Mindfulness and Metacognition: a Guide to Implementing Beneficial Mental Habits in Music Teaching

MINDFULNESS AND METACOGNITION: A GUIDE TO IMPLEMENTING BENEFICIAL MENTAL HABITS IN MUSIC TEACHING

Christopher Lawrence Murphy

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

December 2020

Committee:

John Sampen, Advisor

Madeline Duntley Graduate Faculty Representative

Elaine Colprit

Ryan Ebright

Christopher Murphy

iii

ABSTRACT John Sampen, Advisor

Colleges across the country are experiencing an increase in reported student mental

health issues. In response to these concerns, college music departments are creating and

improving wellness programs designed to support positive lifestyle habits for musicians. This document advocates for the expansion and continued focus of wellness programs through the lens of mindfulness and metacognition. Research has shown that mindfulness training and metacognitive skills are powerful interventive tools for the development of healthy mental behaviors and can result in lasting beneficial neurological changes. This research provides an overview and discussion of twelve collegiate musician wellness programs and research related to mindfulness. Attributes of these initiatives are compared to describe trends in the development of supportive measures taken by university faculties. Research specific to neurological benefits that

result from mindfulness practices seems to support the incorporation of these practices within music pedagogy. Evidence of this is provided by studies that investigated lasting structural

changes to the brain as a result of meditation and other mindfulness skills. Literature concerning

metacognitive skills for mindfulness development is also provided to give context for the first

stages of this development. Because music teachers have long discussed mental aspects of

performance, an investigation of common instructional texts examining mindfulness practices in

musician training is also included. Finally, an implementation guide for collegiate music teachers

and students is offered as a resource aid for these teaching practices.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank all of the wonderful people who made this document a possibility.

First, thank you to John Sampen for his guidance in the development of this project and throughout my saxophone studies with him. I have grown immensely under his tutelage and will always be grateful for my time at Bowling Green State University. I would also like to thank

Ryan Ebright for his advice, time, and unwavering support of this project. In addition, I would like to thank Elaine Colprit, Madeline Duntley, and Verner Bingman, without whom I would not have had the tools or knowledge to complete this research.

My family and friends have been incredibly supportive, and I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to them all. Finally, I would like to thank Mary Claire Miller for her love and encouragement throughout this process.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER I. COLLEGIATE WELLNESS PROGRAMS AND PEDAGOGY...... 6

Performance Anxiety ...... 8

Alexander Technique ...... 9

Mindfulness ...... 10

Musculoskeletal Health ...... 12

Psychiatric Health ...... 13

Stress Management ...... 14

Summary ...... 14

Pedagogical Texts ...... 17

Music Education Research on Stress Factors ...... 24

Music Education Research on Mindfulness ...... 26

Music Education Research on Performance Anxiety ...... 27

CHAPTER II. NEUROLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS ...... 31

Structural Changes ...... 32

Mindfulness and Memory ...... 40

Mindfulness and Emotion ...... 42

How Mindfulness Influences Anxiety ...... 46

Trait Mindfulness ...... 49

Mindfulness in Learning and Transfer ...... 51

CHAPTER III. METACOGNITION AND THE TOOLS OF MINDFULNESS TRAINING 53

What Is Metacognition? ...... 54

Metacognition and Fringe Consciousness ...... 57

Promoting Metacognition in the Music Classroom ...... 59

The Importance of Self-Evaluation as a Metacognitive Tool ...... 62

Self-Talk and Self-Evaluation ...... 66

Meditation as a Tool for Mindfulness ...... 68

Non-Meditative Mindfulness Exercises ...... 70

CHAPTER IV. IMPLEMENTATION GUIDE ...... 72

Professional Development Opportunities ...... 73

Incorporating Mindfulness Instruction Into Studio Classes ...... 76

Incorporating Mindfulness in Private Instruction ...... 79

The Role of Stress in Building Resilience ...... 80

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION ...... 84

REFERENCES ...... 87

APPENDIX A. PEDAGOGICAL TEXTS AND RESOURCES ...... 96

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1.1 Common Attributes of Collegiate Musician’s Wellness Programs ...... 16

INTRODUCTION

With mental health issues on the rise among college students, mindfulness is becoming a popular tool in the music community to alleviate symptoms of performance anxiety, address issues of concentration, and improve performance. In a survey of collegiate counseling centers, the American Psychological Association found that anxiety was a predominant issue in 41.6% of students, followed by depression at 36.4% (American Psychological Association, 2013). In a musician-specific study on anxiety and depression by the University of Westminster and

MusicTank, 71.1% of musicians surveyed had experienced high levels of anxiety or panic

attacks and 68.5% had experienced depression (Gross and Musgrave, 2016). With such high

levels of mental health problems facing musicians, new methods of intervention are needed to

address these issues.

Coupled with the advent of social media and the meteoric rise of technology usage,

students today face enormous distractions in and outside of the classroom. In response,

universities across the country are adopting mindfulness and wellness programs to disseminate

practice methods that incorporate new mental strategies for their students. Mindfulness

instruction is taking place even at the curricular level, and music instructors should be equipped

with mindfulness techniques as part of their pedagogical toolkit. These techniques are borrowed

from rich and diverse religious traditions and repurposed to help music students. By using

mindfulness in music instruction, these practices are evolving from their original goalless intent

to being used for the goal of improved mental clarity. Most music teachers are likely not medical

professionals nor are they trained in the spiritual practices of Buddhism; these practices,

therefore, are not intended for religious purposes but instead to help music students. In addition,

while music instructors are also not trained mental health specialists, they need to be able to

recognize more serious symptoms of mental health disorders if they arise, and students should be

encouraged to seek out medical professionals if they exhibit these issues.

The practice of mindfulness entails nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment and

mental engagement with one’s activities. But, by itself, this practice is not a panacea. For mindfulness to be effective, musicians must first incorporate metacognition—one’s ability to be aware of their own thoughts—to facilitate the required inner awareness. Metacognition is needed in conjunction with mindfulness to understand where thoughts may travel when one is distracted by anxiety. Moreover, ingrained thought patterns and behaviors occur through repetitive practice, and mindfulness requires the same regular practice to have a beneficial effect.

Teachers can help with the practice of mindfulness. However, without a firm understanding of the research on meditative training and mindfulness, it is possible that well- intentioned instructors may cause more harm than good. Certain types of body-scan meditations and eye-closing techniques can trigger post-traumatic responses in certain individuals, thus requiring an awareness of appropriate exercises. Proliferation of non-specific scientific studies,

misinformation about benefits, and a failure to address underlying mental health issues can all

lead to less effective practice of techniques associated with mindfulness. While studies have

supported the assertion that mindfulness training can positively influence emotional responses to

stress-inducing situations and anxiety, the teaching of instrumental pedagogy has not

incorporated this practice on an institutional level. This is not to say, however, that all stress is

harmful. Certain types and amounts of stress are, in fact, beneficial for students and their ability

to be resilient and adaptable in their future careers.

This document is designed to present current trends of wellness practices within

university music programs and to discuss the myriad approaches for instructing students in

3 mindfulness techniques. Wellness programs often incorporate many different aspects of physical health maintenance as well as mental health preservation. Attributes of these programs are described to illustrate the substantial work that is already being done to alleviate negative aspects of college music education. As several books on music teaching incorporate methods for improving mental habits, a discussion of common pedagogical books is included to depict existing conversations surrounding the mental side of performing.

Research on some of the neuroanatomical considerations of mindfulness and meditative practices are included to give statistical weight to the evidence that there are significant benefits to incorporating these elements into music pedagogy. Research published in peer-reviewed journals demonstrates that with serious practice the structure of the brain can be changed. While the author of this document is neither a neuroscientist nor an expert on neuroanatomy, this research is presented to bridge the gap between science and music teaching.

* * *

Chapter one briefly surveys existing wellness programs and pedagogical practices that incorporate mindfulness and metacognition in university music schools. While a full survey of every music pedagogy resource is beyond the scope of this document, a general overview of the most important and well-known books is included. A summary of programs offered by the

University of Michigan and the University of Wisconsin demonstrates the significant development of wellness initiatives in these schools, and points toward the overall trajectory of music school wellness programs. A comparison of ten other programs shows a connection to similar topics offered by each school. In addition, a brief survey of music education research on these topics is included to provide a general sense of the current conversations surrounding mindfulness in music education.

The second chapter defines mindfulness and looks at the research pertaining to the effect

mindfulness has on neurological structures. While the awareness of mindfulness training is

increasing in music programs across the country, evidence is needed that these practices are

indeed effective and supported by peer-reviewed research. It is not enough to simply say that

students report feeling better about their music performances and their ability to manage stress, nor is it adequate to think there are quick solutions to underlying flaws in our mindsets related to music performance. These studies provide evidence that with proper long-term practice and training, mindfulness can bring about lasting functional changes in the brain and can lead to the development of more permanent mental habits.

Chapter three explores how metacognition—the ability to think about one’s own thought process—is needed for the development of mindfulness and cannot be ignored in the conversation surrounding wellness. The development of metacognitive skills within the music classroom and private lesson studio is an imperative first step toward training more mindful musicians. This chapter also surveys research on metacognition in the music classroom and methods for encouraging its development. The tools of mindfulness training are then discussed to give more nuanced ideas for developing these skills.

Finally, chapter four offers an implementation guide for universities seeking to improve their wellness programs and for college music teachers to begin incorporating these ideas into their own teaching with suggestions for how we might improve the experience for music majors in colleges today. This chapter also discusses the mindsets and culture within the music school that can lead to unhealthy mental habits. A reframing of the conversation around stress is needed for students to accurately interpret whether the stress they are experiencing is beneficial for their growth or detrimental to their health.

Music educators looking to address the needs of students should be equipped with the best pedagogical practices available. Mindfulness training influences the emotional well-being and mental efficiency of students in a profound way. With support from university administration and well-rounded training provided for instructors, these tools can provide a powerful means to cope with the increasingly distracted and stressful world in which musicians live. Tackling these issues with scientifically backed practices will yield positive results for music pedagogy.

CHAPTER I. COLLEGIATE WELLNESS PROGRAMS AND PEDAGOGY

When investigating the benefits of mindfulness in music education, it is important to

consider previous procedures that have successfully mitigated performance- and practice-related

issues. This chapter offers a brief overview of musician’s wellness programs at twenty different universities. Two examples of developed musician wellness programs are analyzed, followed by a broader overview of curricula from ten other current wellness programs. This survey attempts to show how pervasive these topics have become and how they are discussed in relation to the art of teaching. Programs surveyed were selected to demonstrate a wide variety of program size and stages of development. Finally, studies specific to music education are provided to demonstrate current research topics in the field.

University wellness programs for musicians vary widely in their offerings and organization. While some schools, like the University of Michigan and the University of

Wisconsin, have wellness directors and full teams of university professors and researchers dedicated to maintaining the wellness offerings, other schools may only offer links to resources such as those provided by the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM), lists of pedagogical texts, and instructional videos. Key factors of this document’s model programs are the organizational teams that designed their initiatives; leadership from appointed faculty as well as interdepartmental cooperation make these flagship initiatives special and effective. By having an established team led by a specific faculty member, the University of Michigan and the

University of Wisconsin have shown their commitment to a healthy and involved student body.

The University of Michigan currently has a music wellness initiative in place to address common issues like mental health and physical health. Course offerings include “Yoga for

Performers,” “Alexander Technique,” “Wellness for the Performing Artist,” and “Contemplative

Studies.” The university’s website also offers “WellCASTS” or instructional videos that discuss injury prevention measures for students. Meditation sessions are offered in five-week periods throughout the semester, implementing aspects of both samatha and vipassana meditation styles

(e.g., breathing, body scanning, and aural awareness exercises.) This wellness initiative is organized through the website and lists the program manager and fourteen staff members on the wellness team who serve as contacts concerning wellness issues; students can easily access this list in order to contact instructors as needed. The team features interdepartmental coordination between audiologists, counselors, sports medicine specialists, physicians, vocal health specialists, and wellness course instructors for the school. While the website does not have a definition for wellness or instructions on assessing general student wellness, it does present a page for common questions pertaining to wellness at the School of Music, Theatre, and Dance.

One of the most helpful resources is a page with multiple links dedicated to research on different aspects of a musician’s wellness (Wellness Initiative, 2020).

Another model for wellness initiatives and mindfulness is at the University of Wisconsin and, more specifically, the Mead Witter School of Music at the Madison campus. Embedded videos present the following topics: muscular health, respiratory health, hearing health, vocal health, mental and neurological health, and integrative medicine as it pertains to musicians.

These videos provide excellent insight on each topic and are readily accessible to students.

Again, there is evidence of strong interdepartmental ties, particularly with the UW Health Sports

Performance program. Performance anxiety is addressed through the lens of athletic performance, which is a common connection for many other pedagogical resources. Meditation sessions and retreats feature experienced instructors, guided practices (with easy-to-follow recordings posted online), and training programs for those who are interested in becoming

8 instructors themselves. Although these wellness initiatives are not specific to musicians, this is a well-funded and organized effort that is demonstrably stronger than most schools surveyed for this document (Musicians Health, n.d.)

Building extensive programs like those at the University of Michigan and the University of Wisconsin is not always feasible. Many schools are still constructing their wellness programs and may not have adequate resources for guest lecturers and additional staff dedicated to musician wellness. For example, the University of Kansas offers handouts on hearing health and protection, musculoskeletal health, and fitness, but otherwise does not describe specific musician’s wellness structures within their school of music, although the university offers mindfulness training through its counseling center (Musicians Health, 2015). William Paterson

University similarly lacks listings of musician’s wellness offerings. Within a small music department, it is not surprising that these offerings are not more robust. Without a faculty member or administrator willing to build a wellness program—or the financial means to do so— it is likely that websites will continue to simply post links to available resources. For example, hearing and vocal health, neuro-musculoskeletal health, and mental health are all cited as potential issues musicians might face, but there is little information on William Paterson

University’s website itself to address these concerns (Health and Wellness for Musicians, n.d.).

Performance Anxiety

Many university wellness programs address performance anxiety in some fashion. The

Musician’s Wellness Program at the University of Colorado at Boulder is dedicated to the idea of developing the whole musician, particularly in the areas of performance anxiety and enhancement (Musician’s Wellness Program, 2018). Medical evaluations and psychiatric care are offered through the university but are not part of a larger organized team through the school

9 of music. Arizona State University, however, offers specific workshops for coping with stress from performance anxiety as well as resources for non-music-related anxiety.

The University of St. Thomas is similarly structured, though it provides more information specific to performance anxiety. The University of St. Thomas has built their initiative as a music department report listing a few tips for handling performance anxiety and pain related to performance. The following is a statement from the musician’s wellness page on their website:

Performance anxiety is a universal issue among musicians of all ages and levels of ability. The best preventive measures against stage fright are: 1) to be extremely well- prepared through thoughtful and consistent practice, and 2) to perform as much as possible in front of other people, no matter how difficult it can seem at times. If necessary, please contact your instructor for advice. Whenever possible, eat healthfully, get in some exercise, try to get enough sleep, take breaks, and seek help when you need it. (University of St. Thomas, Minnesota Music 2019)

This raises an important aspect of combatting performance anxiety by addressing how a healthy lifestyle can impact your mood and general performance. Most university wellness programs avoid giving specific information about this matter even though these topics have an impact far beyond one’s performance on stage.

Alexander Technique

The Alexander Technique is a popular method of reducing or eliminating tension, nervousness, or pain and is often tied to a musician’s physical wellness. Such training is offered by the University of Connecticut, Arizona State University, the University of Southern

California, Bowling Green State University, and many other schools throughout the country.

This method uses body awareness and balance to relieve sources of tension in performers. The

Alexander Technique was developed by Frederick Matthias Alexander, who was suffering from chronic laryngitis. When doctors were unable to alleviate his symptoms, Alexander found his own method for reducing neck tension and strain (alexandertechnique.com). His methods have

been widely celebrated and used by both musicians and physical therapists alike. Often, these

classes are taught by professors who are also instrumental instructors in the university system.

Course offerings in Alexander Technique, unfortunately, are limited by the scheduling

responsibilities of qualified professors and often such course offerings may become independent

studies or weekend workshops rather than full classes. With adequate training for studio

professors, however, these techniques could be applied in private lessons and ensemble

coaching.

Mindfulness

Many wellness programs offer some form of mindfulness as part of the program, either

with workshops and classes taught by the university or with additional information provided on

their school website. Arizona State University, for example, lists mindfulness as a session

available outside of the curriculum, but their meditation methods are not explicitly discussed, nor

does it list who is responsible for this aspect of the program on their wellness website.

Michigan State University’s Musicians’ Wellness program is organized by a general wellness team chaired by one of their current music education faculty members. The mission of this initiative is to assist students in finding appropriate care for injuries, to provide education on preventing injuries and managing stage fright, and to research the development of healthy pedagogical practices. Their inclusion of ongoing research performed by faculty and students in the wellness initiative is different than most schools and is focused on movement and physical health. Mindfulness is not mentioned on the website, but the university at large offers a “Stress

Less With Mindfulness” program. Designed to assist the general population, this program focuses on stress reduction through mindfulness classes as an extension of West Virginia

University. Extension services act as a cooperative liaison between the universities to facilitate

11 shared research projects and data. Without direct intervention by the faculty, however, students may be unaware of the mindfulness offerings through the university.

The wellness initiative at Bowling Green State University (BGSU) is similar in that most of its mindfulness resources are found outside of the College of Musical Arts (CMA). There is a quick mindfulness exercise posted on the BGSU webpage that is focused around breath meditation. This is very similar to an exercise on Headspace, a popular meditation mobile application, which asks the meditator to sit in an upright position and simply observe their breath. BGSU also offers a Mindful Behavior Therapies and Psychophysiology Lab which lists resources for additional information. An interesting aspect of BGSU’s program are the special sessions organized by a music education professor who oversees the program. These workshops have involved guest speakers like Eva Stern, who is a specialist in movement for musicians.

Guided meditation sessions are offered throughout the semester and are open to anyone interested. Beginners as well as more experienced meditators can benefit from these seminars, and they fit well within the typical undergraduate student schedules. Mindfulness breaks throughout the day are helpful for introducing the idea of implementing regular meditation within one’s academic schedule. Announcements pertaining to workshops and meditation sessions are posted on the wellness page of the CMA website. Incorporating outside speakers is a vital part of a wellness program for schools that do not have staff dedicated specifically to musician wellness.

A unique aspect of Central Michigan University’s wellness website is the use of student research presentations to provide the primary information on musician health such as “Mindful

Path to Peak Performance,” “Sleep for School of Music,” and “Outcomes of Stress.” These

PowerPoints offer helpful bullet points but are in no way exhaustive representations of the

research in these various topics. As the main source of information for the wellness website

offered by Central Michigan, it may be prudent to add more direction for students who are

seeking to grow in their knowledge of wellness habits. Although links to other university

websites with psychological services and musculoskeletal health are included, as well as

numerous articles, websites, and book lists that address these topics, there is little information listed on the website itself and no mention of an organization team, courses offered, or director for the wellness program.

Musculoskeletal Health

The University of Southern California’s Thornton School of Music offers vocal screenings to their students as well as information on musculoskeletal health (e.g., Alexander

Technique, yoga, strength training, and stress management). Almost every school surveyed here

offers some kind of Alexander Technique training, either through classes or one-on-one training

offered by a faculty member. Although this is of vital importance to wellness, these programs

often discount or fail to include strength training specifically. Like USC, the University of St.

Thomas is similar in their assertion that regular exercise is a necessity. The University of Kansas

offers a few handouts on hearing health and protection, musculoskeletal health, and fitness, but

otherwise does not describe specific musician wellness structures within their school of music.

The University of Connecticut has a Health and Wellness Program website that points musicians

to a variety of other departments for their wellness needs. The school offers mental health

services through psychological services and hearing health services through the Speech and

Hearing Clinic and will soon provide information on musculoskeletal health.

Arizona State University is similar to the University of Michigan in that it offers

workshops on various wellness topics. These include movement for musicians, repetitive stress

13 injury prevention, coping with chronic pain, stress and anxiety, yoga, body awareness, meditation, and breath work (also grouped as a mindfulness practice). The mindfulness program mentions meditation but does not discuss what methods or practices are used. While program leaders are not listed on the website, it does make note of two graduate assistants who have been trained in various movement and yoga practices centered around musicians. In addition to providing workshops, their ASU Musicians Health and Wellness website offers a long list of resources available on these topics for further investigation. Moreover, Arizona State University has a general wellness program outside of the school of music that offers even more resources for the health and well-being of their students. While the lasting effects of exercise on mental health are beyond the scope of this document, it should be noted that there are promising studies published on the benefits of maintaining a healthy lifestyle for musicians (Musicians Health and

Wellness, n.d.).

Psychiatric Health

An encouraging feature of all the musician’s wellness programs surveyed is the information listed about university counseling centers. As mental health issues are on the rise in universities and music programs across the country, these services provide a valuable resource to help students manage depression, anxiety, and other serious mental illnesses. One study showed that in a group of 252 university music students, 23% reported being currently treated for a mental illness, 36% reported having experienced a mental illness in the past, and more than 23% of students reported severe anxiety or depression without receiving treatment (Koops and

Kuebel, 2019). While it is important for a college music program to have a role in providing wellness initiatives that promote healthy musicianship, the faculty and administrators are generally not trained counselors, and a wellness program that works in partnership with the

mental health services on campus will be more successful in aiding students through these

hardships.

Stress Management

Stress management is a significant part of any music wellness initiative. Ensembles often rehearse more than the stipulated syllabus expectations and individual practice requirements exceed most other courses for daily required work. Add in performances and recitals outside of

school-mandated concerts, and the result is a recipe for a stressful college music experience.

While stress can be beneficial in the short term (Dhabhar et al., 2014), schools must be prepared to assist students when their anxiety becomes chronic or difficult to manage. Michigan State

University offers a program called “Stress Less With Mindfulness” to university students and the public. Wide varieties of topics are covered including money management, a five-week workshop on mindfulness, and the development of mindful eating habits. The initiative itself is quite large, with courses presented throughout Michigan and in collaboration with their research partners at West Virginia University. Articles are also posted to the website for anyone who cannot attend clinics in person (Musicians’ Wellness, n.d.).

Summary

Many collegiate musician’s wellness programs have been established across the United

States. With the NASM mandate requiring universities to address these issues to maintain certification, most schools are attempting to confront the wide varieties of issues facing music students today. Table 1.1 provides an easy-to-read summary of health services offered by various universities. The most developed programs are those that are guided by an appointed faculty member and a team of dedicated instructors that specialize in different aspects of wellness.

While most of these programs do not address the need for mindfulness training for faculty, it is

15 reasonable to assume that the leadership within music schools is beginning to give priority to these services. With the momentum currently behind the development of programs to benefit student health, the next step is to implement this training into the education of our public schoolteachers and college professors. Without appropriate training in recognizing antiquated practices, we will continue to see students with poor mental habits who are not prepared for the taxing career on which they are embarking.

Table 1.1. Common Attributes of Collegiate Musician’s Wellness Programs

UC U of St. UM UW MSU CMU USC BGSU ASU UConn KU WPU Boulder Thomas Hearing health        +    

Mindfulness + + +  X  + + X X X X

Musculoskeletal     +  +  +    health

Musician's yoga + X X X X  + X  X  

Nutrition X X X X X X X X  X X X

Performance + +  X +  X X  X  X anxiety Psychological + + + + + + + + + + + + services

Strength training X X X X X X +   X  

The Alexander + + + X + X +   X X  Technique

Vocal health +    X  X +    

Note. This table provides a visual comparison of twelve collegiate musician’s wellness programs in various stages of development. A + refers to services that are offered as courses or through other services on campus, while a  refers to linked resources and listed advice on a wellness website. X refers to unaddressed items that are not offered by the musician’s wellness program or other services linked through a wellness website.

Pedagogical Texts

There are also several pedagogically centered books that deal with issues of mindfulness and engagement in the present musical learning environments. This document will discuss common themes of mindfulness and metacognition found in The Inner Game of Tennis by

Timothy Gallwey, The Inner Game of Music by Barry Green, Effortless Mastery by Kenny

Werner, Musical Performance by Daniel Kohut, A Soprano on Her Head by Eloise Ristad, Zen in the Art of Archery by Eugene Herrigel, and The Musician’s Way by Gerald Klickstein. These books are often found on university and college music wellness pages and have had a significant impact on how musicians are trained. There are no short-term solutions to performance anxiety or the development of mindfulness; for example, Eugen Herrigel, a German philosophy professor, spent six years studying with a master of traditional Archery in Japan, and Kenny

Werner, a well-known jazz pianist, spent three years traveling to Brazil to simply understand the ease of playing one note. Without appropriate levels of commitment from the student to tackle these issues, techniques listed here will be of little consequence.

The Inner Game of Tennis has been a pillar in music pedagogy courses for many years.

Although it is centered around improving athletic performance, specifically tennis, its lessons have been translated to many different fields and practices. A main idea of this book is that quieting the mind makes a person a more effective tennis player; this process is primarily taught through a natural learning process that is less involved with cerebral calculations. In The Inner

Game of Music, Green also discusses this idea by comparing the natural learning process to how children are able to learn so efficiently. Both authors stress the importance of being mindful and conscious of what is happening while attempting to perform or compete. In turn, this mindfulness—defined here as a nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment—requires

metacognition, or the ability to think about your own thoughts. It allows for awareness of the

present moment. In order to return to more childlike learning, we must quiet the analytical

processing of what we are trying to learn, be better imitators without judgment, and adopt a more

neutral and curious attitude.

Gallwey calls the judgmental or analytical part of the mind which may inhibit learning

Self 1, or the ego. For example, imagine studying for weeks to learn all of the weight distribution

calculations and physics of a bicycle before ever getting on the bike. Despite having the

knowledge necessary to conduct a successful ride, falling over immediately is still highly likely.

This is why the inner game may be an important strategy. With the extensive knowledge that

comes from experience comes a troublesome depth of analysis to learning new things. To return

to Green’s more childlike manner of learning, one must be able to remove that critical approach

for a more neutral and curious attitude.

In the first chapter of The Inner Game of Tennis, “The Reflections on the Mental Side of

Tennis,” Gallwey illustrates common flaws in the pedagogical approach of teachers. Often, we learn skills through carefully explained steps that have been broken down by an experienced mentor. Ristad’s A Soprano on Her Head also suggests that teachers may be likely to inflict negative mental habits on their students. When a teacher is rigid and inflexible with their process, the student may think that there is only one right way to do something; coupled with

pointed or harsh criticism, the student becomes fearful of trying new methods that could be better

suited to their learning style. Unfortunately, this conflicts with what many psychologists and

educators know about human behavioral patterns associated with learning. As infants, we learn a

majority of our motor skills and language by watching and listening to “professionals,” and then

trying to imitate them. We are not initially reprimanded for saying words incorrectly, nor are we

19 given a dictionary and told to practice. As we grow, we are gradually introduced to negative learning behaviors and judgments that we learn from those around us. Rarely do we have the opportunity to learn in such an organic way, and much of this book illustrates how our own critical and judgmental analysis of growth inhibits musical progress.

Effortless Mastery investigates this anxiety as a result of placing too much value on defining oneself as a musician. Werner suggests that because music is not immediately necessary to survive, musicians should not place so much weight on how they sound. In general, Werner believes that musicians try too hard and worry too much about being seen as successful or doing the right things. This fear leads to uninvolved performances where musicians become so mentally and emotionally removed that they become completely consumed by their own judgments or feelings of inadequacy. According to Werner, once a musician stops correlating their value as a person with their ability to perform, they will experience less performance anxiety.

It is not unusual for musicians to be told that music performance requires the “proper mental attitudes” (Gallwey, 1972). This can leave students frustrated because they have been taught very specific methodologies with copious instruction and are now left with an aphorism that holds no meaning. Why do they not have the proper mental attitude? What has happened for so long that they are programmed to think of themselves (Self 1 and Self 2) the way that they do?

Gallwey believes this occurs because students are given too much instruction. When a tennis coach tells a student “Come on top of the ball” or “Shift your weight onto your front foot as you step into the ball,” the student is reassured by the amount of technical knowledge the instructor seems to have. This is the same in music. Students are sometimes more impressed by a teacher when they walk away with very minute physical alterations that will give them the sound or the

technique. Ristad suggests that this leads to the creation of an imaginary judge that they hold in their minds. This judge is Self 1 combined with the voices of teachers, parents, and peers that have become critical to what they are doing. Being aware and mindful of these inner critics could lead to an emotionally neutral approach and, thus, a more productive practice habit.

When Gallwey illustrates a lesson with minimal information, the benefits of the imitation approach are clear. The student is able to quickly accomplish the goal using the most fluid approach without ever having considered the sophisticated coordination required to do it. By reverting to simple imitation, much of the confusion and tension that arises from simply trying too hard is no longer present and the student will be more successful. Many of the best jazz musicians have learned by ear and without overly specific instruction; Charlie Parker and John

Coltrane didn’t have access to the Jamey Aebersold method books that are so prevalent in lessons today, yet these performers are widely known as significant innovators of the jazz style.

Students are comforted by displays of subject specific knowledge presented in a logical manner, with accompanying steps to follow as it often follows models of teaching seen in their primary and grade schools. It is much easier to justify the validity of this transparent teaching style because results are easier to quantify.

Effortless Mastery also advocates for a more natural approach to music education.

Werner argues that being fearless in the learning process (i.e., learning without judgment) allows musicians to experience a flow state when performing. This is also touted by research into the psychology of musical learning. For the purposes of this section, flow is the effortless execution of the action being performed. When a musician is experiencing this state in a performance, they are engaged only with the task at hand; execution of the music is largely confident and effortless, freeing the mind to be make spontaneous musical decisions.

Werner suggests meditations (provided as text and a CD included with the book) that can

help a performer overcome this fear. The first meditation involves scanning through the body and relaxing each part with the exhalation of the breath while the second meditation focuses on a

performance at Carnegie Hall in which the meditator is simply breathing while their hands

perform for them. Positive visualization acts as a practice performance without any mistakes or worries of poor performance. By creating an image of a perfect performance, the meditator is

imagining a situation in which they are highly successful and not at all stressed about the

outcome. Werner’s third meditation centers on breathing deeply and repeating this mantra: “I am

great…I am a master” (Werner, 1996, p. 179). This type of positive self-talk is aimed at overwriting negative statements that may occur more naturally. Werner then moves to a type of body scan where the meditator focuses on relaxing different parts of the body like the neck, shoulders, and back. In general, the meditations progress from breathing and relaxation exercises to more involved visualizations and mantras in a relatively short period of time. Using a more gradual guided approach, like the meditations offered by Headspace, these could be beneficial additions to any meditative practice.

Daniel Kohut dedicates an entire section to this inner game in his chapter “Psychological

Principles and Techniques of Learning.” He postulates that this inner game allows for a lessening of signals from the mind to the body, and greater feedback from the body to the mind. By freeing our body, we are then able to more naturally perform and will have much better results than if we micromanage our body. If a musician learns to quiet their mind and only observe the wonder of the human body, Kohut suggests they are more apt to find and plan in the zone, similar to

Werner's flow state. Learning to play without thinking about tactile commands for our body may free us to completely engage with what we play and produce a real interpretation of the music

22 that we hear in our heads. Music thus rises from our own silence as we learn to be better instruments ourselves. Performing in this manner relies heavily on habits rather than having to consciously control each element of the musical performance. Kohut, in agreement with the other authors discussed, suggests that a method for practicing the inner game could be to change the way one judges their own performance with objective self-assessment removed from emotion.

In The Musician’s Way, Gerald Klickstein dedicates an entire chapter to performance anxiety and how to overcome common issues for musicians. While this chapter does offer excellent advice regarding musical preparation, as well as common errors that are often overlooked, it does not give specific instructions on how to mentally prepare for a performance.

Klickstein argues that through musical preparation and deep practicing, the musician will be less likely to feel undue performance anxiety. Deep practicing refers to being mentally engaged with the practice session and being thorough in one’s approach to learning technical passages. This type of work requires a presence of mind, free from distraction.

Although ease includes many physical features, such as supple movement, facility originates in the mind. It arises from building awareness of your material and of your playing or singing actions. Nonetheless, the amount of brainpower that you can expend to be aware is finite. The more attention you use up supervising technical elements, the less you have available for artistry and co-performer communication. The key to easeful performance is the ability to command your music making in an integrated manner without exhausting your capacity (Klickstein, 2009, p. 66-67).

Without adequate preparation, the performer may be more mentally engaged with the technical execution of the music than they are with communicating artistic interpretations. Fear of failure or mistakes will lead to an unfulfilling performance and, therefore, stage fright or performance anxiety. For the purposes of this document, stage fright and performance anxiety are defined as

“nervousness or distress that interferes with performing” (Klickstein, 2009, p. 163). According to

Klickstein, these problems influence a musician’s performance in three stages: pre-performance

(i.e., practice sessions), at-performance, and post-performance. While most of this document is centered around pre-performance and at-performance mental states, it is important to note that the post-performance effects of performance anxiety can have a lasting impact on the musician’s ability to perform again. Should a performance have an undesired outcome, a musician must be able to reconcile that experience with the unpredictable nature of live performance in a healthy way.

An interesting idea presented in The Musician’s Way is how performance anxiety can lead to the avoidance of practice and a lack of preparation, creating a cyclical issue for the performer. This is an area that mindfulness can impact directly by breaking that cycle. By adding regular meditation either at the beginning of the day or the beginning of a practice session, the musician can gradually move away from a distracted mindset (needless interruptions or things that cause avoidance) and prepare to be mentally engaged for the upcoming performance. The mindful musician will be more present in the moment and less focused on or concerned with the future that awaits them. This is not to say that the musician is not planning ahead, a key metacognitive function for which Klickstein argues.

Zen in the Art of Archery recounts Eugene Herrigel’s journey to become an archer by following the traditional path set forth by Japanese tradition. The concept of losing the self (or

Self 1) in the mastery of the craft of archery can be transferred successfully to mindfulness in music because similar mindsets are being taught. Herrigel’s idea centers around the need for a craft to serve as a vehicle for finding the greater truth at the center of Zen mindfulness; for him, archery was the medium used to find enlightenment. While much of this text portrays a journey into the spiritual realm of Zen Buddhism that most musicians will not be taking, it often supports

the methods used by Ristad, Werner, Klickstein, and Gallwey. Werner includes this quote from

Herrigel’s book: “The right shot at the right moment does not come because you do not let go of

yourself. You do not wait for fulfillment but brace yourself for failure” (Herrigel, 1945, p. 30).

Werner points out that, for wind players, this could lead to a shallow breath if the musician is not

committed to what they are about to play.

All of these texts support similar concepts: mastery of mental habits which will lead to

more effective performance and less restricted musicianship. In order to do that, however, there must be an awareness of thoughts while practicing and performing. Metacognition is not explicitly stated in these books and yet that is precisely what is required to develop the type of mindfulness described. Once a musician is aware of their thoughts, they can begin to refocus on what matters most; Werner calls this a method of reprogramming the mind to let go of these anxieties. Mental habits must be practiced for an extended period of time to see the real benefit, however. All of these texts include at least one story of a person who sees an immediate impact of mindfulness and metacognition in their craft, only to be frustrated when the practice does not stick for very long. Musicians did not develop their mental habits overnight and it will take diligent and purposeful practice to correct those habits. For the purposes of this paper, the brain’s ability to reprogram itself will be discussed as neuroplasticity in chapter three.

Music Education Research on Stress Factors

Music students will experience myriad difficulties while completing their studies. The

stress from performance requirements alone can be difficult for even the well-prepared student;

add to that the stress of family life, work, and other classes, and it is easy to see how and why

studies show high rates of anxiety and depression amongst musicians. In a musician-specific

study on anxiety and depression by the University of Westminster and MusicTank, 71.1% of

musicians surveyed had experienced high levels of anxiety or panic attacks and 68.5% had

experienced depression (Gross and Musgrave, 2016). This study suggests that students who are

experiencing only one form of external or internal stress at a time tend to perform better than

peers who are experiencing stress from multiple areas of life. While this statement is self-evident to most, it becomes even more convincing when looking at those specific parameters listed above which may represent possible causes for student dropout.

In a 1995 study by Catherine Butler, external stress was investigated with a questionnaire to determine student responses on the following subjects: socioeconomic background, pre- college education, and career aspirations. Internal stress was determined to be caused by familial relationships (e.g., parental approval of career path) and whether the student had changed primary teachers during their course of study. While the act of changing teachers can be stress inducing, it may also be pertinent to explore why the student changed in the first place. If the teacher-student relationship was toxic, it could have had lasting effects on the student’s self- esteem and motivation. Unsurprisingly, students who came to the conservatory or university without a strong musical upbringing struggled in their course work when compared to students who came from musical backgrounds. Being surrounded by music at an early age gives certain advantages and many students who have never experienced an aural skills class could have years of experience to make up for in a matter of months.

An interesting issue raised by this research is whether counseling helps students succeed.

More research in this area is needed as only 19 of the 89 participants received counseling, but preliminary results suggest that the counseled students had better academic records than the uncounseled students. Much of this information is beyond the scope of this document, but Butler does raise excellent points about information that should be researched further.

The results of this research suggest that typically students who are the most successful have only one form of stress (e.g., internal or external) at a time. Failing students typically struggle with low self-esteem, financial issues, and lack of formal education, and were more likely to see other students as competition. Butler argues that the successful students may have more talent and, while it is entirely possible that this assertion is true, it remains incredibly difficult to prove. How is talent to be measured? Are the effects of nature versus nurture on skill development to be explored? Without clear definitions of talent, the focus within research on student success should remain on measurable factors.

Music Education Research on Mindfulness

In an article on the benefits of mindfulness and meditation for music making, Matthew

Steinfeld and Judson Brewer illustrate the similarities for the practice of meditation and the practice of music. Like any skill, mindfulness needs to be constantly honed or it will become less effective (Steinfeld and Brewer, 2015). When incorporating such practice into your own playing or that of a student, mindfulness must also be addressed in similar ways to develop mindful practice as a habit.

A mindfulness meditation practice requires a person to sit down and experience the contents of their mind, and it is precisely this naked awareness of experience that can serve as a useful model for the musician in understanding the phenomenology of the music-making process (Steinfeld and Brewer, 2015, p.84).

Meditation discussed here is a blend of the samatha and vipassana meditation practices, where the individual is quieting the mind (samatha) in order to have improved focus and clarity

(vipassana). The combination of these two types of meditation is a common hybrid found in popular meditation applications such as Headspace and Calm.

An important aspect of this article is the discussion of the default mode network (DMN), which refers to the parts of the brain that are involved in making mindfulness possible. This

network in particular inhibits the function of the posterior cingulate cortex, a complex and

multifaceted area of the brain responsible, in part, for the regulation of attention. The DMN will

be discussed further in chapter three.

What student musicians typically practice, however, is not a habit of mindful engagement with music. Rather, musicians inadvertently allow for mind wandering or thinking about things other than what is happening in the current moment (Killingsworth, 2010). If you consider the amount of time that an average person spends on their cell phone pursuing unproductive activities (around three and a half hours per day according to Molla, 2020), a substantial amount of time is dedicated to being distracted from what is happening in the present moment. With the emergence of practice aids on cellphones, like metronomes and tuners, the cellphone is constantly in view, instigating the perfect scenario for distracted practicing. As a solution for musicians, Steinfeld and Brewer point toward meditation as a means of dealing with a wandering mind and for helping to achieve the flow state a performer strives for, defined here as “effortless mastery over mind, instrument, and music” (Steinfeld and Brewer, 2015, p. 84). Like Effortless

Mastery, numerous other books have discussed this idea in an attempt to help more musicians attain this state.

Music Education Research on Performance Anxiety

Music performance anxiety is a debilitating issue for many musicians. Performance anxiety is defined by the American Psychological Association as “apprehension and fear of the consequences of being unable to perform a task or of performing it at a level that will raise expectations of even better task achievement” APA Dictionary of Psychology (VandenBos,

2015). One study showed that 59% of musicians surveyed experienced some kind of anxiety related to their field with 21% of those reporting their anxiety as severe (van Kemenade et al.,

1995). Musicians and music educators have long searched for answers that can solve this issue

for themselves and their students. The Performing Arts Medical Association journal has 53

articles dedicated to performance anxiety alone. While there are numerous methods and therapies

for performance anxiety, this chapter is focused on how mindfulness and metacognition are used

to assuage this anxiety for musicians.

Daniel Kohut, University of Illinois professor of music education and author of Musical

Performance: Learning Theory and Pedagogy, believes that quieting the mind is the solution to

performance anxiety (Kohut, 1985, p. 64). A quiet mind allows the musician to be increasingly

aware of somatosensory feedback and therefore less influenced by factors outside of their

immediate control. Specifically, Kohut discusses how this allows for more sensory feedback

from the body, something that Gallwey argues is of paramount importance to improving

performance. A major factor in the development of a quiet mind is letting go of negative

emotional states and moving to a nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment. This is one of

the most important tenants of mindfulness and is echoed throughout the major literature

associated with improving performance for musicians. Avoiding emotional attachment to the

quality of our performance allows for better analysis of improvements to be made and how to

implement that change. Kohut also discusses how a negative emotion feedback loop that worsens

performance anxiety may also be caused by low self-esteem. He defines self-esteem as the

“evaluations of our past performances and/or experiences by significant others in our

environment” (Kohut, 1985, p.65); in other words, one’s self-image. Numerous factors that are

beyond the scope of this document play into the development of self-image and self-esteem, but it is worthy of consideration when attempting to unravel one’s performance anxiety.

However, non-emotional judgment of performance still requires constructive criticism.

Kohut makes a very important distinction that musicians must still analyze problems in practice and performance effectively. It is possible that one facet of a performer’s anxiety comes from lack of proper preparation for the performance. Other pedagogical resources discussed here agree with Kohut’s argument for preparation.

Interruption of the flow state is often considered to be the downfall of performance anxiety. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyis, a Hungarian-American psychologist, has written several books on this idea of flow, which is defined as the experience whereby a “person perceives a balance between the challenges associated with a situation and their ability to meet the demands of the challenge and accomplish” (Beard, 2015). In other words, flow is the performer’s state of total mental immersion where effortless execution occurs; the performer effectively is lost in the moment of performing. Flow is considered to be the antithesis of performance anxiety. Cohen and Bodner (2019) investigated methods for reducing music performance anxiety through the construction of positive affect and flow. Participant numbers for this study were small with only

24 individuals, so more research is needed to provide support for this project. Parallels between athletic performance and music performance are drawn to demonstrate that both require immense amounts of practice and control, especially when performing for others. Cohen and Bodner state that there are certain conditions for flow:

1) perceived skill/challenge balance, 2) clear goals, and 3) clear, immediate feedback, and the remaining six dimensions are defined as experiential characteristics of flow: 1) focused concentration; 2) the experience is intrinsically rewarding; 3) merging of action and awareness; 4) sense of control; 5) lack of self-consciousness; 6) distortion of temporal experience (Cohen and Bodner, 2015, p. 523)

The participants in this study were all screened for pre-existing anxieties related to musical performance and for non-musical anxieties in their personal lives (i.e., state and trait anxiety).

This is significant because it is always possible that the influence of anxiety outside of the performance hall is leading to inhibited performance and practice by the musician. Throughout the eleven weeks of this study, participants were given a 90-minute group skills class aimed at developing many different aspects of musical performance including mental skills training with positive thinking, concentration and focus, and resilience. Other aspects of this training focused on metacognitive tools such as goal setting, mental rehearsal, identification of negative thoughts, physiological awareness, and re-focusing of attention. These will be discussed in chapter three, which is dedicated to the development of metacognition and mindfulness.

Cohen and Bodner’s training regimen was effective in increasing positive affect, decreasing anxiety before the performance, and decreasing anxiety during the performance. This did not, however, seem to impact measurements of flow. The authors suggest that a longer period of time is necessary to see changes in flow state and the regular occurrence of flow. Such assertions agree with research on how habits are built and suggests that even flow cannot be a short-term fix for a long-term problem. If an individual has practiced for years with methods that were leading to increased performance anxiety, it will take some time to replace those habits with new ones.

CHAPTER II. NEUROLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

Mindfulness is a necessary addition for the continual development of instrumental pedagogy as it addresses one of the most difficult aspects of performing and learning: the mental state with which we approach them. Mindfulness is understood to be one’s ability to nonjudgmentally observe thoughts and be mentally engaged in the present (Yang et al., 2016).

Many individuals today are unaware of the ways that their minds are trained without direct intention or awareness. Mental habits can be influenced by media consumption of television, videos games, and social media, or through distractions such as advertisements; even simply having your phone on the table during class has been shown to decrease overall concentration for the class period (Nielsen, 2018). According to Nielsen and Vox, the average adult in the United

States watches television for four hours and is on a smart phone for unproductive reasons for anywhere between two to three and a half hours a day (Nielsen, 2018). If these statistics are accurate, adults are spending six hours of their day with some technological distraction. By training students to take control of their mental processes, we can empower them to be more autonomous and disciplined in their pursuits of higher achievement regardless of their field.

Meditation is often seen as one path forward to becoming more mindful. While this is a beneficial exercise, mindfulness transcends the act of meditation and can be pursued apart from meditation itself. Gaining an awareness of what one is thinking about is necessary, however, before that person can be nonjudgmental of the present moment. Metacognition is the connection between mindfulness exercises and our day-to-day lives. For the purposes of this document, metacognition is the awareness and ability to think about one’s own thoughts and thought processes. If students can track when their mind is no longer engaged in the appropriate activity at any one time, they will be more efficient at changing where that attention is when faced with

distraction. This chapter will discuss neurological changes that are caused by mindful practices,

whereas chapter three will delve into metacognition specifically. Evidence will be provided from

studies that measure patterns of activation changes in the brain as the result of meditative

practice and mindfulness training. Studies on one’s ability to modulate memory, emotion, and

anxiety with mindfulness techniques are discussed to demonstrate the far-reaching influence that

regular mindfulness practice has on topics related to music performance. Finally, research

specific to the influence that meditation has on learning and information transfer is offered to

clarify how practicing and the rehearsal of skills leads to automaticity.

Structural Changes

Much of the research pertaining to mindfulness focuses on possible structural changes which occur in the brain when an individual practices mindfulness exercises or meditation. A measurable result can explain changes in behavior and general well-being that have been

associated with the long-term practice of mindfulness. This chapter illustrates the various

connections that are strengthened in the brain because of proper mindfulness training and to

elucidate the benefits for implementing this training into regular pedagogical practices.

In the life of the musician, the successful navigation of increasingly busy career demands

is paramount. Studies on mindfulness have shown that mindfulness practice leads to an improved

ability to manage emotional responses (Modinos et al., 2010), relieve state anxiety (Zeidan et al.,

2014), and improve memory (Greenberg et al., 2018; Hölzel et al., 2008; Luders et al., 2009).

These changes occur either through an improved neural activity within certain regions of the brain (Allen et al., 2012; Kong et al., 2016; Hölzel et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2014) or through inhibition of regions of the brain related to emotion (Modinos et al., 2010; Kral et al., 2018;

Taren et al., 2013).

Lazar et al. (2005) hypothesizes that meditation practice is a way to cause neural alterations to occur. Twenty participants well practiced in the area of meditation, specifically

Insight (vipassana) meditation from the Buddhist practice, were used in this research. It is important to note that this type of meditation does not include chanting or mantra but instead focuses on nonjudgment and awareness of the present moment. Participants in this study were

Western practitioners who use this method of meditation daily for an average of 40 minutes. For musicians, diligent practice requirements to see beneficial changes should be no surprise. The researchers were primarily interested in the cortical thickness of the areas of the brain that are related to attention, interoception, and sensory processing. Cortical thickness here refers to the density of brain cells called neurons. More neurons connecting two regions of the brain means a stronger and faster connection and is the result of regular practice. Magnetic resonance imaging, which generates images of the brain’s anatomy and physiological processes, was used for this study.

The results showed little average density thickness differences across the groups, meaning that the meditator’s cortex was not thicker throughout the entire cortex. Evidence showed, however, that there were significant discrepancies in the how the thickness was distributed in both hemispheres between the groups (Lazar et al., 2005). Two specific areas—a region of the right anterior insula and the right middle frontal sulci (Brodmann areas 9 and 10)— were significantly thicker in the participants who meditated. What is special about these regions of the brain as they pertain to mindfulness is that they are associated with resisting automatic responses (Brodmann area 9) and decision making (Brodmann area 10) (Lazar et al., 2005). For the practiced meditator this could mean an improved ability to resist excessive mental

34 hyperactivity before a performance and reduce the amount of needless unconscious tension that may arise with the stress induced by performing or practicing.

This research also demonstrated that there was increased thickness in regions related to somatosensory, auditory, and visual processing. While measurements of increased thickness of cortical areas does not yet establish increased glial concentration or changes in the neuronal branching, it does tell us that there is an increase of some type of brain activity related to the regular practice of meditation (Lazar et al., 2005). If future research demonstrates these increases, it would suggest lasting changes have occurred. Glial cells support neurons and provide necessary nutrients for proper functioning. When the cells have been deployed to certain areas of the brain, that suggests that enough neurons are occupying that space and therefore will require the resources to maintain connections. Neuronal branching is a term associated with neuroplasticity, where neurons are creating new dendrites that will allow for more connections to other neurons. When these connections occur, glial cells will be redistributed to support the new connections. Evidence provided by Lazar et al. (2005) is certainly provocative but lacks statistical weight due to the small sample size of twenty participants. Future studies are needed to corroborate evidence provided and ascertain mechanisms that alter neural structure as a result of meditation.

Evidence of improved cognitive ability as a result of meditation could advocate for the benefits of adding mindfulness practices to music teaching. Measuring the benefits of meditation on cognitive ability is problematic, however, because it requires a comprehensive assessment of the cognitive abilities possessed by experienced meditators before they began meditating to compare to the cognitive abilities of non-meditators. In a study on the enhancement of cognitive ability in relation to meditation, Baird, Mrazek, Phillips, and Schooler (2014) used a two-week

35 meditation training program to demonstrate the benefits of such training on such metacognitive skills as memory, perceptual decisions, and introspective accuracy. Introspective accuracy can be defined as one’s ability to correctly assess their thoughts or perceptions about their environment.

In this particular study, samatha (focused attention) meditation was used, centered around a body feedback experience such as breathing and body scanning. Participants were taught how to recognize thoughts that would be distracting while remaining impartial to them. Theoretically, training the mind to not be influenced by irrelevant thoughts while body scanning would lead to improved concentration while performing other tasks.

The results showed that the experimental group improved in memory tasks and introspective accuracy when compared to the control group, without significant differences in performance on the perceptual task. In the experiment, the perceptual task involved a visual stimulus that required error detection of slight differences when looking at patterned figures.

While meditation improved two metacognitive skills (memory and introspective accuracy), the improvement was not shown over all cognitive skills (Baird et al., 2014). This suggests that meditation may only impact certain mental abilities. It should be noted that two weeks is a short amount of time to monitor significant changes in brain function, especially when compared to the experienced meditators of Lazar et al. (2005). Both studies used meditative practices that lasted about 40-45 minutes per session, similar to the length of time recommended for music practice sessions by Gerald Klickstein. If a musician had only two weeks of practice to demonstrate similar increases in their playing ability, they would likely require more than 40-45 minutes of practice per day.

If mindfulness can cause significant and measurable structural changes in the brain, then how can these practices be applied to change the structure of the performer’s brain? To apply this

idea to the instruction of musicians, it is necessary to think of how to introduce regular practice

of mindfulness into the practice room. As seen with studies of Western meditators, a regular

meditation routine is needed to demonstrate noticeable structural differences between the experiment subjects. Musicians are taught the virtue of diligent practice to make permanent changes. Meditation requires similar practice routines to create mindful habits that are the result of neurological changes. Alterations in structure are possible because of the brain’s plasticity, or

the idea of neuroplasticity.

Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change structure over time. One of the most

fascinating aspects of mindfulness training, especially through meditative practices, is the long-

term consequences it can have for neural organization. Studies targeting mechanisms of

neuroplasticity suggest that extended practice and repeated exposure to stimuli is needed for

functional reorganization of regions of the brain (Khan et al., 2017). These are the same

mechanisms that allow for technique or other musical practices to become engrained or habitual.

Diligent practice and repetition of materials to become habit causes structural changes in the

brain to occur over significant periods of time. Allen et al. (2012) focused primarily on

individual performance improvements on a test measuring cognitive control and task completion,

while experiencing emotional interference, after mindfulness training. The predication was that

the mindfulness training would positively impact executive control and could be measured

through increases in “central executive blood oxygenation level-dependent activity during

effortful cognition” (Allen et al., 2012).

Participants were given a six-week training course to improve emotional health and

attentional focus with an expert instructor. Classes met once a week for two hours, with guided

meditation assignments to complete outside of class. Each participant was measured in advance

37 to find their baseline before starting the project. The follow-up scan occurred in the two weeks following the course with instruction given to the participants to continue their meditative practices at home. The task required of participants during the scans was to perform a counting

Stroop task with images from the International Affective Picture System to serve as distractors.

Stroop counting tasks require the individual to be able to count the number of Arabic numerals present, while a different number is represented by those numerals (e.g. counting 5 numerals that are all 4s). Allen et al. 2012 also utilized negative images as distractors to further impede the subject’s ability to stay focused on completing the task accurately.

The results showed that the six-week intervention program improved cognitive control and executive-related neural processing. Through active practice, individuals were able to improve their ability to maintain attention on tasks where negative stimuli were presented as a distraction (Allen et al., 2012). Negative stimuli for musicians could be a variety of external and internal factors; for example, imagine a solo competition performance where the musician might struggle with distractions from the judges, the audience, and the desire to be competitive with other musicians. Being able to block out the memory of how others perform and the fact that one is competing for some sort of prize would be paramount to a successful performance free of distraction.

A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan analysis showed increased response (evidenced by changes in blood flow measured) in the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex group that received training. This area of the brain is responsible for working memory and attentional switching, among many other functions. A factor that influenced individual results within the tasks was the participants’ adherence to the practice system given in the course.

Dedication to maintaining regular practice with the guided meditation tasks correlated with the

38 activation of the frontal-insular, cingulate, and midline regions when presented with negative stimuli. Each of these areas are incorporated in the control of salience, awareness, and cognition

(Allen et al., 2012). By demonstrating a correlation between practice hours and the change in frontoinsular activation, it is clear that mindfulness exercises can alter neural activity in a relatively short period of time. It is unsurprising that regular practice influences how much benefit can be derived from mindfulness practice, especially when considering how much practice is required to learn an instrument in the first place. As discussed previously, neuroplasticity requires repetition of behavior over a long period of time to create lasting neural pathways. This is also supported by studies performed by Kabat-Zinn on the benefits of mindfulness intervention strategies in reducing stress response in individuals through a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Principles of mindfulness have also demonstrated benefits in individuals suffering from depression through a mindfulness-based cognitive therapy as studied by Teasdale et al. (2000). Results of the study showed a significant reduction in depressive episode relapse by patients who completed the therapy.

Mindfulness exercises incorporate a wide range of neurological structures through both excitation (i.e., executive functioning) and inhibition. Regional synchronization plays a role in the control of emotion and attention. Dispositional mindfulness is the tendency to be mindful and engaged with the present moment in everyday life. Regions of the brain recruited by individuals who are mindful in this manner were studied by Kong et. al (2016). Through resting-state fMRI scans, they found that there was local synchronization of the left orbitofrontal cortex, the left parahippocampal gyrus, and the right insula. The mindful attention awareness scale (MAAS) was used as a measurement of dispositional mindfulness before performing the fMRI scans. During the scan, participants were asked to keep their eyes closed yet maintain a clear mind without

39 falling asleep. The fMRI scans showed that dispositional mindfulness had a negative correlation with regional homogeneity in the right inferior frontal gyrus and a positive correlation in the left parahippocampal gyrus, the right insula, and the left orbitofrontal cortex. This evidence suggests that dispositional mindfulness is associated with response inhibition, memory encoding, body awareness, and decision making based on the neural activation showed on the fMRI scans.

Another study that focused on measuring change in gray matter within the brain was performed by Hölzel et al. (2008). Researchers hypothesized that meditators would have an increased gray matter concentration in the areas of the brain that are associated with meditation, namely the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the parahippocampal and hippocampal formation. These areas of the brain control attention, memory, impulse control, emotion, and decision making along with other processes (Kandel and Mack, 2014). As with other similar studies, they found a difference in the gray matter (i.e., brain cell bodies) in these regions when compared to non-meditators. Gray matter, or cellular, concentration is usually a sign of increased neural activity (Lazar et al., 2005), thus, the evidence presented here suggests that regular practice of meditation will increase this gray matter concentration. This experiment focused on individuals practicing insight meditation (vipassana) from the Vipassana Center in

Germany, who meditated for roughly two hours a day. Repeated behavioral patterns (e.g., practice) have consequences on neurological structures due to neural plasticity (Khan et al.,

2017; Allen et al., 2012). With the rise of mental health concerns among younger generations, it is curious that these practices are not being adopted in an institutionalized manner to prevent and alleviate depressive tendencies. Longitudinal studies on the incorporation of these practices in public schools could demonstrate the need for meditative practices and the inclusion of meditative pedagogy in education degree programs.

Mindfulness and Memory

As many believe that mindfulness practice can positively influence individual memory performance (Greenberg et al., 2018; Binder and Desai, 2011; Hölzel et al., 2008; Luders et al.,

2009), it is important to investigate whether there is evidence to suggest neurological structural differences in those who practice mindfulness and those who do not. Memory improvement owing to mindfulness is one of the most critical benefits for musicians. Pianists, in particular, play almost all of their recital music from memory and many competitions encourage or require memory work on the part of the participants. Any advantage gained by adopting mindfulness training is time well spent. An interesting study might incorporate measurements of the memory areas of a pianist’s brain to those of musicians not required to memorize a majority of their repertoire.

Studies show a positive correlation between density of the hippocampus, the region of the brain associated with emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous system, and mindfulness

(Greenberg et al., 2018; Hölzel et al., 2008; Luders et al., 2009). Since the hippocampus is a source of lifelong neurogenesis, it stands to reason that this would be an area of the brain susceptible to change considering the repeated mindfulness activities that involve memory and emotion. Greenberg et al. (2018) looked specifically at how mindfulness exercises can reduce proactive interference—a condition where previously learned information impedes one’s ability to learn new information—by using working memory. Evidence is provided by increases in hippocampal volume following mindfulness training (Greenberg et al., 2018). Although little differences in hippocampal volume of the group were found, volume increases in the left hippocampus after mindfulness training correlated with improved performance on proactive interference tasks. Both Hözel et al. (2008) and Luders et al. (2009), however, found that

41 meditators showed a higher right hippocampal volume when compared to non-meditators.

According to these researchers, these volume differences are a result of the habituation of mindfulness practice and attentional systems required for mindfulness that are associated with the hippocampus (Luders et al., 2009). When considering the hippocampal connections to the thalamus and prefrontal cortex, there may be a correlation between control of cortical response and hippocampal volume as well (Luders et al., 2009). A next step for research related to mindfulness and the hippocampus would be investigating how habits of attention are impacted by technology and increasing addictions to video streaming. If habituation and attentional systems are influenced by mindfulness in the hippocampus, there may be a correlation for the negative impact of technology on these systems.

Groussard, La Joie, Rauchs, Landeau, Chetelat, Viader, and Platel (2010) investigated functional and structural differences in the brains of musicians compared to non-musicians. The study looked at the fMRI scans of 20 musicians and 20 non-musicians performing a musical semantic memory task. Each participant was required to rate their familiarity with 60 instrumental music melodies; popular music was avoided to reduce the chance of response as a result of remembering lyrics or some other context clue. Cerebral activity was then measured to compare reactions. Results suggested that when the individual recognized a melody, there was an increase in activation of areas related to motor coordination (e.g., right cerebellum and left motor areas) (Groussard et al., 2010). The musicians in particular showed increased activity overall compared to the other participants. Interestingly, the left inferior parietal gyrus—the area of the brain that serves as a connection point for auditory, visual, and somatosensory cortices—was implicated as well; this suggests that multiple layers of neural connections are involved in perceiving music. In regard to memory, musicians showed an increased amount of gray matter in

42 the left hippocampus when compared to the non-musicians (Groussard et al., 2010). The hippocampus is involved with short-term (episodic) memory and the structuring of that information for eventual long-term (semantic) memory storage in the medial temporal lobes

(Binder and Desai, 2011). Evidence provided by this study suggests that the brains of musicians are structurally different as a result of their training, particularly in areas related to memory and motor skills. However, this study by Groussard et al. (2010) is limited in participant numbers and additional studies with larger sample sizes are needed to corroborate evidence.

Mindfulness and Emotion

Emotional regulation is often a primary reason for the use of mindfulness training in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Modinos et al. (2010) focused on how the regulation of emotion is tied to dispositional mindfulness and whether the reappraisal of emotions would lead to an increased response of the prefrontal cortex and a reduced response in the amygdala.

Reappraisal is an important aspect of mindfulness that has often been overlooked. When an individual is experiencing a negative emotion or situation, reappraisal allows them to concentrate on aspects of the situation that may not be as bad as they appear. As discussed in the introductory material on stress, reappraisal is significant in changing the body’s response to stress and becoming more resilient toward stress-inducing stimuli in the future. While lack of emotional regulation as a result of psychiatric conditions is beyond the scope of this paper, musicians must be mindful of how stress is interpreted throughout their career and teaching. In turn, they will pass management techniques onto students grappling with the physical and mental difficulties of becoming professional musicians in a mentally healthy way.

Emotional regulation allows for the nonjudgment of the moment that mindfulness helps to create. Dispositional mindfulness refers to how mindful a person might be from day to day

and can vary between individuals. As such, researchers need to test differences from each

participant in the study in regard to mindfulness. Modinos et al. involved eighteen subjects:

eleven males and seven females. All of the participants were cleared of any psychiatric or

neurological disorders before the onset of the study. As a measurement of mindfulness, all of the

subjects completed the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. This survey consists of thirty-

nine units that pertain to different aspects of mindfulness: observation, description, acting with

awareness, and accepting without judgment. Problems arise with studies that involve self-

reporting as the base for measuring difference among individuals because of the natural bias in

self-measurement. An example might be “When I’m doing something, I’m only focused on what

I’m doing, nothing else.” Not only is this statement remarkably concrete, it allows for too much

interpretation by the individual. If they are focused 80% of the time and another individual is

focused 95% of the time but each report having the same amount of focus, the measurement will

be skewed.

Individuals were also trained to reappraise negative situations with different strategies.

These tactics include concentration on positive outcomes of negative situations, altering a

moment of time to be judged as positive, or objectifying a negative moment (e.g., watching a

negative scene in a movie). The stimuli were a series of 66 photos with different affective

moments; twenty-two were emotionally neutral and 44 were emotionally negative. Participants were exposed to the photos for two seconds and allowed to respond as they naturally would.

Then, words appeared under the screen dictating whether they should reappraise the image or continue to experience their natural reactions to the photos. After being taught how to reappraise the photos, fMRI scans showed that individuals had significantly less negative affects after reappraisal trials shown in the activation of the prefrontal cortex network as hypothesized. The

44 amygdala (fear center of the brain), which is often activated during emotional responses, demonstrated increased activity when the participants were shown negative images that were not reappraised. In contrast, there was no significant activation of the amygdala during reappraisal.

There is a significant correlation between the down-regulation of emotion and the use of mindfulness skills (Modinos et al., 2010). Down-regulation of emotion refers to the ability to reduce overall emotional arousal when presented with stimuli. For a musician, a performance might provide the stimuli that heightens fear or other emotional responses. The neural activation patterns that change when an individual reappraises their emotions reveals that the hypothesized mindfulness skills influenced neurological activity in measurable and distinct ways (Modinos et al., 2010). Due to the significance of the activation differences, it can be assumed that prolonged mindfulness practice could lead to significant structural changes in the brain that would lead to an increase in quality of life. Studies that focused primarily on changes in neural activation in the amygdala, such as Taren et. al (2013), found that there was a significantly lower density of gray matter in the right amygdala in individuals with a higher state of dispositional mindfulness. Since the amygdala is often associated with stress and response to stressful situations, it is logical that there would be a negative correlation to the density of that specific area.

Other research corroborates evidence suggesting that mindfulness is linked to reduced amygdala activation. Tammi Kral’s study found that participants who self-reported long-term meditation had the lowest amygdala activation when compared to novices. As with many of these studies, self-reporting is often a common first step in the research method. Measuring self- reflection of mindfulness could cause misleading results since there is not yet a quantifiable method of questioning oneself to determine one’s mindfulness. Reactivity was measured in relation to emotional response for positive and negative affective pictures. Interestingly, the main

difference between the groups appeared in their reactions to the positive pictures, not the

negative, and were more likely to categorize the pictures as neutral when compared to the novice

meditators (Kral et al., 2018). The research also suggested that nonreactivity to emotional or

affective stimuli becomes more automatic in long-term meditators, reducing the need of intervention from the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (the area of the brain that interprets fear and risk) (Kandel and Mack, 2014, p. 642). Further research is needed to understand how trauma may impact the nature of this response and whether nonreactivity can help prevent the onset of emotional disorders.

Mitigating emotional responses is different than suppressing emotions. Whereas mindfulness can allow for observation of the moment without judgment, emotional suppression involves actively ignoring or escaping from emotions (Murakami et al., 2015). To put this idea

into a musical context, imagine a musician who is petrified of their next performance. Rather

than grappling with the emotion or attempting to alleviate anxiety through efforts to overprepare,

they actively avoid practicing and try to forget the impending doom of the show. While not a

replacement for therapy, mindfulness exercises have proven to be an effective strategy to

complement regular counseling. One such example is mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral

therapy, which specifically makes use of mindfulness as a core therapeutic practice. The idea that

mindfulness and the meditative practice of mindfulness can alter brain structure and, therefore,

alter behavior is what makes the topic captivating in the first place. Without discernable

structural change, the argument for the benefits of mindfulness becomes weakened and, at best,

speculative.

Both emotion suppression and mindfulness can impact the response of the amygdala but

may do so through different network pathways. By this study’s definition, emotion suppression

is the attempt to avoid or escape emotions (Murakami et al., 2015). Mindfulness, however,

focuses on existing in the moment and being aware of thoughts and physical responses within the

body, while remaining unjudgmental toward your observations. Murakami et al. (2015) sought to

discover the differences between the neural pathways associated with mindfulness techniques

and those associated with emotional suppression. Illuminating these differences further

reinforces the need for mindfulness training as opposed to intentional or unintentional emotional

suppression.

Each participant was measured using fMRI scans when shown pictures with different

affective meanings. Before each picture was presented, a cue word would appear and dictate

whether the individual should look, suppress, or observe. With each picture also came either the

word neutral or negative to ensure that the appropriate affect was interpreted. The results showed

that the combination of the words look and negative and look and neutral triggered a response in

the amygdala and midbrain, which are associated with emotion, and the occipital gyrus,

prefrontal cortex, and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, which are not specifically associated

with emotional processing. Both strategies were able to modulate amygdala response to negative

emotions and stimuli. Suppression of emotion activated the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, but

the mindfulness strategies were more global and incorporated the superior frontal gyrus which

allows for the feeling of detachment in emotional regulation.

How Mindfulness Influences Anxiety

Zeidan et al. (2014) found other structural influences involved in specifically mitigating anxiety through mindfulness training. While mindfulness exercises did not modulate anxiety, participants showed a reduction in state anxiety after each meditation session. MRI scans showed

that control of state anxiety came from activation of the anterior cingulate cortex and the

ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Zeidan et al., 2014). This study is notable for the differences drawn between meditative exercises and simple concentration or attention to the breath. Here meditation is centered around nonreaction to the moment and being able to control the locus of attention, whereas attending to the breath is simply concentrating on breathing without adjusting reactions to present moment experiences. Because of increases in state anxiety when attending to

the breath only, researchers believe that meditation and breath attention produce different results

(Zeidan et al., 2014). The anterior insula and the anterior cingulate cortex activation were also

positively correlated to reductions in state anxiety, suggesting that beyond emotional control,

self-awareness and integration of sensory, cognitive, and affective representations are needed for

greater control of anxiety-inducing situations (Zeidan et al., 2014). The anterior cingulate cortex

is connected to the emotional limbic system and the cognitive prefrontal cortex, meaning that

this region has important functions for integrating neural circuitry of affect regulation (Wheeler

et al., 2017). An unusual feature of the area is the presence of van economo neurons which are specific to great apes and humans as a result of evolution. These neurons have long, straight apical and basal dendrites which allow them to receive and integrate inputs from fewer neurons than the smaller pyramidal neurons (Allman et al., 2011). The size and morphology of these cells suggest that they allow for faster transmission between brain regions and increased connectivity

(Allman et al., 2011). Evolutionary benefits of this may serve as an adaptive function that allows humans and primates to act quickly in social situations. This same function may assist in mindfulness functions of monitoring and ensuring a neutral response to negative stimuli without judgment (Allman et al., 2011).

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex has implications for the cognitive control needed for trait mindfulness because of its ability to influence the amygdala. This area of the brain is

48 associated with conditioned fear responses that can change over time (Kandel and Mack, 2014).

Studies show that early-life exposure to repeated stress can cause an inability to sustain neural activation in both the orbitofrontal and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Wang et al., 2013).

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex actually separates the two hemispheres of the orbitofrontal cortex and both are part of the ventral prefrontal cortex. In a study on how the ventromedial prefrontal cortex mediates the response of the amygdala in depression-vulnerable subjects, researchers found that there was an increased amygdala response and a decreased ventromedial prefrontal cortex response in those subjects when compared to subjects deemed to be depression resilient (Wang et al., 2013). The responses that were measured involved changes in blood perfusion while the participants were involved in either the mindfulness tasks or stress-inducing tasks. Questionnaires were given before the experiment began to determine the subjects’ state anxiety and depression levels. While questionnaires seem to be the norm for this type of research, it would be interesting to devise a system of discerning state anxiety and depression levels without the necessity of self-reporting. The experiment design also attempted to account for the influence of caffeine, exercise, and smoking on the results by banning those activities for two hours before the test began. However, an issue arises as the half-life of caffeine is around six hours and would still be in a participant’s system; this, coupled with the fact that nicotine dependency and removal of the source of nicotine could induce a stress response in the individual, suggests that an ideal environment for this kind of testing is difficult to produce without changing some of the environmental stimuli that might cause stress in the first place.

Mindfulness exercises have clearly demonstrated their usefulness in neural reorganization and emotional regulation. Evidence of changes in gray matter density shows increased neural activation in a region of the right anterior insula and the right middle frontal sulci (Brodman

49 areas 9 and 10), and in regions related to somatosensory, auditory, visual, and interoceptive processing (Lazar et al., 2005). Reduced density of gray matter in the right amygdala, which is associated with stress response, in individuals with a higher state of dispositional mindfulness also demonstrates how mindfulness can work in an inhibitory fashion to reduce some of the underlying causes of anxiety and depression (Taren et al., 2013).

With all of the imaging technology that we have at our disposal, longitudinal studies are needed to understand the lasting impacts that mindfulness may have on individuals practicing mindfulness. Research in this area is also directed toward adult participants and mediating negative affect or attentional habits that have already been established. New studies on the potential benefits of mindfulness and meditative training for children could allow for the inclusion of mindfulness education and pedagogy in standardized teaching practices. By indoctrinating emotional regulation and awareness at an early age, mental health disorders that seem to be increasing with each passing generation may be impacted in a positive way. It also appears that self-reporting is a common method of gauging mindfulness at the moment. While this is expedient, it may be misleading in accuracy and further research models should include a measurement that does not depend on the participants’ awareness of their own state of mind.

Public interest is piqued because of the potential benefits mindfulness training may have for attention, memory, and emotional well-being. Disinformation about how mindfulness works, specifically as a snake oil for all mental health problems, can only be repelled by dissemination of fact and advocacy for adopting healthy lifestyle changes.

Trait Mindfulness

Wang et al. (2014) used resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI, to identify how the multiple regions of the default mode network (DMN) are used in trait

mindfulness. The DMN is made up of regions of the brain that are suppressed, or deactivated, in

goal-directed tasks. These regions include the precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex, the medial

prefrontal cortex, the lateral parietal cortex, the lateral temporal cortex, the parahippocampal

gyrus, and the thalamus. The network created by connections between these regions is activated

during mind wandering, where the individual is no longer engaged with the present moment.

This study was primarily focused on functional connectivity and its connection to trait

mindfulness as well as defining the node in the DMN that is related to trait mindfulness. As a

method for investigation, the researchers gathered resting-state fMRI data from a population of

two hundred and forty-five young adults to examine trait mindfulness within that group of

people. In a similar manner to Modinos et al. (2010), this study used a self-reported test called

the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). This scale has fifteen units and operates on a

six-point scale to measure trait mindfulness. This examination was presented after the fMRI scans.

To classify what parts of the brain were in the DMN, emphasis was placed on those regions that had a significant positive correlation with the posterior cingulate cortex. This

allowed for comparison between the DMN and the self-reported trait mindfulness produced by

the MAAS score. The data showed that the connection between the DMN and the thalamus was

weaker in those who scored higher on the MAAS, meaning that there was a negative correlation

between connection to the thalamus and mindfulness (Wang et al., 2014). The two nodes that are

defined by the researchers as being significant areas of mindfulness detection are the thalamus

and the posterior cingulate cortex. As with much of the research on mindfulness, it appears that

suppression of a certain region of the brain, in this case the thalamus, is a reliable indicator of

self-reported mindfulness. If a strong connection exists between the thalamus and the DMN, an

51 individual may be more prone to mind wandering. Due to the fact that the thalamus is associated with consciousness and sleep regulation, this correlation to control of attention and mind wandering seems to be intuitive.

Mindfulness in Learning and Transfer

Because we go through our lives mindlessly accomplishing tasks, we rarely make full use of what we know. Mindful people, however, rarely dissociate into daydreams or fantasy due to constant monitoring of their situation and experiences. This is in part a result of the metacognitive skills discussed further in chapter four. Monitoring one’s own thoughts is a critical aspect of being mindful and is the opposite of being mindless. One’s ability to remain mentally engaged in the present moment is a skill that can be developed over time.

Mindfulness here is described as the “volitional, metacognitively guided employment of non- automatic, usually effort demanding processes” (Salomon and Golberson, 1987). There is a difference between the processes used in mindfulness and the mindlessness. Automatic processes are fast, carried out in large chunks, and are unlimited by the constraints of the central processing capacity of working memory. Controlled processes, however, are much slower, effort demanding, and analyzed as they are controlled by the individual. Mindlessness could occur due to poor self-efficacy (i.e., your belief in your own ability to do something, related to self-talk), frustration due to trouble recalling information, the inability to produce your desired goal, and learned helplessness (Salomon and Golberson, 1987).

This translates to performance, where a majority of the technique exhibited in the performance has become automatic (whether for good or bad). The individual musician is often not singularly aware of absolutely every note that is being played and all of the intricate movements involved in that note. When performers think musically, they think in aggregates of

sound rather than discrete units of production. These aggregates are broken into small, digestible

pieces and rehearsed in minutia to ensure that each note being committed to the automatic realm

is intentionally placed there and is correct. When this process fails, or the automatic response is

set up with faulty pitches and rhythms, musicians experience mistakes in performance due to a

lack of diligence. The stress response makes this worse as it overrides certain aspects of the

automatic response and leads to the performer becoming hyperaware of notes and rhythms that

they had mindlessly learned in the first place. If this is a pervasive problem, the individual may

be unable to alter their performance and their motivation lessens.

Automatic (passive) responses are typically controlled by external environmental factors and

are associated with practice and learned responses (Salomon and Golberson, 1987). These could be the successful execution of technical passages in a performance without note or rhythmic errors, or it could be the programmed mistakes caused by poor practice habits or mindless

practice. Desirable automaticity should be the end result after slow and deliberate practice, where

the performer is knowingly shaping positive habits from the very beginning. The key word to

consider here is that these are deliberate. This type of process should occur in the practice room

before the automatic responses begin to be solidified in the brain. This involves metacognitive

and executive functions to monitor different attentions and processes.

CHAPTER III. METACOGNITION AND THE TOOLS OF MINDFULNESS TRAINING

Mindfulness and metacognition are intertwined in their cognitive requirements and the skills that it takes to build them. To be mindful—that is, nonjudgmentally aware of the present moment—one must be aware of thoughts and distractions. Metacognition enables the individual to recognize thought patterns and then be able to act upon them accordingly. Metacognition is a willful act, requiring effort on the part of the individual. It will take time, perseverance, and guidance to develop these skills. Teachers should teach both mindfulness and metacognition within their music classroom because these skills assist the student in being fully present in the lesson and allow for maximal absorption of material. In turn, each lesson becomes more efficient and the student is able to learn faster and with a deeper understanding of materials being presented. Cognitive habits require a significant amount of time to alter permanently. Habit formation can be sporadic and necessitates awareness and oversight for the formation of desirable habit change (Rebar and Gardener, 2019).

While there are many tools to build metacognition and mindfulness, we will be discussing aspects that are readily applicable to music and the teaching of music in a variety of situations. This chapter will provide a definition of metacognition, the various attentional components that allow an individual to be metacognitive, and the examples of research methods investigating metacognition. Self-evaluation, which is a metacognitive tool, is also discussed in relation to musical practice. Examples of planning and assessment procedures are included to connect the research with music practice. Applications for the music classroom are provided to give models of how this information can be used by a music teacher. Just like an athlete preparing their body for physical exertion, musicians must train their minds in such a way that they are prepared for both practice and performance.

What Is Metacognition?

Metacognition is a volitional act that requires executive control on the part of the

musician to inhibit attentional shifting, while promoting error detection and selective attention.

Shimamura (2000) provides a useful overview of the neuroscience of metacognition by

highlighting studies that connect metacognition and brain function, all of which illustrate the

significant interconnectedness needed for someone to be truly metacognitive. Selective attention

is important for the musician who is inundated with many different aural stimuli from their own

playing, the audience, and somatosensory feedback, as well as their own inner dialogue that is processing at the moment of performance. Selective attention requires that the individual know

when their attention changes and how to mentally return to the task at hand. As will be discussed

further in this chapter, self-talk can also be a metacognitive tool to redirect attention to the task at

hand (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009).

Nelson and Narens (1994) present metacognition as occurring on two levels, where the

individual is able to observe and analyze both the object level and the metalevel. In terms of

music performance or practice, this could be a simultaneous awareness of both the music that is

being played as well as musical intentions. Information being processed in this manner can be

thought of as a bottom-up conceptualization, with stimuli being received from the object level

flowing to the meta level for analysis and interpretation. For a musician, this is one of the key

moments that will define how the information is received. As error detection is a crucial

component of performance and practice, it is important for the individual to be able detect errors

in performance accurately. The musician or student must be able to operate this detection with

impartiality and avoid emotional entanglements when issues arise.

By successfully navigating the error-detection process and creating a new habit of this aspect of metacognition in a non-emotional way, the individual can develop a pattern of mental behavior that allows one to concentrate only on the error and its correction without interference from self-judgment about their ability as a musician. This also applies to the mindfulness qualities previously discussed, of a nonjudgmental awareness of their playing abilities. Simply feeling bad or guilty about the state of one’s playing ability is not enough to cause significant change; accurately assessing one’s playing while still moving toward the objective playing goal is a far more important ability.

Once the meta level of evaluation has occurred, information about the object level of performance is then used to exert control over what is happening at that level:

…memory evaluations, such as judgments of learning (e.g., ‘‘how well did I learn the material?’’) or feelings of knowing (‘‘how well will I perform on a test of the material?”), can be construed as aspects of metacognitive monitoring. Metacognitive control can be interpreted in terms of regulating information processing, such as allocating more study time or initiating certain retrieval strategies. (Shimamura, 2000, p. 314)

Having the ability to accurately assess one’s knowledge to appropriately prepare for upcoming performances or assessments is one example of metacognitive monitoring; being able to apply strategies for accessing that knowledge in the necessary moment is a way of exerting metacognitive control. For the music student, this is where implementing the practice journal created by Gerald Klickstein would be beneficial. Klickstein recommends separating practice plans into five discrete sections: new material, developing material, performance material, technique, and musicianship. Students may decide which methods will be implemented to tackle new technical challenges presented in novel material and how much time will be dedicated to each section of the practice session. Interpretive decisions could be made through analysis in the developing material section of the practice log, allowing the practice session time to be dedicated

solely to executing premade interpretive decisions. This is also an excellent time for the student

to create artificial performance situations for them to practice performing their music without

stops.

Effective planning of practice sessions as outlined above permits for detailed analysis of

the practice session afterward. Journaling assists the student in maintaining an accurate log of

practice habits. When information about the previous practice session and performance is

recorded with an audio recorder, the student will be better able to assess and plan based on an objective assessment of their current performance ability in comparison to their goals. Musicians

who are able to accurately evaluate their own processes and develop plans to rectify mistakes

will be far more likely to absorb information presented to them in their lessons.

Source monitoring is another important aspect of metacognition. In this process,

contextual evidence is evaluated to remember when or where some event occurred, or the source

of a fact. Patients with damage to their frontal cortex will sometimes fail to remember these

details or from where the information came. While most music students do not likely have

frontal cortex damage, they may have issues with memory recall that can also lead to

performance deficits in the future (e.g., memory slips or not remembering information provided

by the teacher). Labeling where this memory recall failure occurs can be a way to help alleviate

the judgmental and negative emotions that often come with these events. A musician who

experiences a memory slip in a concert, for example, may leave the performance frustrated and

upset with themselves. This is due, in part, to a momentary lapse of connection with the frontal

cortex. In the midst of the piece, the performer is distracted by another factor of the performance

and an error of information recall occurs. Without proper preparation for such an event, the

performer may struggle to recover and regain their place in the music.

Prefrontal cortex activation when the patient is required to use metacognitive functions

like source monitoring and retrieval was examined via fMRI scanning. Nolde, Johnson, and

D’Esposito (1998) studied these two functions. Subjects were given information to study and

were then asked about the nature of the information provided (e.g., whether it was via picture or

words). This requires the subject to recall and know the source of the information, as well as to

remember the information itself. Activation in the left prefrontal area for this type of retrieval

strengthens the argument of the frontal cortex involvement in information recall (Nolde et al.,

1998). By retaining memory of how the information was presented and the source of that information, participants are demonstrating a deeper contextual knowledge of that information.

The encoding of these contextual elements of memory is an important aspect in the exertion of metacognitive control over memory itself (Dunlosky et al., 2016). In a musical excerpt, this would involve knowing where in the music certain phrases are placed. If an error in memory occurs, this deeper knowledge of the context in which the phrase originated could allow the performer to find their place and regain the musical momentum lost in the memory slip.

Information recall is imperative for other facets of musical development as well. The student must be able to not only remember the critique received by their teacher in a previous lesson but must also be able to recall musical ideas while performing. When practicing, then, developing and testing this memory recall is a necessary step in the planning stage of the practice session. As noted before, planning is one element of metacognition and one that is of vital importance for student success.

Metacognition and Fringe Consciousness

Fringe consciousness is the awareness of information that is known, is familiar, or was once known without immediate recall. A tip-of-the-tongue experience, where someone knows

the answer or information that needs to be recalled but is unable to do so, is considered an aspect

of fringe consciousness. In a musical sense, this could be akin to remembering a phrase or

passage that was once practiced without remembering exactly when it was practiced or from which exercise the passage came,(e.g. a skill offered by practicing scales and different scale patterns with variations in articulation). By creating a foundation of technical knowledge through practice, musicians may simply apply that technical skill to a piece that they are learning rather than having to develop that technical passage from scratch. In jazz improvisation this is a monumentally important step to being able to solo over chord changes successfully and spontaneously. Once hundreds of patterns, motives, melodies, and combinations of all of the above are memorized and perfected, then the soloist can apply those configurations to chord changes in new and inventive ways.

Fringe consciousness is linked to mindfulness by way of metacognition because a person must use increased attention and a general monitoring of mental states, therefore exerting control over their own cognitive functioning (Nelson, 1990). The generalized awareness of the present moment is a characteristic of mindfulness whereas the cognitive control is metacognition. In order for this to occur, however, the individual must be able to shift their attention to the experiences of the moment that were previously being ignored (Shapiro et al., 2006).

Reperceiving is the shift in perspective that occurs when using metacognitive tools to become more mindful. Thoughts, feelings, and sensations become the observed objects and are more independent of expectations, attitude, and experience (Norman, 2016). A flexible attitude toward one’s experience and eventual impartiality of judgment is key here. For the music student, this allows monitoring of their present performance without passing judgment on themselves in the process. Having the ability to willfully change one’s perception of the current experience is

59 invaluable when it comes to processing stress as well. While this part of the document does not delve into the research pertaining to reappraisal of stressful situations, perceptual shifts often allow for individuals to become more resilient to the stress they are experiencing if they view that stress as beneficial (Moore et al., 2008).

Through the shift of attention to the body, a performer also increases the ability to monitor the body’s response to performance demands created by a piece of music without interfering with the body’s already programmed ability to execute the music. If the performer is playing a section of music that has repetitive fast notes, tension may be experienced in an attempt to control the rapid technique. Tightness may not only cause the hands to exert more force on the instrument than is needed but may also lead to tension and force being exerted in parts of the body that are not necessary for execution of the passage (e.g., shoulder, jaw, back rigidity). Observing the body while practicing allows the individual to notice these changes and address this effect before it becomes a habit. Techniques such as these can be cultivated by building mindful awareness of the body. Many different methods of meditation and general body scanning exist to gain knowledge of how the body feels and what the body’s natural response is to practicing or performing.

Promoting Metacognition in the Music Classroom

John Flavell (1976) defined metacognition as “one’s own knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes… [and the] active monitoring and consequent regulation of…[cognitive] processes” (Flavell, 1976, p. 231). This is a fairly common and succinct definition of metacognition, easily condensed to a general awareness of one’s own thought processes and the ability to control those thoughts. In the music classroom, this allows the students to become more independent than non-metacognitive students due to their ability to plan

appropriate strategies, self-monitor strength and weaknesses, and eventually make a qualitative

judgment regarding their musical output.

Carol Benton (2013) illustrates three different types of knowledge that, together, allow

for metacognition to occur. Declarative knowledge involves the use of musical comprehension to

discern what needs to be addressed, akin to error detection and being able to hold a mental image

of the goal while comparing it with current results. Procedural knowledge, however, is understanding how to address these issues in an efficient manner. If a student is aware that a mistake has occurred but is unable to properly adjust their performance to fix the mistake, they will be unable to achieve or quickly improve their results. Finally, Benton speaks of understanding “when and under what circumstances to apply known procedures” (Benton 2013, p. 53). All three are key elements in the independentizing of the student when they are practicing and self-teaching. This idea is also mirrored by Daniel Kohut in his 1985 text Musical

Performance, where he insists that a significant element required for the development of students as individual musicians is for them to be able to self-teach, and therefore be metacognitive.

In his study of metacognitive skill building in middle school band students, William

Bauer (2008) sought to discover how these abilities could be impacted by guided critique of

ensemble performance (with guidance in improving ensemble performance) and how certain

factors like private lessons might impact the metacognition of students. Bauer’s study monitored

similar metacognitive abilities discussed in Benton’s article on metacognition in the music class.

The ability to critique ensemble performance fits within the declarative knowledge aspect of

metacognition, while understanding how to tackle those issues in individual practice addresses

the procedural knowledge portion of the theory. Understanding the circumstances in which to

apply these skills, however, can be troublesome due to the spontaneous nature of issues that arise

in practicing. Students may often find that novel issues in their playing require extra

perseverance and ingenuity to find a personal solution to performance difficulties, a skill that

requires executive functioning.

Bauer points to Richard Kennell’s article “Musical Thinking in the Instrumental

Rehearsal” in which he discusses independent music learning that occurs during a band

rehearsal. Of particular importance is Kennel’s assertion that music teachers are often instructing

students in different ways of thinking in order to interpret and perform music. In essence, the

teacher needs to take on the role of assisting the students in understanding abstract

representations of sound (i.e., music notation) deeply enough to be able to craft unique and

engaging aural images. He equates the musical independence of a student with their musical

intelligence; a student’s ability to consider their own thoughts without needing immediate

direction from their teacher is also a sign of this type of intelligence. In rehearsal, this allows

self-monitoring of attention and focus with the ability to redirect one’s thoughts when

distractions are present.

As with most aspects of learning, students need an accurate role model for the desired behavior or skill. Kennell discusses the importance of the teacher role model in directing musical thinking within the classroom (or studio). Specifically, he says that “as we display personal

commitment, positive attitudes, and intense attention we are communicating successful thinking

strategies to our students. As individual students exercise these qualities and achieve success, we

need to point these out to our students. We need to bring these control processes to the attention

of our students whenever possible” (Kennell,1989, pg. 88).

Teachers should then analyze their own practices to determine what habits about musical

thinking are being demonstrated throughout a lesson. When it comes to the mental aspects of

62 practicing, how often are shortcomings projected onto students? All musicians develop undesirable habits at some point. If a teacher constantly demonstrates insecurity about their own playing, it may be reflected in student perceptions of themselves. If instructors want students to develop healthy mental habits, they must first be excellent role models so as to avoid projecting their own inadequacies. Likewise, students must actively recognize positive behaviors to be emulated.

The Importance of Self-Evaluation as a Metacognitive Tool

Self-evaluation is the ability to observe and analyze one’s own performance or abilities.

In a research study on using self-evaluation after a brass jury performance, Martin Bergee (1993) demonstrated that while there is movement toward building metacognitive skills in university students, further research is needed, particularly in accurate analysis of individual performances.

Juries are a common assessment tool used by university music departments to measure student performance ability at the end of a semester or year. By requiring the student to perform for a panel of teachers, they are creating an environment similar to a recital. The student prepares ahead of time and is required to perform at a specific time in front of an evaluative audience.

While juries are typically much shorter than a full recital, this artificial recital enables the teacher to monitor student performance under pressure. If the student is typically well prepared for their lessons but performs poorly in a jury, this may be an opportunity to investigate that student’s mindset before and during the performance. The self-evaluation demonstrated in this study is an important tool in the process of analyzing the student’s performance and determining how accurately that performance portrays their abilities.

In regard to self-evaluation, Bergee offers essential insight into structuring reflection. As with any type of assessment, structure is needed to justify results: “Specific behaviors must be

targeted and carefully defined, and assessment instruments must draw students’ attention to

positive as well as to negative aspects” (Bergee, 1993, p. 20). Even in self-evaluation, students must remain aware of the ways that they address the issues in their playing. Becoming harsh or overly negative in evaluating one’s own performance could lead to destructive mental habits down the road, as discussed in chapter two. The popular pedagogical texts examined in chapter one all agree that care must be taken to remain impartial during self-evaluation. Bergee’s study does, however, discuss peer evaluation, which may not always offer the most accurate results.

An obvious issue arises with peer evaluations; if a person is evaluating their friend, they

may be less likely to offer an unbiased evaluation of that person’s performance due to their

friendship. At the same time, how likely is it that a student would pick a non-friend to evaluate

them? The quality of the evaluation is also tied to the observer’s musical ability. If the evaluator

is not able to perform to more exacting standards than the person being evaluated, how reliable is

that person’s opinion? With self-evaluation, we often look to the emulation of role models to

help us overcome that gap. The professional’s interpretation, sound, and technique all serve as a

blueprint for the student to follow and measure themselves against. This is part of the declarative

knowledge of Benton’s ideas about metacognition, where the student is able to maintain a mental

idea of the goal and attempt to meet that mental image.

This is not to say that peer evaluations are completely useless. As Bergee explains, peer

evaluations are an important tool in the development of effective teachers. Experienced

educators play an important role in shaping the way that students instruct each other in these

situations, creating a sort of laboratory within the studio class. Master teachers are able to

demonstrate their thought processes and how they are breaking a problem down to smaller

components. Performances within a studio class situation offer a great opportunity for a teacher

to demonstrate proper etiquette in these critiques for students and future teachers. While the instructor may coach a student in front of the class, other students are often encouraged to offer their own constructive suggestions for improvement.

Another research study geared toward self-evaluation and the development of independent metacognitive students is outlined in an article by University of Maryland Professor

Michael Hewitt. Here he reinforces the necessity of having a good model to become a metacognitive student. Self-teaching is defined as a three-phase strategy by Hewitt: planning, the conduct of practice, and evaluation of practicing. This seems to suggest metacognitive processes, albeit in a roundabout way. Planning is a metacognitive skill that is necessary for students to be independent learners. As is expounded upon in The Musician’s Way, planning is of great

importance in effective practicing. It is not enough that a student has a general outline of how to

practice. Before entering the practice room, sections of music must be analyzed and studied so

that interpretation is being reinforced, while striving for technical mastery of the music.

As in Bergee, self-evaluation is a metacognitive skill that is discussed by Hewitt. To

become more independent, the student needs to conduct self-analysis on their own. This

eventually leads to the ability to make informed decisions during rehearsal, as the student has

already practiced evaluating themselves individually. Hewitt also points out that it is necessary

for the student to have an accurate model in their mind for the intended outcome (Hewitt, 2001).

Without a quality aural impression of a mature trumpet sound, for example, the student would be

unable to assess whether or not they have achieved the intended tone quality for their instrument.

This is logically similar to language learning. Children are taught to speak a language through

constant exposure to proficient language users. What is also needed, however, is the mindfulness

to be able to concentrate for long periods of time in rehearsal or performance situations. If

65 students are mentally unengaged during practice and rehearsal, most likely they will be unable to accurately self-evaluate and are thus prone to creating negative mental habits. While it can be difficult to know if the student is truly mentally engaged in the activity, development of positive mental habits and mindfulness can allow for the student to self-direct their return to attention.

Hewitt (2001) investigated the effect that modeling and self-evaluation, based on audio recording evidence, had on junior high players’ music performance and their attitudes toward practicing. This could be mirrored for college-level students by having them record practice sessions for later evaluation of their effectiveness in planning and execution of the plan.

Reflection gives the students a more accurate depiction of what is happening when they are practicing without a teacher in front of them. Using regular recordings can also offer an opportunity for guided evaluation with a studio professor, demonstrating how an expert musician would tackle similar issues. John Sampen, saxophone professor at Bowling Green State

University, is known for such tactics. In his studio, he regularly records students and guides them through the evaluation of their performance. In addition, Sampen regularly questions the student’s thought processes in regard to the music they are playing. Simply asking a student to give a report on what they think about as they play encourages metacognition in that student. By demonstrating the need to be aware of where thoughts travel in performance, Sampen also inspires the student to consider this on their own when they practice.

To determine student perception of practicing, Hewitt created a questionnaire that was given to the students to assess their satisfaction and enjoyment of the activity, with the thought that if students did not appreciate the process that was being used, they would be less likely to find long-term benefits. This is also significant in terms of their ability to monitor their attitude as they progress through the exercises. It may be pertinent, however, to assess the inner mental

dialogue and feelings experienced by the students. Monitoring student thought processes could

illicit more positive direction from the teacher.

As with any questionnaire, it is difficult to ascertain the accuracy of student responses, particularly since they may not be totally aware of their own feelings when practicing. Students of any age may also bring personal baggage (e.g., parental criticism or lack of encouragement to practice) from their home practicing environment that may impact the results of this type of study. Tracking on-task time (i.e., productive practice time) should also be evaluated to discern changes in practice behavior outside of a private lesson. Practice records and recordings are beneficial to track the amount of time that students spend on a particular exercise or etude. How can the difference in quality be measured without controlling the time spent and the correct use of practice techniques? Merely listening to one’s self is a small part of the larger whole that is encompassed in the practice process. Also, a general evaluation of basic skills can also determine how much progress is being made by the students.

Self-Talk and Self-Evaluation

Self-talk is the inner dialogue that occurs when we think about our actions or behaviors.

As mentioned previously, this can be a critical aspect of the self-evaluation process that leads to positive enhancement of performance. Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Mpoumpaki, and

Theodorakis (2009) looked at the effect that positive self-talk had on self-confidence and anxiety in athletes. For this study, seventy-two young tennis players (an even split of thirty-six male and thirty-six female participants) were evaluated during five different sessions. These teenage athletes were competitive at a regional level of tennis and had all received some type of tennis instruction before this study.

The tennis players were told in the first session that their performance ability was being

assessed and that a video of their session would be shown to their entire tennis club (a way to increase their performance anxiety at an artificial competition level); without the pressure of public performance in some form, performance anxiety might be difficult to assess. A tennis ball throwing machine was placed across the court from each player and their ability to hit the ball back over the net was evaluated. At the end of each session, participants were tested using a common assessment tool used by sport psychologists, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2

(Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009). Essentially, this is a questionnaire that asks athletes how they are

feeling in regard to seventeen questions about their level of cognitive (mental) and

somatosensory (physical) anxiety as well as their general self-confidence (Vealey, 1990). Asking

for a differentiation between mental and physical indicators of anxiety is necessary to accurately

measure symptoms specific to performance situations. Mental anxiety might include interfering thoughts or detrimental self-direction. Physical anxiety could manifest as shaking or undue sweating (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009).

The experimental group received self-talk coaching as part of their training, while the control group did not. This training included a positive or motivational self-talk to test whether it mitigated some of the detrimental performance effects of anxiety. Interestingly, the experimental group showed improved performance on the ball-hitting task when compared to the control group. As this study also measured changes in self-confidence, it is interesting to note that motivational self-talk led to increased self-confidence reported by the participants. While the study does not delve into the trainers and methods experienced by the students before the study, it may be worth looking at these teaching methods in the future to gain insight into how and when some of these mental habits began to form as teaching practices may influence the self-talk

68 experienced by the athletes. Understanding the methods of instruction that a student receives before coming to a university music school is vital to helping unravel flaws in already developed mental habits; this idea will be further explored in chapter five of this document.

Other studies, such as that by Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, and Theodorakis (2007), support the claim that self-talk can reduce cognitive anxiety that is specifically related to task performance. It is important to note that these studies are all concerned with performance anxiety and not trait anxiety. Trait anxiety is anxiety that is experienced beyond isolated stressful incidents. If a student is experiencing unwarranted anxiety that is not associated specifically with performance, they should seek professional help in managing their symptoms appropriately.

For musicians, these studies are directly applicable to musical performance. As teachers we should actively monitor and question how our students are addressing themselves and their performance ability. Fatalistic mindsets are unproductive in an increasingly competitive environment with high performance requirements. Aiding students in developing a positive mindset and self-talk can clearly grow their resilience to performance anxiety. Students equipped with a routine of preparing themselves for impending performance anxiety may increase the likelihood of positive performance outcomes.

Meditation as a Tool for Mindfulness

As stated previously, metacognition is the ability to consider one’s own thoughts. To develop mindfulness, one must first gain this awareness before they are able to be nonjudgmentally aware of the present, or mindful (Shimamura, 2000). Meditation is the practice of becoming aware of thoughts, emotions, sensations, and the present moment. While often discussed in a vague, broad sense, there are significant differences in types and functions of different meditations. This document will primarily investigate two types of meditation: samatha

(focused meditation) and vipassana (open monitoring meditation). Samatha meditation originated in the Thai Buddhist tradition and the word samatha means calm. Samatha meditation is also sometimes associated with a serene attention, focused on one object or idea. As will be seen with many of the meditative aids discussed later, this is often initiated with concentration on a focal point to prevent distraction. Vipassana meditation is not devoid of or removed from the focused attention meditation. Vipassana meditation is the other side of the same coin, where insight is cultivated. While the purpose of this paper is not to delve into the rich and complex traditions of these meditative practices, knowing the difference between them and acknowledging their religious and spiritual significance is vastly important.

Musicians live hectic and busy lifestyles. With jobs that require very late hours and significant amounts of practice time, it is not unusual for negative mental habits to arise. While it is common knowledge that musicians often lead incredibly unhealthy and destructive lifestyles when this goes too far, meditation is one way to unpack an overcrowded mind. This mental cultivation (Cianciosi, 2001) is the result of deliberate practice of meditation. The purpose of this practice is to lead the meditator to a more peaceful mindset, removed from the influence of tumultuous thoughts. Once these thoughts are no longer able to distract or disturb the meditator, clarity and understanding of one’s environment and circumstances become more available. John

Cianciosi, a former Buddhist monk, offers a concise explanation of this style of meditation in an article published by the Theosophical Society in America where he describes one common method of meditation, called anapanasati, which focuses on the breath. By using the breath as a sort of focal point, the practitioner trains their mind to focus on one aspect of the present moment at a time. In a way, the meditator is building concentration endurance; this requires that the individual be able to block out interrupting thoughts and prevent their mind from wandering.

One’s awareness of interrupting thoughts is a trait of metacognition. If one becomes distracted,

the mindful approach is to simply accept that the mind has wandered and shift attention back to

the present moment, effectively blocking the interruptive thought. Cianciosi explains the need for

patience in this mindful pursuit because of our predisposition toward a very active mind. As with

the development of our musical craft, we must follow through with our practicing of mindfulness

diligently in order to mentally graze in the pastures of serenity. Rather than trying to control the

breath, the goal here is to simply observe it.

Non-Meditative Mindfulness Exercises

Although meditation has been proven to be an effective training tool for developing

mindfulness, there are exercises not based in meditative tradition that are used to teach

mindfulness. A brief example of a non-meditation-based mindfulness exercise is provided here; it involves observing an object, or multiple objects, for a five- to ten-minute interval. The Raisin

Activity, as it is commonly called, asks students to begin by simply observing the raisins. A teacher or guide then has the student focus on the many different observable features of the raisin, changing the attentional focus each time; the raisins can even be eaten and their flavor and

texture observed. This is all designed to keep the mind in the present, focused solely on the task

of monitoring and eating the raisin. Other distractions are to be viewed with the same

nonjudgmental awareness that we wish to incorporate into our practicing. Essentially this

exercise helps avoid mindlessness, even in simple acts such as eating (Hong et al., 2014).

Other mindfulness exercises that do not involve traditional meditation are mindful seeing

and listening. A mindful seeing exercise would involve looking through a window and observing

outdoor elements without attempting to categorize them. While maintaining a general awareness

of what is outside, the individual is to avoid being critical or judgmental of what is seen

(Ackerman, 2020). When thoughts begin to wander, gently bringing them back to what is happening outside is key, just like the meditation example from Headspace. Mindful listening applies similar concepts to conversation; the goal is to be engaged with what others are saying without becoming engrossed with internal dialogue unrelated to the moment. If one becomes distracted or begins to fixate on thoughts unrelated to the conversation, they must simply bring their mind back to the present (Ackerman, 2020). Exercises such as these are not quite as structured as a guided meditation might be, but they are very useful for applying mindfulness principles to everyday life. If mental habits are to be changed for the positive, individuals must be dedicated to remaining mindful outside of the practice room as well.

CHAPTER IV. IMPLEMENTATION GUIDE

There are clear benefits to incorporating mindfulness techniques into the daily lives of musicians. Beyond the ability to reduce stress and performance anxiety, the effect that mindfulness has on productivity and efficiency cannot be understated. Incorporating mindfulness and metacognition into university music programs is a multifaceted issue that requires organization and resources. To create a successful wellness program, universities must have dedicated faculty who are trained in and knowledgeable about mindfulness and metacognitive techniques. Faculty who are not already familiar with incorporating these skills into their curriculum can find numerous summer seminars and online training platforms in addition to the texts included in this document. A culture of wellness must then be established to support these ideas within the music program as a whole. The studio professor has perhaps the largest influence on the incorporation of these techniques. Students will typically study with one professor specific to their instrument for four years or more. If a school wishes to change its wellness culture, the best place to begin is in the private lesson studio.

This chapter outlines a number of possible avenues for incorporating mindfulness and metacognition into music pedagogy, and points to existing programs and resources that can be used immediately. These can be implemented by university programs, by individual teachers, and even by students themselves. Much of the research pertaining to mindfulness techniques focuses on stress reduction, and teachers often aid their students in navigating the stresses of being a musician. Information provided at the end of this chapter discusses how stress may help to build resilience and allow students to be more adaptive to hardships they may face in their careers.

Successful musician’s wellness programs at universities are designed to give students the

skills they need to be resilient to the hardships they will face in school and when they enter the

workforce. The University of Michigan and the University of Wisconsin have clearly prioritized

the development of their wellness programs and can serve as a model for other universities that

are still in the planning stages of their programs. With dedicated teams of faculty, led by a well-

trained wellness expert, wellness programs can be organized and efficient in their dedication to

the well-being of music students.

Professional Development Opportunities

If a school is in the beginning of their wellness development, there are several workshops and professional development seminars to aid the wellness team and faculty who will lead this initiative. One such program is led by Madeline Bruser, author of The Art of Practicing: A Guide to Making Music From the Heart (a book well worth reading as it incorporates many of the wonderful ideas offered by the other texts mentioned in this paper). A summer program is offered in partnership with Edinboro University where teachers or students can learn how to apply mindfulness to their daily practice. The Art of Practicing summer program also offers teacher training (via application), which could be beneficial for faculty members to pursue if they are unfamiliar with these practices. Online courses are offered biweekly from January to

April, making these workshops convenient while colleges are in session.

Indiana University also offers a summer workshop led by one of their faculty members,

Frank Diaz, who has had over twenty years of experience in meditation and mindfulness training.

This session is spread over five days in the summer and could be an excellent introduction to incorporating mindfulness in the classroom. Gerald Klickstein, author of The Musician’s Way,

offers workshops geared towards faculty and administration with classes that span everything

from mindfulness and practicing, to career advising and grant writing. While there are many

different avenues for training, the programs listed above could be readily implemented into any

school of music.

The Bulletproof Musician is another online platform available to help students and

teachers traverse their mindful practice and performance journey. Led by Julliard professor Noa

Kageyama, this program is structured around practice habits and mindfulness exercises specific

to musical growth. Mindfulness is addressed in conjunction with other general wellness

principles to yield a more holistic approach to developing concentration. Kageyama addresses

how an unwell body will lead to an unwell mind. Although he doesn’t cite specific research

studies, these principles have been supported by most cognitive behavioral therapy practices. In

the module specific to meditation, Kageyama describes several different practices, from the

raisin exercise described in the previous chapter to body scanning and sensory observations.

These meditations are not beholden to a specific tradition of meditative practice but seek to combine several different practices to suit the needs of musicians from diverse backgrounds.

University courses designed around these mindfulness principles could be a beneficial avenue for implementing cultural changes within the school of music. Many universities offer accelerated fundamental courses in music theory and music history courses for freshman music majors to gain necessary skills to succeed in the following years. Mindfulness courses designed for young musicians would be an excellent addition to this preparatory coursework and could yield promising results. With properly trained advisors and faculty, students could be given a more personalized wellness plan upon entry to the university that would be specific to the strengths and weaknesses of their mental habits. A downside to this, however, is that music students in particular have heavy course loads with little room to add more. Restructuring the

undergraduate music degree would be required to adequately adopt new courses into a degree

plan. Adjusting existing classes to include mindfulness exercises or redesigning courses into

monthly seminars could be an effective short-term solution that would also be more cost

effective. Without properly trained faculty, however, this could become an unnecessary use of

student time that merely adds stress and frustration.

As discussed previously, Carol Benton has addressed the addition of metacognitive skills

into the music classroom directly. A simple yet effective exercise that is commonly used within

music classrooms is self-reflection of material addressed within a class. Practice journals are

sometimes used within the private lesson curriculum but are rarely included in the traditional

lecture classroom. “Whether reflection is required through open-ended questions in class

discussions or through journal entries, the music educator’s objective is to encourage students to

think about their progress in music, set personal goals for future achievement, and determine

their own strategies for accomplishing their goals” (Benton, 2013). Reflective essays that require

a student to think through their analysis process for music theory or memorization process for

music history could be beneficial to knowledge retention beyond the semester.

Benton also recommends creating learning partners within the class to assist with reflection of material learned. Taking this idea a step further, one might involve the mentorship of underclassmen by upperclassmen; studio professors could easily take charge of facilitating this interaction. The Frederick L. Hemke Saxophone Institute uses lesson partners in a similar fashion, often pairing a younger saxophonist with an older, more mature student. By practicing together and attending duo lessons, the younger student can absorb processes that they have yet to learn and they can develop a more nuanced understanding of how a mature student might practice or interpret music. Camaraderie is also a benefit of this type of interaction, aiding in the

development of the wellness culture within the microcosm of a lesson studio. Experiences like

these could be invaluable for the soon-to-be teachers, offering the chance to teach and influence

new students in positive ways. Establishing a responsibility for older students to look after their

younger colleagues might also help prevent the development of stress cultures. These student

partnerships could promote strong mental habits without the need for or the direct intervention of

the teacher. Older students who are well prepared to handle stress through use of reappraisal

techniques and stress-relieving activities will be strong models for younger musical partners.

Complex issues face university administrations when it comes to reevaluating the

curriculum that is designed to enable student success in their eventual careers. State and national

standards, of course, play a large role in shaping a curriculum and these are difficult to change.

Add the length of a degree program to the rising cost of university instruction and the idea of

additional credits becomes implausible. National conversations are needed to address these

issues and to offer strategies for curriculum change. With the incredible rise of wellness

initiatives in university music programs, this document is well-timed to contribute to these

discussions.

Incorporating Mindfulness Instruction Into Studio Classes

As mentioned previously, there are numerous programs available for teachers who are seeking training to be more mindful musicians and to assist their students in following a similar path. Unfortunately, there are no shortcuts to this mindful way of living and creating positive mental habits. A teacher who truly believes that these techniques are helpful to their student must be steadfast in their commitment to furthering their own mindfulness journey before they are able to help another. Time is always a precious resource, especially for college faculty, so it is understandable that adding yet another skill seems arduous. Yet, in a similar fashion to the

students at the university, professors can begin to walk this path with small changes to their daily

habits.

In The Power of Habit, Charles Duhigg suggests that habit change occurs by creating

new habits, not eradicating old ones. Neurologically speaking, this process eventually ends with

a process called synaptic pruning, where old connections that are no longer needed are severed to

conserve energy. This requires a significant period of time, so building new habits is a more

expedient process. Most importantly, Duhigg says that “for a habit to stay changed, people must

believe change is possible. And most often, that belief only emerges with the help of a group”

(Duhigg, 2012, p. 213). Faculty groups can aid each other with this process and become good

role models for their students.

Studio classes are a common feature of the music major’s curriculum. In these classes,

students will typically perform for each other and receive constructive criticism from their peers

and professors or guest artists. This is an invaluable experience which allows for frequent

performing and gives the student a safe environment to practice these skills. A studio professor

can also use this chance to address a large portion of their private students and disseminate knowledge outside of private lessons. For a studio that is unfamiliar with these techniques, it might be advisable to first outline why mindfulness and metacognition matter in the first place.

After students are aware of the advantages to practicing these techniques, they will be more likely to invest in creating new habits.

Once studio students are familiar with the rationale and basic concepts of mindfulness, instructors could structure a group meditation session using either a simple ten-minute guided meditation or one of the popular meditation programs online. At first, the scope for meditative practices should be narrow so that the students are consistently practicing similar ideas. It is

recommended to start with a singular approach to meditation, as it simplifies the explanation

process and allows larger groups to meditate simultaneously. Practicing the desired type of

meditation before the first class will allow teachers to properly plan and structure this meditation.

As they progress, uniformity will matter less, and students can seek preferred practices.

Subsequent studio classes can then experiment with a short breathing meditation to prepare the

students to be present and attentive. Performers will also develop the habit of preparing themselves mentally before performing.

Here is an example of a breath-monitoring meditation that can be found on www.headspace.com, or through the Headspace mobile application. This typically combines body monitoring and breath meditation and can be a great resource for beginning meditation practices. First, find a comfortable sitting position either on the floor or in a chair. The individual should be able to sit straight up, without overextending the back. Next, take a few deep breaths, in through the nose and out through the mouth with eyes open and fixed on a specific area in front. After a few deep breaths, the guide will lead the meditator through different attentional shifting exercises. Focus on the breath shifts to focus on the body (body scanning will be discussed at a later point) before shifting back to a more concentrated attention on the breath as a way to eliminate distractions. Mind wandering is discussed as an inevitable event that should not be judged or focused on but allowed to drift away as one brings attention back to the breath or body.

Madeline Bruser suggests a similar breathing exercise to help prepare for a practice session or performance (Bruser, 1995). Sitting in performance posture (in her case, at the piano), simply take two minutes to observe the breath, without trying to change anything. Following this, the musician begins to check-in with their immediate environment. Although the musician

is not using a body-scanning exercise, Bruser suggests promoting general awareness of the body

while noticing the atmosphere of the room itself. Her meditative methods are similar to an

abridged samatha method, or open monitoring. There is no one point of concentration but rather

a generalized openness to the present moment.

The studio class is an excellent time for the studio instructor to emulate impartial

assessment of a performance. After a student has performed, the teacher can guide the students

of the class through their thought processes to address issues that arose. When the class hears

positive criticism without personal attacks or value judgments of character, they can mirror that

behavior when addressing their own issues in the practice room.

Incorporating Mindfulness in Private Instruction

In private lessons, using a practice journal can allow the studio professor to monitor

student progress and help them to plan practice sessions effectively. Gerald Klickstein’s The

Musician’s Way and Madeline Bruser’s The Art of Practicing are beneficial for constructing

practice journals and schedules. Klickstein emphasizes taking ten-minute breaks for every hour of practice and gradually working towards longer practice days. Freshman musicians may not be prepared to practice four hours every day and will need to steadily expand their existing practice

schedules. Using a timer may be necessary to help students sequester their attention within the

practice session and to avoid dedicating excessive time to one section of their session. To build

metacognitive skills, teachers can assign their students a self-recording routine, followed by reflective journal entries. This will provide insight concerning the student’s perception of their own playing and the manner in which they address their issues. It may be pertinent to guide a student through this process before sending them to work by themselves to ensure quality assessments.

Creating a student practice plan can also allow for deeper interpretation of the music and

more independent expressive decisions. Proper instruction of score study techniques is

imperative for successful interpretations. Without full understanding of the harmonic structure,

melodic structure, form, and phrasing, students will be unable to make deep personal decisions

for expressing themselves. Study of the score can also inform the student as to what technique

development is needed to perform that work. Teachers can provide score study techniques to

serve as a blueprint for students to follow, while still providing artistic freedom. Although the

teacher is attempting to aid student creation of positive habits, interpretation should not become

needlessly prescriptive.

Mental preparation outside of meditation is also a beneficial skill to teach students.

Daniel Kohut outlines a method of imagining a performance from start to finish, a process that is

not only used by musicians but by professional athletes (Kohut, 1985). The simulation of

performance has almost the same effect on the nervous system as the actual experience of

performing (Kohut, 1985, p. 128). Eloise Ristad also recommends this type of mental rehearsal,

stating that “we get messed up because we don’t have a clear image of the passage and thereby

give ourselves too many conflicting messages about how to play it” (Ristad, 1982, p. 117). Being

able to experience the performance without the danger of having an audience can assist the

student in facing their fears while not subjecting them to possible humiliation if they are

unsuccessful.

The Role of Stress in Building Resilience

Stress is an important topic that needs to be addressed with aspiring young professional

musicians and educators. This anxiety is often considered to be a disagreeable element of life.

The detrimental effects that stress can have on an individual include advanced cell aging and

81 oxidative damage (Aschbacher et al., 2013), and immune system suppression. What is rarely discussed, however, is the adaptive benefits of short-term stress responses which release a variety of different hormones throughout the body that can increase immune and cognitive function that assist the individual in becoming resilient to stress in the future. For students, acute stress could be a test, jury, or recital performance. Chronic stress, however, primes the individual’s stress response system to release cortisol more quickly in anticipation of the upcoming stress, prolonging the exposure to cortisol, the chemical most associated with stress.

While the neurochemical implications of this are far reaching and important, this section will focus on how stress can be beneficial to developing resilience.

The effect of stress on the immune system may be temporary (e.g., enhanced immune function to combat infection or heal a minor wound). Quick response to stress can even allow the immune system to fight off immune responsive tumors (Dhabar, 2014) and cause new cells to be created in the brain (Kirby et al., 2013). Our stress response mechanism is amazing for aiding our bodies to be resilient to injury and infection and can prepare us for future strains. A key feature of the immune system is the ability to record and remember previous afflictions; these memories are then used for fighting future injuries or infections. Chronic stress, however, tends to inhibit that immune function. While greater intensity of short-term stress can actually coincide with greater immune function enhancement, this is not the case for chronic stress. When an individual is exposed to stress in longer intervals, such as weeks of prolonged stress as opposed to a few hours, there is decreased movement of cells dedicated to fighting infections and disease.

This is how our body becomes more prone to illness when stress is long lasting.

While chronic stress can cause psychological problems, acute stress can actually improve cognitive function. In a study focused on how short-term stress can modulate either performance

82 accuracy or time required to complete a task (Kohn et al., 2017), two primary networks (the salience network and the executive control network) were investigated to consider how different chemicals released during stress response could modulate cognitive function. The salience network is involved with identifying and separating relevant information from all of the other stimuli being perceived at any one time while the executive control network controls the attentional mechanisms needed to complete tasks (Kohn et al., 2017; Taren, Gianaros, Greco,

Lindsay, Fairgrieve, Brown, and Creswell, 2017). Both of these networks involve large areas of the brain that are operating simultaneously.

Relationships between executive control and salience networks were tested for both speed and performance in an emotional conflict task. Similar to a Stroop effect test, this required different decisions be made. The results showed that certain individuals demonstrated improved speed in the task provided while the others improved in their ability to perform that task (Kohn et al., 2017). Evidence provided by this study suggests that short-term stress allows the individual to increase their response speed and improve overall task accuracy. Their hypothesis assumed an inverse relationship between the executive control network (accuracy) and the salience network

(speed); researchers thought that as one was suppressed, the brain was able to allocate resources to the other and simplify decision making while in a stressful environment. This was proven to be inaccurate because there was a general slowing in response speed between groups tested while accuracy improved with stress, showing the systems to be working congruently under stress

(Kohn et al., 2017).

As with most of the research on the effects of stress, there is a visual of the reversed parabolic shape in regard to the benefits of stress on the hippocampus. Enhancement occurs with just the right amount of stress, with detriment occurring when the individual experiences too

much stress or stress for too long of a period of time. Stress clearly plays a complicated role in

our lives. Whether it be an adaptive experience that allows us to better prepare for stress that we

might face in the future, or prolonged exposure that causes damage even to our cellular DNA, the

role of stress cannot be diminished. While these studies provide valuable insight into how stress

interacts with the body, more research pertaining to knowing when stress has become harmful is

needed. For students, it is necessary to accurately recognize when stress is no longer building

resilience. Understanding how to mitigate the negative effects of chronic stress, while

maximizing the benefits of acute stress, is key to helping all who experience stressful situations.

Having a conversation with students at the beginning of each semester can help to reframe the conversation around stress. Performers feel acute stress before they perform and, for

many, this becomes exhilarating and leads to spontaneous musical moments. Klickstein, Bruser,

and Kohut all point to the benefits of exposing students to short-term stressful situations like

performance to help them build resilience toward these stressors in the future. Framing the

college experience as being a beneficial time to build resilience to stress is important and can

actually alter the perception of that stress while helping students feel more empowered to tackle

stressful situations (Shapiro et al., 2006). The key is to ensure that long-term stress is managed

with proper psychiatric care and stress-management techniques. Universities across the country

have counseling centers set up for students who are unable to manage the stresses and

psychological issues that arise throughout school life. If students are unable to find relief with the

aforementioned methods of stress management, they should be encouraged to also seek the aid of

a trained counselor.

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION

Mindfulness and metacognitive skills are clearly beneficial tools for a musician’s development. Considering the significant body of evidence supporting the assertion that mindfulness can even alter structures within the brain, there is a strong benefit for its inclusion within music pedagogy. Research on neuroplasticity shows that repeated behaviors lead to functional reorganization in the brain (Kahn et al., 2017). Lazar et al. (2005) demonstrated how meditation can be a useful mechanism for strengthening connections between areas of the brain associated with decision making and automatic responses. Furthermore, Baird et al. (2014) and

Allen et al. (2012) showed that mindfulness practice can lead to improvements in cognitive functioning. Even a two-week meditative training regimen was enough to increase introspective accuracy and memory (Baird et al., 2014). By encouraging the incorporation of regular mindfulness practice, teachers are helping students to develop a more natural or dispositional mindfulness as it becomes habitual.

Music students will continue to face myriad stressful situations that will require them to find methods of adapting. Although some musician’s wellness programs have developed significant resources to aid students in this process, more needs to be done to prepare future musicians for the tribulations they will encounter. Measuring the benefits of these programs is a necessary next step to advocate for funding and to continue improving upon existing practices.

Without data to demonstrate effective methods of intervention, it may be difficult to allocate resources appropriately. Future studies could provide longitudinal evidence of positive changes in attention span, self-talk, and performance enhancement that would further support existing research. Additionally, future research should compare mindfulness practices to determine whether all mindfulness practices are equally beneficial, or if improvements as a result of

mindfulness are specific to the individual. Building positive mental habits requires a significant

amount of time and deliberate cultivation. While this document concentrated on mental

behaviors at the collegiate level, most of these patterns were developed well before a student

reached their college music teacher. More research pertaining to the influence of K-12 education on developing healthy mental habits for musical performance is needed to accurately evaluate students before college. Music classrooms of all ages can find ways to use the research surrounding mindfulness development.

As mentioned previously, many popular pedagogical texts implement strategies that ultimately lead to a more mindful individual, and their research clearly supports these assertions.

Future studies are needed to investigate the effect that mindfulness training can have on music students specifically. Measuring the direct results of regular meditations or other mindfulness building exercises on the performance of collegiate music students is needed to reinforce existing data. Many of the studies discussed in this document featured small sample sizes, necessitating more evidence to support the claim that mindfulness is worth including in music pedagogy.

Without adequate training and resources, however, teachers may feel ill-prepared to

incorporate new methods of meditation and practicing. Assistance and encouragement from

college administrations are needed to provide the time and monetary aid needed for instructors to

be able to pursue innovative methods of instruction. With online programs and coaching

available through The Bulletproof Musician and The Art of Practicing Institute, professional

development is possible remotely.

Mindfulness training has become is a necessity for musicians and teachers as they

continue to navigate performance anxiety and exceedingly busy schedules. The sheer number of

universities across the country that have initiated the development of wellness programs that

86 include wellness and mindfulness training demonstrates how significant the movement toward positive mental and physical habits has become. A possible next step might be the proliferation of similar wellness programs for primary and secondary students, preparing them for stress management before attending college or the work force. As the general public begins to recognize the value of these skills, it is logical that we will see substantial neurological changes which may lead to healthier and happier lives for both students and adults.

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APPENDIX A. PEDAGOGICAL TEXTS AND RESOURCES

Bruser, M. (2000). The art of practicing. New York: Random House International.

Colgrass, M. (2000). My lessons with Kumi: how I learned to perform with confidence in life and

work. Moab, UT: Real People Press.

Duhigg, C. (2014). The power of habit: why we do what we do in life and business. Toronto:

Anchor Canada.

Gallwey, W. T. (2015). The inner game of tennis. London: Pan Books.

Green, B., & Gallwey, W. T. (2015). The inner game of music: overcome obstacles, improve

concentration and reduce nervousness to reach a new level of musical performance.

London: Pan Books, Pan Macmillan.

Herrigel, E., & Hull, R. F. C. (2018). Zen in the Art of Archery. United States: Vigeo Press

Reprint.

Horvath, J. (2010). Playing (less) hurt. United States: Hal Leonard.

Klickstein, G. (2009). The musicians way: a guide to practice, performance, and wellness.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kohut, D. L. (1992). Musical performance: learning theory and pedagogy. Champaign, IL:

Stipes Pub. Co.

Levitin, D. J. (2019). This Is Your Brain On Music: understanding a human obsession. New

York: Dutton an imprint of Penguin Random House.

Levitin, D. J. (2017). The organized mind: thinking straight in the age of information overload.

New York: Dutton an imprint of Penguin Random House.

Llobet, J. (2017). Musicians Body: a maintenance manual for peak performance. Place of

publication not identified: ROUTLEDGE. 97

Pressfield, S. (2003). The war of art. London: Orion.

Ristad, E. (2002). A soprano on her head: right-side-up reflections on life and other

performances. Moab, UT: Real People Press.

Werner, K. (1996). Effortless mastery. Scotch Plains, NJ.: Werner.

Wooten, V. (2008). The music lesson a spiritual search for growth through music. New York:

Berkley Books.