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Home , Ajahn Thate, Anapanasati, Anussati, Bhavana, Buddhist meditation, Charles Luk

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-7, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Analysis of Various Methods of Mediation In Buddhist Schools

Ha Thi Kim Chi Ph.D Research Scholar, University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh,

I. INTRODUCTION develop , concentration, supramundane Buddhist refers to the powers, tranquility, and . Given the large meditative practices associated with the number and diversity of traditional Buddhist and of . meditation practices, this article primarily identifies Core meditation techniques have been authoritative contextual frameworks — both preserved in ancient and have contemporary and canonical — for the variety of proliferated and diversified through teacher-student practices. transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part While there are some similar meditative of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana1. practices — such as breath meditation and various The closest words for meditation in the classical recollections () — that are used across languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā and jhāna.2 Buddhist schools, there is also significant diversity. techniques have become In the Theravāda tradition alone, there are over increasingly popular in the wider world, with many fifty methods for developing mindfulness and forty non-Buddhists taking them up for a variety of for developing concentration, while in the Tibetan reasons. tradition there are thousands of visualization Buddhist meditation encompasses a .3 Most classical and contemporary variety of meditation techniques that aim to Buddhist meditation guides are school specific.4 Only a few teachers attempt to synthesize, crystallize and categorize practices from multiple 1 For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist traditions. Buddhist meditation “includes any method of II. CONTENT meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate 1. Meditation in aim.” Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: “To arrive at The earliest tradition of Buddhist practice the experiential realization of the truths it is is preserved in the nikāya, and is adhered to by the necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... Theravāda . It was also the focus of the At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye other now-extinct , and has ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, been incorporated to greater and lesser degrees into Nibbana....” A similar although in some ways the Tibetan Buddhist tradition and many East Asian slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer- Mahāyāna traditions. Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 142: “Meditation – 1.1. Types of meditation general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an 3 While there are some similar meditative practices experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' — such as breath meditation and various 'enlightenment.'“ Kamalashila (2003) further recollections (anussati) — that are used across allows that some Buddhist meditations are “of a Buddhist schools, there is also significant diversity. more preparatory ” (p. 4). In the Theravāda tradition alone, there are over 2 There is the cultivation of meditative and fifty methods for developing mindfulness and forty contemplative techniques aimed at producing what for developing concentration, while in the Tibetan might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in tradition there are thousands of visualization English, be referred to as 'altered states of meditations. Most classical and contemporary consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Buddhist meditation guides are school specific. Indian religious texts such states come to be termed Only a few teachers attempt to synthesize, 'meditations' ([Skt.:] dhyāna / [:] jhāna) or crystallize and categorize practices from multiple 'concentrations' (samādhi); the attainment of such Buddhist traditions. states of consciousness was generally regarded as 4 Examples of contemporary school-specific bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and “classics” include, from the tradition, experience of the nature of the world.” (Gethin, Nyanaponika (1996) and, from the tradition, 1998, p. 10. Kapleau (1989).

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-7, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

In terms of early traditions as found in the vast (SN 35.245), where the Buddha provides an Pali canon and the Āgamas, meditation can be elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight contextualized as part of the , are “the swift pair of messengers” who deliver the explicitly in regard to: message of Nibbana via the Noble Eightfold Path.7 Right Mindfulness (samma ): exemplified In the “Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta” (AN by the Buddha's Four Foundations of Mindfulness 4.170), Ven. Ananda reports that people attain (see Sutta). arahantship using serenity and insight in one of Right Concentration (samma ): three ways: “they develop serenity and then insight. culminating in jhanic absorptions through the They develop insight and then serenity. While the meditative development of . Nikayas identify that the pursuit of vipassana can Right (samma ditthi): embodying precede the pursuit of samatha, a fruitful traditionally attained through the vipassana-oriented practice must still be based meditative development of vipassana founded on upon the achievement of stabilizing “access samatha. concentration”. They develop serenity and insight 1.2. Four foundations for mindfulness in tandem (Pali: samatha-vipassanam In the , the Buddha identifies yuganaddham) as in, for instance, obtaining the four foundations for mindfulness: the body, first jhana, and then seeing in the associated feelings, states and mental objects. He further aggregates the , before enumerates the following objects as bases for the proceeding to the second jhana”.8 meditative development of mindfulness: In the Pali canon, the Buddha never mentions Body (kāyā): (see independent samatha and vipassana meditation Sutta), Postures, Clear Comprehending, Reflections practices; instead, samatha and vipassana are two on Repulsiveness of the Body, Reflections on qualities of mind to be developed through Material Elements, Cemetery Contemplations meditation.9 Nonetheless, some meditation Feelings (vedanā), whether pleasant, practices (such as contemplation of a kasina object) unpleasant, or neutral. favor the development of samatha, others are Mind (cittā): conducive to the development of vipassana (such as Mental Contents (dhammā): Hindrances, contemplation of the aggregates), while others Aggregates, Sense-Bases, Factors of (such as mindfulness of breathing) are classically Enlightenment, and the .5 used for developing both mental qualities. 1.3. Serenity and insight 1.4. Kammatthana The Buddha is said to have identified two 's forty meditation subjects are paramount mental qualities that arise from described in the . Almost all of wholesome meditative practice: - “serenity” or “tranquillity” (Pali: samatha) which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind; - “insight” (Pali: vipassana) which enables one to see, explore and discern 7 Bodhi (2000), pp. 1251-53. See also Thanissaro “formations” (conditioned phenomena (1998c) (where this sutta is identified as SN 6 based on the five aggregates) . 35.204). See also, for instance, a discourse (Pali: Through the meditative development of sutta) entitled, “Serenity and Insight” (SN 43.2), serenity, one is able to suppress obscuring where the Buddha states: “And what, , is hindrances; and, with the suppression of the the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and hindrances, it is through the meditative insight....” (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1372-73). development of insight that one gains liberating 8 Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439 nn. 7, 9, 10. See also wisdom. Moreover, the Buddha is said to have Thanissaro (1998f). extolled serenity and insight as conduits for 9 See Thanissaro (1997) where for instance he attaining Nibbana (Pali; Skt.: ), the underlines: When [the Pali discourses] depict the unconditioned state as in the “Kimsuka Tree Sutta” Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying 'go do vipassana,' but always 'go do jhana.' And they never equate the 5 For instance, see Solé-Leris (1986), p. 75; and, word vipassana with any mindfulness techniques. Goldstein (2003), p. 92. In the few instances where they do mention 6 These definitions of samatha and vipassana are vipassana, they almost always pair it with samatha based on the “Four Kinds of Persons Sutta” (AN — not as two alternative methods, but as two 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on qualities of mind that a person may 'gain' or 'be Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 n. 13. See also endowed with,' and that should be developed Thanissaro (1998d). together.

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-7, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in these are described in the early texts.10 1.5. In Contemporary Theravāda Buddhaghosa advises that, for the purpose of Particularly influential from the twentieth developing concentration and “consciousness,” a century onward has been the “New Burmese person should “apprehend from among the forty Method” or “Vipassana School” approach to meditation subjects one that suits his own samatha and vipassana developed by Mingun temperament” with the advice of a “good friend” Sayādaw and U Nārada and popularized (kalyana mitta) who is knowledgeable in the by Mahasi . Here samatha is considered an different meditation subjects (Ch. III, § 28).11 optional but not necessary component of the Buddhaghosa subsequently elaborates on the forty practice—vipassana is possible without it. Another meditation subjects as follows (Ch. III, §104; Chs. Burmese method, derived from via IV - XI):12 U Ba Khin and S. N. Goenka, takes a similar 1. Ten kasinas: earth, water, fire, air, blue, approach. Other Burmese traditions popularized in yellow, red, white, light, and “limited- the west, notably that of Pa Auk Sayadaw, uphold space”. the emphasis on samatha explicit in the 2. Ten kinds of foulness: “the bloated, the commentarial tradition of the Visuddhimagga. livid, the festering, the cut-up, the Also influential is the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and deriving from Mun and popularized by scattered, the bleeding, the worm- , which, in contrast, stresses the infested, and a skeleton”. inseparability of the two practices, and the essential 3. Ten recollections: the Buddha, the necessity of both practices. Other noted Dhamma, the , virtue, practitioners in this tradition include generosity, the virtues of deities, and Ajahn Maha Bua, among others.14 (see ), the body, the 2. Meditation in Mahāyāna Buddhism breath (see anapanasati), and peace. Mahāyāna Buddhism includes numerous 4. Four divine abodes: metta, karu ā, schools of practice, which each draw upon various , and upekkha. Buddhist sūtras, philosophical treatises, and 5. Four immaterial states: boundlessṇ commentaries. Accordingly, each school has its space, boundless , own meditation methods for the purpose of nothingness, and neither perception nor developing samādhi and , with the goal of non-perception. ultimately attaining enlightenment. Nevertheless, 6. One perception (of “repulsiveness in each has its own emphasis, mode of expression, nutriment”). and philosophical outlook. In his classic book on 7. One “defining” (that is, the four meditation of the various Chinese Buddhist elements). traditions, Charles Luk writes, “The Buddha When one overlays Buddhaghosa's 40 is useless if it is not put into actual meditative subjects for the development of practice, because if we do not have personal concentration with the Buddha's foundations of experience of it, it will be alien to us and we will mindfulness, three practices are found to be in never awaken to it in spite of our book learning.”15 common: breath meditation, foulness meditation Venerable Nan Huaijin echoes similar sentiments (which is similar to the Sattipatthana Sutta's about the importance of meditation by remarking, cemetery contemplations, and to contemplation of “Intellectual reasoning is just another spinning of bodily repulsiveness), and contemplation of the the sixth consciousness, whereas the practice of four elements. According to Pali commentaries, meditation is the true entry into the Dharma.”16 breath meditation can lead one to the equanimous 2.1. Meditation in the school fourth jhanic absorption. Contemplation of foulness 2.1.1. Mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha can lead to the attainment of the first jhana, and In the Pure Land tradition of Buddhism, contemplation of the four elements culminates in repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha is pre-jhana access concentration.13 traditionally a form of Mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusm ti). This term was translated into Chinese as (念佛), by which it is popularly ṛ 10 Sarah Shaw, Buddhist meditation: an anthology of texts from the Pāli canon. Routledge, 2006, 14 Tiyavanich K. Forest Recollections: Wandering pages 6-8. A Jataka tale gives a list of 38 of them. in Twentieth-Century . University 11 Buddhaghosa & Nanamoli (1999), pp. 85, 90. of Hawaii Press, 1997. 12 Buddhaghosa & Nanamoli (1999), p. 110. 15 Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 13 Regarding the jhanic attainments that are 1964. p. 11. possible with different meditation techniques, see 16 Nan, Huai-Chin. To Realize Enlightenment: Gunaratana (1988). Practice of the Cultivation Path. 1994. p. 1.

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-7, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in known in English. The practice is described as progressive visualization methods, corresponding calling the buddha to mind by repeating his name, to the attainment of various levels of in the to enable the practitioner to bring all his or her Pure Land.23 Visualization practises for Amitābha upon that buddha (samādhi).17 This may are popular among esoteric Buddhist sects, such as be done vocally or mentally, and with or without Japanese . the use of Buddhist beads. Those who 2.2. Meditation in the Zen school practice this method often commit to a fixed set of 2.2.1. Pointing to the nature of the mind repetitions per day, often from 50,000 to over In the earliest traditions of Zen Buddhism, 500,000. According to tradition, the second it is said that there was no formal method of patriarch of the Pure Land school, , is said meditation. Instead, the teacher would use various to have practiced this day and night without didactic methods to point to the true nature of the interruption, each time emitting light from his mind, also known as Buddha-nature. This method mouth. Therefore he was bestowed with the title is referred to as the “Mind Dharma”, and “Great Master of Light” (大師光明) by the Tang exemplified in the story of Śākyamuni Buddha Dynasty emperor Gao Zong (高宗).18 holding up a flower silently, and Mahākāśyapa 24 In addition, in there is smiling as he understood. A traditional formula a related practice called the “dual path of Chán and of this is, “Chán points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and Pure Land cultivation”, which is also called the 25 “dual path of and existence.”19 As taught become buddhas.” In the early era of the Chán by Venerable Nan Huaijin, the name of Amitābha school, there was no fixed method or ple formula Buddha is recited slowly, and the mind is emptied for teaching meditation, and all instructions were simply heuristic methods; therefore the Chán out after each repetition. When idle thoughts arise, 26 the phrase is repeated again to clear them. With school was called the “Gateless Gate.” constant practice, the mind is able to remain 2.2.2. Contemplating meditation cases peacefully in emptiness, culminating in the It is said traditionally that when the attainment of samādhi.20 of people in society became more complicated and 2.1.2. Pure Land Rebirth Dhāra ī when they could not make progress so easily, the masters of the Chán school were forced to change Repeating the Pure Land Rebirth Dhāra ī 27 is another method in .ṇ Similar their methods. These involved particular words to the mindfulness practice of repeating the nameṇ and phrases, shouts, roars of laughter, sighs, of Amitābha Buddha, this dhāra ī is another gestures, or blows from a staff. These were all method of meditation and recitation in Pure Land meant to awaken the student to the essential truth Buddhism. The repetition of this dhāraṇ ī is said to of the mind, and were later called gōng'àn (公案), 28 be very popular among traditional Chinese or kōan in Japanese. Buddhists.21 It is traditionally preservedṇ in These didactic phrases and methods were , and it is said that when a devotee to be contemplated, and example of such a device succeeds in realizing singleness of mind by is a phrase that turns around the practice of repeating a , its true and profound meaning mindfulness: “Who is being mindful of the 29 will be clearly revealed.22 Buddha?” The teachers all instructed their 2.1.3. Visualization methods students to give rise to a gentle feeling of doubt at Another practice found in Pure Land all times while practicing, so as to strip the mind of Buddhism is meditative contemplation and seeing, hearing, feeling, and knowing, and ensure 30 visualization of Amitābha Buddha, his attendant its constant rest and undisturbed condition. , and the Pure Land. The basis of this Charles Luk explains the essential function of is found in the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra (“Amitābha contemplating such a meditation case with doubt: Meditation Sūtra”), in which the Buddha describes to Queen Vaidehi the practices of thirteen 23 ibid. 24 ibid, p.44. 17 Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese 25 Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Meditation. 1964. p. 83. Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 92. 18 ibid. 26 Yuan, Margaret. Grass Mountain: A Seven Day 19 ibid, p.84. Intensive in Ch'an Training with Master Nan Huai- 20 Yuan, Margaret. Grass Mountain: A Seven Day Chin. 1986. p. 2. Intensive in Ch'an Training with Master Nan Huai- 27 Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. Chin. 1986. p. 55. 1964. p. 45. 21 Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 28 ibid. 1964. p. 84 29 ibid, p. 67. 22 ibid. 30 ibid, p.49.

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-7, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Since the student cannot stop all his which was later named Taimitsu by . thoughts at one stroke, he is taught to use this Eventually, according to Taimitsu doctrine, poison-against-poison device to realize singleness the esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal of thought, which is fundamentally wrong but will importance with the exoteric teachings of the Lotus disappear when it falls into disuse, and gives way . Therefore, by chanting , maintaining to singleness of mind, which is a precondition of , or performing certain meditations, one is the realization of the self-mind for the perception of able to see that the sense experiences are the self-nature and attainment of Bodhi.31 teachings of Buddha, have faith that one is 2.3. Meditation in the school inherently an enlightened being, and one can attain 2.3.1. Tiantai śamatha-vipaśyanā enlightenment within this very body. The origins of In it has been traditionally held that Taimitsu are found in China, similar to the lineage the meditation methods used by the Tiantai school that encountered in his visit to China during are the most systematic and comprehensive of all.32 the , and Saicho's disciples were In addition to its doctrinal basis in Indian Buddhist encouraged to study under Kukai.35 texts, the Tiantai school also emphasizes use of its 3. Meditation in Buddhism own meditation texts which emphasize the The aim of the teachings of principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Of these texts, and , each taught by the and 's Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā (小止観), lineages of Indo-Tibetan or Vajrayana Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā (摩訶止観), and Six Buddhism, respectively, is to familiarize one with Subtle Dharma Gates (六妙法門) are the most the ultimate nature of mind which underlies all widely read in China. Rujun Wu identifies the existence, the Dharmakaya. Then, by meditating in work Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā of Zhiyi as the union with the Dharmakaya, one gradually passes seminal meditation text of the Tiantai school.33 through each of the Ten Bhumis until reaching Regarding the functions of śamatha and liberation from Samsara and . vipaśyanā in meditation, Zhiyi writes in his work The shared preliminary practices of both Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā: The attainment of the Nyingma and Kagyu schools of Tibetan Nirvā a is realizable by many methods whose Buddhism are called ngondro, which involves essentials do not go beyond the practice of śamatha visualization, mantra recitation and sadhana and vipaśyanā.ṇ Śamatha is the first step to untie all practice, and many . bonds and vipaśyanā is essential to root out III. CONCLUSION delusion. Śamatha provides nourishment for the Buddhist meditation takes many forms, preservation of the knowing mind, and vipaśyanā is but all of them are . Bhavana is an ancient the skillful art of promoting spiritual discipline. It is based in part of the discipline of the understanding. Śamatha is the unsurpassed cause of historical Buddha, who lived more than twenty five samādhi, while vipaśyanā begets wisdom. centuries ago, and in part on even older forms of The Tiantai school also places a great . emphasis on ānāpānasm ti, or mindfulness of Some Buddhists think it is incorrect to call breathing, in accordance with the principles of bhavana “meditation.” The Theravada and śamatha and vipaśyanā. Zhiyiṛ classifies breathing scholar Walpola wrote, “The word meditation is a very poor substitute for the original into four main categories: panting (喘), unhurried term bhavana, which means 'culture' or 風 氣 breathing ( ), deep and quiet breathing ( ), and 'development', i.e., mental culture or mental stillness or rest (息). Zhiyi holds that the first three development. The Buddhist bhavana, properly kinds of breathing are incorrect, while the fourth is speaking, is mental culture in the full sense of the correct, and that the breathing should reach term. It aims at cleansing the mind of impurities 34 stillness and rest. and disturbances, such as lustful desires, hatred, ill- 2.3.2. Esoteric practices in Japan will, indolence, worries and restlessness, sceptical One of the adaptations by the Japanese doubts, and cultivating such qualities as Tendai (Ch. Tiantai) school was the introduction of concentration, , intelligence, will, energy, esoteric practices (Mikkyo) into Tendai Buddhism, the analytical faculty, confidence, joy, tranquility, leading finally to the attainment of highest wisdom 31 ibid, p.110. 32 ibid, p. 111. 33 Rujun Wu (1993). T'ien-T'ai Buddhism and early Mādhyamika. National Foreign Language Center Technical Reports. program. University of Hawaii Press. 35 Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: 34 Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist 1964. p. 125. Discourse. Columbia University Press. p. 45.

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-7, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in which sees the nature of things as they are, and 14. Kamalashila. Meditation: The realizes the Ultimate Truth, Nirvana.”36 of Tranquility and Insight. Birmingham: Walpola Rahula's definition ought to Windhorse Publications. 2003. distinguish Buddhist meditation from many other 15. Kapleau, Phillip. The Three Pillars of Zen: practices that get lumped under the English word Teaching, Practice and Enlightenment. New meditation. Buddhist meditation is not primarily York: Anchor Books. 1989. about reducing , although it can do that. Nor 16. Linehan, Marsha. Cognitive-Behavioral is it about “blissing out” or having visions or out- Treatment of Borderline Personality of-body experiences. Disorder. New York: Guilford Press. 1993. 17. Mipham, Sakyong. Turning the Mind into an BIBLIOGRAPHY Ally. New York: Riverhead Books. 2003. 18. . The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. York Beach: Samuel Weiser. 1. Bodhi, . The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. 1999. 1996. 19. Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds.). 2. Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of The ’s Pali–English the . Boston: Wisdom Dictionary. 1925. 20. Sogyal , The Tibetan Book of Publications. 2000. Living and Dying. Harper Collins 3. Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.). In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Publication, Delhi, 1992. 21. Solé-Leris, Amadeo. Tranquillity & Insight: Pāli Canon. Boston: Wisdom Publications. 2005. An Introduction to the Oldest Form of Buddhist Meditation. Boston: . 4. Brach, (ed.) Radical : 1986. Embracing Your Life With the Heart of a Buddha. New York, Bantam Publications. 22. . One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist 2003. Practice. 1997. 5. Brahm, Ajahn. Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. 23. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998a). Culavedalla Sutta: The Shorter Set of Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. 2006. Questions-and-Answers. 6. Buddhaghosa, Bhadantacariya & Bhikkhu Nanamoli (trans.), The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle: BPS Pariyatti Editions. 1999. 7. Epstein, Mark. Thoughts Without a Thinker: from a Buddhist Perspective. BasicBooks. 1995. 8. Fischer-Schreiber & Michael H. Kohn (trans.). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Boston: Shambhala. 1991. 9. Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.1998. 10. Goldstein, Joseph. One Dharma: The Emerging Western Buddhism. NY: HarperCollins Publishers. 2003. 11. Hart, William. The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation: As Taught by S.N. Goenka. HarperOne. 1987. 12. Gunaratana, Henepola. The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. 1988. 13. Kabat-Zinn, Jon. . New York: Dell Publishing. 2001.

36 Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (Grove Press, 1974), p. 68.

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