Linguistic Reconstruction: Case of Polynesian
Linguistics 203 10/8/2010 Polynesia
Polynesia
Polynesian Migration
Polynesian Languages
• Little contact with outside languages, so we expect little blending
• No writing system before Westerners, thus no written documentation of earlier language(s)
• How can we reconstruct the proto language? Polynesian Languages
• All have significant similarities not shared with other languages. • cognates – words descended from a common source.
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian gloss manu manu manu manu manu ‘bird’ ika iʔa iʔa ika iʔa ‘fish’ kai ʔai ʔai kai ʔai ‘to eat’ tapu tapu tapu tapu kapu ‘forbidden’ vaka vaʔa vaʔa waka waʔa ‘canoe’ fohe foe hoe hoe hoe ‘oar’ mata mata mata mata maka ‘eye’ ʔuta uta uta uta uka ‘bush’ toto toto toto toto koko ‘blood’ (Table 13-1) Sound Correspondences
• We look for sound correspondences to identify what sound was in the proto language Sound Correspondences
• What correspondences can we find here?
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian gloss manu manu manu manu manu ‘bird’ ika iʔa iʔa ika iʔa ‘fish’ kai ʔai ʔai kai ʔai ‘to eat’ tapu tapu tapu tapu kapu ‘forbidden’
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian m- m- m- m- m- -n- -n- -n- -n- -n- -k- -ʔ- -ʔ- -k- -ʔ- t- t- t- t- k- -p- -p- -p- -p- -p- Sound Correspondences
• What correspondences can we find here?
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian gloss vaka vaʔa vaʔa waka waʔa ‘canoe’ fohe foe hoe hoe hoe ‘oar’ ʔuta uta uta uta uka ‘bush’ taŋi taŋi taʔi taŋi kani ‘to cry’
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian v- v- v- w- w- -k- -ʔ- -ʔ- -k- -ʔ- f- f- h- h- h- -h- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- ʔ- Ø- Ø- Ø- Ø- t- t- t- t- k- -ŋ- -ŋ- -ʔ- -ŋ- -n- Sound Correspondences
• Here are all the consonantal sound correspondences from Tables 13-1 and 13-2 in the book.
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian m- m- m- m- m- -n- -n- -n- -n- -n- -k- -ʔ- -ʔ- -k- -ʔ- t- t- t- t- k- -p- -p- -p- -p- -p- v- v- v- w- w- f- f- h- h- h- -h- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- ʔ- Ø- Ø- Ø- Ø- -ŋ- -ŋ- -ʔ- -ŋ- -n- Proto Polynesian Sound Inventory
• Which sound is the proto sound? • General rule: it is the form requiring the least change
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-sound m- m- m- m- m- *m- -n- -n- -n- -n- -n- *-n- t- t- t- t- k- *t- Proto Polynesian Sound Inventory
• We can represent this as follows:
• In Hawaiian, */t/ became /k/. This is shown with the following rule: *t > k Proto Polynesian Sound Inventory
• What do we do in the following case?
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-sound m- m- m- m- m- *m- -n- -n- -n- -n- -n- *-n- t- t- t- t- k- *t- -ŋ- -ŋ- -ʔ- -ŋ- -n- Proto Polynesian Sound Inventory
• What do we do in the following case?
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-sound m- m- m- m- m- *m- -n- -n- -n- -n- -n- *-n- t- t- t- t- k- *t- -ŋ- -ŋ- -ʔ- -ŋ- -n- *-ŋ-
• In Hawaiian, /n/ and /ŋ/ have merged.
Proto Polynesian Sound Inventory
• What if we reconstructed *-n-
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-sound m- m- m- m- m- *m- -n- -n- -n- -n- -n- *-n- t- t- t- t- k- *t- -ŋ- -ŋ- -ʔ- -ŋ- -n- *-n-
• We would have to explain the following: • *-n- > -n- • *-n- > -ŋ- (in the same languages) Proto Polynesian Sound Inventory
• Caveats: – A sound may have changed the same way in all daughter languages; if so, it came from a phonetically similar sound • What might /m/ come from in such a case?
– Borrowed words might have sounds not in native words, or not in the same position • In Tongan, *s > h; however, /s/ is found in the loanword /sikaleti/
Proto Polynesian Sound Inventory
• Caveats: – A language may have borrowed a word while related dialects did not. – A language may have borrowed a word from a related dialects. Subgroups
• Some daughter languages are more closely related than others. Why? Language A /sahag/
Language P Language X *h > ∅ *s > h /saag/ /hahag/
Language Q Language R Language Y Language Z | *a > o *g > k | /saag/ /soog/ /hahak/ /hahag/
Subgroups
• Tongan retains /h/, unlike the other languages. • The other languages retain /l/ or /r/, unlike Tongan. • Niuean shares these similarities with Tongan. They belong together in a subgroup of Proto Polynesian. Subgroups
Reconstructing Words
• To find proto forms, we look for reflexes (i.e. cognates) in all subgroups. • Most plausible form based on sound correspondences is considered the proto form.
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-sound -k- -ʔ- -ʔ- -k- -ʔ- v- v- v- w- w-
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-form vaka vaʔa vaʔa waka waʔa Reconstructing Words
• Assume we had found the following sound correspondences: Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-sound -k- -ʔ- -ʔ- -k- -ʔ- *-k- v- v- v- w- w- *v-
• What should we reconstruct? Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-form vaka vaʔa vaʔa waka waʔa Reconstructing Words
• Assume we had found the following sound correspondences: Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-sound -k- -ʔ- -ʔ- -k- -ʔ- *-k- v- v- v- w- w- *v-
• What should we reconstruct? Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-form vaka vaʔa vaʔa waka waʔa *vaka Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues • Words that can be reconstructed tell us about the culture and origins of the ancestors of current language speakers. Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues • Many terms related to ocean = people lived near water • Topographic features found on large volcanic islands = people probably didn’t live in atolls or raised coral islands Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues • Many terms related to sea animals • Not as many related to land animals Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues • Bats and owls don’t exist in Tahiti, Easter Island or the Marquesas; probably wasn’t original homeland Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues • Snakes only found east of Samoa; homeland probably was not west of Samoa Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues • Pigs, though not native, existed on Polynesian islands, except for Niue, Easter Island; also New Zealand (Maori) Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues • Proto-Polynesian word for ‘owl’ *lulu
• Hawaiian word for ‘owl’ pueo
• Marquesas have no owls. Ancient Polynesians likely went to Marquesas, lost word for owl over time, then went to Hawaii and needed a new word for owl. Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues
Reconstructed Vocabulary Cultural Clues • Many words for fishing, cultivating.
• Three words for hunting: *fana ‘to shoot with a bow’ *welo ‘to spear’ *seu ‘to snare with a net’ Summary
• Reconstruction looks for sound correspondences in cognates of related languages to arrive at the proto sounds.
• Reconstruction of vocabulary relies on cognates and sound correspondences.
• Not only does historical linguistics help understand language change, origins and relations, it also provides clues about past cultures. Reconstruction: The Comparative Method • Requires a number of related languages • Based on assumption that sound change is regular Reconstruction: The Comparative Method 1. Compile a set of cognates and eliminate borrowings 2. Determine sound correspondences 3. Reconstruct a sound for each position 4. Once sounds correspondences are set up, you can reconstruct proto forms. Reconstruction: Choosing Which Sound to Reconstruct 1. Make a sound correspondence chart. 2. Do all languages have the same sound in a particular position? – if yes, reconstruct this sound; if not, continue to step 3.
Tongan Samoan Tahitian Maori Hawaiian proto-sound m - m- m- m- m- *m- -n- -n- -n- -n- -n- *-n- Reconstruction: Choosing Which Sound to Reconstruct 3. Are there any sets of sound correspondences like the following? (if not, go to 4)
A B C gloss siza sesa siza ‘strawberry’ sizu sisu sizu ‘pitchfork’
• Reconstruct *-i- in ‘pitchfork’, and *-e- in ‘strawberry’
Reconstruction: Choosing Which Sound to Reconstruct 4. Is one type of sound change more natural than another? (if not, go to 5)
A B C D E proto-sound -p- -b- -b- -p- -b- *-p-
• -b- is slightly more frequent, but the change VbV > VpV is less natural than VpV > VbV
Reconstruction: The Comparative Method • Common sound changes: • voiceless sounds become voiced between vowels and before voiced consonants • stops become fricatives between vowels • consonants become palatalized before front vowels • difficult consonant clusters are simplified • difficult consonants are made easier (e.g. loss of aspiration in stops) • oral vowels become nasalized before nasals • fricatives other than [h] become [h] • [h] deletes between vowels • clusters of vowels are broken up by consonants
Source: Language Files 10: Materials for an Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Anouschka Bergmann, Kathleen Currie Hall and Sharon Miriam Ross (eds.). The Ohio State University Press. Columbus, OH. Reconstruction: Choosing Which Sound to Reconstruct 5. Use Occam’s Razor: the simplest solution is the most likely
Reconstruction: Practice
• Find the sound correspondence for the vowels in the following data:
English German Dutch Swedish Gloss [mæn] [man] [man] [man] ‘man’ [hænd] [hant] [hant] [hand] ‘hand’ Reconstruction: Practice
• What sound correspondences exist in the data below? Reconstruction: Practice
• What sound correspondences exist in the data below? ([tɕ] is a voiceless, palatal affricate)
Mandarin Hakka gloss tɕin kim ‘zither’ la lat ‘spicy hot’ mɔ mɔk ‘lonesome’ lan lam ‘basket’ tɕi gip ‘worry’ lan lan ‘lazy’ pa pa ‘fear’ Reconstruction: Practice
Mandarin Hakka Mandarin Hakka tɕin kim tɕ- k- la lat -n -m mɔ mɔk l- l- lan lam -Ø -t tɕi gip m- m- lan lan -Ø -k pa pa tɕ- g- -Ø -p -n -n p- p- Reconstruction: Practice
Mandarin Hakka proto-sounds tɕ- k- -n -m l- l- l- -Ø -t m- m- m- -Ø -k tɕ- g- -Ø -p -n -n -n p- p- p- Reconstruction: Practice
Mandarin Hakka proto-sounds tɕ- k- -n -m -m l- l- l- -Ø -t m- m- m- -Ø -k tɕ- g- -Ø -p -n -n -n p- p- p- Reconstruction: Practice
Mandarin Hakka proto-sounds tɕ- k- -n -m -m l- l- l- -Ø -t -t m- m- m- -Ø -k -k tɕ- g- -Ø -p -p -n -n -n p- p- p- Reconstruction: Practice
Mandarin Hakka proto-sounds tɕ- k- k- -n -m -m l- l- l- -Ø -t -t m- m- m- -Ø -k -k tɕ- g- g- -Ø -p -p -n -n -n p- p- p- Reconstruction: Practice
• Reconstruct the proto-forms of the words: proto-sound Mandarin Hakka proto-form k- tɕin kim kim -m la lat lat l- mɔ mɔk mɔk -t lan lam lam m- tɕi gip gip -k lan lan lan g- pa pa pa -p -n p- Reconstruction: Practice
• Describe the sound changes: Mandarin Hakka proto-forms • Hakka: tɕ- k- k- – none -n -m -m l- l- l- • Mandarin: – Bilabial -m became -Ø -t -t alveolar -n m- m- m- -Ø -k -k – (voiceless) stops > Ø tɕ- g- g- – initial (velar) stops > -Ø -p -p palatal affricates -n -n -n (velar stops > palatal affricates in p- p- p- front of [i])