published in 1994 and focuses on nationalist and communist politics during Soviet times; The Moldovans by King appeared in 1999, exposes the problems of identity politics and cultural change that the country has endured; and Ciscel’s cross-discipline The language of the Moldovans (2007) explores who the Moldovans are from the perspective of debates about the languages spoken by this people. In comparison to what has already been written about this topic,

3 Kenneth D. Mc Rae, Conflict and Compromise in Multilingual Societies: Belgium, 1986. 4 Peter H. Nelde, Sprachkontakt und Sprachkonflikt – Languages in contact and conflict – Langues en contact et en conflit – Taalcontact en taalconflict (1980). 5 McRae, 2. 6 my own work proposes to make a complete and up-to-date outline of the current Moldovan situation. In addition, I included a separate chapter about Transnistria containing relevant recent developments in the linguistic area. In order to write this updated work about language and identity in Moldova, looking through Moldovan newspaper websites every day for all kinds of linguistic and political news was inevitable. Besides, I had the chance to speak with a couple of specialized experts about the sociolinguistic situation in Moldova nowadays, e.g. Irina Condrea, sociolinguist at the Moldovan State University in Chişinău. Lastly, I spread a small survey about language and identity among inhabitants of Moldova through social media websites Facebook and VKontakte, to get a global impression of their opinions. All these sources were very helpful in creating a complete image of the Moldovan linguistic situation and to write the conclusion.

7

CHAPTER 1 – Language and identity policies in Moldova’s recent history

Language plays an important role in uniting or dividing ethnic groups and empires. The Moldovan language has played a major role in Moldova as an identity marker. The best example of the uncertainty about the Moldovan identity is the lack of agreement even about the name of the state language, which is referred to as ‘Romanian’ or ‘Moldovan’. The state language also lacks the status and full acceptance as the only official language of Moldova. This is an important factor behind the Moldovan linguistic divide. Furthermore, Russian, dominant during the Soviet era, enjoys a continuing prestige. However, its speakers do feel threatened by the loss of the official status in 1989. The majority of the Moldovan population is confused and disappointed trying to identify themselves with a controversial ‘Moldovan’ identity.6 The Moldovan national identity crisis is partially based on an uncertain link to a larger neighbour, which destabilizes the country: Moldova is historically positioned between Romania and Russia, which have both laid claims on the country’s territory. Besides external actors, internally there are three directions in which the Moldovan political elites traditionally move. The ultimate goal of the pan-Romanianists is the reunification of Moldova with Romania on a cultural level, not necessarily politically. The pro-Russianists promote the Russian language and culture and reject closer ties to Romania, because these threaten the use of the Russian language. The supporters of Moldovanism are more radical and promote a nationalistic ideology, in which the term ‘Romanian’ is completely rejected. They wish to build up an independent Moldovan republic within the Commonwealth of Independent States.7 This chapter begins with a short overview of Moldova’s history before 1940, in order to understand the origins and evolution of Moldovan identity. Afterwards, the making of the Moldovan identity by the Soviet policy of nation-building since 1940 will be discussed. Jenkins’s theoretical concepts of similarity versus difference and asymmetrical power relations are important in this respect. Furthermore, the independent period after 1991 is analysed. At the end of this chapter, I will discuss Ciscel’s extensive study of the Moldovan identity and my own survey questions about language and identity in Moldova.

1.1 Brief history of Moldova before 1940

From 1359 onwards, the first independent Moldovan kingdom appeared under Bogdan I (The Founder) between the Nistru River and the Danube Delta. During the fifteenth century, a modest golden age, the kingdom flourished. However, in 1513 the Ottoman Turks overran the kingdom, which led to two centuries of subjugation as a semi-independent vassal state. This principality remains the source of the Moldovan identity ideology as being separate from the modern Romanian one. Occasional insurrections against the Ottomans, who continued to occupy the region until the 18th century, maintained and increased the local identity in this way.8

6 Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the politics of culture (1999), 2. 7 King, ‘Moldovan identity and the politics of Pan-Romanianism’ (1994), 345-346. 8 King, The Moldovans (1999), 16-18. 8

1.1.1 Bessarabia (1812-1917)

After decades of being alternately under Ottoman and Russian control, Moldova was divided into two parts in 1812: the Prut River formed the border between these. Until 1917, the eastern half was annexed by the Russian Empire and renamed Bessarabia.9 The Russian integration was decisive in the linguistic and national identity of the region. After 1829 the czar increasingly established a policy of Russification in Bessarabia: Russians were forced to migrate there, a separate Moldovan Orthodox church was established and the education was russified. The province was isolated from the other half of historical Moldova and also quite isolated from the Russian capital Saint-Petersburg.10 According to the Russian census of 1897, Bessarabia had become an ethnically and linguistically diverse province, e.g. of the two million people living in the region, only about 50% were ethnically Moldovan, 20% were Ukrainian, 12% Jewish, 8% Russian and there were significant numbers of Bulgarians, Germans and Gagauz. The large majority of the population was still illiterate and rural, with only 15% urbanization. Only 14% of the urban population was ethnically Moldovan: the cities were largely Jewish and Russian, while in the countryside mainly Moldovans and Ukrainians lived. There is a similarity of ethnicity counts and language counts in the census, so most ethnic groups kept their ethnic languages.11 After the Russian Revolution of 1905, Romanian nationalists from the kingdom immigrated to Bessarabia and assisted in the founding of Romanian language newspapers and schools. According to these nationalists, the Moldovans of Bessarabia still needed to be convinced about the new Romanian identity.

1.1.2 Greater Romania and the MASSR (1917-1940)

The National Council of the Moldovan Democratic Republic was established by the Bessarabians after the Russian Revolution of 1917. However, only one year later, Romania and Bessarabia were unified (unirea, ‘unification’). As a consequence eastern Bessarabia was intensely Romanianised during the Interbellum. The young Soviet Union refused to recognize the newly formed Greater Romania. In 1924 the USSR established the Moldovan Autonoumous Socialist Soviet Republic (MASSR) on Ukrainian territory, left of the eastern border of Bessarabia. The MASSR roughly contained the current Transnistrian region and an adjacent area around the city of Balta, which is in Ukraine nowadays. The republic became the staging The Moldavian Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic, east of Bessarabia and the Nistru (Source: Wikipedia)

9 The region was named ‘Bessarabia’ after the Wallachian Basarab dynasty who allegedly ruled over the southern part of the Budzhak-region in the 14th century. 10 King, The Moldovans,19, 23, 35. 11 Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Распределение населения по родному языку и регионам (First General Russian Empire Census of 1897. Population breakdown by mother tongue and regions): http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php 9 ground for the distribution of Soviet propaganda into Romanian Bessarabia and had to provide a political buffer against future Romanian influence among the Moldovans.12 Throughout the Interbellum, the MASSR became the site of the early Soviet’s intensive cultural and indigenization programs, including the development of a separate Moldovan history and language. The Soviet nation-builders embraced the concepts of language-building (языковое cтроительство, ‘yazykovoe stroitel’stvo’): although the area of the MASSR was ethnically Ukrainian for the major part, the Moldovan minority became the focus of intensive language planning. Under Stalin, a standardized, separate Moldovan language was developed which was based on the variety of the Romanian language spoken by Moldovan peasants in the MASSR. It had to be written in the Cyrillic script. However, this standard language failed to gain support and was replaced by a new Moldovan in 1932, which was closer to standard Romanian and was even written in the Latin alphabet. In 1938 Soviet policy reverted to the Cyrillic based version of Moldovan.13 The Soviet authorities in the MASSR were winning the war over the identity of the Bessarabians through propaganda related to minority rights and economic reforms. The irredentism of the Soviets continued to influence the attitudes of even the Romanians in Bessarabia, with regard to the option of a Romanian identity. According to the 1939 Soviet census, the MASSR was only 28.5% Moldovans. Ukrainians made up 50%, Russians 10% and Jews 6%. Since the population was 80% rural, with little access to power or education, ethnic groups tended to maintain their separate languages. The capital city of Tiraspol was, like the cities of Bessarabia, primarily home to Russians and Jews. The majority of Bessarabian Romanians also lived in rural areas: as such, Bessarabia was demographically more similar to the MASSR than to the highly urbanized and relatively more ethnically homogenous Romanian nation.14 Due to the unification, the indigenous people of Bessarabia had the chance to either adopt the previously inaccessible Romanian identity or to reinforce their historical Moldovan character through the Soviet propaganda in the MASSR.15 From the East, the Soviets were developing a Soviet-based Moldovan identity and a standard language based on the regional dialect in Transnistria. From the west, the Romanian government was trying to convince rural eastern Moldovans to adopt a Romanian identity and the Bucharest-based standard of the language. For the majority of the Bessarabian population, however, the Romanianization reforms lacked: in subjects other than Romanian language and history, education remained under-funded. Besides, the Romanian government had an affable attitude towards the ‘simple’ Moldovans, who were regarded as sympathising with Bolshevism. In sum, the Bessarabian population did not embrace the Romanian identity and national awareness. The two decades of the Kingdom of Greater Romania, however, formed the base of the competing notions of national identity in Moldova today, including competing notions of the standard language.16

12 King, ‘The ambivalence of authenticity, or how the Moldovan language was made’ (1999), 124. 13 Wim van Meurs, The Bessarabian Question in Communist Historiography (1994), 128-131. 14 Ciscel, The language of the Moldovans, 37-39. 15 Van Meurs, 76. 16 Ibidem; Irina Livezeanu, Cultural politics in Greater Romania (1995). 10

1.2 From an imposed identity to an identity crisis

Thus, before 1940 the nationality and identity of the Moldovans was already a matter of contention. The Interbellum decades form the base for the competing notions of national identity in present Moldova. The Second World War ended these rivalling approaches. In 1940, together with Northern Bukovina, Bessarabia was incorporated into the Soviet Union.

1.2.1 The Soviet Era (1940-1991)

At the end of the Second World War, Eastern Moldova became part of the Soviet Union. In order to integrate the most ethnically homogenous Moldovan parts of Bessarabia and the MASSR into one Soviet republic, the central part of eastern Moldova was united with the western part of the MASSR (roughly equivalent to present-day Transnistria) to form the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (MSSR). Using census data from 1939, Stalin handed much of the MASSR, which had a sizeable Ukrainian population, over to Ukraine, leaving Moldova landlocked and tied to a thin strip of Transnistrian territory that never had been part of either Romania or historical Moldova. The result was a somewhat more ethnically homogenous population, with 2/3 rather than a half of the people claiming an ethnic Moldovan identity in 1959.17 To create this new Moldovan Republic, a Moldovan identity which separated Moldova and Romania was of essential importance, in order to serve the Soviet political goals.18 Since the national languages of the Soviet republics were seen as the most important ethnic markers and were officially recognised in the Soviet Union, the Moldovan language and identity were set up according to the Soviet identity-building, which had already been put into practice in the MASSR in the 1920s and 1930s, together with language- and culture-building programmes. In order to create a separate Moldovan nation and minimize influences from the West, the authorities took several steps to underline the difference between Moldovans and Romanians: a separate Moldovan language (even though it was the same Romanian as in Romania), identity and history were promoted. The use of the term ‘Romanian’ was completely prohibited and was permanently changed to ‘Moldovan’ together with the imposition of the Cyrillic alphabet over the Romanian language and the addition of a large amount of Russian borrowings. The separation between Moldova and Romania was further intentionally enhanced by the emphasis on Russian and Ukrainian rather than Moldovan/Romanian as the administration languages and a strict separation of political and cultural ties between both countries.19 In sum, the authorities presented a false ethno-linguistic divide between Romanians and Moldovans.20 Although local languages like Moldovan were officially promoted in policy, in practice, Russian was much more important than the indigenous languages. Russian was the prestigious language of the revolutionaries, the urban elite and the Soviet man. Russian was the only obligatory subject in all schools and the only language of higher education, and the dominant language in the cities and the media. Members of smaller minorities like the Bulgarians and Gagauz and members of mixed families naturally moved towards Russian. Moldovan, on the other hand,

17 Ciscel, The language of the Moldovans, 39-41 18 Simionov, 1. 19 King, ‘The ambivalence of authenticity’, 119-120. 20 Simionov, 2. 11 was only good enough in the villages and at home. Moldovan television was broadcasted for just four hours a day. Only a third of the books and journals published in Soviet Moldova were in the Moldovan language. In 1975, the circulation of Russian language newspapers even exceeded the spread of Moldovan papers.21 The result was a mass bilingualism among the ethnic Romanian- speaking majority.22 The pan-Romanian supporters, who were called the enemies of the people because of their ‘bourgeois nationalism’, were suppressed. The separate Moldovan identity and acceptance of Russian dominance were intensified by memories of Romanian corruption and mismanagement before and during the Second World War. The comparatively worse economic lot of the Moldovans’ cousins across the border in Communist Romania was heavily underlined as well.23 So in sum, during the Soviet occupation, Moldovans were isolated from their former Romanian origin identity. Several scholars have discussed the concept of nation-building. According to philosopher Norman Wayne, nation-building is the process of creating, spreading or shaping a national identity by using the power of the state.24 The Soviet project of nation-building has shaped the Moldovan identity, and especially the language, which was regarded Romanian before the Soviet era. For the nation-builders, language was of great importance in strengthening and defining a Moldovan nation: language represents the politically most legitimate means to define groups in Europe. The Moldovan language had to be different from Romanian, particularly considering the activity of the pan-Romanian intellectuality groups that promoted cultural and political ties to the ‘motherland’ Romania.25 Therefore, language is seen as a unifying force and, besides history and culture, an important identity marker. For many European countries, the feature ‘distinct language’ is essential for claiming nationhood. Nations are the primary indicators of a collective identity. The lack of the ‘language’ feature would make the legitimacy of a nation doubtful. Groups that are distinguished only on the basis of a distinct language are often treated as ‘real’ ethnic groups.26 Furthermore, anthropologist Benedict Anderson states that a nation represents an imagined political community. Since identities are also ‘imagined’, they are the product of conscious nation-building by the state. Therefore, linguists can create national and standardised languages out of miscellaneous speech patterns of particular groups, ethnographers formalise the limits of membership in an ethnic population, historians make national histories and heroes, and state-sponsored educational systems produce all these nationhood accessories to the people.27 Nation-builders create imagined languages, traditions and communities with the aim to make a standard national identity and culture. The Soviet project followed this model in the construction of occupied nations. Several symbols, historical figures or traditions and especially language were used: ‘Moldovan’ was guaranteed a special status. The use of a Cyrillic alphabet was imposed, the use of the name ‘Moldovan language’ was promoted and the use of ‘Romanian’ for the Moldovan language was forbidden. The idea that Moldovans and Romanians, far from being part of

21 King, The Moldovans, 75-76. 22 Vasile Dumbrava, Sprachkonflikt und Sprachbewusstsein in der Republik Moldova (Language conflict and language awareness in the Republic of Moldova, 2004. 23 Ciscel, 15-16. 24 Norman Wayne, Negotiating nationalism: nation-building, federalism, and secession in the multinational state (2006), 26. 25 Simionov, 6. 26 Jan Blommaert, The role of language in European nationalist ideologies (1998), 191-192. 27 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (1991), 224. 12 a single pan-Romanian nation, actually formed two completely separate ethnic groups who spoke different Romance languages. The linguistic criteria were seen as the foundation of a national identity for the Soviet model. As long as the notion of a Moldovan separate language could be kept, the idea of a non-Romanian Moldovan nation remained a possible prospect.28 This anti-Romanian Soviet policy left its trace on the Moldovan identity. Although the Soviet model recognised different nations, the denial of language, culture and political rights was promoted.29 Because the speakers of Russian were privileged, the Soviet oppression resulted not only in the loss of proficiency in local languages, but also in changes in language attitudes. Since the Russian-speaking population in Soviet Moldova were privileged and had access to better jobs, schools and social services, the Romanian speaking population was socially excluded: in this way, this group began to develop a kind of an inferiority complex. Being continuously discriminated for their origins or language use, the young generations studied Russian or identified themselves more with Russia than with their own culture.30 In the 1980s, the Moldovan identity and language awareness became stronger. The inhabitants of the MSSR had been isolated from any contact with their Romanian neighbours for several decades. The Moldovan identity consciousness increased, being in contact with the Russian language, culture and identity. This strengthening of a Moldovan identity was possible within the interplay of both cultures, especially since the Russian one represented the significant other. The groupness awareness of Moldovans had grown. In this context, the Moldovan/Romanian language was the main identity marker. Also, the social exclusion and discrimination that the Romanian population faced during this period is another factor of consolidating groupness.31 Despite the oppression and actions that were taken against the close relations between Romania and Moldova, several events made the success of the Soviet nation building in Moldova dubious before the fall of the Soviet Union. During the 1980s, the European Soviet capitals celebrated the resurgence of their native cultures and identities. Ethnicity and nationalism became central issues in especially the Baltic capitals. Before this decade, many scholars, basing their theories on the Soviet model, stated that nations can be invented and that ethnic groups are of less significance. The course taken by the events in the 1980s and 1990s, however, more and more emphasized a different view.32 At the end of the 1980s, informal organizations were established by Romanian intellectuals in order to fight down the political power of the Communists. After a period of mass demonstrations, organized by the pro-Romanian Popular Front, the Moldovan Supreme Soviet adopted a new legislation on August 31, 1989. These three laws (together called ‘the Language Law’) declared the official language status of Romanian, the return to the Latin script and a Romanian-Moldovan identity of the republic. This day is still an important national holiday in Moldova: Limba Noastra (‘Our Language’). These laws represented the first step of Moldova’s way out of the Soviet Union.33 The Communists, however, only accepted the Latin script. They kept on claiming that Moldovan was distinct from Romanian and stressing the policies of Russian-Moldovan bilingualism. The Popular Front, on the other hand, increasingly pushed for more linguistic reforms and a move

28 King, ‘Moldovan identity and the politics of Pan-Romanianism’, 348-349. 29 Blommaert, 196. 30 Simionov, 6-7. 31 Ibidem. 32 Ben Fowkes, Ethnicity and ethnic conflict in the post-Communist world (2002), VII. 33 King, ‘Moldovan identity and the politics of Pan-Romanianism’, 350. 13 towards Romania. During the first years of the 1990s, linguistic priorities have always been in the background of political conflicts. While the bilingualism policy had many proponents among the older population, the younger intellectual generation was less Soviet and desired to revive the Romanian identity, which had been repressed for over fifty years. Russified minorities like the Gagauz and the Bulgarians and especially the Slavic leaders of Transnistria rejected the developments of Romanianization. Also the Russians and Russian-speaking minorities lost their linguistic prestige after the Language Law. And when the Soviet Union collapsed, they lost their identity as well. Due to these factors, Soviet nostalgia and extreme Russian nationalism were born among the Russian-speaking minorities in Moldova and other new republics. Anti-Romanian, pro- Russian political organisations like Edinstvo soon challenged the Romanian nationalists of the Popular Front. The prominence of these movements in the public discourse of 1990 and 1991 eventually resulted in a brief civil war in 1992. Despite the Language Law, the Republic of Moldova inherited upon independence a linguistic state in which the Russian language of the small, urban minority dominated public, political and economic life. The majority language on the other hand was stigmatized and wrapped in, according to many speakers, a ‘false’ Moldovan identity.34

1.2.2 Independent Moldova (from 1991)

The huge shifts in status of competing national and linguistic identities (which had begun long before 1991) were one of the causes of the total collapse of the USSR, besides the stagnating economy, decentralization and Gorbachev’s policies of perestroika and glasnost. The independent Republic of Moldova was established. In the Soviet Union, nationality was a unitary fact of record in one’s passport, although the term was more used to represent ethnicity than citizenship. With independence, the character of Moldova changed. This period represents an intense set of events, which are relevant for understanding the Moldovan identity controversy. The breakup of the Soviet Union was in line with the political-territorial structure that already existed: the Union republics became independent states. All former Soviet republics needed to create a post-Soviet state and to harmonize two elements: civic identities, based on citizenship, and ethnic identities, based on culture, religion, language and common ancestry.35 Two stages were important in this process: the creation of an overarching identity for the multiple groups in the state and the enabling of these groups to rediscover their own formerly repressed languages, cultures and religions. It would result in a combination of civic and ethnic identities which had to replace the vacuum left by the fall of the Soviet Union.36 However, this process was not evident: the post-Soviet world barely had a set of civic rudiments that could become essential parts of a new form of statehood. The minorities and elites of the former Soviet states had gotten used to identifying themselves as members of different nations, and in this way they also conceived the state in ethno-cultural instead of civic terms.37 Furthermore, especially in Moldova, the creation of a post-Soviet identity proved to be difficult. In the process of de-

34 Ciscel, 18. 35 Vera Tolz, ‘Forging the nation: national identity and nation-building in post-communist Russia’ (1998), 993. 36 Federica Prina, ‘Linguistic justice, Soviet legacies and post-Soviet Realpolitik’ (2013), 7. 37 Rogers Brubaker, ‘Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account’ (1994), 69. 14

Sovietisation, the peoples of new independent states looked for elements of their pre-Soviet past: in Moldova, the pre-Soviet past was inevitably linked to Romania.38 However, the Soviet downfall and independence of Moldova in 1991 did not lead to harmony, but represented the beginning of an identity crisis for the Moldovan people. Before 1991, the domination of the Russian language was bigger in the Moldovan Socialist Soviet Republic than in most other Soviet States: especially in the Baltic Republics, nationalistic feelings were far more present than in Moldova. The revived nationalism made the Baltic people forcefully claim their national culture and languages. After the Soviet oppression, these people felt deprived of their own language and culture and were anxious, angry and frustrated.39 Contrary to the Baltic States, where the Russian language soon lost its domination, nationalistic movements were less widespread in Moldova shortly after the Soviet collapse. The three main previously mentioned groups, which were already active in the late 1980s, continued to dominate Moldovan politics: the pro-Russia group, the pro-Moldovanism group and the pan-Romanianists. The activities of the pan-Romanian intelligentsia were very important for the first years of the independent Moldovan Republic. This movement was very enthusiastic about a union with the Romanian ‘motherland’ and rejected the existence of a separate Moldovan nation. The pan- Romanianists wanted to adopt the flag, the national anthem and language of their neighbouring country.40 However, these activities marginalized Russian-speakers and stimulated animosity between the two main language groups. Even though the pan-Romanianists were very active in spreading their ideals, the people of Moldova did not seem to be very open to these. The most important reasons for this were the pressures of former occupier Russia and the increasing number of people who identified themselves as ‘Moldovan’: they did not quite feel Romanian and did not want to reunite with their neighbouring country. Also, factors like Romanian mismanagement, economics and large, urban minorities weakened the adoption of the Romanian identity. The Soviet policy of modernizing the historical Moldovan identity turned out to be only partially successful, since it left the Moldovan and Romanian identities apparently irreconcilable strangers upon national independence. Gradually, the situation changed as the ties between Moldova and Romania were intensified, which created the identity crisis: Romanian-speaking Moldovans do not appear to feel secure with their identity, hovering between Moldovanism and Romanism.41 These pan-Romanian sentiments were seen as threatening and radical by minority inhabitants of Moldova and especially of Transnistria, where unification with Romania was feared. Meanwhile, the Russian minority also experienced uncertainty about their identity. Before the perestroika, a person of ethnic Russian origin could easily feel at home in Moldova and even identify himself as Moldovan. Suddenly a minority in Moldova after being the dominant group in the Soviet Union, ethnic Russians have been left to figure out new identity for themselves: as the Romanian Moldovans began to press for independence and greater ethnic differentiation, the ethnic Russians would decide that their Russian character was at danger in the new setting. Eventually, many ethnic Russians would feel exclusion that suddenly many ethnic Russians in Moldova would no longer feel at home and wouldn’t identify themselves as Moldovan.42

38 Prina, 7-8. 39 King, ‘Moldovan identity and the politics of Pan-Romanianism’, 350. 40 King, The Moldovans, 3. 41 Prina, 18-21. 42 Ciscel, 51. 15

The aftermath of the civil war in Transnistria saw the marginalization of the pro-Romanian Popular Front in the first fully democratic elections of 1994 and the reversal of the identity component of the Language Law in the Constitution of Moldova.43 The same year, the state language officially became Moldovan again in the first Moldovan Constitution. The Constitution abandoned the Romanian nationalism of the Popular Front and is often seen as one of the most generous policy concessions for minorities in any European nation-state. The next years, the struggle about national and linguistic identity was less extreme, since the focus was more on national consolidation and economic reform than on these issues. For instance, protests took place in Chişinău in 1995 and 1998, in which students demanded that the Romanian historical and linguistic identity would be politically recognised.44 During the terms of Moldova’s first presidents Mircea Snegur and Petru Lucinschi (1991- 2001), it became common to entirely avoid the identity crisis by calling the official language limba de stat or limba noastra. The Communist Party (the ruling party between 2000 and 2008) practiced different propagandistic means in order to secure that the Moldovan nation was sure of its language and identity. In 2003 for instance, a Moldovan-Romanian dictionary was published by Vasile Stati with the intention to supply evidence that Moldovan is a separate language and should not be mistaken for Romanian. The provocation of Adrian Năstase, the Prime Minister of Romania at that time, was probably the main incentive for creating this dictionary: Năstase stated that he would keep calling Moldova’s language ‘Romanian’ unless he saw a dictionary that proved otherwise. In reality though, this dictionary only confirmed that Moldovan is theoretically the same language as Romanian instead of portraying it as a language in its own right.45 In the 2001 early elections, the revived Communist Party won the majority in parliament and its leader Vladimir Voronin subsequently became president. The communists again proposed laws that would make the Russian language an official state language, alongside Moldovan, which was resisted by the opposition. This announcements led to already strained relations with Romania and again to a conflict over the linguistic identity and the role of Russian in Moldova. The pro- Russian cultural and economic policies of the communist government caused considerable protest from pro-Romanian groups. Several months of mass anti-Communist demonstrations, organised by the Christian Democrats and Romanian nationalists, only stopped when the proposed laws were withdrawn.46 Voronin was re-elected in 2005 and the parliamentary elections in the same year resulted in a second win for the Communists. They continued to maintain their claim on the uniqueness of the Moldovan language and to discourage the use of the term ‘Romanian’.47 Since 2009, the emphasis was put more on the promotion of the state language, usually referred to as ‘Romanian’ instead of ‘Moldovan’. While the Communists tended to refer to the state language as ‘Moldovan’, nationalists and unionists (those who are in favour of unification with Romania) have referred to it as ‘Romanian’. The external pressures from both Russia and Romania increased. This tense situation led to several demonstrations and even ethnic conflicts. The streets of Chişinău were filled with thousands of protestants, mainly students who were against the victory of the governing Communist Party at the country’s general elections. The violence rapidly sparked

43 Ciscel, The language of the Moldovans, 20. 44 Ibid., 17. 45 The Permanent Committee on Geographical Names: ‘Moldovan: an identity but not a language’ (2005), 1. 46 Ciscel, 45. 47 Ahto Lobjakas and V. Vitu,Romania/Moldova: Divided by a common language (2008), Radio Free Europe. 16 and the students bore the national flag of Romania, acclaiming ‘Bessarabia Romanian land’ or ‘Romanian people, Romanian language’.48

1.3 The significant other: identity versus language and power

According to sociologist Jenkins’ theory of similarity versus difference, the Moldovan identity became quite strong during the Soviet occupation.49 This could happen in the context of the interaction between Moldovans and Russians, while Russia was the significant other. Due to the interaction between these ethnic groups, the Moldovan identity became stronger. Moldova did and does not have a unique linguistic identity that can differentiate it from other nation-states (it is the only post-Soviet republic that does not have its own titular language). The Moldovan language played the most decisive double role in distinguishing this difference of culture and identity and was a clear identity and differentiation marker.50 After 1991, Moldova came out of its Soviet isolation and Romania became the significant other. Instead of finding differences, the pro- Romanian Moldovans found similarities with their cousin-neighbours at the other side of the Prut River. As a paradox, the direct and most determining marker of this similarity was the language. However, the inter-ethnic interaction between the Moldovan identity and the identity of the new significant other did not have the same effect as before 1991. Due to the similarity between the Romanian identity, usually seen as the source identity of Moldovans, and the Moldovan one, the well-established Moldovan identity became a mixture and eventually led to frustration among the Moldovans. While language played the role of an identity marker during the Soviet era, it created confusion after 1991 and eventually an identity crisis.51 Another aspect of Jenkins’ theory is the asymmetrical power relations: when a group is continuously offered and induced a certain identity, in the end that group will accept that specific identity as its own. This theory implies the existence of an asymmetry of powers and domination and is perfectly suitable to explain the complex of inferiority that Moldova presents in general, whether in contact with the Russian culture or with the Romanian one. This inferiority complex is one of the important factors that led to the current identity crisis and it mainly concerns the use of the Moldovan/Romanian language. The ‘Moldovan’ language was born in order to offer legitimacy to the newly constructed Moldovan identity. Through interaction with a significant other, the Moldovan identity and cultural awareness acted quite differently, depending on the group it interacted with.52 So, language and identity are inextricably linked to each other. The native language often influences the choice of national identity. Both are based on ideologies that are connected to objective economic needs, attitudes of communities and overlapping distinction labels. The special role of the first language is established in the emotional dependence of young children, which develops into a relatively local independence as the child matures and becomes social in more areas. The identity of the native language is restrained by the ideologies that express peer

48 Prina, 4. 49 Richard Jenkins, Rethinking ethnicity (1997), 168. 50 Simionov, 3. 51 Jenkins, 169. 52 Ibidem. 17 attitudes, but it also varies at the individual level, based on the individual identity choices.53 Particularly noticeable is the role of language in the identities to which the Moldovans have access. Language has played an important role in post-Soviet political debates and in the symbolic priorities of individual Moldovans. At the core of these language issues is the emerging linguistic nationalism among both majority and minority ethnic groups. For example, while making claims of a separate Moldovan linguistic identity, anti-Romanian politicians generally use a literary, high- prestige variety of Romanian instead of the low-prestige, rural version of the language. This mixed message has accompanied the emergence of an identity crisis among the indigenous Moldovan population.54 Language also plays a central symbolic role in the determination of social identity and in processes of multilingual use and acquisition. For any individual or group, the native language is the inevitable initial state of every linguistic practice. Categories of social identity are complex and dynamic: ethno-national identities not necessarily correspond to language identities. Social identity is related to groups and effects membership choices and social practices in a dynamic way, whether consciously or not. Individuals, on the other hand, can have multiple memberships, based on the social contexts in which they exist: ethnic, political, professional, and familial. The emergence of a strong Moldovan identity based on multi-ethnicity and multilingualism has been hindered by economic crises and the competition between political elites. Both have furthered the continuation of conflicts in national identity through simplistic nationalism.55 A question that often recurs is whether individual politicians have a true desire to resolve language divisions, or if they use language issues for their political aims. Several conflicting factors may control the discourse around language. For some, this discourse is linked to feelings of justice and respect. For others, politics also come into the comparison. There are specific challenges which are posed by differing perceptions and political interests. Due to the poor economic conditions, less resource is available to implement language policies, including the teaching of the state language. The identity labels complicate the development of a unitary, effective language policy. Administrative measures with regard to language and identity are unlikely to succeed, unless there is a careful consideration of the socio-political context, including on matters which relate to identity and cultural connections.56 According to sociolinguist Matthew Ciscel, the current identity crisis in Moldova is the result of two principal forms of opportunism. The first is practiced by the elites who lead the competing identity groups for national importance and control. The appeal to most Moldovans for a national identity based on language and culture is used by elites, who install themselves as experts on the authenticity of the identity groups they represent. In this way, the utilization of language and culture by elites has made the political move with regard to national identity possible. The leaders of the nationalist movement consciously use emotion and ideologies of Romanian national pride to preach for their political agenda. The Communists rely on the ideology of a separate Moldovan language and culture, an identity closely bound up in a need for the assumedly superior Russian identity as a protector and mentor. In this way, elites take advantage of the linguistic and cultural uncertainty of the majority population. The moderate poor Moldovan will adopt whichever identity

53 Ciscel, 59. 54 Ibid., 48, 142. 55 Ibid., 8, 57. 56 Prina, 19. 18 is most advantageous at any given moment. The Romanian-Russian bilingualism, which is common among ethnic Romanians in Moldova, facilitates these shifts.57

1.4 Moldovans about their language and identity

1.4.1 Ciscel’s study

Between 1999 and 2003, Matthew Ciscel has done extensive research about the attitudes of the Moldovan population toward language and identity in their country. Besides spreading questionnaires, Ciscel made use of the matched guise technique, a method widely used by sociolinguists to investigate language attitudes. This method involves experimental candidates listening to apparently different speakers who represent guises in two or more languages and evaluating those speakers for impressions or their personality characteristics. Without the knowledge of the informant (the listener of guises), the speaker is actually a bilingual or polyglot and the reactions provoked by each of his/her linguistic guises are compared as actual speech of an individual, and not as individual’s guises.58 The results of Ciscel’s research suggest a complex interaction among attitudes, identities and linguistic practices. About two-thirds of the questionnaire respondents chose the Moldovan identity. It appeared that most of the people who filled out Moldovan as their native tongue, also said to have the Moldovan identity. On the other hand, those who chose a Moldovan national identity often had the Russian language as native tongue. This reflects the role of Russian as the primary language of inter-ethnic communication. Furthermore, the results of Ciscel’s survey indicate a large correlation between the native language identity group and broader social identity group options. A second data pattern reveals the connection between ethno-linguistic vitality, as represented by each language’s status in the social hierarchy, and the relative economic status of the language’s speakers.59 Ciscel’s research demonstrates the slowness in matters related to linguistic and cultural identity and the continuous, destabilizing existence of two dominant cultures on the European continent: the West, represented by the European Union, and the East, represented by Russia. In Moldova, this split is partly caused by the persisting role of outside forces in the country. Furthermore, the simple term ‘Moldovan’ is not suitable enough to represent the multiple and interrelated identities that contribute to the development of a more all-embracing social identity association. An individual could see himself as Moldovan, but also as a Russian-speaking Moldovan of Gagauz ethnic origin: self-reported national identity categories do not necessarily reflect the complexity of multiple social identity categories that are available to the individual.60 From his data, Ciscel observed that individual actors have a great deal of freedom to oppose or reproduce social identity categories that are created by elites. The role of both the native tongue and complex social identity categories in the second language practices were considerable. Individual second language practices both challenge and reproduce important social identity

57 Ciscel, 73. 58 Anatol Stefanowitsch: ‘The matched guise technique: Empirical methods in linguistics’, Social Perspectives, 2005. 59 Ciscel, 85. 60 Ibid., 87. 19 categories.61 Although language identity is ultimately a political issue, the choice of a Moldovan identity makes little sense linguistically and provides little advantage as regards status in the face of standard Russian. The only apparent advantage in choosing a Moldovan identity lies in the political calls for reunification with Romania, which is extremely unlikely at this point, no matter what the state language is called.62

1.4.2 Surveys

What do Moldovans themselves think about language and identity in their country? In order to answer this question, I spread a survey through social media websites Facebook and VKontakte among Moldovans. Since only 25 persons answered these questions, it is not quite representative in quantitative terms, but gives a global idea of the different opinions Moldovans have about language and identity questions. The survey consisted of 20 questions: four questions were about the personalia of the respondents, twelve were about language and three were about identity. 16 male and 9 female persons between the ages of 18 and 64 filled out the questionnaire: 6 persons are between the ages of 18-24, 13 persons between 25-44 and 6 between 45-64. 12 out of 25 live in Chişinău, 3 in Bălţi, 1 in Romania, 1 in Taraclia, 1 in Tiraspol and 1 in Russia; 5 respondents filled out only ‘Moldova’. 16 respondents have the Moldovan nationality, 3 Russian, 2 Romanian, 2 Gagauz, 1 ‘Jewish’ and 1 Estonian. The respondents have different professions, e.g. manager, jurist, photographer, teacher, student and accountant. With this small amount of respondents, it is impossible to have relevant and reliable statistics. Besides, I was not able to make any remarkable age/residence/profession-related conclusions. Because of this, I only used the results of this survey as a minor addition to this thesis, but did not base the entire conclusion on it. For the details of the survey, see Attachment I- III.

Language

12 respondents have Russian as native language, 8 Moldovan, 3 Romanian and 1 Gagauz. 1 respondent has both Romanian and Russian as native tongues. 15 out of 25 respondents claim to speak 2 or more languages fluently. 12 respondents speak Russian at home, 3 speak Romanian, 2 speak Moldovan, 1 Gagauz and 7 speak both Russian and Romanian/Moldovan. 13 respondents declare to speak in Russian ánd Romanian/Moldovan in a public situation, 8 only in Russian and 3 only in Moldovan; 1 respondent declares to always speak in the language of his collocutor. 15 respondents state that Moldovan should be the official language of the country, while 6 say it should be Romanian; 1 person declares that both Moldovan and Romanian should be official, while 1 person says that Moldovan and Russian should be official languages. 1 respondent states that only Russian should be the state language, while another says that the state language mentioned in the Constitution should be the only official language.

61 Ciscel, 143. 62 Ibid., 20. 20

Most of the respondents (18 out of 25, from different ages and with different professions and nationalities) agree that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova, but not all of them (8 out of 18) feel that it affects their everyday life. Some mention that it is only a political, ‘artificial’ question.

Some quotes of respondents about how the linguistic situation influences their lives:

“Civil servants sometimes ignore the complaints of citizens in the non-state language”. Moldovan pedagogue (61), Chişinău, native tongue: Russian.

“Often I don’t understand what I have to sign: documents are only in Moldovan.” Jewish photographer (59), Chişinău, native tongue: Russian.

“It does not influence my life. I try not to fixate on nonsense like this (i.e. linguistic problems).” Moldovan surgeon (25), Chişinău, native tongue: Moldovan.

“It really influences my life, it is a problem to find a job. Russian-speaking students can’t find jobs.” Moldovan jurist (26), Bălţi, native tongue: Russian.

“Russians living in Moldova do not learn the state language on principle.” Romanian administrator (38), Chişinău, native tongue: Romanian.

Identity

Besides questions about language, I incorporated four questions about identity in the survey.

Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’, the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have?

19 out of 25 respondents consider themselves to be Moldovan, 4 declare a Russian and 2 a Romanian identity. 9 of these 19 self-declared Moldovans have Romanian/Moldovan as their native tongue, and 9 have Russian as their first language. 1 respondent chooses Gagauz as native tongue and Moldovan as identity. 4 have Russian as both native tongue and identity and 2 choose Romanian as native language and identity. Some respondents say that they have the Moldovan identity because they were born or have been living their whole lives in Moldova:

“All inhabitants of Moldova are Moldovans, independent of nationality.” Russian manager (27), Chişinău, native tongue: Russian.

Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’?

17 of 22 (3 persons did not fill out this question) answer ‘yes’ to this question and believe that the Moldovan identity exists. 3 answer ‘no’, 2 are not sure. Some state that there are obvious ties with Romania, with which a part of history is shared.

21

“Despite the fact that we are related to the Romanian branches, I believe that there is a Moldovan identity.” Moldovan jurist (26), Bălţi, native tongue: Russian.

In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Russia and the Russian people?

7 out of 25 respondents with Russian as first language answer ‘yes’ to this question: they feel connected to Russia. 3 of the Romanian/Moldovan native speakers feel connected to Romania. 8 respondents do not feel connected to either Romania or Russia, despite the shared language. 7 persons answer that they feel a connection to Moldova.

“My native tongue is Russian and there is a natural bond with Russia and Russian-speakers, but I consider Moldova my motherland.” Moldovan manager (27), Chişinău, native tongue: Russian.

“I speak Russian as a first language but I don’t feel connected to Russia. I am a patriot of my motherland Moldova, independent of which language they speak there!” Moldovan jurist (26), Bălţi, native tongue: Russian.

“I feel connected to Moldova. I love my country and my people; I love all people who are good and friendly.” Moldovan jurist (53), place of residence unknown, native tongue: Moldovan.

“Yes, I am Russian and consider the inhabitants of Russia as my brothers”. Russian engineer (28), Tiraspol, native tongue: Russian.

“I think that we should live with Russia like brother people. With Romania, something like that is not possible. We Moldovans are historically part of the Russian world.” Moldovan jurist (30), Bălţi, native tongue: Russian.

“I speak Romanian and of course our relatives live in Romania.” Romanian administrator (38), Chişinău, native tongue: Romanian.

“I do not feel a connection to any state or anyone.” Moldovan surgeon (25), Chişinău, native tongue: Moldovan.

Most Moldovans choose the Moldovan identity, despite not speaking the state language as a native tongue. The majority of the respondents believe that there is a Moldovan identity without any doubt. Despite choosing the Moldovan identity, some respondents feel connected to Russia or Romania, although the majority only feels connection to their motherland Moldova, or does not feel a connection to any country at all.

22

CHAPTER 2 – Present Moldova: demography, language, policies and problems

In short, its history has left the Republic of Moldova divided and full of different ethnicities. Although most inhabitants consider themselves Moldovan, there are considerable ethnic minorities of Ukrainians, Russians, Bulgarians and Gagauzians, who all have their own languages. Furthermore, there are two autonomous regions which declared themselves independent two decades ago: Transnistria and Gagauzia.

2.1 Demography and language statistics

2.1.1 Demography

According to the most recent census of 2004, the population of the Republic of Moldova (including the two autonomous regions) shrank from 4.3 million in 1989 to just over 3.9 million in 2004.63 Due to low birth-rates and post-Soviet emigration the population had decreased by almost half a million. Besides, many Moldovans, especially youth, have left the country in search of work and a better life. Over 8% of its population is temporarily abroad working in Russia, Italy, Spain, and several other countries. Transnistria reported 6.5% of its population working abroad. These numbers are believed to be quite conservative, taking into account reports about emigrants who illegally travel abroad but officially remain present in their town or village.64 The Republic of Moldova with autonomous regions Transnistria and Gagauzia (Source: Springtime of Nations) The Moldovan population (including Transnistria – see Table 1) is 69.6% Moldovan, 11.2% Ukrainian, 9.4% Russian, 3.8% Gagauz, 1.9% Romanian, 0.3% Roma and 1.7% other ethnicities. In Moldova (excluding Transnistria – see Table 2), 75.8% of the population self-identified as Moldovan, 8.4% as Ukrainian, 5.9% as Russian, 4.3% as Gagauz, 2.2 % as Romanian, 1.9% as Bulgarian, and 1.3% as representatives of other ethnic groups.65

63 National Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Moldova - Census 2004: www.statistica.md 64 Matthew H. Ciscel, ‘Reform and relapse in bilingual policy in Moldova’ (2010), 17. 65 Census 2004. 23

Table 1: Census Moldova (including Transnistria), Table 2: Census Moldova (excluding Transnistria), 2004 2004

Moldova Number Percentage Moldova Number Percentage Moldovans 2,742,231 69.6% Moldovans 2,564,849 75.8% Ukrainians 442,475 11.2% Ukrainians 282,406 8.4% Russians 369,896 9.4% Russians 201,218 5.9% Gagauz 151,596 3.8% Gagauz 147,500 4.3%

Bulgarians 79,520 2.0% Romanians 73.276 2.2% Romanians 73,529 1.9% Bulgarians 65,662 1.9% Roma 12,778 0.3% Roma 12,271 0.4% Other 66,654 1.7% Other 36,148 1.1% TOTAL 3,938,679 100% TOTAL 3,383,332 100%

Transnistria (capital: Tiraspol), officially named the Pridnestrovian Moldovan Republic (PMR), declared itself independent in 1992 after a short civil war. This independence is not internationally recognized by any official country. According to the census of 2004, 555,347 people lived in Transnistria. Approximately 30% of the population is ethnic Russian.66 In chapter 3, the Transnistrian region will be described in more detail.

Table 3: Census Transnistria, 2004

Transnistria Percentage Moldovans 31.9% Russians 30.3%

Ukrainians 28.8% Bulgarians 2.0% Poles 2.0% Gagauz 1.5% Jews 1.3%

Byelorussians 1.0% Germans 0.6% Other 0.5% TOTAL 100%

Also Gagauzia (formally named the Autonomous Territorial Unit of Gagauzia or Gagauz Yeri) used the unrest in the beginning of the nineties to declare its independence. In 1994, the region obtained an autonomous status and Comrat was appointed as capital. The autonomy of the region is guaranteed by the Moldovan constitution and regulated by the 1994 Gagauz Autonomy Act. In case Moldova decides to unite with neighbouring Romania, Gagauzia would have the right of self- determination. The Gagauz people are an ethnic Turkish group and their Gagauz language is strongly related to modern Turkish. The Gagauz are not Islamic, but Moldovan-Orthodox, which is covered by the Patriarchate of Moscow.

The ethnic composition of Gagauzia67:

66 Census Transnistria (2004): http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol37-09-05.htm 67 Census 2004. 24

Table 4: Census Gagauzia, 2004

Gagauzia Percentage Gagauz 82.1%

Bulgarians 5.1%

Moldovans 4.8%

Russians 3.8%

Ukrainians 3.2%

Other 0.9% TOTAL 100%

2.1.2 Language

According to the Constitution, Moldovan is the official language of Moldova. The official status of ‘Moldovan’ as a language is disputed: most linguists agree that the Moldovan language is theoretically the same as the Romanian language. One might call Moldovan a dialect of Romanian. The standardized cultivated language is even identical with the Romanian one. Besides being a national holiday, Limba noastră is also the title of the Moldovan national anthem since 1994, which calls for the people to revive the usage of their native language. According to the census of 2004, 16% of the citizens of Moldova, and not only Slavic and Turkic, but also ethnic Moldovans, uses Russian in everyday life, 4% uses Ukrainian, 3% Gagauz and 1% Bulgarian. It can be concluded from these figures that those who primarily use ‘Moldovan’ coincide with the percentage of the population that self-identify as Moldovan or Romanian. Also, the national minorities (24% of the population, excluding Transnistria) mostly use Russian as the main communication language. The other ethnic minorities use Ukrainian, Gagauz and Bulgarian, although they are likely to use Russian for inter-ethnic communication. In the territory of the central government (excluding Transnistria), the 2004 census included data on the self-reported native language and language of everyday use68:

Table 5: Percentage of native and everyday speakers of languages in Moldova, census 2004 (excluding Transnistria)

Language Native Everyday use These data provide us a useful idea of the Moldovan/Romanian 76.5% 75.0% degree to which the country’s main Moldovan 60.0% 59.0% languages Romanian and Russian are spoken Romanian 16.5% 16.0% by its inhabitants. The great majority of the Russian 11.0% 16.0% population has Romanian as its native Ukrainian 5.5% 4.0% tongue. Russian is relatively spoken more in everyday life and is more wide-spread among Gagauz 4.0% 3.0% the minorities. Bulgarian 1.5% 1.0%

Compared to Soviet times, the language situation has changed a lot. According to the 1989 Soviet census, the Romanian language was spoken by 62% as a native language and 3.9% as a second language. Russian was spoken by 23.2% as a native language and 44.6% as a second language.69

68 Census 2004. 69 Ciscel, The language of the Moldovans, 4. 25

Almost 66% of the population claimed some proficiency in Romanian, while 68% claimed proficiency in Russian: about two-thirds of this was as a second language.70 Furthermore, these data reveal that in 2004 the label ‘Moldovan’ for the majority language still seemed to have more support compared to ‘Romanian’. One has to take into account though that there is a notable urban-rural split in this tendency. According to the 2004 census, of the two million self-reported native speakers of ‘Moldovan’, 75% were rural, while 55% of the native speakers of ‘Romanian’ were urban.71 This split is similar for the reported languages of everyday use. While Romanian is spoken more in villages, the use of Russian is more widespread in the cities. Besides, all native languages, except Russian, contribute to the number of every day-use speakers of Russian: Russian gains 5% as a daily language over its use as a native language. This reflects the Soviet-era dominance and post-Soviet prestige of Russian. Unfortunately, the 2004 census data did not capture the degree of bilingual proficiency among the population. There are also no data available that accurately capture the degree to which Russian is still learned and used in public contexts. Although my own observations shouldn’t be considered academically objective, the results from the small survey I spread among Moldovans and statements by experts on this topic do point out that Russian maintains a strong dominance and has a much larger role in Moldova than the statistics on ethnicity and language of everyday use would suggest. The data from the most recent censuses therefore provide a general overview of the linguistic character and background of the country. In Chişinău, the country’s capital and biggest city (667.000 inhabitants72), the Romanian language is dominant, but the Russian language is heard and used very frequently. Most shop and restaurants owners duplicate their inscriptions in Russian, and Russian-language menus are available in the majority of them.73 Moldova-expert Matthew H. Ciscel mentions in his article ‘Reform and relapse in bilingual policy in Moldova’ that the ethnographic research that he carried out in Moldova since 1999 sustains the image of deadlocked competition between majority Romanian and minority Russian. In fact, the sentiments of many educated and urbanised Moldovans is that these statistics overstate the improvements in the status of the majority language and underrepresent the prestige and dominance of the Russian language and Russian language speakers in Moldova.74 Unfortunately, the 2004 census in Transnistria reported no data on languages, but it should not be doubted that the Russian proficiency is much more widespread in the breakaway republic than in Moldova as a whole. Russian is an official language in the Pridnestrovian Moldovan Republic, together with Moldovan and Ukrainian. Also in Gagauzia, all names of cities and villages are written in Russian, which is the effect of the Russification policy during Soviet times. Since 1999 Gagauz, together with Russian and Romanian, has been designated an official language in the region, but activists say that the status has failed to stimulate the use of the Gagauz language outside family settings. Local officials are unprepared to use the language in public settings since they are not sufficiently fluent: while 90 percent of deputies in the regional assembly are ethnic

70 Ciscel, ‘Reform and relapse’, 18. 71 Census 2004. 72 Ibidem. 73 Pravda: The Russian language under threat in Moldova, (02-08-2013): http://english.pravda.ru/world/ussr/02-08-2013/125305-russian_moldova-0/ 74 Ciscel, ‘Reform and relapse’, 19-20. 26

Gagauz, only one law was drafted in the local language in the past ten years; the rest of the laws are in Russian.75 The Moldovan State finances media in minority languages. The National Radio of Moldavia broadcasts specialized programs in the following languages of ethnic minorities: Russian, Ukrainian, Gagauzian, Bulgarian, Yiddish and Roma. The Moldovan State Television also broadcasts in the Russian, Gagauzian, Ukrainian, Jewish, Bulgarian, and Romani languages.76

2.2 Language legislation, policies and politics

2.2.1 Language rights and legislation

According to the 1989 Language Law, which is still in force in Moldova today, a citizen should have the option to choose which language to use in dealing with government officials or commercial entities. Officials are obliged to know Russian and Romanian to the degree necessary to fulfil their professional obligations. In case of minorities, the Constitution provides parents with the right to choose the language of instruction for their children.77 The Law also guarantees the use of Gagauzian in Gagauzia. In the localities with Russian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian and other ethnic groups, the language of communication is either the mother tongue of the respective minority or any other acceptable language.78 National minorities have the right to pre-school, primary and secondary education in their native language. Language instruction in Moldova is provided in Russian, Ukrainian, Gagauzian, Bulgarian, Yiddish, German and Polish. Other minorities can learn their national languages optionally. Russian, Ukrainian and Gagauzian are all used as languages of instruction. Mixed schools have parallel classes: Moldavian-Russian, Russian-Ukrainian, and Russian-Bulgarian. Higher education is available in Romanian and Russian. In Comrat, there is a Gagauzian University which offers education in the Gagauzian language.79 The Russian language has a kind of ‘hybrid’ status in Moldova. Article 13 of the Constitution of Moldova of 1994 states:

“Article 13: State language, use of other languages (1) The State language in the Republic of Moldova is the Moldovan language, and its writing is based on the Latin alphabet. (2) The State shall acknowledge and protect the right to the preservation, development and use of the Russian language and other languages spoken within the territory of the State. (3) The State shall facilitate the study of languages of widespread international usage. (4) The manner of functioning of languages within the territory of the Republic of Moldova shall be established by organic law.”80

75 Natalia Ghilascu, ‘Moldova: Caught in a Linguistic Crossfire’ (2013), 4. 76 U.S. English Foundation: Moldova – 3. Language issues (2002-2008): http://www.usefoundation.org/view/426 77 Ibidem. 78 Registrul de Stat: Language law 1989: http://lex.justice.md/ru/312813/ 79 Ibidem. 80 Constitution of the Republic of Moldova, Title I. General Principles: http://www.president.md/titlul1 27

The Moldovan Constitution determines that the State shall acknowledge and protect the development and use of Russian and of other languages spoken in the territory of the country: this explicit mention of Russian as something else than just a minority language recognizes the important role of this language in Moldova, both historically and at present. Furthermore, in Article 3 of the Language Law, Russian is defined ‘the language of inter-ethnic communication’.81 Since independence, Russian has enjoyed a privileged role and has been used alongside Romanian in all areas of public life. Article 13 has received a lot of criticism from all sides.82

2.2.2 The official state language: Moldovan or Romanian?

Thus, the Moldovan Constitution of 1994 states that ‘Moldovan’ is the name of the state language. Besides, according to the 2004 census, a large majority of the indigenous population of Moldova defines its language (and ethnicity) as ‘Moldovan’ and not as Romanian. On December 5, 2013, however, Moldova’s Constitutional Court ruled that the Romanian language is the official language of the country.83 Mihai Ghimpu, the leader of Moldova's Liberal Party, and some members of the national legislature, initiated the case on this matter. They were supported by a section of the educated elite, which had been calling for changing the name since the appearance of the Constitution. Ghimpu and his supporters requested the Court to clarify a contradiction between the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of Moldova. The Declaration of Independence, adopted by the Parliament in August 1991, confirmed the validity of legislation of 1989 that reintroduced the Romanian language and the Latin alphabet in Moldova.84 This Court’s doctrine downgraded the status of the Moldovan Constitution to that of a derivative document and subordinated it to Moldova’s Declaration of Independence. The Court argued that the name of the state language in the Declaration has the status of a constitutional norm that predominates over the existing constitutional norm. These conclusions were based on the thought that "the Romanian nation is organized as two Romanian states – Romania and Moldova”.85 The Court decided that the "Declaration of Independence is an integral part of the Constitution," and when differences between the text of the Declaration of Independence and the text of the Constitution come up, the primary constitutional text of the Declaration of Independence prevails. Therefore, the Court confirmed that the official language of the Republic of Moldova is Romanian and not Moldovan.86 The decision of the Constitutional Court was praised by Romanian president Traian Băsescu, who recently made statements about the reunion between Romania and Moldova. In a television interview, Băsescu said that through this decision, an act of justice is made for the

81 Language Law 1989. 82 Ciscel, The language of the Moldovans, 9. 83 Press Release, Constitutional Court of Moldova: The Text of the Declaration of Independence Prevails over the Text of the Constitution (05-12-2013): http://constcourt.md/libview.php?l=en&idc=7&id=512&t=/Overview/Press-Service/News/The-text-of-the- Declaration-of-Independence-prevails-over-the-text-of-the-Constitution 84 Presidency of the Republic of Moldova – Declaration of Independence (27-08-1991): http://www.presedinte.md/eng/declaration 85 Library of Congress: ‘Moldova: Romanian Recognized as the Official Language’ (23-12-2013): http://www.loc.gov/lawweb/servlet/lloc_news?disp3_l205403800_text 86 Library of Congress: ‘Moldova: Romanian Recognized as the Official Language’ (23-12-2013): http://www.loc.gov/lawweb/servlet/lloc_news?disp3_l205403800_text 28

Moldovans and those who feel they are Romanians. He added that the ruling brings the cultural and linguistic mystifications in Moldova to an end.87 Recently, the state language again caused a debate in Parliament. In February 2014, lawmakers argued over the subject of the official language when they were to vote for the ratification of an agreement on bilateral customs cooperation with Spain. The relevant bill provides that the text is in the Moldovan language. This aroused the dissatisfaction of the Liberal Members of Parliament, saying that, according to the definitive and irrevocable decision of the Constitutional Court, the text of the Declaration of Independence is constitutional and more important than the text of the supreme law. A letter was sent by Ana Guţu, Head of the Commission on Foreign Affairs, to Natalia Gherman, Minister of Foreign Affairs and European Integration, asking to correct this mistake.88

2.2.3 Language education policies

Since the establishment of Moldovan independence in 1991, the policy of language education in Moldova has shifted from official bilingualism of Soviet policy to the emerging European norms which protect diversity. Between 2001 and 2009, the communist governments have pursued a complicated set of policies that influence practices of language education. Examples of this are the attempts to make Russian an official state language and the intimidation of nationalistic Romanian media. On the other hand, recent Moldovan governments have more and more pursued a policy of EU-integration the past fifteen years. While many reforms in language education had advantages in the creation of a more balanced bilingualism between Romanian and Russian, the official policy have tended towards a downfall into Soviet-era minority rule at times.89 As being the only state language, Moldovan lessons are obligatory in all schools. In 1995, the Education Law was passed. This law reinforced the Moldovan Constitution. Article 8, on the language of instruction, says:

(1) The State guarantees the right to choose the language of education and instruction at all levels and stages of education. (2) The right of citizens to education and instruction in the native language is guaranteed through the creation of the necessary number of institutions, classes, and groups, as well as the necessary conditions for their functioning. (3) The study of the state language of the Republic of Moldova is mandatory in all educational institutions. The requirement to teach and support it is established by the educational standards of the State. The responsibility for ensuring the process of supporting the state language in all educational institutions is carried by the Ministry of Education and Science and by the local authorities of public administration.90

87 Nine o’clock: Romanian – Official Language of R. Moldova, Chişinău CC Rules (05-12-2013): http://www.nineoclock.ro/romanian-official-language-of-r-moldova-Chişinău-cc-rules/ 88 AllMoldova: Official language becomes subject for heated discussions in Parliament (21-02-2014): http://www.allmoldova.com/en/moldova-news/politics/1249057680.html 89 Ciscel, ‘Reform and relapse’, 13. 90 www.edu.gov.md 29

The most striking aspect of this article is the fact that the name of the ‘state language’ is not mentioned at all. In most educational institutions, ‘Romanian’ is the standard term to designate the Moldovan state language. Even after the Constitution of 1994, the majority of institutions and textbooks that were used in education have referred to the state language as ‘Romanian’. Besides, this article suggests that the state language is in need of support. Between the lines it could be read that, especially in education, the state language has some troubles in the counterbalance of the former dominant Russian language. When Russian was dominant, bilingualism was not as much supported as in the Language Law. The idealism of the language education law has been put in perspective due to three realities: the economic poverty raised problems, the Russian language was and is very dominant in urban areas (especially in the private-economic field) and Moldova lacked a clear, unified identity for the majority language. Linguistically speaking, the choice for a Moldovan language does not make a lot of sense, even though eventually the linguistic identity is a political issue. Besides, Moldovan does not provide many advantages status-wise compared to Russian. Apparently, the only actual reason to choose a Moldovan identity seems to be the political call for ‘unirea’.91 At the beginning of the school year in September 2007, 79.6% of the primary and secondary school pupils were educated in the state language, 20.2% in Russian and 0.2% in other languages (Ukrainian, Bulgarian and English, among others). Compared to data from 1999, the number of children in state language-schools had increased by 2%. Enrolments in Russian-medium schools, on the other hand, had decreased with about 2%. The number of students studying French had declined by 2.5% while the number of students in English had increased by nearly 13%.92 These trends suggest that a greater emphasis was placed on internationally important languages and that the request for schooling in the state language had increased. Besides, a move away from the supported Russian-Romanian bilingualism could be concluded. In 2004, 4 out of 5 children went to schools where the Romanian language is the primary language of instruction. Russian has become more excluded from these schools, possibly with the goal to create a more important role for the state language. Many children, however, especially in urban areas, learn to fluently speak Russian in their families and on the street.93 The prestige of Russian is still large enough that the majority of young people learn it even without instruction. Currently, there are 31 institutions of higher education in Moldova. In 2007, 69.5% of the 123,000 students were taught in the state language, while 27% studied in Russian and 3.5% in other languages.94 Compared to the 1990s, it is easier nowadays to be taught in Romanian, but the number of students studying in Russian is larger than the country’s total population would suggest. A large portion of students in Moldova choose a Russian-medium university or college, because there is more scientific knowledge and literature available in this world language. Since independence however, the overall tendency has been towards a greater presence of the Moldovan/Romanian language in higher education, while courses in minority language Russian are maintained. The reforms in language education policy have been effective in this sense, as in primary and secondary education.

91 Ciscel, ‘A separate Moldovan language? The sociolinguistics of Moldova’s Limba de Stat (Official Language)’ (2006). 92 Ibidem. 93 Dumbrava (2004). 94 Biroul National de Statistica al Republicii Moldova 2007b. (www.statistica.md) 30

The situation of language education is different in breakaway Transnistria, where the education reforms were challenged. There, in 2004 forced schoolclosings were resolved into a compromise on the status of Romanian-language schools in the region (see Chapter 3).

2.2.4 Language attitudes in politics

Moldova’s political parties have developed different opinions toward issues of national identity and language. The Communist Party, the biggest party in Moldovan parliament between 2000 and 2008, supports ‘Moldovanism’, but after losing power in 2009, this position has softened. The communist leaders now admit that Moldovan and Romanian are the same language. The party has opposed ‘Romanianization’ of the country since Moldovan independence and prefer a more pro- Russian approach. The Liberal-Democratic Party is the largest of the three parties that currently make up the center-right Pro-European Coalition government and is also Moldova’s largest pro- Western party. The party draws support across the board from the Moldovan-Romanian-speaking electorate. Party leaders like Vlad Filat and current prime minister Iurie Leancă publicly take the position that the language is correctly named Romanian, but that its name is a matter of the personal choice of Moldova’s citizens. The party usually avoids rifts over language issues. The Democratic Party moderately supports the Moldovan identity. Following the Court’s ruling, leader Marian Lupu has reaffirmed this attitude in measured tones (‘I am Moldovan and I speak Moldovan’). The Liberal Party is generally identified as Romanian-Unionist and Romania-minded.95 Not only in Moldova but in several post-Soviet states, language issues have become embroiled in political battles and have created frictions in society. It is not easy to determine the extension to which political leaders’ references to language issues are part of political intrigues or reflect an honest desire to reassert the identity of someone’s ethno-linguistic group through language.96 For example, Minister Gherman has stated that after the collapse of the Soviet-Union, the Baltic States have managed to handle the minority problem in their countries in an effective and clear way: Moldova, on the other hand, has been too tolerant for too long to the Russian- speaking minorities. In other words, according to Gherman, Chişinău has become the victim of its own tolerance.97 It is remarkable that in Moldovan politics, the language issue is politicised and divisive. Politicians often embrace either ‘Moldovanism’ or ‘Romanianism’. Particularly, the Communists’ efforts have concentrated on the recognition of Russian as an official language alongside Moldovan/Romanian. Some politicians have changed their opinion: for example, in September 2012 Lupu surprised the ruling Alliance for European Integration, when he stated that he had changed his mind and that Moldovans spoke ‘Moldovan’ and not ‘Romanian’, as he had stated before.98 There might have been cases of political manipulation, in which parties seek to exploit language and identity issues to gain supporters. A possible occurrence of this is the confrontation in 2012 in Bălţi, a town in the North of Moldova, where many Russian-speakers live. During a ‘Union March’ (held to promote unification with Romanian), a group of anti-unionist, primarily Russian-speakers rebelled against the police who had to protect the marchers. Furthermore, in 2012, ex-Communist

95 Socor. 96 Federica Prina, ‘Linguistic Justice, Soviet Legacies and Post-Soviet Realpolitik’ (2013), 15. 97 Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Report about mission to Moldova (May 6, 2014). 98 Prina (2013), 15. 31

Party member Vladimir Mishin declared that he wished to create a party that was specifically set up for Russian-speakers.99 Therefore, the introduction of Russian as a second state language has been used as part of political platforms. This objective is not only supported by ethnic Russians but by other minorities as well, considering their frequent lack of fluency in Romanian. It has been pursued by mainstream parties, since ethnic minority parties have been unable to enter parliament: the mainstream parties incorporated political slogans with ethnic undertones.100 Even though the pro-Russian Communist Party was the biggest party in parliament and also controlled the presidency, they didn’t take practical steps to make Russian a second official language.101

2.2.5 Language bill of May 2013

In the spring of 2013, pro-Romanian Member of Parliament Ana Guţu (Liberal Party) proposed a bill to completely remove the Russian language from the political and public sphere. The bill stated that Romanian should be the language of communication within all public and private organizations and in public communication with state organizations.102 Many speakers of Russian and other minority languages feared that the bill was only an excuse of Romanian-minded politicians to suppress language minorities and assimilate them, although Russian itself is often seen as a way of assimilation by minorities whose mother tongue is neither Romanian nor Russian. The human rights committee of the parliament recommended against the bill, saying it discriminated against speakers of languages other than Romanian. The committee stated that the law would be humiliating for speakers of minority languages, who could be ordered to pay fines for refusing to speak or write in Romanian. The Russian community saw the bill as a tool in a campaign to transform Moldova from a bilingual to a monolingual society where the role of Russian would be seriously diminished, according to former Member of Parliament and ethnic Russian Mihail Sidorov. If adopted, the law would increase the separatism of Russian-dominant Transnistria and increase the tension of the conflict, he said.103 The bill falls far short of the recommendations in the Council of Europe’s European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (which Moldova signed in 2002), although the bill claimed to guarantee the rights of language minorities. The aim of the Council is the protection and promotion of the wealth and diversity of Europe’s cultural heritage. The charter obliges signatories to respect and promote the use of historical minority languages on their territory. Guţu said she does not oppose the aims of the charter, but insisted that only one language would meet its specifications: Gagauz. Russian is too widespread to fit the charter’s definitions of ‘regional’ and ‘minority’ language, and most of the country’s other ethnic languages are spoken only in a few villages, she said. The debate about the status of the state language does not only place Moldovan/Romanian- speakers against minorities, but also reflects divisions within the non-Romanian-speaking

99 Ibid, 17. 100 O. Protsyk & I. Osoian, ‘Ethnic or multi-ethnic parties? Party competition and legislative recruitment in Moldova’ (2010), 9-10. 101 Prina (2013), 17-18. 102 Ghilascu, 2. 103 Ibidem. 32 communities. Guţu’s controversial bill has not been adopted yet, but in practice its provisions are implemented diligently.104

2.3 Linguistic problems

As mentioned in paragraph 2.2, the Russian language has a special status in the Moldovan Constitution. It is more than just a language spoken by national minorities: many Moldovans are able to speak Russian fluently as a second language, especially residents of the capital. Mixed Moldovan-Russian or Moldavian-Ukrainian marriages are common, even in rural areas.105

2.3.1 The Russian language in Moldova

While the majority of educated Moldovans speak both Romanian and Russian, this is not the case the other way round. Many ethnic Russians do not know both languages. Russians in post-Soviet countries find themselves minorities in number and have experienced a drop in status after being the dominant group of a superpower. Many wish to maintain the rights they enjoyed during the Soviet Union.106 At the same time, the Moldovan government is trying to upgrade Romanian to a widely recognized state language and to reduce the role of Russian in state communication. The claims of Russian citizens and other ethnic minorities are a challenge to the creation of this ‘nation- state’.107 Since independence, the status of the Romanian language has been enhanced: there appears to be an increasing openness to learn the state language, particularly among young people.108 The view of Russian as the language of academic and urban economic life and power continues to exist: Russian still dominates many areas of social life in Moldova and is the most important language of the business community. The Russian Federation is one of Moldova’s most important economic partners and the remittances that seasonal workers in Russia send home greatly contribute to the Moldovan economy.109 Back in the Soviet days, civil servants treated Moldovan speakers as second-class citizens while now it is the Russians who struggle for their language rights. Civil servants themselves may not agree though. Valentina Dobrovolsky, a human resource specialist at Chişinău City Hall, claims never to have heard of Russians being mistreated in this way. She stated that all public officials need to know Romanian, and that she writes all correspondence in the state language.110 Minorities in Moldova often use Russian as the language of inter-ethnic communication, which intensifies the strong polarization between the two main language spheres. One reason for this is that the teaching of minority languages is offered only in schools with Russian as the main instruction language.111 As a consequence, persons belonging to minorities other than Russian learn the state

104 Ibid., 3. 105 Pravda: ‘The Russian language under threat in Moldova (2013). 106 Rogers Brubaker, ‘Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account’ (1994), 68. 107 Prina, 10. 108 ACFC (Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities), Third Opinion on Moldova (December 11, 2009), par. 146. 109 Ciscel, ‘A Separate Moldovan Language? The Sociolinguistics of Moldova’s Limba de Stat’ (2006), 584. 110 Ghilascu, 4. 111 ACFC 2009, par. 146. 33 language as third language, which often results in lack of fluency. This educational system can increase the tendency of persons belonging to national minorities to identify more with the Russian minority, rather than their own minority group.112 Since 2008, public officials have been required by law to know Romanian. Public bodies have recently begun to ignore a citizen’s right to receive official documents in both Russian and Romanian, according to the Russian-oriented political party Возрождение (‘Vozrozhdenie’, meaning ‘Revival’). The party recalls an incident when a court judge, in response to a request for a Russian version of a court decision, suggested the person to translate it herself.113 Language policy expert Sergei Ostaf, member of the Human Rights Resource Centre, says the bilingual education policies pursued by some Western European countries offer a model that could preserve Moldova’s ethnic blend. He supports the use of minority languages for 80 percent of class time in primary schools, with Romanian taking a larger share gradually as pupils progress through secondary school. According to Ostaf, this method would ensure a solid knowledge of Romanian, while helping to preserve the mother tongues of other language groups.114 The experience of Mihail Sirkeli, director of the Piligrim-Demo Youth Association in Comrat, show that in rural Moldova, things can get complicated. When Sirkeli was a child, his native village was about evenly split between Bulgarians and Gagauz, but all the children were taught in the Russian language. According to him, Russian will never be replaced by Gagauz, since the use of that language has severely diminished: ‘The potential for educating Gagauz children in their mother tongue is complicated, since there are no teachers of mathematics or chemistry that might know our language.’115

2.3.2 Recent incidents

The use and existence of different languages in one small country can lead to difficult situations and problems. In July 2011, a Moldovan journalist was attacked at the Slavonic University of Moldova. The journalist was interviewing the university’s administration, investigating the case of a student who encountered problems with her request to transfer to another university. The executive director demanded the journalist to speak Russian. The journalist asked whether the director could speak Romanian, to which the director replied that he could not and would not speak Romanian. When the reporter asked why, the director hit him. In reply to this incident, youth activists came to the university, equipped with camera’s and passages from the Constitution. They were also attacked by university employees.116 In May 2013, a group of young people were fined for using a banner inscribed in Russian during a protest. Two months later, law enforcement agencies fined Viktor Kalashnikov, head of the League of Russian youth in the city of Bălţi. Two weeks earlier, he organized a protest against the visit of Romanian President Băsescu to the second largest settlement of Moldova. The police report states that two posters with the inscription in Russian violated the Administrative Code of the

112 ACFC 2009, par. 137-138. 113 Ghilascu, 4. 114 Ibid., 5 115 Ibidem. 116 Global Voices : Moldova: Attack on Journalist Causes Online Debate on “Language Issue” (02-08-2011): http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/08/02/moldova-attack-on-journalist-causes-online-debate-on-language- issue/ 34 country.117 In response, the Russian Youth League issued an emotional statement, saying that "this case resembles the fight against the Russian language during the Romanian occupation of Moldova. The use of ‘fascist methods’ in our supposedly civilized modern society makes us think whether Moldova is able to become a truly democratic country, or will it limit itself with the claim of the current government on the status?" Also, it has been reported that universities in Moldova refused to accept the documents from graduates of Russian schools. The graduates had to defend their right to study in court.118 In April this year, there was a small controversy about the alleged prohibition of Russian television channels in Moldova. The influential Russian newspaper Независимая Газета (‘Nezavisimaya Gazeta’, ‘The Independent Newspaper’) of Moscow wrote that “the procedure of prohibiting Russian TV channels in Moldova has been approved by the Government”. The Prime Minister stated that this information was not true, but that Russian analytical and news programs would be rebroadcasted in Moldova by Moldovan television channels. This decision was taken by the Audio Visual Council in response to Ana Guţu's request to replace a number of Russian programs with others. Guţu demanded to “stop the propaganda by Russian broadcasters because they only feed the public opinion with lie and chauvinism, and disseminate inter-ethnic strife”. Guţu argued that the “ultimate goal of Russian TV channels is to justify Russia's actions in Ukraine, in particular the annexation of Crimea”. The issue of suspending the broadcasting of Russian channels in Moldova is very sensitive.119

2.4 A ‘Moldovan linguistic conflict’?

In the Introduction, the term ‘linguistic conflict’ was briefly discussed. Compared to the Belgian linguistic conflict, the language story is different in Moldova: after centuries of being part of the Russian Empire, the Romanian Kingdom and the Soviet Union, the country gained independence only recently. The majority of the inhabitants of Moldova are ethnic Moldovans. The country has one official language, but also a high number of citizens coming from other ethnic groups and having a very good knowledge of an international language: Russian. This means that one can get by without speaking the local language. Therefore, the background and history of both countries cannot be compared. But could the linguistic situation in Moldova be called a ‘linguistic conflict’? Even though the official language is Romanian, the presence of the Russian minority and the widespread use of Russian among the different minorities cannot be underestimated: many children learn Russian in school or in interacting with Russian-speakers. Russian is the language of urban economic and academic life and a world language, while Romanian doesn’t have these characteristics. Because of these factors, the Russian minority doesn’t have to learn the state language: the use of Russian in many sectors of the economy makes some proficiency in Russian a necessity for Romanian speakers to maintain or improve their socioeconomic status. On the other hand, there are ethnic Russians who feel that their language is under threat by anti-Russian attitudes of politicians, fearing that coming closer to the European Union instead of the Eurasian

117 Pravda: The Russian language under threat in Moldova (2013). 118 Ibidem. 119 Infotag: Moldova refutes information about ban on Russian television channels (22-04-2014): http://www.infotag.md/politics-en/187515/ 35

Economic Union (consisting of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia) will harm the position of their language and community in Moldova.120 In Chişinău, I spoke with Irina Condrea, teacher and researcher in sociolinguistics at the Moldova State University. She was born and raised in the Moldovan SSR and is completely fluent in both Romanian (her native tongue) and Russian. According to Condrea, there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova, which mainly consists of a political debate that is closely related to the national identity of the country. In daily life, Moldovans and ethnic Russians are not looking for confrontations, Condrea said. Especially in the capital of Chişinău, the existence between Romanian and Russian does not cause problems: the city is completely bilingual. Russian is fully respected and peacefully exists next to Romanian. In countryside villages, Romanian is more spoken than Russian. As has already been said, there are language activists who would like to see Russian as a second state language, or who wish for the removal of the Russian language from Moldovan public life altogether. Incidents between speakers of the state language and speakers of minority languages, however, do not happen on a daily base and should not be exaggerated. The case is different in politics. Condrea mentioned that there are pro-Russian politicians and state officials who are not able (or do not want) to speak the state language. On the other hand, pro-Moldovan politicians want to build up a strong Moldovan nation-state with one single language and identity. The same thing is happening in other post-Soviet states. In nation-states, there is no place for bigger minority languages like Russian.121

In summary, there is a political-linguistic conflict in Moldova, which is closely related to national and social identity. Language plays an important role in nation-building and is symbolic in the struggle between different ethnicities. Both ethnic Moldovans and (mostly Russian-speaking) minorities may experience communication difficulties, but serious outbreaks of dissatisfaction of even violence about the language situation are rare. The situation is different in the autonomous region of Transnistria, which unofficially broke away from the Republic of Moldova in 1992. This region will be separately discussed in the next chapter.

120 Pravda: The Russian language under threat in Moldova (2013). 121 Interview with Irina Condrea (March 18, 2014). 36

CHAPTER 3 - The special case of Transnistria

The Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (PMR), usually denoted as Transdniestria or Transnistria (the Romanian name for the region, meaning ‘beyond the river Dniester’), is a de facto independent state within the official borders of the Republic of Moldova. This independence is not internationally recognized by any official country. Only Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh and South Ossetia recognize its independence, all themselves states with limited recognition. Transnistria’s government operates independent of Moldova and is led by ‘president’ Yevgeny Shevchuk, an ethnic Ukrainian. According to 2004 census122, about 550,000 people live in the region. Great minorities of ethnic Russians and ethnic Ukrainians account for almost 60 percent of the population. Citizens of Transnistria have at least 2 passports: Transnistrian and Moldovan. They can also apply for a Russian passport. Russia has issued passports to some 180,000 residents of the region, and about 100,000 Transnistrians have a Ukrainian passport.123 In 2004, the population was 68% urban, while Moldova’s was only 38.6%.124

Table 6: Census Transnistria, 2004

Transnistria Percentage Moldovans 31.9%

Russians 30.3% Ukrainians 28.8% Bulgarians 2.0% Poles 2.0% Gagauz 1.5%

Jews 1.3% Byelorussians 1.0% Germans 0.6% Other 0.5% TOTAL 100%

Without the factories that were concentrated in Transnistria during Soviet times, the economy of Moldova would literally have collapsed. Nowadays, 40% of Moldova’s economy is still situated in Tiraspol. Economic statistics for Transnistria (though their reliability is questionable) tell that the region’s economy is very weak. Inflation continuously increases and the Transnistrian ruble has no value abroad.125 Transnistria regularly asks for recognition or even annexation by Russia. Last month, the Moldovan place Doroţcaia saw a small demonstration calling for a referendum on joining Transnistria. Demonstrators noted that prices are cheaper in the Russia-subsidized breakaway region and argued that Moldova's integration into the EU will leave Moldovans without jobs.126 Since the civil war in 1992, the conflict between Moldova and Transnistria remains ‘frozen’ and unresolved. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OCSE) has stationed a mission in the breakaway region. Its top priority is to help resolving the conflict. The degree of

122 Census Transnistrisa 2004: http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol37-09-05.htm 123 European Policy Centre: Paul Ivan, ‘Transnistria: where to?’ (13-03-2014), 3: http://www.epc.eu/documents/uploads/pub_4257_transnistria_-_where_to.pdf 124 Census Transnistria 2004. 125 Matthew H. Ciscel, ‘Reform and relapse in bilingual policy in Moldova’ (2010), 17-18. 126 MSN News: Moldova’s separatist conundrum (23-04-2014): http://news.uk.msn.com/moldovas-separatist-conundrum-1 37 democracy and human rights are questioned by the OSCE: elections are not monitored by external parties, which complicate the possibility of checking whether elections are done correctly. Furthermore, discrimination against speakers of Romanian is not unusual. State schools are required to use the Cyrillic alphabet when teaching Romanian. Many teachers, parents, and students objected to the use of the Cyrillic script to teach Romanian, believing that it disadvantages pupils who wish to pursue higher education opportunities in the rest of the country or Romania.

The situation in Transnistria is different from the one in Moldova proper, but has an important impact on the country as a whole. The last chapter of this thesis begins with a description of the civil war of 1992 and its consequences. Afterwards, Transnistria’s position between Moldova and Russia will be elaborated, followed by the recent problems concerning language and education and a paragraph about the Transnistrian national identity.

3.1 Language laws leading to civil war

In the 1980s, the perestroika and glasnost policies of Gorbachev permitted political liberalization at a regional level in the Soviet Union. Several informal movements were created in the MSSR, of which the Popular Front of Moldova was the most prominent. Ethnic Moldovans looked back at their shared past with Romania and pan-Romanian nationalism was reborn. In 1988, the pro-Romanian Popular Front representatives called only for the Moldovan language, written in Latin script, to be made official, and to recognize the common ethnic identity of Romanians and Moldovans. The Popular Front got what they requested. On 31 August 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the Moldavian SSR adopted the Language Law: Latin-script Moldovan was established as the official language making it the only official language of the republic.127 When these plans, meaning major changes for Moldova, were made public, the ethnic tensions increased, leading to a division between russified, industrial Transnistria and pro- Romanian, rural Bessarabia. Many Russian-speakers (Russians, Ukrainians, Gagauz and Bulgarians) and especially the Slavic leaders in Transnistria rejected the reforms in the 1989 Language Law, perceiving these as radical and threatening. The removal of Russian as an official language and particularly the possible future reunification of Moldova and Romania were disapproved. For the elite of Transnistria (which had never been part of Romanian territory) it was unacceptable that the Moldovan language was upgraded above Russian, which had a symbolic status. Anti-Romanian political organisations were soon established, challenging the nationalists of the Popular Front. One of these was Edinstvo (‘Unity’), an extreme inter-republican movement that mobilised russophone minorities against the language reforms. The major goal of Edinstvo was an equal status for both Russian and Moldovan. Eventually, the prominence of extreme movements like the Popular Front and Edinstvo in the beginning of the 1990s resulted in a short civil war in 1992.128 The first free parliamentary elections of the MSSR in the beginning of 1990 were won by the Popular Front, whose agenda began to be implemented directly. Immediately, as a first step,

127 Ciscel, The language of the Moldovans, 42. 128 King, The Moldovans, 187. 38 pro-Russia leaders in Gagauzia and Transnistria separately declared their regions independent republics. Initially, however, these moves did not have a lot of support. In April, ethnic Russian members of the Moldovan parliament were attacked by nationalist gangs. The Moldovan police refused to take any actions to restore the order. In September 1990, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed as a Soviet republic by the Second Congress of the Peoples' Representatives of Transnistria, a special assembly. One month later, when the Popular Front summoned volunteers to make up armed fighting forces to stop a Gagauz referendum about autonomy, violence escalated. As a response, Transnistrian fighting forces were formed. After the independence of Moldova was recognized internationally in March 1992, police stations and public buildings throughout Transnistria were attacked and occupied by pro-Russian forces. The responses of the Moldovan forces were repeatedly repelled and fighting continued for several months along the Dniester. Major confrontations occurred in the towns of Dubasari and Tighina (‘Bender’ in Russian). Occasionally, the Transnistrians were assisted by Cossack volunteers and the Russian 14th army, which left the Moldovans forces outgunned several times. After the loss of Tighina, the Moldovan authorities begged for a ceasefire, which was guaranteed by Russian and Ukrainian peace-keepers, instead of a neutral force.129 Although independent Transnistria is still an internationally unrecognized state nowadays, it functions as an independent, Soviet-style republic with strong connections to nationalist leaders in Russia. The Gagauzian conflict, on the other hand, only involved occasional violence and has been resolved through concessions by Chişinău which include a limited degree of autonomy. Offers of even more generous concessions to Transnistria have produced no results. In this way, Transnistria has become a barrier to the consolidation of the Moldovan identity and an access to Moldova through which Russia continues to maintain political, economic and cultural influence.

3.2 Transnistria: between Russia and Moldova

Since breaking away from Moldova in 1992, Transnistria has been leading a fairly independent but isolated life. After claiming independence, former mineworker Igor Smirnov was appointed president. While Moldova and Ukraine are increasingly moving closer toward the EU, Transnistria is moving in the opposite direction toward Russia and the Eurasian Union. Russia still maintains an influential role in Transnistria through its 14th army, which is still situated in the region (now known as the Operational Group of Russian Forces in Moldova) despite repeated withdrawal promises. This army contains approximately 1500 troops and some 20,000 tons of armament.130 Negotiations between the involved parties have only polarized the population and have been unable to resolve the conflict that remains frozen until today. From the East, Russia tries to maintain its influence on Transnistria; from the West, Moldova is pulling at the autonomous republic, trying to keep the region within its official borders.

129 King, The Moldovans, 190-192. 130 Kaljurand, ‘Russian influence on Moldovan politics during the Putin era (2000-2008)’, 14. 39

3.2.1 The relation with Russia The Lenin-statue in front of the parliament building in Tiraspol. Statues of Lenin are everywhere in Transnistria (photo from own collection) The role of the Russian Federation as a patron and protector of Transnistria is supported by the entire Transnistrian political establishment, including the opposition parties. Although Russia overwhelmingly supports the PMR, the country is against its independence and is principally in favour of the reintegration with the Republic of Moldova, presumably fearing that this country would float further away from its sphere of influence without the Transnistrian region. To ensure decisive influence in Moldovan affairs, Russia wants as much power as possible for the breakaway region in a reintegrated Moldova. In this way, a federative Moldova could be influenced by Russia through Transnistria. Moldova could perhaps even be moved to join the Russia-led Eurasian Customs Union. However, the importance of Moldova proper for Moscow Russia should not be overestimated: the country is poor, landlocked, and mainly Romanian-speaking, with few natural resources and little geostrategic value. It is already very much integrated with the EU and a sizeable number of its citizens already have Romanian/EU passports.131 Transnistria, on the other hand, is clearly in favour of joining Russia’s territory. In 2006, a referendum was held about association with Russia: 97.1% was in favour of this, although the results might be corrupt. On April 16, 2014, pro-Russia politicians and activists requested the Russian Parliament to adjust a law which makes it legally possible to add their territory to Russia’s.132 President Shevchuk declared: “The whole Transnistrian population is waiting for help from the Russian Federation for our recognition. (…) For us, Russia is a guarantor, a country which has close historical and economic ties with Transnistria.”133 These requests are not rare; on March 18, the same request took place.134 So far, Transnistrian leaders have not accepted the autonomous status within the territory of Moldova. Nina Shtanski, the foreign minister, has stated that the region will adopt Russian laws and will join the Eurasian Customs Union.135 Since 2012, President Shevchuk has continued to keep strong ties with Moscow, and has promised to challenge corruption, instead of devoting himself for unification with Moldova. The past years, Shevchuk has advocated for Transnistria to

131 European Council on Foreign relations (ECFR): Transnistria: a bottom-up solution (September 2012), 5. 132 Moldova.org: Transnistria hopes recognition and Russian annexation amid request (21-04-2014): http://www.moldova.org/transnistria-hopes-recognition-russian-annexation-amid-request/ 133 Приднестровье – Информавионно-новостной ресурс ПМР: Надежда на РФ (15-04-2014): http://newspmr.com/novosti-pmr/zakonodatelstvo/11344 134 Vedomosti: Приднестровье хочет войти в состав России (18-03-2014): http://www.vedomosti.md/news/pridnestrove-hochet-vojti-v-sostav-rossii 135 Reconsidering Russia: Moldova and Transnistria: an overview (04-04-2014): http://reconsideringrussia.org/2014/04/04/moldova-and-transnistria-an-overview/ 40 adopt the Russian ruble and Russian laws, with the ultimate aim of Transnistria joining the Eurasian Union. 136137 The assistance of Russia, the main supporter of the Transnistrian economy, in the economic affairs of the region is crucial for its economic survival. There are no foreign investors in Transnistria. All bank and telephone companies are state property. Sheriff Enterprises, the monopolistic business conglomerate, owns all supermarkets, petrol stations, television and radio channels, hotels, car dealers etc. ‘Obnovleniye’, the Republican Renewal Party, currently having the majority in the Transnistrian Supreme Soviet, is associated with Sheriff and presumably maintains a close relationship with the ruling party in Russia.138 In May 2009, the majority of the Obnovleniye faction even proposed the use of the Russian white/blue/red tricolor alongside the state flag of the Pridnestrovian Moldovan Republic.139 Recently, on July 2nd this year, Russia and Transnistria signed several memoranda about cooperation in the trade-economic and social-cultural spheres. In the cultural memorandum, the Russian Ministry of Culture and the Transnistrian State Service on Culture expressed their intention to create good conditions for the development of cooperation in the field of arts and the preservation of cultural heritage. Moreover, Russia and Transnistria agreed on cooperation in the field of agriculture, transport and sciences. Shevchuk declared to appreciate the closer economic ties with Russia, and expressed confidence that further bilateral relations in the field of culture will be a progressive development in the Eurasian course of the Transnistrian republic as a whole.140141

3.2.2 The relation with Moldova

The Moldovan authorities favour a substantial degree of autonomy for Transnistria, but only as part of a united Republic of Moldova. They are looking out for the withdrawal of all foreign (i.e. Russian) troops from Transnistria and the substitution of the current peacekeeping force by civilian observers. The Moldovan leaders hope that Moldova’s growing integration with the EU will increase Moldova’s attractiveness to people living in Transnistria. Furthermore, the Moldovan authorities hope to improve the climate for Transnistria’s reintegration into Moldova.142 Transnistria’s significance for Moldova lies in the fact that the region is an important key player in Moldova’s economy. Even though only 15% of Moldova’s population lives in Transnistria, the region contributes for 35% to the total Moldovan national income.143 Most of Moldova’s industry is located there, of which the most important are the steel and textile industries. The strategic

136 RIA Novosti: Transdnestr may introduce Russian ruble (16-02-2012): http://en.ria.ru/world/20120216/171343058.html 137 Infotag: Tiraspol leader suggests introducing Russian legislation in Transnistria (05-12-2013): http://www.infotag.md/rebelion-en/181448/ 138 Freedom House: Transnistria (2011): http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom- world/2011/transnistria#.U5lnUlODe80 139 Moldova.org: Transnistria considers broadening its state symbols (05-05-2009): http://www.moldova.org/transnistria-considers-broadening-its-state-symbols-200548-eng/ 140 Новости Приднестровиья: Россия и Приднестровье развивают взаимодействие в сфере культуры (02- 07-2014): http://novostipmr.com/ru/news/14-07-02/rossiya-i-pridnestrove-razvivayut-vzaimodeystvie-v-sfere- kultury 141 Новости Молдова: РФ и Приднестровье подписали меморандумы о сотрудничестве в сфере экомомики и культуры (02-07-2014): http://newsmoldova.md/02072014/lenta-novostej/36123.htm 142 Steven Woehrel: ‘Moldova: Background and U.S. policy’ (April 2014): http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21981.pdf 143 Moldova.org: Depoliticization of economy by ensuring cooperation between banks of Nistru (15-05-2014), http://www.allmoldova.com/en/moldova-news/1249058220.html 41 importance of Transnistria can also be ascribed to the energy dependence of Moldova: 90% of power transformers are produced in Transnistria. Almost one-third of Moldova’s electricity is supplied by Transnistria. The region is also very important for Moldova’s gas network. Russian gas reaches Tiraspol through pipe lines, from where it is transported to the rest of Moldova.144 Moreover, Transnistria's authorities have frequently disjointed the flow of fuels into Moldova from Russia and Ukraine. In addition to this, Transnistria can be viewed as more of a major economic obligation for Chişinău than a benefit. Currently, Moldova owes no debt for its gas imports from Russia, but Transnistria owes approximately $4 billion to Gazprom. Presently, Chişinău is hold accountable for this debt by Russia. The only way to get rid of it would be for Moldova to entirely abandon its claims to Transnistria.145 While Moldova is officially committed to returning the breakaway Transnistria region under Moldovan rule, the non-economic benefits of this return are somewhat unclear. Transnistria lacks a deep historical relationship with Moldova: the region was attached to Moldova for only 52 years (from 1940 till 1992).146 According to several polls, Moldovans continuously feel indifference toward Transnistria. For the great majority, the Transnistrian issue ranks as only the 9th or 10th priority. Less than 2% regard the frozen conflict as the most urgent issue, while 5% consider it second, behind problems as crime, poverty and inflation.147 This indifference could be seen as one the pillars of peace and stability in the region, although the downside is that the Moldovan society does not want to make significant concessions. The result is that the society tends to be against most forms of power sharing, e.g. federalisation or inclusion of Transnistrian elites in a reintegrated Moldova.148

3.3 Problems of language education

As in Soviet times, Russian enjoys a privileged status in the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. Opposite to the rest of Moldova, the Russian language has an official status in Transnistria, together with Moldovan and Ukrainian. Some language activists try to make the Russian language the only official language and spoken by everyone. Moldovan/Romanian (hereafter: Romanian) is far less widespread than in Transnistria than in the rest of Moldova. The linguistic situation in Transnistria continues to cause problems: an important example of this is the ongoing pressure on the Romanian-language schools that are situated in the region. These schools have been a key thorn in the side of the Transnistrian regime149: only eight of these schools use the Latin alphabet, while the Cyrillic script is the standard in the region. Due to impediments from the Russia-backed authorities, the Romanian-language schools constantly experience difficulties in their education process, because they continue to use the Latin-script. Besides, the education system is influenced by the globalisation, which demands greater proficiency in English, a language with more status and importance than the state language of Moldova. Thus, it is not surprising that in 2005,

144 OSW: ; The Iasi-Ungheni pipeline: a means of achieving energy independence from Russia? Moldova’s attempts at gas supply diversification’ (11-10-2013): http://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw- commentary/2013-10-11/iasi-ungheni-pipeline-a-means-achieving-energy-independence 145 Reconsidering Russia: ‘Moldova and Transnistria: an overview’. 146 Ibidem. 147 ECFR: Transnistria: a bottom-up solution, 3. 148 Ibidem. 149 Oldrich Andrysek and Mihai Grecu, ’Unworthy partner: The schools issue as an example of human rights abuses in Transnistria’, (2003). 42

Transnistria reported that only 14% of the schoolchildren (11,000 of a total of 79,000) were taught in the Romanian language, even though 31.9% of the inhabitants of Transnistria are ethnic Moldovans.150151 Due to the implementation of the language reforms in 1989, access to language education for both majority and minority languages has been improved in Moldova. However, this has not been the case in Transnistria, where the reforms were fully reversed and only implemented to a limited degree. Many teachers and parents objected to use the Cyrillic script to teach Romanian, believing that it would disadvantage pupils who pursued higher education opportunities in the rest of Moldova or in Romania. Between 1989 and 1992, several Romanian-language schools using the Latin script and newer textbooks (old Soviet books were still used in non-Romanian schools) were set up in Transnistrian towns and cities. In 1996, the Moldovan Government and the Transnistrian authorities agreed that eight schools in Transnistria were permitted to use the Latin alphabet. These schools still exist and are subordinated to the legitimate Ministry of Education in Chişinău (and not Tiraspol), which supplies textbooks and salaries. Particularly children of educated Moldovans in Tiraspol and Bender are sent to these schools. According to the Transnistrian authorities, the Romanian-language schools are ‘private schools’: they must meet local requirements and safety standards and must pay rent for their facilities. For a great part of the 1990s, these schools were also treated as ‘foreign’ schools by the authorities in Tiraspol. The Moldovan Government had no budgetary provisions for the high rents asked for these facilities. As a result, classes were held in local homes or run in shifts in the few available buildings.152 In 2004, being frustrated by failed attempts in the negotiation about independence, the separatist regime in Transnistria threatened to close the Romanian-language schools if they kept refusing to follow the script-clause in their education law. During the summer holiday, separatist policemen occupied these schools and forcedly removed teachers. Children from an orphanage nearby were even locked out of their accommodation for a night. Initially, negotiations to reopen the schools took place between Moldovan and Transnistrian authorities, but when these fell apart, a transportation blockade between the regions was put in place, followed by street demonstrations. A few weeks after school had started in September, the separatist regime finally succumbed. This meant that the children of these schools did not have lessons for weeks or that they had been forced to travel to other schools on the Moldovan territory, at the other side of the Dniester. During the short impasse, there were reports of parents receiving letters from the Transnistrian authorities, which threatened to take away their parental rights if they did not send their children to Cyrillic-based Moldovan schools. Igor Smirnov, Transnistria’s leader at that time, explained these actions as necessary by the fact that ‘foreign’ (i.e. Romanian) agents were spreading inter- ethnic resentment in the schools. By October 2004, most of the schools had reopened, having been temporarily recognized again as ‘foreign institutions’. However, the Lucian Blaga high school in Tiraspol had been so severely damaged that repairs delayed its reopening until January 2005. An October 2012 ruling by the European Court of Human Rights found Russia liable for Transnistria’s

150 Ciscel, ‘Reform and relapse in bilingual policy in Moldova’ (2010), 19-20. 151 Language issues: Where does one observe language to be a problem in the country? 152 Dima, ‘Moldova and the Transdniestr Republic’, 74-89. 43 restrictions on Romanian-language education, ordering Moscow to pay about $1.4 million in damages to 170 Transnistria residents who had sued in 2004 and 2006.153 Since then, the situation of these eight schools has not improved. The past years, pupils and teachers from the Latin-script schools continue to face harassment from the separatist authorities. Schools are surrounded by barbed wire, bank accounts are blocked, and pupils are kidnapped and convicted on fake cases. Every day, about 160 pupils have to take the bus from their village of Grigoriopol in Transnistria to Dorotcaia in Moldova proper across the administrative line. The authorities won't allow the children at the schools in Grigoriopol to study in Romanian or permit the school to use educational materials provided by Chişinău.154 In the autumn of 2013, Latin-script schools even risked being closed: the regime desired the schools to register with the Transnistrian authorities, instead of the Moldovan. Several Romanian-language schools received letters which forced them to pay the income tax to the de facto Ministry of Finances of Transnistria, even though these schools already had to pay taxes to the constitutional authorities in Chişinău. According to several teachers at these schools, these actions come in response to the initialization of the Association Agreement by Moldova with the European Union. Teachers claim that the separatists use the pupils and Latin-script schools in their ‘dishonourable’ political games and try to destabilize the situation in the region, determining parents not to send their children to Romanian- language schools.155 Recently, the Lucian Blaga high school was again a frequent topic in the Moldovan news due to several incidents. The school is the only Latin-script Romanian-language school in Transnistria’s capital and faces constant intimidation and pressure from the Russia-backed authorities. The school shares a yard with a sports school. At the end of November 2013, the playground of the school was surrounded by a barbed wire fence, installed by the administration of the sports school to avoid interaction between pupils of both schools. The vice-principal of Lucian Blaga has stated the barbed wire was installed upon someone’s order, stressing the fact that the fence is dangerous and that the pupils feel marginalized.156 Furthermore, the unconstitutional authorities blocked the bank accounts of the high school, without informing the school’s administration.157158 At the end of February, the authorities in Chişinău stated that it is willing to pay the lease contracts of Transnistrian educational institutions that teach in Romanian.159 At the negotiation of the 5+2 format in Vienna, the head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tiraspol said that it would not provide any guarantees regarding future activities of these institutions. The representative of Tiraspol in the negotiations, Nina Shtanski, said that the future of Romanian schools depends

153 Ciscel, ‘Reform and relapse, 13, 19-20. 154 MSN News: ‘Moldova’s separatist conundrum’ (23-04-2014) 155 Moldova.org: New pressure on Romanian-language schools in Transnistria (10-12-2013): http://www.moldova.org/new-pressure-on-romanian-language-schools-in-transnistria-240581-eng 156 Moldova.org: Pupils studying in Romanian in Transnistria are surrounded by barbed wire (25-11-2013): http://www.moldova.org/pupils-studying-in-romanian-in-transnistria-are-surrounded-by-barbed-wire-240280- eng/ 157 Moldova.org: New pressure on Romanian-language schools in Transnistria 158 Moldova.org: Romanian school in Transnistria faces new provocation (13-01-2014): http://www.moldova.org/romanian-school-in-transnistria-faces-new-provocation-241073-eng/ 159 TeleRadio Moldova: Chişinău willing to pay rent for buildings of Romanian-institutions in Transnistria (26-02- 2014): http://www.trm.md/en/regional/chişinăul-dispus-sa-achite-chiria-sediilor-institutiilor-cu-predare-in- limba-romana-din-stanga-nistrului/ 44 exclusively on the authorities in Chişinău.160 Some weeks after these statements, high school teachers in Transnistria wrote an official statement that was directed to President Nicolae Timofti, accusing the authorities of disregard of the daily problems and closing their eyes for the problems of the eight schools. The letter stated that President Timofti is indifferent to the teachers from the Transnistrian region and that the only thing that the central administration has done for these schools is to increase salaries by 400 lei (€21). The teachers stated to feel completely ignored.161 Recently, several campaigns of support and encouragement of the Latin-script schools were launched in order to raise awareness in Moldova and at the international level about the education issues.162 In February 2014, the education and script problems in Transnistria have even reached the attention of the European Parliament. The Parliament’s resolution was adopted on the initiative of Romanian MEP’s and was passed after Lucian Blaga high school complained on groundless objections of the separatist authorities. On the eve of the vote in the European Parliament, the director and accountant of the school were detained for several hours by the Transnistrian police, who confiscated more than 100,000 Moldovan lei from them, which was meant to pay the teachers’ salaries.163 The resolution condemns the politicization of the education question in the Transnistrian region. The young Transnistria residents’ right to education in the Romanian language has been seriously violated. Particularly, the European Parliament expressed disagreement with the raising of the rent for these schools, with the continuing blockade of schools’ banking accounts and with intimidation of teachers.164 In June 2014, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) examined the situation and called on the Russian Federation to implement the Court’s decision, condemning it for violating the right to education in the Moldovan-administered Latin-script schools in Transnistria. The prosecutors complained that the Transnistrian administration banned the use of the Latin script for the Romanian language in all the spheres of public life and imposed the Cyrillic script. They stated that their institutions should remain within the administration of the constitutional authorities so that they could teach Romanian in the Latin script.165 The Russian Federation criticized the resolution by the European Parliament which condemned the pressures faced by the Romanian schools. In a statement, the Russian Foreign Ministry states that the resolution is "fabricated", "arrogant" and shows ignorance of the situation in the Transnistrian region.166

160 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic: Nina Shtanski on the Situation with the Moldovan Latin-Script Schools (28-02-2014): http://mfa-pmr.org/index.php?newsid=3874 161 Moldova.org: Latin-script schools in Transnistria feel ignored by Moldovan leadership (26-03-2014): http://www.moldova.org/latin-script-schools-transnistria-feel-ignored-moldovan-leadership/ 162 Moldova.org: Campaign “Save Romanian-language schools in Transnistria” needs you! (03-05-2014) http://www.moldova.org/campaign-save-romanian-language-schools-transnistria-needs/ 163 Publika: Тирасполь не гарантирует, что школы с преподаванием на госязыке продолжат существованиe (01-03-2014): http://ru.publika.md/link_1232881.html 164 Infotag: European Parliament passes resolution on Moldova-run schools in Transnistria (07-02-2014): http://www.infotag.md/rebelion-en/184290/ 165 IPN: Russia faces penalties in case of Latin-script Transnistrian schools (01-04-2014): http://www.ipn.md/en/politica/60970 166 TeleRadio Moldova: Russia criticizes EP resolution on Transnistria educational institutions with teaching in Romanian (13-02-2014): http://trm.md/en/politic/rusia-critica-rezolutia-pe-cu-privire-la-institutiile-de- invatamant-cu-predare-in-romana-din-stanga-nistrului/ 45

3.4. The creation of a national Transnistrian identity

In the beginning of the 1990s, the civic identity of Transnistria was constructed against the image of the pro-Romanian Moldovan identity. The de facto state was created as the only possible way to resist the domination of Moldova and to defend the rights of ethnic minorities. Opposed to of Moldova proper, which presumably discriminated citizens of Slavic and Turkish descent, in the beginning the PMR was constituted as a multi-ethnic state.167 Even though the Transnistrian civic identity had to be ethnically neutral, ethnicity gradually became important as an identity marker during the process of nation-building. The necessity to create a homogenised Transnistrian identity was at the cost of the accent on multi-ethnicity. To a large extent, the Transnistrian identity is based on Soviet values and the Russian language, and the stereotyping of the Moldovan-Romanian language and culture has played a role in it.168 Since its unofficial independence, Transnistria has established its own state symbols and structures: the breakaway region has a constitution, an elected president and parliament, a judicial system, border guards, its own currency, a national flag (almost identical to the flag of the former MSSR) and an anthem. Its citizens could easily imagine a Transnistrian nation in daily life. The construction of a national Transnistrian identity could be regarded as the next step in maintaining the semi-independence and justifying the separatist allocutions. Clear borders and border control physically create a Transnistrian region and special events and monuments (e.g. День Победы, Victory Day, and the remembrance of the Great Patriotic War) create a feeling of belonging to a Transnistrian state. The Soviet histories have been juxtaposed to the histories that teachers at the other side of the Dniester teach. The focus of classes is on Transnistria’s history within the Soviet- Union and Moldova’s link to Greater Romania is often minimised. Furthermore, many symbols of the Transnistrian national identity can be seen as juxtaposition against connections of the Moldovan state with Romania and, increasingly, the European Union. High taxes for the import of wine and other products from Moldova have been intended to encourage an affiliation with Transnistrian products and, consequently, Transnistrian nationhood. Other celebrations and symbols can be seen as a way to forge a unique Transnistrian identity, for instance, Independence Day on September 2nd.169 The past few years, several elements contributed to a new way of nation-building in Transnistria, the most important of which are the election of a new Transnistrian president, the political pressure in the 5+2 talks and the growing importance of the internet as an information source.170 Especially among the Slavic population, nostalgic references to Soviet times have mentally made identification with the Transnistrian state possible. The physical isolation from the Moldovan citizens on the right bank of the river also explains the success of Transnistrian nation building. Since the unofficial independence, access to non-Russian or non-Transnistrian information

167 Joris Wagemakers, ‘National identity in Transnistria: a global perspective on the formation and evolution of a ‘resistance identity’ (May 2014), 50-55. 168 Ibidem. 169 Michael Bobick, ‘Profits of disorder: images of the Transnistrian Moldovan Republic’ (2011), 239-265. 170 Wagemakers, 50-55. 46 has been limited.171 The majority of the Transnistrian population strongly identified with the Russian language, which is why the region is psychologically more oriented toward Russia.172 From 2012 onwards, Shevchuk’s policies stressed the consolidation of the Transnistrian nationhood. Because of the increasing importance of internet and the growing number of young Transnistrian studying abroad, the isolation as a nation-building strategy is not executable anymore in the current context. Most citizens, moreover, especially those who were born around 1990 and grew up after the collapse of the Soviet Union, recognise the Transnistrian nationhood and identify themselves with it. Since nationalists, who pursue unification with Romania, have been largely marginalised as a political force in Moldova, the country’s connections with Romania have become less effective to establish a Transnistrian resistance identity. In 2013, sociologist Joris Wagemakers interviewed inhabitants of Tiraspol, in order to investigate how Transnistrians create their national identity. The respondents, between 18 and 30 years old and of different ethnic backgrounds, had no active memories of life in the MSSR. Transnistrian citizens of ethnic Moldovan background were generally more sceptical and negative about Transnistrian statehood, mentioning the fictive, illegal character of the Transnistrian state. On the other hand, most inhabitants with a Slavic background supported the region and firmly claimed to be Transnistrian citizens. When explaining the differences between Moldova and Transnistria and formulating their image of Transnistrian nationhood, some respondents of Slavic descent referred to the costs of living. Others mentioned that the cost of electricity and gas is much more expensive in Moldova. Also, references were made to pensions being higher in Transnistria, better social services and roads in Transnistria, although public transport was considered to be of better quality in Moldova proper. Economic factors and job opportunities are another aspect upon which Transnistrians define their feelings of national identity. Many respondents stated that the main difference between both sides of the Dniester is Moldova’s lean towards the EU and Transnistria’s connections with Russia and Russian culture. According to Wagemakers, the Transnistrian identity can still be seen as a resistance identity. The Transnistrian identity is not opposed to Moldovan culture, whether or not linked to the history of Greater Romania, but opposed to the Western world, into which Moldova is integrating and compromising its own identity.173

171 Promo-LEX: The media market and the access to media on the left bank of the Nistru (2012): www.promolex.md/upload/publications/en/doc_1340371914.pdf 172 Wagemakers, 50-55. 173 Ibidem. 47

Conclusion

There is a Moldovan linguistic conflict. Linguistic questions are the source of particularly political controversies. In daily life, however, Moldovans usually do not look for confrontations. Both ethnic Moldovans and (mostly Russian-speaking) minorities may experience communication difficulties and small irritations, but regular outbreaks of dissatisfaction or even violence because of language are rare. The linguistic conflict is heavier in Transnistria, however, where Latin-script Romanian schools are regularly discriminated by the de facto Transnistrian authorities. Besides a language conflict, the Moldovan Republic has an identity crisis: although the national identity is fully accepted as separate from the Romanian and the Russian one, the linguistic and common identities are more controversional. It seems that Moldova is one of the few countries in Eastern Europe in which major disputes exist among the elites over the basics of these identities. There is no consensus even over the name of the state language: Moldovan or Romanian? The country is confronted by the fact that this language barely functions as a fully accepted state language, since a large part of the Moldovan citizens has no or poor knowledge of it. Russian, on the other hand, is not an official language in Moldova, even though it is the language of science and economy and the lingua franca in urban areas. To compare: in Belgium, the linguistic identity is not the core problem of the country’s language conflict. While some might call them ‘Flemish’ and ‘Walloon’, Dutch and French function as fully accepted official languages, which cannot be said about Moldova’s state language. This is the most important difference between Belgium’s and Moldova’s linguistic conflicts. Language conflicts do not necessarily have to be caused by linguistic features. Several factors have caused the Moldovan language conflict and identity crisis. Historically, Moldova has always had a peripherical position as a borderland between the West and the East. The past millennium, various competing imperial powers have occupied the land which is now the Republic of Moldova. The country has been part of Russia, Romania and the Soviet Union in only two centuries, while each of these regimes had their own language and culture policies. In the 19th century, the Russian nation-building process began in the Bessarabian region. In the early 20th century, the Romanian language and identity were settled in the region west of Moldova and came into competition with the separate Moldovan identity of the Middle Ages, as propagated by the just established Soviet Union, which implemented a Russification policy to make the Russian language more important. Thus, in all these nation-building programs, the linguistic identity had a central place. The Soviet policy of modernizing the historical Moldovan identity was only partially successful, and left the Moldovan and Romanian identities in different situations upon Moldovan independence. With exclusionary identities and legacies of Soviet nationalities policies, tensions between the titular nationality and other groups are hard to avoid. The Soviet policy of establishing an exclusive ethno-cultural and linguistic ‘Moldovan’ identity has damaged the creation of an overarching, Moldovan identity at the state level. Being constantly dominated by other powers, the Moldovan people have developed an ‘inferiority complex’ which caused the identity crisis. From this follows that the linguistic conflict and the identity crisis are inextricably linked to each other: language has played and still plays a major role in uniting and dividing the Moldovan nation. The Romanian/Moldovan language had a dual function: it marked difference when the

48

Moldovan nation interacted with the Russian nation and it marked similarity in the interaction between Moldovans and Romanians, as Jenkins’s theory of similarity versus difference explains. The Soviet Era contributed to the establishment and strengthening of a Moldovan identity while the period of independence that followed after 1991 emphasised an identity crisis, due to the close contact that Moldova re-initiated with Romania, the new ‘significant other’. At the moment, two main identities (and political elites) have remained largely antagonistic: a pro-Russian Moldovan identity and a pro-Western Romanian identity. The identification with one of these language and identity groups in society hinders the development of an overarching Moldovan identity. Until today, this identity ‘competition’ is still unresolved. However, neither the nostalgic, relatively pro-Russian policies nor the idealistic, pro-Romanian challenges seem to raise much enthusiasm among the majority of Moldovans. The Moldovan national identity seems to have steadily consolidated into a reality in the 1990s. The meaning of this identity, however, remains uncertain as long as it rests on the fundament of an uncertain linguistic identity, which is still not revolved. The result of this is an unstable, complicated, divided and culturally complex Moldova. The country is possibly one of the most culturally complex European states to emerge from authoritarian communism. The unresolved conflict in the breakway region Transnistria, the last Soviet stronghold in Europe, makes the situation even more complex. Both Russia, refusing to lose its influence on the region and the ethnic Russian minority in Transnistria (many Transnistrians have a Russian passport, which provides an extra justification for Russia to interfere in Transnistrian affairs), and Moldova, which has huge economic interests there, are ‘pulling’ at the breakaway region from the East and West respectively. Through its economic and political support and the ongoing presence of its 14th army, Russia supports, arguably indirectly, the regime of the Transnistrian separatists. The Transnistrian identity, formerly oriented against Greater Romania, has changed into a resistance identity against the Western world in general. In this way, Russia can maintain concrete control over Moldova. The divide is made even clearer by the discrimination of Latin-script Romanian-speaking pupils. The Latin script is associated with support for unity with Moldova, while Russian and the Cyrillic alphabet are associated with Transnistria’s separatist goals. Therefore, the existence of Transnistria within the borders of Moldova threatens the well- established reforms in the rest of the country and radicalises political actors and educators who strive for more or less reforms. Despite the efforts, after twenty years Moldova is still not closer to conflict resolution. It seems that while Moldova proper is increasingly moving closer toward the EU, Transnistria is moving in the opposite direction towards the Eurasian customs-union. As a result, the linguistic conflict and the weak sense of common identity make Moldova’s wish for European integration more difficult. The country is torn between Russia and the West. In order to overcome the current economic and political situation, Moldovans first need to exit their identity crisis. At the moment, the tension is clearly being strained by the crisis in neighboring Ukraine. Moldova was among the last Soviet republics to declare independence, doing so only in August 1991 following Kiev's lead. Now, Moldova's future seems to be linked to Ukraine again. However, the signing of the Association Agreement with the EU is not more important for Moldova than its implementation after the parliamentary elections on November 30th. If another, non pro- European government coalition is formed, a different course with different consequences will most probably be followed.

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AllMoldova: If elections were held next Sunday, five parties would enter Parliament (21-05-2014): http://www.allmoldova.com/en/moldova-news/1249058238.html

AllMoldova: Official language becomes subject for heated discussions in Parliament (21-02-2014): http://www.allmoldova.com/en/moldova-news/politics/1249057680.html

APN: Язык в Молдове – больше, чем язык! (06-12-2013): http://www.apn.ru/publications/article30694.htm

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Infotag: European Parliament passes resolution on Moldova-run schools in Transnistria (07-02- 2014): http://www.infotag.md/rebelion-en/184290/

Infotag: Moldova refutes information about ban on Russian television channels (22-04-2014): http://www.infotag.md/politics-en/187515/

Infotag: Tiraspol leader suggests introducing Russian legislation in Transnistria (05-12-2013): http://www.infotag.md/rebelion-en/181448/

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IPN: Russia faces penalties in case of Latin-script Transnistrian schools (01-04-2014): http://www.ipn.md/en/politica/60970

Kommersant.md: Конституция Молдовы не идет на поправку (25-12-2013): http://www.kommersant.md/node/24078

Library of Congress: ‘Moldova: Romanian recognized as the official language’ (23-12-2013): http://www.loc.gov/lawweb/servlet/lloc_news?disp3_l205403800_text

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Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic: Nina Shtanski on the Situation with the Moldovan Latin-Script Schools (28-02-2014): http://mfa-pmr.org/index.php?newsid=3874

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Moldova.org: Depoliticization of economy by ensuring cooperation between banks of Nistru (15-05- 2014), http://www.allmoldova.com/en/moldova-news/1249058220.html

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Moldova.org: Transnistria considers broadening its state symbols (05-05-2009): http://www.moldova.org/transnistria-considers-broadening-its-state-symbols-200548-eng/

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Moldova.org: Учебники «молдавского языка» в Приднестровье идентичны учебникам румынского языка в Кишиневе! Объяснения автора (04-03-2014): http://www.moldova.org/учебники-молдавского-языка-в-придн/

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Новости Приднестровиья: Россия и Приднестровье развивают взаимодействие в сфере культуры (02-07-2014): http://novostipmr.com/ru/news/14-07-02/rossiya-i-pridnestrove- razvivayut-vzaimodeystvie-v-sfere-kultury

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Vedomosti: Приднестровье хочет войти в состав России (18-03-2014): http://www.vedomosti.md/news/pridnestrove-hochet-vojti-v-sostav-rossii

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Attachments

Attachment I – English surveys and results

Respondent 1: 1. Age: 25 2. Sex: male 3. Place of residence: Chişinău 4. Nationality: Moldovan 5. Occupation: political scientist 6. What is your native tongue? Moldovan 7. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, English, Romanian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Moldovan 10. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Moldovan 11. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 12. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? Yes 13. Do people in your part of Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Moldovan 14. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Moldovan 16. Do you think that Russian should also be an official language of Moldova? No 17. Do you think that there exists a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 18. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? No

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19. If yes, in what way? (could you give examples of difficult situations?) - 20. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? Yes 21. If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? - 22. Do you think that a person’s mother tongue determines his/her identity? Yes 23. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 24. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? No, we are a different nation with a part of history the same. 25. In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? -

Respondent 2: 1. Age: 23 2. Sex: male 3. Place of residence: Chişinău 4. Nationality: Moldovan 5. Occupation: political scientist 6. What is your native tongue? Romanian 7. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, English 8. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Romanian 9. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Romanian 10. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Romanian, Russian 11. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 12. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? Yes 13. Do people in your part of Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Romanian, depends on situation. 14. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language?

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I think that Romanian needs to be the official language. 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Romanian, of course. 16. Do you think that Russian should also be an official language of Moldova? No 17. Do you think that there exists a linguistic conflict in Moldova? No 18. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? - 19. If yes, in what way? (could you give examples of difficult situations?) - 20. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? Yes 21. If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? - 22. Do you think that a person’s mother tongue determines his/her identity? No 23. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Maybe 24. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? Yes 25. In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? No

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Attachment II - Russian survey and results

Respondent 3 1. Возраст: 25 2. Местожительство: Кишинев 3. Национальность: молдаванка 4. Профессия: менеджер 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? молдавский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский, молдавский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский, молдавский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? русский, молдавский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? на русском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? Молдавский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) не влияет 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? молдавский 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? No answer.

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20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? к России

Respondent 4: 1. Возраст: 24 2. Местожительство: Бэлць, Республика Молдова 3. Национальность: Молдованин 4. Профессия: журналист 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? румынский, русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? румынский, русский, английский, польский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? румынский, русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? румынский, русский, английский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? румынский, русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? на румынском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? румынский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? нет 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? румынский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? нет 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) - 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? да 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует?

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да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Нет; нет

Respondent 5: 1. Возраст: 57 let 2. Местожительство: Chisinev 3. Национальность russkaia 4. Профессия pedagog 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? russkii 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? russkii, rumânskii, franţuzskii 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? russkii, rumânskii 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? rumânskii 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? russkii, rumânskii 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? DA 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? net 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? na rumânskom 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? rumânskii 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? NET 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? Rumânskii - da. 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? net 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) - 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? russkoi

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19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? net 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? net

Respondent 6: 1. Возраст: 44 2. Местожительство: Kишинев 3. Национальность: мд 4. Профессия: водитель 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? мд 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? мд, рус, укр, фр, 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? рус, мд, укр 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? рус 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? рус мд 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? на государственном 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? румынский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? нет и ни в коем случае 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? румынский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? искуственый и как политический инструмент 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) нет не влияет. я рад что мой ребенок знает румынский о не русский 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете?

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да молдавский 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Нет

Respondent 7: 1. Возраст: 26 2. Местожительство: бельцы 3. Национальность: Молдованка 4. Профессия: Юрист 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? Русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? Русский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? Русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? Русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? Русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? Нет 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? Нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? На румынском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? Оба 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? В том числе 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? Румынский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? Да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) Очень влияет, проблема устроиться на работу. Зачем тогда нужны были в институтах

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русские группы, если сейчас русскоговорящие студенты не могут устроиться на работу... 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Да 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Несмотря на то,что мы относимся все к романской ветви,я считаю что есть молдавская идентичность 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Родной язык русский,но я не испытываю чувство привязанности к России. Я патриот своей Родины-Молдовы вне зависимости на каком языке здесь разговаривают!

Respondent 8: 1. Возраст: 30 лет 2. Местожительство: Молдова, Бельцы 3. Национальность: молдованин 4. Профессия: юрист 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? Русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский,молдавский,украинский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский,молдавский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? русский,молдавский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? и на русском и на молдавском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса?

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оба равны 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) да влияет,непонимание вокруг и рост агрессии с разных сторн 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? да считаю 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? да без сомнений 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? я считаю что мы должны с Россией жить как братские народы,с Румынией такого не было и быть не может,мы молдаване исторически часть русского мира

Respondent 9: 1. Возраст: 25 2. Местожительство: Kишинев 3. Национальность: Молдованин 4. Профессия: хирург 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? молдавский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский, английский, молдавский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? молдавский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? молдавский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? молдавский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? на русском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык?

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да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? молдавский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) нет. я стараюсь не зацикливаться на такой ерунде. 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? да 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? ни к кому привязанности не испытываю

Respondent 10: 1. Возраст: 18 2. Местожительство: Пока что Россия 3. Национальность: Молдован 4. Профессия: Учусь на юриста 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? Молдавский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? Русский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? Молдавский/Русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? Русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? Русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? Да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? Нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? Молдавском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? Молдавский

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14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? Нет 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? No answer. 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? Нет 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) - 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Да 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Испытываю чувство привязанности к Молдавии

Respondent 11: 1. Возраст: 22 2. Местожительство: Молдова 3. Национальность: гагауз 4. Профессия: студент 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? гагаузский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский/ молдавский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? гагаузский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? на русском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык?

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молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? вторым государственным 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? русский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) нет 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? родились в Молдове, значит молдоване 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? нет

Respondent 12: 1. Возраст: 35 2. Местожительство: Kишинёв 3. Национальность: mолдован 4. Профессия: преподаватель 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? Русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? Русский, молдавский, немецкий 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? Русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? Русский, молдавский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? Русский, молдавский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? Да, только из уважения!!! 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? не думаю 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? Русском

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13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? Молдова - Молдавский!!! 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? ДА!! 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? НЕТ! 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? ДА! ДА! ДА! Почти каждый день встречаю!!!! 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) Естественно! 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? НЕТ - Я РУССКИЙ!!! 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Тупой национализм - существует!!! 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Я РУССКИЙ!!! В ближайшее будущее уезжаю в Россию!!!

Respondent 13: 1. Возраст: 54 2. Местожительство: Кишинев 3. Национальность: молдаванин 4. Профессия: военный 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? молдавский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский, молдавский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? на языке собеседника 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? да 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично?

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русский 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? молдавский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да, искусственный 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) No answer. 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? да 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? никакой привязанности к Румынии

Respondent 14: 1. Возраст: 53 2. Местожительство: Молдова 3. Национальность: молдованин 4. Профессия: юрист 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? молдавский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? руско - молдав. 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? молдавском,руский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? стараюсь на молдавском но если говорят на руском отвечаю на руском 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? а как вы думаете.

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12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? есть города где преобладает русский есть молдавский 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? какой в Конституции страны 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? нет не считаю правильно будет если русский язык не запретят и будет как свободным в общении независимо от нации. 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? В конституции написано молдавский я его считаю что у него больше статуса для страны 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) например я считаю что если Молдова отелилась от СССР и взяла статус суверенитета то надо было сразу претендовать на регистрации молдавского языка с латинской графикой в хартии языков мира а не какой-то румынский какой нам навязывают продажные депутаты 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Да, я горжусь что я родился в Молдавии и считаю себя какавы пишите в анкете "молдавскийй" 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? нет 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? я чувствую привязанность к своей стран то-есь к Республики Молдова, и не подумайте что я националист я люблю всех людей доброй воли, и ешё я очень люблю свой народ. молдоване очень трудолюбивый и гостеприимный.

Respondent 15: 1. Возраст: 64 2. Местожительство: Romania 3. Национальность: Românca 4. Профессия: Bibliotecar – bibliograf 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? Limba română 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? No answer. 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? Română

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8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? Română 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? Română, rusă 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? Da 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? Nu 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? Şi una, și alta 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? Limba română 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? Nu 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? În Moldova, terbuie să fie limba română mai întai de toate celelalte. 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? Da, din cauze rușilor, care ignoreaza să invete limba română, deși locuisc in Moldova 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) Mă deranjază că pe pământul strămoșilor mei, ei, rușii, veniți de prin alte părti, ne impun nouă, băștinașilor, să le cunoaștem limba. 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Român 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Nu! 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Da, sunt legată de România, deorece părinții mei s-au căsătorit, au locuit în România, înainte ca Rusia, URSS, să ocupe Moldova! Moldova a fost, este și va fi – pământ românesc!

Respondent 16: 1. Возраст: 61 2. Местожительство: Кишинёв 3. Национальность: молдаванин 4. Профессия: Педагог 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? Русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно?

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Молдавский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? Молдавский, русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? Молдавский, русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? Да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? Нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? 50 на 50 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? Молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? Да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? Молдавский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) госслужащие иногда игнорируют обращения граждан на негосударственном языке 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Да, я молдаванин 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Молдавская идентичность существует безусловно и как минимум на 500 лет раньше чем румынская 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Я не испытываю чувство привязанности ни к румынам ни к русским.

Respondent 17: 1. Возраст: 38 2. Местожительство: Chisinev 3. Национальность: румынское 4. Профессия: администратор 5. Kакой ваш родной язык?

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Румынский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? Русский,французский,итальянский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? Румынский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? Румынский,русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? Румынский,русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? Иногда 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? Нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? На румынском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? Румынский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? В России, да. В других странах должны решать титульная нация. 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? Румынский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? Нет 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) Русские живущие в Молдове из принципа не учат язык титульного народа.. 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Рyмын 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Как региональное название 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Румынский и конечно в Румынии живут наши родственники.

Respondent 18: 1. Возраст: 28 2. Местожительство: Тирасполь

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3. Национальность: русская 4. Профессия: инженер 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? нет 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? да 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? русском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? русский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? русский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) Мы жители ПМР и хотим быть независимыми. 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Нет. Я - русская 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? не знаю 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Да. Я люблю Россию и считаю жителей России своими братьями Respondent 19: 1. Возраст: 24 2. Местожительство: Молдова

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3. Национальность: молдован 4. Профессия: бизнес-админисирирование 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? Молдавский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? Молдавский, русский, украинский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? Русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? Русский, молдавский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? Молдавский, русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? Не всегда 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? Нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? Молдавском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? Молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? 2 государственный 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? Нет 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? Да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) No answer. 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Молдавский 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Привязанность к молдове Respondent 20: 1. Возраст: 27 2. Местожительство: Кишинёв

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3. Национальность: русский 4. Профессия: менеджер по прoдажам 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский, молдавский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский, молдавский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? русский, молдавский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? на русском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? молдавский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? нет 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) конфликта как такового нет, но бывают случае что при спорах люди переходят на свой родной язык, т.к. легче на нём выражаться 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Все граждане Молдовы - молдаване, вне зависимости от национальности. 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Мой родной язык русский, и естественна связь с Россией и русскоговорящими, но родиной считаю Молдову.

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Respondent 21: 1. Возраст: 30 2. Местожительство: Тараклия, Молдова 3. Национальность: гагауз 4. Профессия: пожарный 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? Русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? Русский, гагаузский, болгарский, молдавский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? Русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? Русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? Русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? Нет 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? Нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? Русско-молдавском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? Молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? Да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? Да 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? Да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) Пока не очень 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Да 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? Нет; нет

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Respondent 22: 1. Возраст: 24 2. Местожительство: Кишинев 3. Национальность: эстонка 4. Профессия: дизайнер 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? нет 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? русский 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? молдавский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? нет 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) нет, до сих пор я не учавстсовала в таких конфликтах 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? Я считаю себя молдованкой потому что я тут родилась 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? Да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России?

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К России есть такое

Respondent 23: 1. Возраст: 41 2. Местожительство: Kишинев 3. Национальность: молдованка 4. Профессия: бухгалтер 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский, молдавский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? да 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? русском 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? молдавский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? молдавский 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? русский 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) No answer. 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? молдавский 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? да

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20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? да

Respondent 24: 1. Возраст: 31 2. Местожительство: Moldova 3. Национальность: moldovanca 4. Профессия: manager 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? moldavskii 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? russkii 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? moldavskii, russkii 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? russkii, moldavskii 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? russkii, moldavskii 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? net 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? net 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? na russkom 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? moldavskii 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? ne protiv 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? ne dumaiu 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? da 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) na menea on ne vliiaet 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? moldovanca 19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует?

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- 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? k Ruminii nikakoi priviazonosti, k Rossii - da

Respondent 25: 1. Возраст: 59 2. Местожительство: Молдова 3. Национальность: еврей 4. Профессия: фотограф 5. Kакой ваш родной язык? русский 6. Какие языки вы говорите свободно? русский 7. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите дома? русский 8. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в школе/на работе? русский 9. Какой/какие язык(и) вы говорите в общественной ситуации (в магазине, в супермаркете, у врача, у парикмахера и т.п.)? русский 10. Язык который вы говорите зависит от языка, который ваш собеседник говорит? русский 11. Вы против говорить на языком, который не ваш родной язык? нет 12. В Молдавии, люди говорят больше на румынском/молдавском языке или на русском публично? молдавский, русский 13. По Молдавской Конституции (1994), «молдавский язык» официальный язык Молдавии. В декабре 2013-ого года, Конституционный суд решил что «румынский язык» - официальный язык. По-вашему, какой из этих языков должен быть официальный язык? молдавский, русский 14. Что вы думаете: русский язык должен быть официальный язык? да 15. Румынский/молдавский или русский язык имеет больше статуса? оба 16. Вы думаете что в Молдавии есть лингвистический конфликт? да 17. Если да: этот конфликт влияет вашу жизнь? Каким образом? (вы можете давать примеры?) часто не понимаю, что приходится подписывать, т.к. документы только на молдавском 18. Вы считаете себя «молдавский»? Если нет: как вы себя считаете? нет, я русскоязычный

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19. Вы думаете что «молдавская идентичность» существует? да 20. Если румынский/молдавский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к Румынии и жителям Румынии? Если русский язык ваш родной язык: вы испытываете чувство привязанности к России и жителям России? да, чувствую свою привязанность к России и к Молдове

Attachment III – English translation of Russian survey and results

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Respondent 3: 1. Age: 25 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Moldovan (female) 4. Occupation: manager 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Moldovan 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian, Moldovan 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian, Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian, Moldovan 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Moldovan 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) No influence 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Moldovan 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? No answer.

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20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? To Russia

Respondent 4: 1. Age: 24 2. Place of residence: Bălţi, Republic of Moldova 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: journlist 5. What is your native tongue? Romanian, Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Romanian, Russian, English, Polish 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Romanian, Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Romanian, Russian, English 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Romanian, Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Romanian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Romanian 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? No 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Romanian 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? No 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) -

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18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? No; no

Respondent 5: 1. Age: 57 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Russian (female) 4. Occupation: pedagogue 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, Romanian, French 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian, Romanian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Romanian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian, Romanian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Romanian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Romanian 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? No 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Romanian - yes 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova?

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No 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) - 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Russian 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? No 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? No

Respondent 6: 1. Age: 44 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: driver 5. What is your native tongue? Moldovan 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Moldovan, Russian, Ukrainian, French 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian, Moldovan, Ukrainian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian, Moldovan 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? in the state language 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Romanian 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Not in any situation

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15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Romanian 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Artificial and as a political instrument 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) No, it does not influence my life. I am glad that my child knows Romanian and not Russian 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes, Moldovan 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? No

Respondent 7: 1. Age: 26 2. Place of residence: Bălţi 3. Nationality: Moldovan (female) 4. Occupation: jurist 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? No 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Romanian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language?

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Both 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Romanian 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) It really influences my life, it is a problem to find a job. Why was it necessary that there were Russian groups in educational institutions, why now Russian-speaking students cannot find a job. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Despite the fact that we all relate to Romanian roots, I think that there is a Moldovan identity. 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? My native tongue is Russian, but I don’t experience the feeling of connection to Russia. I am a patriot of my own motherland Moldova, dependent on which language they speak here!

Respondent 8: 1. Age: 30 2. Place of residence: Bălţi, Moldova 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: jurist 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, Moldovan, Ukrainian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian, Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian, Moldovan 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes

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11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Both in Russian and in Moldovan 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Both have the same status 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) Yes it influences my life, misunderstanding and the increase of agression from different sides 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes without doubt 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? I think that we should live with Russia as brother people. There wasn’t such thing with Romania and there won’t be: we Moldovans are historically part of thwe Russian world.

Respondent 9: 1. Age: 25 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: surgeon 5. What is your native tongue? Moldovan 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, Enlish, Moldovan 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Moldovan 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Moldovan

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9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Moldovan 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Moldovan 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) No, I try not be involved in that nonsense. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? I do not feel any connected to anyone.

Respondent 10: 1. Age: 18 2. Place of residence: now in Russia 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: I study to become a jurist 5. What is your native tongue? Moldovan 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home?

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Moldovan, Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Moldovan 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? No 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? No answer. 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? No 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) - 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? I feel connected to Moldova.

Respondent 11: 1. Age: 22 2. Place of residence: Moldova 3. Nationality: Gagauz 4. Occupation: student 5. What is your native tongue? Gagauz

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6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, Moldovan 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Gagauz 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? It should be the second state language 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Russian 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) No 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? I was born in Moldova, so Moldovan. 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? No

Respondent 12: 1. Age: 35 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male)

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4. Occupation: teacher 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, Moldovan, German 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian, Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian, Moldovan 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes, only out of respect! 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? Don’t think so 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldova – Moldovan! 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes! 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? No! 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes! Yes! Yes! I have to deal with it almost every day! 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) Of course! 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? No – I am Russian! 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Stupid nationalism exists! 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? I am Russian! In the near future I’m going away to Russia!

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Respondent 13: 1. Age: 54 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: soldier 5. What is your native tongue? Moldovan 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian, Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? In the language of the person I speak with 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? Yes 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Moldovan 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes, artificial 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) No answer. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes

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20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? I don’t feel any connection to Romania.

Respondent 14: 1. Age: 53 2. Place of residence: Moldova 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: jurist 5. What is your native tongue? Moldovan 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian, Moldovan 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian, Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? I try to speak in Moldovan but if they speak in Russian I answer in Russian. 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? What do you think 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? There are towns where Russian prevails and towns where Moldovan prevails. 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? The one that is in the Constitution of the country. 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? No, I don’t think it will be correct if the Russian language is not banned and if it will be free in communication, independent of the nation. 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? In the Constitution it says Moldovan, I think that the Constitution has more status in a country. 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?)

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For example, I think that Moldova emerged from the Soviet Union and took the status of sovereignity that it was necessary to immediately qualify for registration of the Moldovan language in the Latin script in the Charter of World Languages, and it is not some Romanian that corrups deputies impose on us. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes, I am proud that I was born in Moldova and I consider myself what you call in your survey ‘Moldovan’. 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? No 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? I feel connected to my country, that is the Republic of Moldova, and don’t think that I am a nationalist. I love all people of goodwill, and I love my people a lot. Moldovans are a very hardworking and hospitable people.

Respondent 15: 1. Age: 64 2. Place of residence: Romania 3. Nationality: Romanian 4. Occupation: Librarian 5. What is your native tongue? Romanian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? No answer. 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Romanian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Romanian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Romanian, Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? The one or the other 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language?

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Romanian 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? No 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? In Moldova, the Romanian language must be above everything else. 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes, because of the Russians, who ignore to learn Romanian, although they live in Moldova. 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) It bothers me that the Russians came from other lands to the land of my ancestors. We require new natives to know the language 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Romanian 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? No 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? Yes, I am related to Romania because my parents married and lived in Romania, before Russia occupied Moldova. Moldova was, is and will be Romanian land!

Respondent 16: 1. Age: 61 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: pedagogue 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Moldovan 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Moldovan, Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Moldovan, Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public?

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50%-50% 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Moldovan 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) Civil servants sometimes ignore the complaints of citizens in a non-state language. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes, I am Moldovan. 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? The Moldovan identity definitely exists and oritiginated at least 500 years earlier than the Romanian. 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? I don’t feel connected to either Romanian nor Russia.

Respondent 17: 1. Age: 38 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Romanian 4. Occupation: administrator 5. What is your native tongue? Romanian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, French, Italian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Romanian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Romanian, Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Romanian, Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks?

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Sometimes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Romanian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Romanian 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? In Russia, yes. In other countries they should solve the titular nation. 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Romanian 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? No 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) Russians living in Moldova do not learn the language of the titular people out of principle… 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Romanian 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? As a regional designation 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? Romanian and of course in Romania live our relatives.

Respondent 18: 1. Age: 28 2. Place of residence: Tiraspol 3. Nationality: Russian (female) 4. Occupation: engineer 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian

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9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? No 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? Yes 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Russian 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Russian 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) We residents of the PMR want to be independent. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? No. I am Russian. 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? I don’t know. 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? Yes. I love Russia and I consider inhabitants of Russia as my brothers.

Respondent 19: 1. Age: 24 2. Place of residence: Moldova 3. Nationality: Moldovan (male) 4. Occupation: business-administrator 5. What is your native tongue? Moldovan 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Moldovan, Russian, Ukrainian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home?

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Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian, Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Moldovan, Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Not always 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Moldovan 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Two state languages 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? No 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) No answer. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Moldovan 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? Connection to Moldova.

Respondent 20: 1. Age: 27 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Russian 4. Occupation: sales manager 5. What is your native tongue? Russian

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6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, Moldovan 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian, Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian, Moldovan 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Moldovan 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? No 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) There is no such conflict, but there are cases that in arguements people switch to their native tongue, because it is easier to express yourself in this. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? All citizens of Moldova are Moldovans, regardsless of nationality. 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? My native tongue is Russian, and it is the natural bond with Russia and Russian-speakers, but I consider Moldova my motherland.

Respondent 21:

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1. Age: 30 2. Place of residence: Taraclia, Moldova 3. Nationality: Gagauz 4. Occupation: fireman 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, Gagauz, Bulgarian, Moldovan 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? No 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Russian-Moldovan 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Yes 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) Right now not so much 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Yes 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people?

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No; no.

Respondent 22: 1. Age: 24 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Estonian 4. Occupation: designer 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? No 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Moldovan 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? No 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) No, up to this moment I did not take part in these conflicts. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? I consider myself Moldovan because I was born here. 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes

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20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? To Russia

Respondent 23: 1. Age: 41 2. Place of residence: Chişinău 3. Nationality: Moldovan (female) 4. Occupation: accountant 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian, Moldovan 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Yes 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Moldovan 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Russian 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) No answer.

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18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Moldovan 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? Yes

Respondent 24: 1. Age: 31 2. Place of residence: Moldova 3. Nationality: Moldovan (female) 4. Occupation: manager 5. What is your native tongue? Moldovan 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Moldovan, Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian, Moldovan 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian, Moldovan 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? No 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? In Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? I am not against 15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? I don’t think so 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova?

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Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) It does not influence my life 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? Moldovan 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? - 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? I do not feel a connection to Romania, but to Russia I do.

Respondent 25: 1. Age: 59 2. Place of residence: Moldova 3. Nationality: Jewish 4. Occupation: photographer 5. What is your native tongue? Russian 6. Which languages are you able to speak fluently? Russian 7. Which language(s) do you speak at home? Russian 8. Which language(s) do you speak at school or at work? Russian 9. Which language(s) do you speak in a public situation (in a shop, supermarket, at the dentist,hairdresser, etc.)? Russian 10. Does the language you speak depend on the language your conversation partner speaks? Russian 11. Do you mind speaking in a foreign language (so not in your mother tongue)? No 12. Do people in Moldova speak more in Romanian/Moldovan or in Russian in public? Moldovan, Russian 13. According to the Constitution of 1994, “Moldovan” is the official language of Moldova. In December 2013, the Constitutional Court has ruled that the "Moldovan" language will be replaced by Romanian as the official tongue. According to you, which of these languages should be the official language? Moldovan, Russian 14. Do you think that Russian should be an official language of Moldova? Yes

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15. Do you think that either the Romanian/Moldovan language or the Russian language has more ‘status’? Both 16. Do you think that there is a linguistic conflict in Moldova? Yes 17. If yes: does this conflict affect your daily life? If yes, in what way? (could you give examples?) Often I don’t know what I have to write down: documents are only in Moldovan. 18. Do you consider yourself to be ‘Moldovan’? If ‘no’: the identity of which people or nation do you consider yourself to have? No, I am a Russian-speaker. 19. Do you think that there exists a ‘Moldovan identity’? Yes 20. In case Romanian/Moldovan is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to the country of Romania and the Romanian people? In case Russian is your mother tongue: do you feel connected to country of Russia and the Russian people? Yes, I feel a connection to Russia and to Moldova.

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