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1 Precession 1 1.1 Torque-free ...... 1 1.2 Torque-induced ...... 2 1.2.1 Classical (Newtonian) ...... 2 1.2.2 Relativistic ...... 4 1.3 Astronomy ...... 4 1.3.1 Axial precession (precession of the equinoxes) ...... 4 1.3.2 Perihelion precession ...... 5 1.4 See also ...... 5 1.5 References ...... 5 1.6 External links ...... 5

2 Zodiac 6 2.1 Usage ...... 6 2.2 History ...... 6 2.2.1 Early history ...... 6 2.2.2 Hellenistic and Roman era ...... 7 2.2.3 Hindu zodiac ...... 8 2.2.4 Middle Ages ...... 8 2.2.5 Early modern ...... 8 2.3 The twelve signs ...... 9 2.4 Constellations ...... 9 2.5 Table of dates ...... 10 2.6 Precession of the equinoxes ...... 10 2.7 In modern astronomy ...... 11 2.8 Mnemonics ...... 11 2.9 Unicode characters ...... 11 2.10 See also ...... 12 2.11 References ...... 12 2.12 External links ...... 13

3 Language 14 3.1 Deﬁnitions ...... 15

i ii CONTENTS

3.1.1 Mental faculty, organ or instinct ...... 16 3.1.2 Formal symbolic system ...... 16 3.1.3 Tool for communication ...... 16 3.1.4 Unique status of human language ...... 17 3.2 Origin ...... 17 3.3 The study of language ...... 18 3.3.1 Subdisciplines ...... 18 3.3.2 Early history ...... 19 3.3.3 Contemporary linguistics ...... 19 3.4 Physiological and neural architecture of language and speech ...... 20 3.4.1 The brain and language ...... 20 3.4.2 Anatomy of speech ...... 20 3.5 Structure ...... 22 3.5.1 Semantics ...... 22 3.5.2 Sounds and symbols ...... 22 3.5.3 Grammar ...... 24 3.5.4 Typology and universals ...... 26 3.6 Social contexts of use and transmission ...... 26 3.6.1 Usage and meaning ...... 27 3.6.2 Language acquisition ...... 27 3.6.3 Language and culture ...... 28 3.6.4 Writing, literacy and technology ...... 28 3.6.5 Language change ...... 29 3.6.6 Language contact ...... 30 3.7 Linguistic diversity ...... 30 3.7.1 Languages and dialects ...... 31 3.7.2 Language families of the world ...... 31 3.7.3 Language endangerment ...... 32 3.8 See also ...... 32 3.9 Notes ...... 32 3.9.1 Commentary notes ...... 33 3.9.2 Citations ...... 33 3.10 Works Cited ...... 35 3.11 External links ...... 38

4 Language family 39 4.1 Structure of a family ...... 39 4.1.1 Dialect continua ...... 40 4.1.2 Isolates ...... 40 4.1.3 Proto-languages ...... 40 4.2 Other classiﬁcations of languages ...... 40 4.2.1 Sprachbund ...... 40 CONTENTS iii

4.2.2 Contact languages ...... 41 4.3 See also ...... 41 4.4 Notes ...... 41 4.5 Further reading ...... 41 4.6 External links ...... 42

5 Writing 43 5.1 Means for recording information ...... 43 5.1.1 Writing systems ...... 43 5.1.2 Tools and materials ...... 45 5.2 History ...... 45 5.2.1 Neolithic writing ...... 45 5.2.2 Mesopotamia ...... 45 5.2.3 Elamite scripts ...... 46 5.2.4 China ...... 46 5.2.5 Egypt ...... 46 5.2.6 Indus Valley ...... 47 5.2.7 Turkmenistan ...... 47 5.2.8 Phoenician writing system and descendants ...... 47 5.2.9 Mesoamerica ...... 47 5.2.10 South America ...... 48 5.2.11 Dacia (Romania) ...... 48 5.3 Creation of textual or written information ...... 48 5.3.1 Composition ...... 48 5.3.2 Creativity ...... 48 5.3.3 Author ...... 48 5.3.4 Writer ...... 48 5.3.5 Critiques ...... 48 5.4 See also ...... 48 5.5 Notes ...... 48 5.6 References ...... 49 5.7 Further reading ...... 49 5.8 External links ...... 50

6 Chaldea 51 6.1 Land ...... 51 6.2 Chaldean people ...... 52 6.3 History ...... 53 6.3.1 End of the Chaldean dynasty ...... 56 6.4 See also ...... 57 6.5 References ...... 57 6.6 External links ...... 58 iv CONTENTS

7 Scythia 59 7.1 Geography ...... 59 7.2 First Scythian kingdom ...... 59 7.3 Second Scythian kingdom ...... 60 7.3.1 Scythia at the end of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC ...... 60 7.4 Later Scythian kingdoms ...... 61 7.5 Scythian kings ...... 62 7.6 Scythian tribes ...... 62 7.7 See also ...... 62 7.8 Art and literature ...... 62 7.9 References ...... 63 7.10 External links ...... 63 7.11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses ...... 64 7.11.1 Text ...... 64 7.11.2 Images ...... 68 7.11.3 Content license ...... 71 Chapter 1

Precession

For other uses, see Precession (disambiguation). culated with respect to separate coordinate axes (e.g. x, Precession is a change in the orientation of the rota- y, z), or basis sets. If an object is asymmetric around its principal axis of rotation, the moment of inertia with respect to each basis will change with time, while preserv- ing angular momentum. The result is that the component angular velocities around each axis will vary inversely to each axis’ moment of inertia. Poinsot’s ellipsoid is a ge- ometrical analog of the functions that govern torque-free motion of a rotating rigid body. The torque-free precession rate of an object with an axis of symmetry, such as a disk, spinning about an axis not aligned with that axis of symmetry can be calculated as follows:

Isωs [1] ωp = Ip cos(α)

where ωp is the precession rate, ωs is the spin rate about

the axis of symmetry, Is is the moment of inertia about

the axis of symmetry, Ip is moment of inertia about either of the other two equal perpendicular principal axes, and α is the angle between the moment of inertia direction [2] Precession of a gyroscope and the symmetry axis. When an object is not perfectly solid, internal vortices will tional axis of a rotating body. In an appropriate reference tend to damp torque-free precession, and the rotation axis frame it can be defined as a change in the first Euler angle, will align itself with one of the inertia axes of the body. whereas the third Euler angle defines the rotation itself. In other words, the axis of rotation of a precessing body For a generic solid object without any axis of symmetry, itself rotates around another axis. A motion in which the the evolution of the object’s orientation, represented (for second Euler angle changes is called nutation. In physics, example) by a rotation matrix R that transforms internal there are two types of precession: torque-free and torque- to external coordinates, may be numerically simulated. induced. Given the object’s fixed internal moment of inertia tensor I0 and fixed external angular momentum L , the instan- In astronomy, “precession” refers to any of several slow −1 T taneous angular velocity is ω(R) = RI0 R L . Preces- changes in an astronomical body’s rotational or orbital sion occurs by repeatedly recalculating ω and applying a parameters, and especially to Earth’s precession of the small rotation vector ωdt for the short time dt ; e.g., Rnew = equinoxes. See Astronomy section (below). exp([ω(Rold)]×dt)Rold for the skew-symmetric matrix [ω]× . The errors induced by finite time steps tend to increase the rotational kinetic energy, E(R) = ω(R)·L/2 ; this un- 1.1 Torque-free physical tendency can be counter-acted by repeatedly applying a small rotation vector v perpendicular to both ω ≈ × · In torque-free precession, the angular momentum re- and L , noting that E(exp([v]×)R) E(R) + (ω(R) L) v . mains fixed, but the angular velocity vector changes. Another type of torque-free precession can occur when What makes this possible is a time-varying moment of there are multiple reference frames at work. For exam- inertia, or more precisely, a time-varying inertia matrix. ple, Earth is subject to local torque induced precession The inertia matrix is composed of moments of inertia cal- due to the gravity of the sun and moon acting on Earth’s

1 2 CHAPTER 1. PRECESSION axis, but at the same time the solar system is moving (vertical) pivot axis. Then, spinning of the wheel (around around the galactic center. As a consequence, an accu- the wheelhub) is added. Imagine the gimbal axis to be rate measurement of Earth’s axial reorientation relative locked, so that the wheel cannot pitch. The gimbal axis to objects outside the frame of the moving galaxy (such has sensors, that measure whether there is a torque around as distant quasars commonly used as precession measure- the gimbal axis. ment reference points) must account for a minor amount In the picture, a section of the wheel has been named of non-local torque-free precession, due to the solar sys- dm1. At the depicted moment in time, section dm1 is at tem’s motion. the perimeter of the rotating motion around the (vertical) pivot axis. Section dm1, therefore, has a lot of angular rotating velocity with respect to the rotation around the 1.2 Torque-induced pivot axis, and as dm1 is forced closer to the pivot axis of the rotation (by the wheel spinning further), because of Torque-induced precession (gyroscopic precession) is the Coriolis eﬀect, with respect to the vertical pivot axis, the phenomenon in which the axis of a spinning object dm1 tends to move in the direction of the top-left arrow (e.g.,a gyroscope) describes a cone in space when an ex- in the diagram (shown at 45°) in the direction of rota- [3] ternal torque is applied to it. The phenomenon is com- tion around the pivot axis. Section dm2 of the wheel is monly seen in a spinning toy top, but all rotating objects moving away from the pivot axis, and so a force (again, a can undergo precession. If the speed of the rotation and Coriolis force) acts in the same direction as in the case of the magnitude of the external torque are constant, the spin dm1. Note that both arrows point in the same direction. axis will move at right angles to the direction that would The same reasoning applies for the bottom half of the intuitively result from the external torque. In the case of wheel, but there the arrows point in the opposite direc- a toy top, its weight is acting downwards from its center tion to that of the top arrows. Combined over the entire of mass and the normal force (reaction) of the ground is wheel, there is a torque around the gimbal axis when some pushing up on it at the point of contact with the support. spinning is added to rotation around a vertical axis. These two opposite forces produce a torque which causes the top to precess. It is important to note that the torque around the gimbal axis arises without any delay; the response is instan- taneous. In the discussion above, the setup was kept unchanging by preventing pitching around the gimbal axis. In the case of a spinning toy top, when the spinning top starts tilting, gravity exerts a torque. However, instead of rolling over, the spinning top just pitches a little. This pitching motion reorients the spinning top with respect to the torque that is being exerted. The result is that the torque exerted by gravity – via the pitching motion – elicits gyroscopic precession (which in turn yields a counter torque against the gravity torque) rather than causing the spinning top to fall to its side. Precession or gyroscopic considerations have an eﬀect on bicycle performance at high speed. Precession is also the mechanism behind gyrocompasses.

1.2.1 Classical (Newtonian) The response of a rotating system to an applied torque. When the device swivels, and some roll is added, the wheel tends to pitch. Precession is the result of the angular velocity of rotation The device depicted on the right is gimbal mounted. and the angular velocity produced by the torque. It is From inside to outside there are three axes of rotation: an angular velocity about a line that makes an angle with the hub of the wheel, the gimbal axis, and the vertical the permanent rotation axis, and this angle lies in a plane pivot. at right angles to the plane of the couple producing the torque. The permanent axis must turn towards this line, To distinguish between the two horizontal axes, rotation because the body cannot continue to rotate about any line around the wheel hub will be called spinning, and rotation that is not a principal axis of maximum moment of iner- around the gimbal axis will be called pitching. Rotation tia; that is, the permanent axis turns in a direction at right around the vertical pivot axis is called rotation. angles to that in which the torque might be expected to First, imagine that the entire device is rotating around the turn it. If the rotating body is symmetrical and its mo- 1.2. TORQUE-INDUCED 3

molecules are being forced to move in new directions at certain places during their path around the axis. These new changes in direction are resisted by inertia. L Imagine the object to be a spinning bicycle wheel, held at both ends of its axle in the hands of a subject. The wheel is spinning clock-wise as seen from a viewer to the subject’s right. Clock positions on the wheel are given relative to this viewer. As the wheel spins, the molecules comprising it are travelling vertically downward the instant they pass the 3-o'clock position, horizontally to the left the instant they pass 6 o'clock, vertically upward at 9 -Fg o'clock, and horizontally to the right at 12 o'clock. Be- tween these positions, each molecule travels components of these directions, which should be kept in mind as you Fg read ahead. The viewer then applies a force to the wheel at the 3-o'clock position in a direction away from himself. The molecules at the 3-o'clock position are not being forced to change their direction when this happens; The torque caused by the normal force – Fg and the weight of the they still travel vertically downward. Actually, the force top causes a change in the angular momentum L in the direction attempts to displace them some amount horizontally at of that torque. This causes the top to precess. that moment, but the ostensible component of that motion, attributed to the horizontal force, never occurs, as it would if the wheel was not spinning. Therefore, neither tion unconstrained, and, if the torque on the spin axis is the horizontal nor downward components of travel are af- at right angles to that axis, the axis of precession will be fected by the horizontally-applied force. The horizontal perpendicular to both the spin axis and torque axis. component started at zero and remains at zero, and the Under these circumstances the angular velocity of pre- downward component is at its maximum and remains at cession is given by: maximum. The same holds true for the molecules located at 9 o'clock; they still travel vertically upward and not at all horizontally, thus are unaﬀected by the force that was mgr ωp = applied. However, molecules at 6 and 12 o'clock are be- Isωs ing forced to change direction. At 6 o'clock, molecules

In which Is is the moment of inertia, ωs is the angular are forced to veer toward the viewer. At the same time, velocity of spin about the spin axis, and m*g and r are molecules that are passing 12 o'clock are being forced to the force responsible for the torque and the perpendicular veer away from the viewer. The inertia of those molecules distance of the spin axis about the axis of precession. The resists this change in direction. The result is that they ap- torque vector originates at the center of mass. Using ω = ply an equal and opposite reactive force in response. At 2π 6 o'clock, molecules exert a push directly away from the T , we ﬁnd that the period of precession is given by: viewer, while molecules at 12 o'clock push directly toward the viewer. This all happens instantaneously as the 2 4π Is force is applied at 3 o'clock. Since no physical force was Tp = mgrTs actually applied at 6 or 12 o’clock, there is nothing to op- pose these reactive forces; therefore, the reaction is free In which Is is the moment of inertia, Ts is the period of to take place. This makes the wheel as a whole tilt to- spin about the spin axis, and τ is the torque. In general, ward the viewer. Thus, when the force was applied at 3 the problem is more complicated than this, however. o'clock, the wheel behaved as if that force was applied at There is a non-mathematical way of understanding the 6 o'clock, which is 90 degrees ahead in the direction of cause of gyroscopic precession. The behavior of spin- rotation. This principle is demonstrated in helicopters. ning objects simply obeys the law of inertia by resisting Helicopter controls are rigged so that inputs to them are any change in direction. If a force is applied to a spin- transmitted to the rotor blades at points 90 degrees prior ning object to induce a change the direction of the spin to the point where the change in aircraft attitude is de- axis, the object behaves as if that force was applied at sired. a location exactly 90 degrees ahead, in the direction of Precession causes another phenomenon for spinning ob- rotation. This is why: A solid object can be thought of jects such as the bicycle wheel in this scenario. If the sub- as an assembly of individual molecules. If the object is ject holding the wheel removes one hand from the end of spinning, each molecule’s direction of travel constantly the axle, the wheel will not topple over, but will remain changes as that molecule revolves around the object’s spin upright, supported at just the other end of its axle. How- axis. When a force is applied that is parallel to the axis, 4 CHAPTER 1. PRECESSION

ever, it will immediately take on an additional motion; it 1.3.1 Axial precession (precession of the will begin to rotate about a vertical axis, pivoting at the equinoxes) point of support as it continues spinning. If the wheel was not spinning, it would topple over and fall when one hand Main article: Axial precession is removed. The ostensible action of the wheel beginning Axial precession is the movement of the rotational axis to topple over is equivalent to applying a force to it at 12 o'clock in the direction of the unsupported side (or a force at 6 o’clock toward the supported side). When the wheel is spinning, the sudden lack of support at one end of its axle is equivalent to this same force. So, instead of toppling over, the wheel behaves as if a continuous force is being applied to it at 3 or 9 o’clock, depending on the direction of spin and which hand was removed. This causes the wheel to begin pivoting at the point of support while remaining upright. It should be noted that although it pivots at the point of support, it does so only because of the fact that it is supported there; the actual axis of precessional rotation is located vertically through the wheel, Precession of the equinox in relation to the distant stars passing through its center of mass. Also, this explanation does not account for the eﬀect of variation in the speed of the spinning object; it only describes how the spin axis behaves due to precession. More correctly, the object behaves according to the balance of all forces based on the magnitude of the applied force, mass and rotational speed of the object.

1.2.2 Relativistic

The special and general theories of relativity give three types of corrections to the Newtonian precession, of a gyroscope near a large mass such as Earth, described above. They are:

• Thomas precession a special relativistic correction accounting for the observer’s being in a rotating non- inertial frame.

• de Sitter precession a general relativistic correction The path of the north celestial pole among the stars due to the accounting for the Schwarzschild metric of curved precession. Vega is the bright star near the bottom space near a large non-rotating mass. of an astronomical body, whereby the axis slowly traces • Lense–Thirring precession a general relativistic cor- out a cone. In the case of Earth, this type of precession rection accounting for the frame dragging by the is also known as the precession of the equinoxes, luniso- Kerr metric of curved space near a large rotating lar precession, or precession of the equator. Earth goes mass. through one such complete precessional cycle in a period of approximately 26,000 years or 1° every 72 years, during which the positions of stars will slowly change in both 1.3 Astronomy equatorial coordinates and ecliptic longitude. Over this cycle, Earth’s north axial pole moves from where it is now, In astronomy, precession refers to any of several gravity- within 1° of Polaris, in a circle around the ecliptic pole, induced, slow and continuous changes in an astronomical with an angular radius of about 23.5 degrees. body’s rotational axis or orbital path. Precession of the Hipparchus is the earliest known astronomer to rec- equinoxes, perihelion precession, changes in the tilt of ognize and assess the precession of the equinoxes at Earth’s axis to its orbit, and the eccentricity of its orbit about 1° per century (which is not far from the actual over tens of thousands of years are all important parts of value for antiquity, 1.38°).[4] The precession of Earth’s the astronomical theory of ice ages. axis was later explained by Newtonian physics. Being 1.4. SEE ALSO 5 an oblate spheroid, Earth has a non-spherical shape, that changes in Earth’s orbital parameters (e.g., orbital bulging outward at the equator. The gravitational tidal inclination, the angle between Earth’s rotation axis and forces of the Moon and Sun apply torque to the equator, its plane of orbit) is important to the study of Earth’s cli- attempting to pull the equatorial bulge into the plane of mate, in particular to the study of past ice ages. the ecliptic, but instead causing it to precess. The torque See also nodal precession. For precession of the lunar exerted by the planets, particularly Jupiter, also plays a orbit see lunar precession. role.[5]

1.3.2 Perihelion precession 1.4 See also

Main article: Apsidal precession • Larmor precession The orbit of a planet around the Sun is not really an el- • Polar motion • Precession (mechanical)

1.5 References

[1] Schaub, Hanspeter (2003), Analytical Mechanics of Space Systems, AIAA, pp. 149–150, ISBN 9781600860270, retrieved May 2014

[2] Boal, David (2001). “Lecture 26 – Torque-free rotation – body-ﬁxed axes” (PDF). Retrieved 2008-09-17.

[3] Teodorescu, Petre P (2002). Mechanical Systems, Classi- cal Models. Springer. p. 420.

[4] DIO 9.1 ‡3

[5] Bradt, Hale (2007). Astronomy Methods. Cambridge Uni- Planets revolving the Sun follow elliptical (oval) orbits that ro- versity Press. p. 66. ISBN 978 0 521 53551 9. tate gradually over time (apsidal precession). The eccentricity of this ellipse and the precession rate of the orbit are exaggerated [6] Max Born (1924), Einstein’s Theory of Relativity (The for visualization. Most orbits in the Solar System have a much 1962 Dover edition, page 348 lists a table documenting smaller eccentricity and precess at a much slower rate, making the observed and calculated values for the precession of them nearly circular and stationary. the perihelion of Mercury, Venus, and Earth.) lipse but a ﬂower-petal shape because the major axis of [7] An even larger value for a precession has been found, for each planet’s elliptical orbit also precesses within its or- a black hole in orbit around a much more massive black hole, amounting to 39 degrees each orbit. bital plane, partly in response to perturbations in the form of the changing gravitational forces exerted by other planets. This is called perihelion precession or apsidal precession. 1.6 External links Discrepancies between the observed perihelion preces- • Explanation and derivation of formula for precession rate of the planet Mercury and that predicted by sion of a top classical mechanics were prominent among the forms of experimental evidence leading to the acceptance of • Precession and the Milankovich theory from educa- Einstein's Theory of Relativity (in particular, his General tional web site From Stargazers to Starships Theory of Relativity), which accurately predicted the anomalies.[6][7] Deviating from Newton’s law, Einstein’s theory of gravitation predicts an extra term of A/r4, which accurately gives the observed excess turning rate of 43 arcseconds every 100 years. The gravitational force between the Sun and moon in- duces the precession in Earth’s orbit, which is the major cause of the widely known climate oscillation of Earth that has a period of 19,000 to 23,000 years. It follows Chapter 2

Zodiac

For other uses, see Zodiac (disambiguation). diac is described in Ptolemy's vast 2nd century AD work, the Almagest.[2] The term zodiac derives from Latin zōdiacus, which in its turn comes from the Greek ζῳδιακὸς κύκλος (zōdi- akos kyklos), meaning “circle of animals”, derived from ζῴδιον (zōdion), the diminutive of ζῷον (zōon) “animal”. The name is motivated by the fact that half of the signs of the classical Greek zodiac are represented as animals (besides two mythological hybrids). Although the zodiac remains the basis of the ecliptic coordinate system in use in astronomy besides the equatorial one,[3] the term and the names of the twelve signs are today mostly associated with horoscopic astrology.[4] The term “zodiac” may also refer to the region of the celestial sphere encompassing the paths of the planets corresponding to the band of about eight arc degrees above and be- The Earth in its orbit around the Sun causes the Sun to appear on low the ecliptic. The zodiac of a given planet is the band the celestial sphere moving over the ecliptic (red), which is tilted that contains the path of that particular body; e.g., the with respect to the equator (blue-white). “zodiac of the Moon” is the band of five degrees above and below the ecliptic. By extension, the “zodiac of the In both astrology and historical astronomy, the zodiac comets” may refer to the band encompassing most short- (Greek: ζῳδιακός, zōidiakos) is a circle of twelve 30° period comets.[5] divisions of celestial longitude that are centered upon the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere over the course of the year. The paths of the Moon 2.2 History and visible planets also remain close to the ecliptic, within the belt of the zodiac, which extends 8-9° north or south of the ecliptic, as measured in celestial latitude. Because Further information: Former constellations the divisions are regular, they do not correspond exactly to the twelve constellations after which they are named. Historically, these twelve divisions are called signs. Es- 2.2.1 Early history sentially, the zodiac is a celestial coordinate system, or more specifically an ecliptic coordinate system, which Further information: Babylonian star catalogues and takes the ecliptic as the origin of latitude, and the position MUL.APIN of the Sun at vernal equinox as the origin of longitude. The division of the ecliptic into the zodiacal signs originates in Babylonian ("Chaldean") astronomy dur- 2.1 Usage ing the first half of the 1st millennium BC, likely during Median/"Neo-Babylonian" times (7th century BC).[6] The zodiac was in use by the Roman era, based on con- The classical zodiac is a modification of the MUL.APIN cepts inherited by Hellenistic astronomy from Babylonian catalogue, which was compiled around 1000 BC. Some astronomy of the Chaldean period (mid-1st millennium of the constellations can be traced even further back, BC), which, in turn, derived from an earlier system of lists to Bronze Age (Old Babylonian) sources, including of stars along the ecliptic.[1] The construction of the zo- Gemini “The Twins”, from MAŠ.TAB.BA.GAL.GAL

6 2.2. HISTORY 7

reference to the continuous 360º ecliptic.[12] To the construction of their mathematical ephemerides, daily positions of a planet were not as important as the dates when the planet crossed from one zodiacal sign to the next.[13] Knowledge of the Babylonian zodiac is also reﬂected in the Hebrew Bible. E. W. Bullinger interpreted the creatures appearing in the books of Ezekiel and Revelation as the middle signs of the four quarters of the Zodiac,[14][15] with the Lion as Leo, the Bull is Taurus, the Man representing Aquarius and the Eagle representing Scorpio.[16] Some authors have linked the twelve tribes of Israel with the twelve signs. Martin and others have argued that the arrangement of the tribes around the Tabernacle (reported in the Book of Numbers) corresponded to the order of the Zodiac, with Judah, Reuben, Ephraim, and Dan representing the middle signs of Leo, Aquarius, Taurus, and Scorpio, respectively.[17][18] Such connections were taken up by Thomas Mann, who in his novel Joseph and Wheel of the zodiac: This 6th century mosaic pavement in a syna- His Brothers attributes characteristics of a sign of the zo- gogue incorporates Greek-Byzantine elements, Beit Alpha, Israel. diac to each tribe in his rendition of the Blessing of Jacob.

2.2.2 Hellenistic and Roman era “The Great Twins”, and Cancer “The Crab”, from AL.LUL “The Crayfish”, among others. Babylonian astronomers at some stage during the early 1st millennium BC divided the ecliptic into twelve equal zones of celestial longitude to create the first known celestial coordinate system: a coordinate system that boasts some advantages over modern systems (such as the equatorial coordinate system). The Babylonian calendar as it stood in the 7th century BC assigned each month to a sign, beginning with the position of the Sun at vernal equinox, which, at the time, was depicted as the Aries constellation ("Age of Aries"), for which reason the first sign is still called "Aries" even after the vernal equinox has moved away from the Aries constellation due to the slow precession of the Earth’s axis of rotation.[7] Because the division was made into equal arcs, 30º each, they constituted an ideal system of reference for making predictions about a planet’s longitude. However, Babylo- nian techniques of observational measurements were in a rudimentary stage of evolution and it is unclear whether The 1st century BC Dendera zodiac (19th-century engraving) they had techniques to define in a precise way the boundary lines between the zodiacal signs in the sky.[8] Thus, The Babylonian star catalogs entered Greek astronomy in the need to use stars close to the ecliptic (±9º of latitude) the 4th century BC, via Eudoxus of Cnidus.[19] [20] Baby- as a set of observational reference points to help position- lonia or Chaldea in the Hellenistic world came to be so ing a planet within this ecliptic coordinate system.[9] Con- identified with astrology that “Chaldean wisdom” became stellations were given the names of the signs and asterisms among Greeks and Romans the synonym of divination could be connected in a way that would resemble the through the planets and stars. Hellenistic astrology de- sign’s name. Therefore, in spite of its conceptual origin, rived in part from Babylonian and Egyptian astrology.[21] the Babylonian zodiac became sidereal.[10] Horoscopic astrology first appeared in Ptolemaic Egypt. In Babylonian astronomical diaries, a planet position was The Dendera zodiac, a relief dating to ca. 50 BC, is the generally given with respect to a zodiacal sign alone, less first known depiction of the classical zodiac of twelve often in specific degrees within a sign.[11] When the de- signs. grees of longitude were given, they were expressed with Particularly important in the development of Western reference to the 30º of the zodiacal sign, i.e., not with a horoscopic astrology was the astrologer and astronomer 8 CHAPTER 2. ZODIAC

Ptolemy, whose work Tetrabiblos laid the basis of the Western astrological tradition.[22] Under the Greeks, and Ptolemy in particular, the planets, Houses, and signs of the zodiac were rationalized and their function set down in a way that has changed little to the present day.[23] Ptolemy lived in the 2nd century AD, three centuries after the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes by Hipparchus around 130 BC, but he ignored the problem by dropping the concept of a fixed celestial sphere and adopting what is referred to as a tropical coordinate system instead. The twelve zodiac signs are based on twelve mythical creatures in Greek and Roman myths. Aries is based on Krios, the Titan of the South. Taurus represents the bull that Zeus turned into to capture Europa's heart. Gemini represent Leda's sons Castor and Pollux. Cancer is the crab sent by Hera to distract Hercules when slaying the Hydra. Leo is the Nemean Lion, a monster slain by Her- cules. Virgo will represent either Demeter or Hestia, Angers Cathedral South Rose Window of Christ (centre) with based on which myth is being told. Libra is said to be elders (bottom half) and Zodiac (top half). Mediaeval stained a Babylonian constellation, as the Greeks and Romans glass by Andre Robin after the fire of 1451 saw Libra as scorpion claws. Scorpio is the scorpion sent by Apollo to kill Orion. Sagittarius is sometimes said to be Chiron, the trainer of many mythical heroes, Angers Cathedral, where the master glassmaker, André but it could also be a regular centaur. Capricorn repre- Robin, made the ornate rosettes for the North and South sents Amaltheia, the sea goat that raised Zeus as a baby. transepts after the fire there in 1451.[24] Aquarius is either Hebe or Ganymede, as both served as the gods’ water-bearers. Finally, Pisces represents when Aphrodite and her son Aeneas fled from Troy to found the Roman Empire. 2.2.5 Early modern

2.2.3 Hindu zodiac

The Hindu zodiac uses the sidereal coordinate system, which makes reference to the fixed stars. The Tropical zodiac (of Mesopotamian origin) is divided by the inter- sections of the ecliptic and equator, which shifts in relation to the backdrop of fixed stars at a rate of 1° every 72 years, creating the phenomenon known as precession of the equinoxes. The Hindu zodiac, being sidereal, does not maintain this seasonal alignment, but there are still similarities between the two systems. The Hindu zodiac signs and corresponding Greek signs sound very different, being in Sanskrit and Greek respectively, but their symbols are nearly identical. For example, dhanu means “bow” and corresponds to Sagittarius, the “archer”, and kumbha The zodiac signs in a 16th-century woodcut means “water-pitcher” and corresponds to Aquarius, the “water-carrier”. An example of the use of signs as astronomical coordinates may be found in the Nautical Almanac and Astro- 2.2.4 Middle Ages nomical Ephemeris for the year 1767. The “Longitude of the Sun” columns show the sign (represented as a digit The High Middle Ages saw a revival of Greco- from 0 to and including 11), degrees from 0 to 29, min- Roman magic, first in Kabbalism and later continued in utes, and seconds.[25] Renaissance magic. This included magical uses of the The zodiacal symbols are Early Modern simplifications zodiac, as found, e.g., in the Sefer Raziel HaMalakh. of conventional pictorial representations of the signs, at- The zodiac is found in mediaeval stained glass as at tested since Hellenistic times. 2.4. CONSTELLATIONS 9

18th century star map illustrating how the feet of Ophiuchus cross the ecliptic

Family: Zodiac Ursa Major Perseus Hercules Orion Heavenly Waters Bayer La Caille Origin/year: Ancient (Ptolemy) 1592 1603 1613 1692 1763 +90° Cepheus Cepheus Ursa Cepheus Cepheus Minor Camelopardalis Draco Cassiopeia Cassiopeia +60° Ursa Major Lacerta Lynx Perseus Cygnus Boötes Canes Auriga Andromeda Venatici Andromeda Lyra Corona Leo +30° Borealis Minor Triangulum Gemini Taurus Vulpecula Hercules Coma Cancer Aries Pegasus Sagitta Berenices Serpens Leo ♌ ♊ ♉ ♈ Pisces Delphinus (Caput) ♋ Pisces ♓ Canis Orion ♓ Equuleus Virgo ♍ Minor 0° Aquila Serpens Sextans (Cauda) Monoceros Cetus Scutum Libra Aquarius ECLIPTICCrater Aquarius ♒ Capricornus Ophiuchus Corvus Lepus Declination ♎ Hydra Canis Eridanus ♑ Sagittarius Pyxis Major -30° Piscis Fornax 17th-century fresco, Cathedral of Living Pillar, Georgia of Sculptor Austrinus ♐ Scorpius Antlia Columba Sculptor Corona ♏ Puppis Microscopium Lupus Caelum Phoenix Austrina Vela Phoenix Grus Telescopium Norma Centaurus Pictor Christ in the Zodiac circle Indus Ara Horologium -60° Circinus Crux MILKYCarina WAY Tucana Tucana Triangulum Reticulum Tucana Tucana Pavo Australe Dorado Musca Volans Hydrus Apus Chamaeleon Mensa Octans -90° 21 h 18 h 15 h 12 h 9 h 6 h 3 h 0 h 2.3 The twelve signs Right ascension Equirectangular plot of declination vs right ascension of the Main article: Astrological sign modern constellations with a dotted line denoting the ecliptic. Constellations are colour-coded by family and year established. (detailed view) What follows is a list of the twelve signs of the modern zodiac (with the ecliptic longitudes of their first points), where 0° Aries is understood as the vernal equinox, with Some “parazodiacal” constellations are also touched by their Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and Babylonian names (but the paths of the planets. The MUL.APIN lists Orion, note that the Sanskrit and the Babylonian name equiva- Perseus, Auriga, and Andromeda. Furthermore, there are lents denote the constellations only, not the tropical zo- a number of constellations mythologically associated with diac signs). Also, the “English translation” is not usually the zodiacal ones : Piscis Austrinus, The Southern Fish, used by English speakers. The Latin names are standard is attached to Aquarius. In classical maps, it swallows the English usage. stream poured out of Aquarius’ pitcher, but perhaps it formerly just swam in it. Aquila, The Eagle, was possibly associated with the zodiac by virtue of its main star, Altair. Hydra in the Early Bronze Age marked the celestial equa- 2.4 Constellations tor and was associated with Leo, which is shown standing on the serpent on the Dendera zodiac. Corvus is the Crow The zodiacal signs are distinct from the constellations as- or Raven mysteriously perched on the tail of Hydra. sociated with them, not only because of their drifting Due to the constellation boundaries being redefined in apart due to the precession of equinoxes but also because 1930 by the International Astronomical Union, the path the physical constellations take up varying widths of the of the ecliptic now officially passes through thirteen con- ecliptic, so the Sun is not in each constellation for the stellations: the twelve traditional 'zodiac constellations’ same amount of time.[28]:25 Thus, Virgo takes up five plus Ophiuchus, the bottom part of which interjects be- times as much ecliptic longitude as Scorpius. The zo- tween Scorpio and Sagittarius. Ophiuchus is an an- diacal signs are an abstraction from the physical constel- ciently recognized constellation, catalogued along with lations, and each represent exactly one twelfth of the full many others in Ptolemy's Almagest, but not historically circle, or the longitude traversed by the Sun in about 30.4 referred to as a zodiac constellation.[30][31] The inac- days.[29] curate description of Ophiuchus as a sign of the zo- 10 CHAPTER 2. ZODIAC

diac drew media attention in 1995, when the BBC Nine Because the Earth’s axis is at an angle, some signs take O'Clock News reported that “an extra sign of the zodiac longer to rise than others, and the farther away from the has been announced by the Royal Astronomical Soci- equator the observer is situated, the greater the diﬀer- ety".[32] There had been no such announcement, and the ence. Thus, signs are spoken of as “long” or “short” report had merely sensationalized the 67-year-old 'news’ ascension.[39] of the IAU’s decision to alter the number of designated ecliptic constellations.[33][34] 2.6 Precession of the equinoxes

2.5 Table of dates Further information: Axial precession, Epoch (astronomy), Sidereal and tropical astrology, Astrological age and Ayanamsa The zodiac system was developed in Babylonia, some

Path taken by the point of vernal equinox along the ecliptic over the past 6000 years

2,500 years ago, during the "Age of Aries".[40] At the time, it is assumed, the precession of the equinoxes was unknown, as the system made no allowance for it. Contemporary use of the coordinate system is pre- sented with the choice of interpreting the system either as sidereal, with the signs fixed to the stellar background, or as tropical, with the signs fixed to the point of vernal [41] Sculpture showing Castor and Pollux the legend behind the third equinox. astrological sign in the Zodiac and the constellation of Gemini Western astrology takes the tropical approach, whereas Hindu astrology takes the sidereal one. This results in The following table compares the Gregorian dates on the originally unified zodiacal coordinate system drifting which the Sun enters apart gradually, with a clockwise(westward) precession of 1.4 degrees per century. • a sign in the Ptolemaic tropical zodiac For the tropical zodiac used in Western astronomy and as- • a sign in the Hindu sidereal system trology, this means that the tropical sign of Aries currently lies somewhere within the constellation Pisces ("Age of • the astronomical constellation of the same name as Pisces"). the sign, with constellation boundaries as defined in 1930 by the International Astronomical Union. The sidereal coordinate system takes into account the ayanamsa, a Sanskrit word where literally ayan means The theoretical beginning of Aries is the moment of transit or movement and amsa means small part i.e. vernal equinox, and all other dates shift accordingly. The movement of equinoxes in small parts. It is unclear when precise Gregorian times and dates vary slightly from year Indians became aware of the precession of the equinoxes, to year as the Gregorian calendar shifts relative to the but Bhaskar-ii in Siddhanta Shiromani gives equations tropical year.[35] These variations remain within less than for measurement of precession of equinoxes, and says his two days’ difference in the recent past and the near-future, equations are based on some lost equations of Suryasid- vernal equinox in UT always falling either on 20 or 21 dhanta plus the equation of Munjaala. March in the period of 1797 to 2043, falling on 19 March It is not entirely clear how the Hellenistic astronomers re- in 1796 the last time and in 2044 the next.[36] sponded to this phenomenon of precession once it had 2.8. MNEMONICS 11

been discovered by Hipparchus around 130 BC. Today, 2.8 Mnemonics some read Ptolemy as dropping the concept of a fixed celestial sphere and adopting what is referred to as a trop- There are many mnemonics for remembering the 12 signs ical coordinate system instead: in other words, one fixed of the zodiac in order. A traditional mnemonic:[49] to the Earth’s seasonal cycle rather than the distant stars. The ram, the bull, the heavenly twins, Some modern Western astrologers, such as Cyril Fagan, And next the crab, the lion shines, have advocated abandoning the tropical system in favour The virgin and the scales, [42] of a sidereal one. The scorpion, archer, and the goat, The man who holds the watering-pot, And fish with glittering scales. 2.7 In modern astronomy A less poetic, but succinct mnemonic is the following:[50] The Ramble Twins Crab Liverish; Astronomically, the zodiac defines a belt of space extend- Scaly Scorpions Are Good Water Fish. ing 9° either side of the ecliptic, within which the orbits Mnemonics in which the initials of the words correspond of the Moon and the principal planets remain.[43] It is a to the initials of the star signs (Latin, English, or mixed): feature of a celestial coordinate system centered upon the All The Great Constellations Live Very Long Since Stars ecliptic, (the plane of the Earth’s orbit and the Sun’s ap- Can't Alter Physics.[1] parent path), by which celestial longitude is measured in degrees east of the vernal equinox (the ascending inter- section of the ecliptic and equator).[44] 1. ^ Mnemonic: Zodiac Signs “Mnemonic: Zodiac Signs” The Sun’s placement upon the vernal equinox, which occurs annually around 21 March, defines the starting point for measurement, the first degree of which is historically As The Great Cook Likes Very Little Salt, She Compen- known as the “first point of Aries”. The first 30° along the sates Adding Pepper. ecliptic is nominally designated as the zodiac sign Aries, All That Gold Can Load Very Lazy Students Since Chil- which no longer falls within the proximity of the constel- dren Are at Play lation Aries since the effect of precession is to move the vernal point through the backdrop of visible constellations (it is currently located near the end of the constellation Pisces, having been within that constellation since 2.9 Unicode characters the 2nd century AD).[45] The subsequent 30° of the ecliptic is nominally designated the zodiac sign Taurus, and so In Unicode, the symbols of zodiac signs are encoded in on through the twelve signs of the zodiac so that each oc- block Miscellaneous Symbols:[51] cupies 1/12th (30°) of the zodiac’s great circle. Zodiac signs have never been used to determine the boundaries 1. U+2648 ♈ aries (HTML ♈) of astronomical constellations that lie in the vicinity of the zodiac, which are, and always have been, irregular in 2. U+2649 ♉ taurus (HTML ♉) their size and shape.[46] The convention of measuring celestial longitude within 3. U+264A ♊ gemini (HTML ♊) individual signs was still being used in the mid-19th century,[47] but modern astronomy now numbers degrees 4. U+264B ♋ cancer (HTML ♋) of celestial longitude from 0° to 360°, rather than 0° to 30° within each sign. 5. U+264C ♌ leo (HTML ♌) The use of the zodiac as a means to determine astro- 6. U+264D ♍ virgo (HTML ♍) nomical measurement remained the main method for defining celestial positions by Western astronomers until 7. U+264E ♎ libra (HTML ♎) the Renaissance, at which time preference moved to the equatorial coordinate system, which measures astronom- 8. U+264F ♏ scorpius (HTML ♏) ical positions by right ascension and declination rather than the ecliptic-based definitions of celestial longitude 9. U+2650 ♐ sagittarius (HTML ♐) and celestial latitude.[48] 10. U+2651 ♑ capricorn (HTML ♑) The word “zodiac” is also used in reference to the zodiacal cloud of dust grains that move among the planets, and 11. U+2652 ♒ aquarius (HTML ♒) the zodiacal light that originates from their scattering of sunlight. 12. U+2653 ♓ pisces (HTML ♓) 12 CHAPTER 2. ZODIAC

2.10 See also [19] Rogers, John H. “Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions.” Journal of the British As- • Astronomical symbols tronomical Assoc. 108.1 (1998): 9–28. Astronomical Data Service. • Chinese Zodiac [20] Rogers, John H. “Origins of the ancient constellations: II. • Circle of stars The Mesopotamian traditions.” Journal of the British As- tronomical Assoc. 108.2 (1998): 79–89. Astronomical • Cusp (astrology) Data Service.

• Elements of the zodiac [21] Powell, Robert, Influence of Babylonian Astronomy on the Subsequent Defining of the Zodiac (2004), PhD the- sis, summarized by anonymous editor, Wayback version. 2.11 References [22] Saliba, George, 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New [1] see MUL.APIN. See also Lankford, John. History of As- York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147- tronomy, Routledge, 1996. ISBN 978-0-8153-0322-0. p. 8023-7. Page 67. 43, books.google.co.uk [23] Derek and Julia Parker, Ibid, p16, 1990 [2] Ptolemy, Claudius (1998). The Almagest. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00260- [24] King, David. 'Angers Cathedral’, (book review of Karine 6. Translated and annotated by G. J. Toomer; with a fore- Boulanger’s 2010 book, Les Vitraux de la Cathédrale word by Owen Gingerich. d’Angers, the 11th volume of the Corpus Vitrearum se- [3] Shapiro, Lee T. "Constellations in the zodiac." NASA. 27 ries from France), Vitemus: the only on-line magazine de- April 2011. voted to medieval stained glass, Issue 48, February 2011, retrieved 17 December 2013. [4] B. L. van der Waerden, “History of the zodiac”, Archiv für Orientforschung 16 (1953) 216–230. [25] Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris for the year 1767. London: Board of Longitude, 1766. [5] OED, citing J. Harris, Lexicon Technicum (1704): “Zodi- ack of the Comets, Cassini hath observed a certain Tract [26] MUL.APIN; Peter Whitfield, History of Astrology (2001); [...] within whose Bounds [...] he hath found most Comets W. Muss-Arnolt, The Names of the Assyro-Babylonian [...] to keep.” Months and Their Regents, Journal of Biblical Literature (1892). [6] Powell 2004 [27] American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 3rd [7] Hugh Thurston, Early Astronomy, (New York: Springer- ed., s.v. “Pisces.” Verlag, 1994), p. 135–137.

[8] Sachs (1948), p. 289. [28] James, Edward W. (1982). Patrick Grim, ed. Philosophy of science and the occult. Albany: State University of New [9] Rochberg (1998), pp. 31. York Press. ISBN 0873955722.

[10] Rochberg (1998), pp. 17, 19. [29] 30.4368 SI days or 2629743 seconds in tropical astrology and 30.4380 SI days or 2629846 seconds in sidereal as- [11] Rochberg (1998), p. 7. trology on average (the time spent by the Sun in each sign [12] Rochberg (1998), p. 17. varies slightly due to the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit).

[13] Rochberg (1998), p. 8. [30] Peters, Christian Heinrich Friedrich and Edward Ball Knobel. Ptolemy’s Catalogue of Stars: a revision of the [14] E.W. Bullinger, The Witness of the Stars Almagest. Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1915.

[15] D. James Kennedy, The Real Meaning of the Zodiac. [31] Ptolemy (1982) [2nd cent.]. “VII.5”. In R. Catesby Tali- [16] Richard Hinckley Allen, Star Names: Their Lore and aferro. Almagest. p. 239. Ptolemy refers to the constella- Meaning, Vol. 1 (New York: Dover Publications, 1899, tion as Septentarius 'the serpent holder'. p. 213-215.) argued for Scorpio having previously been [32] Kollerstrom, N. (October 1995). “Ophiuchus and the me- called Eagle. for Scorpio. dia”. The Observatory (KNUDSEN; OBS) 115: 261– [17] Ernest L. Martin, The Birth of Christ Recalculated 262. Bibcode:1995Obs...115..261K. Reproduced online (Pasadena, California: Foundation for Biblical Research, at SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS), re- second ed., 1980), p. 167ﬀ. trieved 13 July 2011.

[18] D. Guthrie, J.A. Motyer (ed.), The New Bible Commentary [33] Kollerstrom, N. (October 1995). “Ophiuchus and the me- (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., dia”. The Observatory (KNUDSEN; OBS) 115: 261–262. third ed., 1970) p. 173. Bibcode:1995Obs...115..261K. 2.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 13

[34] The notion received further international media attention 2.12 External links in January 2011, when it was reported that astronomer Parke Kunkle, a board-member of the Minnesota Plan- Media related to Zodiac at Wikimedia Commons etarium Society, had suggested that Ophiuchus was the zodiac’s '13th sign'. He later issued a statement to say he had not reported that the zodiac ought to include 13 signs • “A Treatise on Zodiacal Signs and Constallations: instead of 12, but was only mentioning that there were 13 Unique Jewels on the Beneﬁts of Keeping Time” is constellations; reported in Mad Astronomy: Why did your a manuscript that dates back to 1831 with a focus on zodiac sign change? 13 January 2011. Arabic, Coptic and Syriac calendars. [35] The Gregorian calendar is built to satisfy the First Council • Zodiac Constellations at Constellation Guide of Nicaea, which placed vernal equinox is on 21 March, but it is not possible to keep it on a single day within a reasonable system of leap days.

[36] See Jean Meeus, Astronomical Tables of the Sun, Moon, and Planets, 1983 published by Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, Virginia. The date in other time zones may vary.

[37] Jackson Swift. “Astrology: Tropical Zodiac and Sidereal Zodiac”. goarticles.com. Retrieved 2013-11-10.

[38] The Real Constellations of the Zodiac. Dr. Lee T. Shapiro, director of Morehead Planetarium University of North Carolina (Spring 1977)

[39] Julia Parker “The Astrologer’s Handbook”, pp 10, Alva Press, NJ, 2010

[40] Sachs, Abraham (1948), “A Classiﬁcation of the Babylo- nian Astronomical Tablets of the Seleucid Period”, Jour- nal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 271–290

[41] Rochberg, Francesca (1998), “Babylonian Horoscopes”, American Philosophical Society, New Series, Vol. 88, No. 1, pp i-164

[42] Cyril Fagan Gale Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsy- chology, 2012

[43] Encyclopædia Britannica. “Zodiac”. Encyclopædia Bri- tannica Online. Retrieved 7 May 2015.

[44] Encyclopædia Britannica. “Ecliptic”. Encyclopædia Bri- tannica Online. Retrieved 7 May 2015.

[45] Encyclopædia Britannica. “Astronomical map”. Ency- clopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 7 May 2015.

[46] Encyclopædia Britannica. “Zodiac”. Encyclopædia Bri- tannica Online. Retrieved 7 May 2015.

[47] G. Rubie (1830). The British Celestial Atlas. London: Baldwin & Cradock. p. 79. Retrieved 7 May 2015.

[48] Encyclopædia Britannica. “Astronomical map”. Ency- clopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 7 May 2015.

[49] Project Gutenberg ebook “An Alphabet Of Old Friends"; see Z for Zodiac.

[50] Rey, H.A. (1952). The Stars, Houghton Miﬄin.

[51] “Zodiacal symbols in Unicode block Miscellaneous Sym- bols” (PDF). The Unicode Standard. 2010. Chapter 3

Language

This article is about human language in general. For other uses, see Language (disambiguation).

Two girls learning American Sign Language

A mural in Teotihuacan, Mexico (c. 2nd century) depicting a person emitting a speech scroll from his mouth, symbolizing speech

Braille writing represents language in a tactile form.

Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Questions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece. Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought. 20th- century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky. Cuneiform is the first known form of written language, but spoken language predates writing by at least tens of Estimates of the number of languages in the world vary thousands of years. between 5,000 and 7,000. However, any precise esti- mate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary

14 3.1. DEFINITIONS 15

media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for exam- guages spoken at the beginning of the twenty-first century ple, in graphic writing, braille, or whistling. This is be- will probably have become extinct by the year 2100. cause human language is modality-independent. Depend- ing on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, “language” may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and 3.1 Definitions use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set Main article: Philosophy of language of utterances that can be produced from those rules. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs The English word language derives ultimately from to particular meanings. Oral and sign languages contain Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s “tongue, speech, lan- a phonological system that governs how symbols are used guage” through Latin lingua, “language; tongue”, and Old to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a French language.[3] The word is sometimes used to re- syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes fer to codes, ciphers, and other kinds of artificially con- are combined to form phrases and utterances. structed communication systems such as formally de- Human language has the properties of productivity, fined computer languages used for computer program- recursivity, and displacement, and relies entirely on so- ming. Unlike conventional human languages, a formal cial convention and learning. Its complex structure af- language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding fords a much wider range of expressions than any known and decoding information. This article specifically con- system of animal communication. Language is thought cerns the properties of natural human language as it is to have originated when early hominins started gradually studied in the discipline of linguistics. changing their primate communication systems, acquir- As an object of linguistic study, “language” has two ing the ability to form a theory of other minds and a primary meanings: an abstract concept, and a specific [1][2] shared intentionality. This development is sometimes linguistic system, e.g. "French". The Swiss linguist thought to have coincided with an increase in brain vol- Ferdinand de Saussure, who defined the modern disci- ume, and many linguists see the structures of language as pline of linguistics, first explicitly formulated the distinc- having evolved to serve specific communicative and so- tion using the French word langage for language as a con- cial functions. Language is processed in many different cept, langue as a specific instance of a language system, locations in the human brain, but especially in Broca’s and and parole for the concrete usage of speech in a particular Wernicke’s areas. Humans acquire language through so- language.[4] cial interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years When speaking of language as a general concept, defi- old. The use of language is deeply entrenched in human nitions can be used which stress different aspects of the [5] culture. Therefore, in addition to its strictly communica- phenomenon. These definitions also entail different ap- tive uses, language also has many social and cultural uses, proaches and understandings of language, and they in- such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as form different and often incompatible schools of linguis- [6] well as social grooming and entertainment. tic theory. Debates about the nature and origin of language goes back to the ancient world. Greek philoso- Languages evolve and diversify over time, and the his- phers such as Gorgias and Plato debated the relation be- tory of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing tween words, concepts and reality. Gorgias argued that modern languages to determine which traits their an- language could represent neither the objective experience cestral languages must have had in order for the later nor human experience, and that communication and truth developmental stages to occur. A group of languages were therefore impossible. Plato maintained that com- that descend from a common ancestor is known as a munication is possible because language represents ideas language family. The Indo-European family is the most and concepts that exist independently of, and prior to, widely spoken and includes English, Spanish, Portuguese, language.[7] Russian, and Hindi; the Sino-Tibetan family, which includes Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese, and many others; During the Enlightenment and its debates about human the Afro-Asiatic family, which includes Arabic, Amharic, origins, it became fashionable to speculate about the ori- Somali, and Hebrew; the Bantu languages, which in- gin of language. Thinkers such as Rousseau and Herder clude Swahili, Zulu, Shona, and hundreds of other argued that language had originated in the instinctive ex- languages spoken throughout Africa; and the Malayo- pression of emotions, and that it was originally closer to Polynesian languages, which include Indonesian, Malay, music and poetry than to the logical expression of ratio- Tagalog, Malagasy, and hundreds of other languages nal thought. Rationalist philosophers such as Kant and spoken throughout the Pacific. The languages of the Descartes held the opposite view. Around the turn of the Dravidian family that are spoken mostly in Southern India 20th century, thinkers began to wonder about the role of include Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. Aca- language in shaping our experiences of the world – asking demic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of lan- whether language simply reflects the objective structure of the world, or whether it creates concepts that it in turn 16 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE

imposes on our experience of the objective world. This can be generated using transformational grammars.[14] led to the question of whether philosophical problems are Chomsky considers these rules to be an innate feature really firstly linguistic problems. The resurgence of the of the human mind and to constitute the rudiments of view that language plays a significant role in the creation what language is.[15] By way of contrast, such transfor- and circulation of concepts, and that the study of philoso- mational grammars are also commonly used to provide phy is essentially the study of language, is associated with formal definitions of language are commonly used in what has been called the linguistic turn and philosophers formal logic, in formal theories of grammar, and in ap- such as Wittgenstein in 20th-century philosophy. These plied computational linguistics.[16][17] In the philosophy debates about language in relation to meaning and refer- of language, the view of linguistic meaning as residing ence, cognition and consciousness remain active today.[8] in the logical relations between propositions and reality was developed by philosophers such as Alfred Tarski, Bertrand Russell, and other formal logicians. 3.1.1 Mental faculty, organ or instinct

One definition sees language primarily as the mental fac- 3.1.3 Tool for communication ulty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour: to learn languages and to produce and understand utterances. This definition stresses the universality of language to all humans, and it emphasizes the biological basis for the human capacity for language as a unique development of the human brain. Proponents of the view that the drive to language acquisition is innate in humans argue that this is supported by the fact that all cogni- tively normal children raised in an environment where language is accessible will acquire language without formal instruction. Languages may even develop spontaneously in environments where people live or grow up together without a common language; for example, creole languages and spontaneously developed sign languages such as Nicaraguan Sign Language. This view, which can be traced back to the philosophers Kant and Descartes, understands language to be largely innate, for example, Two men and a woman having a conversation in American Sign in Chomsky’s theory of Universal Grammar, or Amer- Language ican philosopher Jerry Fodor's extreme innatist theory. These kinds of definitions are often applied in studies Yet another definition sees language as a system of of language within a cognitive science framework and in communication that enables humans to exchange ver- neurolinguistics.[9][10] bal or symbolic utterances. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects 3.1.2 Formal symbolic system in their environment. Functional theories of grammar explain grammatical structures by their communicative Another definition sees language as a formal system of functions, and understand the grammatical structures signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to of language to be the result of an adaptive process by communicate meaning. This definition stresses that hu- which grammar was “tailored” to serve the communica- man languages can be described as closed structural sys- tive needs of its users.[18][19] tems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to par- This view of language is associated with the study of ticular meanings.[11] This structuralist view of language [12] language in pragmatic, cognitive, and interactive frame- was first introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure, and his works, as well as in sociolinguistics and linguistic an- structuralism remains foundational for many approaches [13] thropology. Functionalist theories tend to study gram- to language. mar as dynamic phenomena, as structures that are al- Some proponents of Saussure’s view of language have ad- ways in the process of changing as they are employed vocated a formal approach which studies language struc- by their speakers. This view places importance on the ture by identifying its basic elements and then by present- study of linguistic typology, or the classification of lan- ing a formal account of the rules according to which the guages according to structural features, as it can be shown elements combine in order to form words and sentences. that processes of grammaticalization tend to follow tra- The main proponent of such a theory is Noam Chomsky, jectories that are partly dependent on typology.[17] In the the originator of the generative theory of grammar, who philosophy of language, the view of pragmatics as be- has defined language as the construction of sentences that ing central to language and meaning is often associated 3.2. ORIGIN 17 with Wittgenstein’s later works and with ordinary lan- modality.[26] guage philosophers such as J. L. Austin, Paul Grice, John [20] Human language is also unique in being able to refer to Searle, and W. O. Quine. abstract concepts and to imagined or hypothetical events as well as events that took place in the past or may hap- 3.1.4 Unique status of human language pen in the future. This ability to refer to events that are not at the same time or place as the speech event is called displacement, and while some animal communication sys- Main articles: Animal language and Great ape language tems can use displacement (such as the communication of bees that can communicate the location of sources of Human language is unique in comparison to other forms nectar that are out of sight), the degree to which it is used of communication, such as those used by non-human in human language is also considered unique.[22] animals. Communication systems used by other animals such as bees or apes are closed systems that consist of a finite, usually very limited, number of possible ideas that can be expressed.[21] 3.2 Origin In contrast, human language is open-ended and productive, meaning that it allows humans to produce Main articles: Origin of language and Origin of speech a vast range of utterances from a finite set of elements, and to create new words and sentences. This is possible because human language is based on a dual code, in which a finite number of elements which are meaningless in themselves (e.g. sounds, letters or gestures) can be combined to form a theoretically infinite number of larger units of meaning (words and sentences).[22] Furthermore, the symbols and grammatical rules of any particular language are largely arbitrary, so that the system can only be acquired through social interaction.[23] 75–80,000-year-old artefacts from Blombos cave, South The known systems of communication used by animals, Africa, including a piece of ochre engraved with diagonal on the other hand, can only express a finite number of cross-hatch patterns, perhaps the oldest known example utterances that are mostly genetically determined.[24] of symbols. Several species of animals have proved to be able to acquire forms of communication through social learning: for instance a bonobo named Kanzi learned to express itself using a set of symbolic lexigrams. Similarly, many species of birds and whales learn their songs by imi- tating other members of their species. However, while some animals may acquire large numbers of words and symbols,[note 1] none have been able to learn as many different signs as are generally known by an average 4 year old human, nor have any acquired anything resembling the complex grammar of human language.[25] "The Tower of Babel" by Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Oil Human languages also differ from animal communica- on board, 1563. tion systems in that they employ grammatical and se- Humans have speculated about the origins of language mantic categories, such as noun and verb, present and throughout history. The Biblical myth of the Tower of Babel is one such account; other cultures have different past, which may be used to express exceedingly complex [27] meanings.[25] Human language is also unique in having stories of how language arose. the property of recursivity: for example, a noun phrase can contain another noun phrase (as in "[[the chim- Theories about the origin of language differ in regard to panzee]'s lips]") or a clause can contain another clause their basic assumptions about what language is. Some (as in "[I see [the dog is running]]").[2] Human language theories are based on the idea that language is so com- is also the only known natural communication system plex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from whose adaptability may be referred to as modality inde- nothing in its final form, but that it must have evolved pendent. This means that it can be used not only for com- from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our pre-human munication through one channel or medium, but through ancestors. These theories can be called continuity-based several. For example, spoken language uses the audi- theories. The opposite viewpoint is that language is such a tive modality, whereas sign languages and writing use unique human trait that it cannot be compared to anything the visual modality, and braille writing uses the tactile found among non-humans and that it must therefore have 18 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE appeared suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to ferent from those found in great apes in general, but early man. These theories can be defined as discontinuity- scholarly opinions vary as to the developments since the based. Similarly, theories based on Chomsky’s generative appearance of the genus Homo some 2.5 million years view of language see language mostly as an innate faculty ago. Some scholars assume the development of prim- that is largely genetically encoded, whereas functionalist itive language-like systems (proto-language) as early as theories see it as a system that is largely cultural, learned Homo habilis (2.3 million years ago) while others place through social interaction.[28] the development of primitive symbolic communication The only prominent proponent of a discontinuity-based only with Homo erectus (1.8 million years ago) or Homo heidelbergensis (0.6 million years ago), and the devel- theory of human language origins is linguist and philosopher Noam Chomsky.[28] Chomsky proposes that “some opment of language proper with Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens with the Upper Paleolithic revolution less random mutation took place, maybe after some strange [34][35] cosmic ray shower, and it reorganized the brain, implant- than 100,000 years ago. ing a language organ in an otherwise primate brain.”[29] Though cautioning against taking this story too literally, Chomsky insists that “it may be closer to reality than 3.3 The study of language many other fairy tales that are told about evolutionary processes, including language.”[29] Continuity-based theories are held by a majority of scholars, but they vary in how they envision this development. Those who see language as being mostly innate, for example psychologist Steven Pinker, hold the precedents to be animal cognition,[10] whereas those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication, such as psychologist Michael Tomasello, see it as having developed from animal communication in primates: either gestural or vocal communication to assist in cooperation.[24] Other continuity-based models see language as having developed from music, a view already espoused by Rousseau, Herder, Humboldt, and Charles Darwin. A prominent proponent of this view is archaeologist Steven Mithen.[30] Stephen Anderson states that the age of spoken languages is estimated at 60,000 to 100,000 years[31] and that:

Researchers on the evolutionary origin of language generally find it plausible to suggest that language was invented only once, and that all modern spoken languages are thus in some way related, even if that relation can no longer be recovered ... because of limitations on the [32] William Jones discovered the family relation between Latin and methods available for reconstruction. Sanskrit, laying the ground for the discipline of Historical linguistics. Because language emerged in the early prehistory of man, its early development has left no historical traces, and Main articles: Linguistics and History of linguistics it is believed that no comparable processes can be observed today. Theories that stress continuity often look The study of language, linguistics, has been developing at animals to see if, for example, primates display any into a science since the first grammatical descriptions of traits that can be seen as analogous to what pre-human particular languages in India more than 2000 years ago. language must have been like. And early human fossils Modern linguistics is a science that concerns itself with can be inspected for traces of physical adaptation to lan- all aspects of language, examining it from all of the the- guage use or pre-linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour. oretical viewpoints described above.[36] Among the signs in human fossils that may suggest linguistic abilities are the size of the brain relative to body mass, the presence of a larynx capable of advanced sound 3.3.1 Subdisciplines production and the nature of tools and other manufac- [33] tured artifacts. The academic study of language is conducted within It is mostly undisputed that pre-human australopithecines many different disciplinary areas and from different the- did not have communication systems significantly dif- oretical angles, all of which inform modern approaches to 3.3. THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE 19

extant human languages, sociolinguistics studies how languages are used for social purposes informing in turn the study of the social functions of language and grammatical description, neurolinguistics studies how language is processed in the human brain and allows the experimental testing of theories, computational linguistics builds on theoretical and descriptive linguistics to construct computational models of language often aimed at processing natural language or at testing linguistic hypotheses, and historical linguistics relies on grammatical and lexical descriptions of languages to trace their individual histories and reconstruct trees of language families by using the comparative method.[37]

3.3.2 Early history

The formal study of language is often considered to have started in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BC grammar- ian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology. However, Sumerian scribes already studied the differences between Sumerian and Akkadian grammar around 1900 BC. Subsequent grammatical traditions developed in all of the ancient cultures that adopted writing.[38] In the 17th century AD, the French Port-Royal Gram- marians developed the idea that the grammars of all languages were a reflection of the universal basics of Ferdinand de Saussure developed the structuralist approach to thought, and therefore that grammar was universal. In studying language. the 18th century, the first use of the comparative method by British philologist and expert on ancient India William Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics.[39] The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo- European to language in general by Wilhelm von Hum- boldt. Early in the 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of inter- connected units, defined through the oppositions between them.[12] By introducing a distinction between diachronic and synchronic analyses of language, he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics. Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still fundamental in many contemporary linguistic theories, such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm, and the Langue-parole distinction, distinguishing language as an abstract system (langue), from language as a concrete manifestation of this system (parole).[40]

3.3.3 Contemporary linguistics Noam Chomsky is one of the most important linguistic theorists of the 20th century. In the 1960s, Noam Chomsky formulated the generative theory of language. According to this theory, the most basic form of language is a set of syntactic rules that is linguistics. For example, descriptive linguistics examines universal for all humans and which underlies the gram- the grammar of single languages, theoretical linguistics mars of all human languages. This set of rules is called develops theories on how best to conceptualize and de- Universal Grammar; for Chomsky, describing it is the ﬁne the nature of language based on data from the various primary objective of the discipline of linguistics. Thus, 20 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE

he considered that the grammars of individual languages are only of importance to linguistics insofar as they allow us to deduce the universal underlying rules from which the observable linguistic variability is generated.[41] In opposition to the formal theories of the generative school, functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, its structures are best analyzed and understood by reference to their functions. Formal theories of grammar seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations, while functional theories seek to define the functions per- formed by language and then relate them to the linguistic elements that carry them out.[17][note 2] The framework of Language Areas of the brain. The Angular Gyrus is represented cognitive linguistics interprets language in terms of the in orange, Supramarginal Gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca’s concepts (which are sometimes universal, and sometimes area is represented in blue, Wernicke’s area is represented in specific to a particular language) which underlie its forms. green, and the Primary Auditory Cortex is represented in pink. Cognitive linguistics is primarily concerned with how the mind creates meaning through language.[42] a lesion in this area of the brain develop receptive aphasia, a condition in which there is a major impairment of language comprehension, while speech retains a natural- 3.4 Physiological and neural archi- sounding rhythm and a relatively normal sentence struc- tecture of language and speech ture. The second area is Broca’s area, located in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere. Speaking is the default modality for language in all cul- People with a lesion to this area develop expressive aphasia, meaning that they know what they want to say, they tures. The production of spoken language depends on [46] sophisticated capacities for controlling the lips, tongue just cannot get it out. They are typically able to un- and other components of the vocal apparatus, the abil- derstand what is being said to them, but unable to speak ity to acoustically decode speech sounds, and the neu- fluently. Other symptoms that may be present in expres- rological apparatus required for acquiring and producing sive aphasia include problems with fluency, articulation, language.[43] The study of the genetic bases for human word-finding, word repetition, and producing and com- language is at an early stage: the only gene that has defi- prehending complex grammatical sentences, both orally nitely been implicated in language production is FOXP2, and in writing. Those with this aphasia also exhibit un- which may cause a kind of congenital language disorder grammatical speech and show inability to use syntactic if affected by mutations.[44] information to determine the meaning of sentences. Both expressive and receptive aphasia also affect the use of sign language, in analogous ways to how they affect speech, with expressive aphasia causing signers to sign slowly and 3.4.1 The brain and language with incorrect grammar, whereas a signer with receptive aphasia will sign fluently, but make little sense to Main article: Neurolinguistics others and have difficulties comprehending others’ signs. The brain is the coordinating center of all linguistic activ- This shows that the impairment is specific to the ability ity; it controls both the production of linguistic cognition to use language, not to the physiology used for speech and of meaning and the mechanics of speech production. production.[47][48] Nonetheless, our knowledge of the neurological bases for language is quite limited, though it has advanced consid- With technological advances in the late 20th century, erably with the use of modern imaging techniques. The neurolinguists have also adopted non-invasive techniques discipline of linguistics dedicated to studying the neuro- such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) logical aspects of language is called neurolinguistics.[45] and electrophysiology to study language processing in in- dividuals without impairments.[45] Early work in neurolinguistics involved the study of language in people with brain lesions, to see how lesions in specific areas affect language and speech. In this way, neuroscientists in the 19th century discovered that two areas in the brain are crucially implicated in language 3.4.2 Anatomy of speech processing. The first area is Wernicke’s area, which is located in the posterior section of the superior temporal Main articles: Speech production, Phonetics and gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere. People with Articulatory phonetics 3.4. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND NEURAL ARCHITECTURE OF LANGUAGE AND SPEECH 21

any audible pauses between words. Segments therefore are distinguished by their distinct sounds which are a result of their different articulations, and they can be either vowels or consonants. Suprasegmental phenomena en- compass such elements as stress, phonation type, voice timbre, and prosody or intonation, all of which may have effects across multiple segments.[50] Consonants and vowel segments combine to form syllables, which in turn combine to form utterances; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations. Acoustically, these different segments are characterized by different formant structures, that are visible in a spectrogram of the recorded sound wave (See The human vocal tract. illustration of Spectrogram of the formant structures of three English vowels). Formants are the amplitude peaks in the frequency spectrum of a specific sound.[50][51] Vowels are those sounds that have no audible friction caused by the narrowing or obstruction of some part of the upper vocal tract. They vary in quality according to the degree of lip aperture and the placement of the tongue within the oral cavity.[50] Vowels are called close when the lips are relatively closed, as in the pronunciation of the vowel [i] (English “ee”), or open when the lips are Spectrogram of American English vowels [i, u, ɑ] relatively open, as in the vowel [a] (English “ah”). If the showing the formants f and f 1 2 tongue is located towards the back of the mouth, the quality changes, creating vowels such as [u] (English “oo”). The quality also changes depending on whether the lips are rounded as opposed to unrounded, creating distinctions such as that between [i] (unrounded front vowel such as English “ee”) and [y] (rounded front vowel such as Ger- man "ü").[52] Consonants are those sounds that have audible friction or closure at some point within the upper vocal tract. Conso- nant sounds vary by place of articulation, i.e. the place in the vocal tract where the airflow is obstructed, commonly at the lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, palate, velum, uvula, or glottis. Each place of articulation produces a differ- Real time MRI scan of a person speaking in Mandarin ent set of consonant sounds, which are further distin- Chinese. guished by manner of articulation, or the kind of friction, whether full closure, in which case the consonant is called Spoken language relies on human physical ability to pro- occlusive or stop, or different degrees of aperture creating duce sound, which is a longitudinal wave propagated fricatives and approximants. Consonants can also be ei- through the air at a frequency capable of vibrating the ther voiced or unvoiced, depending on whether the vocal ear drum. This ability depends on the physiology of the cords are set in vibration by airflow during the production human speech organs. These organs consist of the lungs, of the sound. Voicing is what separates English [s] in bus [53] the voice box (larynx), and the upper vocal tract – the (unvoiced sibilant) from [z] in buzz (voiced sibilant). throat, the mouth, and the nose. By controlling the dif- Some speech sounds, both vowels and consonants, in- ferent parts of the speech apparatus, the airstream can be volve release of air flow through the nasal cavity, and manipulated to produce different speech sounds.[49] these are called nasals or nasalized sounds. Other sounds The sound of speech can be analyzed into a combina- are defined by the way the tongue moves within the tion of segmental and suprasegmental elements. The seg- mouth: such as the l-sounds (called laterals, because the mental elements are those that follow each other in se- air flows along both sides of the tongue), and the r-sounds quences, which are usually represented by distinct let- (called rhotics) that are characterized by how the tongue [51] ters in alphabetic scripts, such as the Roman script. In is positioned relative to the air stream. free flowing speech, there are no clear boundaries be- By using these speech organs, humans can produce hun- tween one segment and the next, nor usually are there dreds of distinct sounds: some appear very often in the 22 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE

world’s languages, whereas others are much more com- and meaning goes back to the ﬁrst linguistic studies of mon in certain language families, language areas, or even de Saussure and is now used in almost all branches of speciﬁc to a single language.[54] linguistics.[57]

3.5 Structure 3.5.1 Semantics Main articles: Semantics, Semiotics and Meaning When described as a system of symbolic communication, (linguistics) language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: signs, meanings, and a code connecting signs with their Languages express meaning by relating a sign form to a meanings. The study of the process of semiosis, how meaning, or its content. Sign forms must be something signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted that can be perceived, for example, in sounds, images, is called semiotics. Signs can be composed of sounds, or gestures, and then related to a specific meaning by so- gestures, letters, or symbols, depending on whether the cial convention. Because the basic relation of meaning language is spoken, signed, or written, and they can be for most linguistic signs is based on social convention, combined into complex signs, such as words and phrases. linguistic signs can be considered arbitrary, in the sense When used in communication, a sign is encoded and that the convention is established socially and historically, transmitted by a sender through a channel to a receiver rather than by means of a natural relation between a spe- who decodes it.[55] cific sign form and its meaning. Thus, languages must have a vocabulary of signs related to specific meaning. The English sign “dog” denotes, for example, a member of the species Canis familiaris. In a language, the array of arbitrary signs connected to specific meanings is called the lexicon, and a single sign connected to a meaning is called a lexeme. Not all meanings in a language are represented by single words. Often, semantic concepts are embedded in the morphology or syntax of the language in the form of grammatical categories.[58] All languages contain the semantic structure of predication: a structure that predicates a property, state, or action. Traditionally, semantics has been understood to be the study of how speakers and interpreters assign Ancient Tamil inscription at Thanjavur truth values to statements, so that meaning is understood to be the process by which a predicate can be said to Some of the properties that define human language as be true or false about an entity, e.g. "[x [is y]]" or "[x opposed to other communication systems are: the ar- [does y]]". Recently, this model of semantics has been bitrariness of the linguistic sign, meaning that there is complemented with more dynamic models of meaning no predictable connection between a linguistic sign and that incorporate shared knowledge about the context its meaning; the duality of the linguistic system, mean- in which a sign is interpreted into the production of ing that linguistic structures are built by combining ele- meaning. Such models of meaning are explored in the ments into larger structures that can be seen as layered, field of pragmatics.[58] e.g. how sounds build words and words build phrases; the discreteness of the elements of language, meaning that the elements out of which linguistic signs are con- 3.5.2 Sounds and symbols structed are discrete units, e.g. sounds and words, that can be distinguished from each other and rearranged in Main articles: Phonology and Writing different patterns; and the productivity of the linguistic system, meaning that the finite number of linguistic elements can be combined into a theoretically infinite number of combinations.[55] The rules by which signs can be combined to form words and phrases are called syntax or grammar. The meaning that is connected to individual signs, morphemes, words, A spectrogram showing the sound of the spoken English phrases, and texts is called semantics.[56] The division word “man”, which is written phonetically as [mæn]. of language into separate but connected systems of sign Note that in flowing speech, there is no clear division 3.5. STRUCTURE 23

between segments, only a smooth transition as the vocal considered to be merely different ways of pronouncing apparatus moves. the same phoneme (such variants of a single phoneme are called allophones), whereas in Mandarin Chinese, the same difference in pronunciation distinguishes between the words [pʰá] “crouch” and [pá] “eight” (the accent above the á means that the vowel is pronounced with a high tone).[62] All spoken languages have phonemes of at least two different categories, vowels and consonants, that can be combined to form syllables.[50] As well as segments such as consonants and vowels, some languages also use The syllable “wi” in the Hangul script. sound in other ways to convey meaning. Many languages, for example, use stress, pitch, duration, and tone to distinguish meaning. Because these phenomena op- erate outside of the level of single segments, they are called suprasegmental.[63] Some languages have only a few phonemes, for example, Rotokas and Pirahã language with 11 and 10 phonemes respectively, whereas languages like Taa may have as many as 141 phonemes.[62] In sign languages, the equivalent to phonemes (formerly called cheremes) are defined by the basic elements of gestures, such as hand shape, orientation, location, and motion, which correspond to manners of articulation in spoken language.[64] Writing systems represent language using visual symbols, The sign for “wi” in Korean Sign Language which may or may not correspond to the sounds of spoken language. The Latin alphabet (and those on which Depending on modality, language structure can be based it is based or that have been derived from it) was origi- on systems of sounds (speech), gestures (sign languages), nally based on the representation of single sounds, so that or graphic or tactile symbols (writing). The ways in which words were constructed from letters that generally denote languages use sounds or signs to construct meaning are a single consonant or vowel in the structure of the word. studied in phonology.[59] The study of how humans pro- In syllabic scripts, such as the Inuktitut syllabary, each duce and perceive vocal sounds is called phonetics.[60] In sign represents a whole syllable. In logographic scripts, spoken language, meaning is produced when sounds be- each sign represents an entire word,[65] and will gener- come part of a system in which some sounds can con- ally bear no relation to the sound of that word in spoken tribute to expressing meaning and others do not. In any language. given language, only a limited number of the many dis- Because all languages have a very large number of words, tinct sounds that can be created by the human vocal ap- no purely logographic scripts are known to exist. Writ- [54] paratus contribute to constructing meaning. ten language represents the way spoken sounds and words Sounds as part of a linguistic system are called follow one after another by arranging symbols according phonemes.[61] Phonemes are abstract units of sound, de- to a pattern that follows a certain direction. The direc- fined as the smallest units in a language that can serve tion used in a writing system is entirely arbitrary and es- to distinguish between the meaning of a pair of mini- tablished by convention. Some writing systems use the mally different words, a so-called minimal pair. In En- horizontal axis (left to right as the Latin script or right glish, for example, the words /bat/ [bat] and /pat/ [pʰat] to left as the Arabic script), while others such as tradi- form a minimal pair, in which the distinction between tional Chinese writing use the vertical dimension (from /b/ and /p/ differentiates the two words, which have top to bottom). A few writing systems use opposite di- different meanings. However, each language contrasts rections for alternating lines, and others, such as the an- sounds in different ways. For example, in a language cient Maya script, can be written in either direction and that does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced rely on graphic cues to show the reader the direction of consonants, the sounds [p] and [b] would be considered reading.[66] a single phoneme, and consequently, the two pronun- In order to represent the sounds of the world’s languages ciations would have the same meaning. Similarly, the in writing, linguists have developed the International Pho- English language does not distinguish phonemically be- netic Alphabet, designed to represent all of the discrete tween aspirated and non-aspirated pronunciations of con- sounds that are known to contribute to meaning in human sonants, as many other languages do: the unaspirated /p/ languages.[67] in /spin/ [spin] and the aspirated /p/ in /pin/ [pʰin] are 24 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE

3.5.3 Grammar grammar. Prototypically, verbs are used to construct predicates, while nouns are used as arguments of pred- Main article: Grammar icates. In a sentence such as “Sally runs”, the predicate is “runs”, because it is the word that predicates a spe- Grammar is the study of how meaningful elements called cific state about its argument “Sally”. Some verbs such as morphemes within a language can be combined into utter- “curse” can take two arguments, e.g. “Sally cursed John”. ances. Morphemes can either be free or bound. If they A predicate that can only take a single argument is called intransitive, while a predicate that can take two arguments are free to be moved around within an utterance, they are [72] usually called words, and if they are bound to other words is called transitive. or morphemes, they are called affixes. The way in which Many other word classes exist in different languages, such meaningful elements can be combined within a language as conjunctions like “and” that serve to join two sen- is governed by rules. The rules for the internal structure tences, articles that introduce a noun, interjections such as of words are called morphology. The rules of the internal “wow!", or ideophones like “splash” that mimic the sound structure of phrases and sentences are called syntax.[68] of some event. Some languages have positionals that describe the spatial position of an event or entity. Many languages have classifiers that identify countable nouns Grammatical categories as belonging to a particular type or having a particular shape. For instance, in Japanese, the general noun clas- Main article: Grammatical category sifier for humans is nin (), and it is used for counting humans, whatever they are called:[73] Grammar can be described as a system of categories and a set of rules that determine how categories combine to san-nin no gakusei () lit. “3 human- form different aspects of meaning.[69] Languages differ classifier of student” — three students widely in whether they are encoded through the use of categories or lexical units. However, several categories For trees, it would be: are so common as to be nearly universal. Such universal categories include the encoding of the grammatical san-bon no ki () lit. “3 classifier-for-long- relations of participants and predicates by grammatically objects of tree” — three trees distinguishing between their relations to a predicate, the encoding of temporal and spatial relations on predicates, and a system of grammatical person governing reference Morphology to and distinction between speakers and addressees and those about whom they are speaking.[70] In linguistics, the study of the internal structure of complex words and the processes by which words are formed is called morphology. In most languages, it is possi- Word classes ble to construct complex words that are built of several morphemes. For instance, the English word “unex- Languages organize their parts of speech into classes ac- pected” can be analyzed as being composed of the three cording to their functions and positions relative to other morphemes “un-", “expect” and "-ed”.[74] parts. All languages, for instance, make a basic distinc- Morphemes can be classified according to whether they tion between a group of words that prototypically denotes are independent morphemes, so-called roots, or whether things and concepts and a group of words that prototyp- they can only co-occur attached to other morphemes. ically denotes actions and events. The first group, which These bound morphemes or affixes can be classified ac- includes English words such as “dog” and “song”, are usu- cording to their position in relation to the root: prefixes ally called nouns. The second, which includes “run” and precede the root, suffixes follow the root, and infixes are “sing”, are called verbs. Another common category is the inserted in the middle of a root. Affixes serve to mod- adjective: words that describe properties or qualities of ify or elaborate the meaning of the root. Some languages nouns, such as “red” or “big”. Word classes can be “open” change the meaning of words by changing the phonolog- if new words can continuously be added to the class, or ical structure of a word, for example, the English word relatively “closed” if there is a fixed number of words in a “run”, which in the past tense is “ran”. This process class. In English, the class of pronouns is closed, whereas is called ablaut. Furthermore, morphology distinguishes the class of adjectives is open, since an infinite number between the process of inflection, which modifies or elab- of adjectives can be constructed from verbs (e.g. “sad- orates on a word, and the process of derivation, which dened”) or nouns (e.g. with the -like suffix, as in “noun- creates a new word from an existing one. In English, like”). In other languages such as Korean, the situation the verb “sing” has the inflectional forms “singing” and is the opposite, and new pronouns can be constructed, [71] “sung”, which are both verbs, and the derivational form whereas the number of adjectives is fixed. “singer”, which is a noun derived from the verb with the Word classes also carry out differing functions in agentive suffix "-er”.[75] 3.5. STRUCTURE 25

Languages differ widely in how much they rely on mor- Syntax phological processes of word formation. In some languages, for example, Chinese, there are no morphologi- Main article: Syntax cal processes, and all grammatical information is encoded Another way in which languages convey meaning is syntactically by forming strings of single words. This type of morpho-syntax is often called isolating, or analytic, because there is almost a full correspondence between a single word and a single aspect of meaning. Most languages have words consisting of several morphemes, but Predicate / they vary in the degree to which morphemes are discrete units. In many languages, notably in most Indo-European languages, single morphemes may have several distinct meanings that cannot be analyzed into smaller segments. For example, in Latin, the word bonus, or “good”, consists of the root bon-, meaning “good”, and the suffix - us, which indicates masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case. These languages are called fusional languages, because several meanings may be fused into a single morpheme. The opposite of fusional languages are agglutinative languages which construct words by string- In addition to word classes, a sentence can be analyzed in terms ing morphemes together in chains, but with each mor- of grammatical functions: “The cat” is the subject of the phrase, pheme as a discrete semantic unit. An example of such “on the mat” is a locative phrase, and “sat” is the core of the a language is Turkish, where for example, the word ev- predicate. lerinizden, or “from your houses”, consists of the morphemes, ev-ler-iniz-den with the meanings house-plural- through the order of words within a sentence. The gram- your-from. The languages that rely on morphology to the matical rules for how to produce new sentences from greatest extent are traditionally called polysynthetic lan- words that are already known is called syntax. The syn- guages. They may express the equivalent of an entire En- tactical rules of a language determine why a sentence in glish sentence in a single word. For example, in Persian English such as “I love you” is meaningful, but "*love you the single word nafahmidamesh means I didn't understand I” is not.[note 3] Syntactical rules determine how word or- it consisting of morphemes na-fahm-id-am-esh with the der and sentence structure is constrained, and how those meanings, “negation.understand.past.I.it”. As another constraints contribute to meaning.[78] For example, in En- example with more complexity, in the Yupik word tun- glish, the two sentences “the slaves were cursing the mas- tussuqatarniksaitengqiggtuq, which means “He had not yet ter” and “the master was cursing the slaves” mean dif- said again that he was going to hunt reindeer”, the word ferent things, because the role of the grammatical sub- consists of the morphemes tuntu-ssur-qatar-ni-ksaite- ject is encoded by the noun being in front of the verb, ngqiggte-uq with the meanings, “reindeer-hunt-future- and the role of object is encoded by the noun appear- say-negation-again-third.person.singular.indicative”, and ing after the verb. Conversely, in Latin, both Dominus except for the morpheme tuntu (“reindeer”) none of the servos vituperabat and Servos vituperabat dominus mean other morphemes can appear in isolation.[76] “the master was reprimanding the slaves”, because servos, Many languages use morphology to cross-reference or “slaves”, is in the accusative case, showing that they are words within a sentence. This is sometimes called the grammatical object of the sentence, and dominus, or agreement. For example, in many Indo-European lan- “master”, is in the nominative case, showing that he is the [79] guages, adjectives must cross-reference the noun they subject. modify in terms of number, case, and gender, so that the Latin uses morphology to express the distinction between Latin adjective bonus, or “good”, is inflected to agree with subject and object, whereas English uses word order. An- a noun that is masculine gender, singular number, and other example of how syntactic rules contribute to mean- nominative case. In many polysynthetic languages, verbs ing is the rule of inverse word order in questions, which cross-reference their subjects and objects. In these types exists in many languages. This rule explains why when of languages, a single verb may include information that in English, the phrase “John is talking to Lucy” is turned would require an entire sentence in English. For exam- into a question, it becomes “Who is John talking to?", ple, in the Basque phrase ikusi nauzu, or “you saw me”, and not “John is talking to who?". The latter example the past tense auxiliary verb n-au-zu (similar to English may be used as a way of placing special emphasis on “do”) agrees with both the subject (you) expressed by the “who”, thereby slightly altering the meaning of the ques- n- prefix, and with the object (me) expressed by the -zu tion. Syntax also includes the rules for how complex sen- suffix. The sentence could be directly transliterated as tences are structured by grouping words together in units, “see you-did-me”[77] called phrases, that can occupy different places in a larger syntactic structure. Sentences can be described as con- 26 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE sisting of phrases connected in a tree structure, connect- sitive sentence, such as “I run”, is treated the same as the ing the phrases to each other at different levels.[80] To the patient in a transitive sentence, giving the equivalent of right is a graphic representation of the syntactic analysis “me run” and “you love me”. Only in transitive sentences of the English sentence “the cat sat on the mat”. The sen- would the equivalent of the pronoun “I” be used.[83] In this tence is analyzed as being constituted by a noun phrase, a way the semantic roles can map onto the grammatical re- verb, and a prepositional phrase; the prepositional phrase lations in different ways, grouping an intransitive subject is further divided into a preposition and a noun phrase, either with Agents (accusative type) or Patients (ergative and the noun phrases consist of an article and a noun.[81] type) or even making each of the three roles differently, which is called the tripartite type.[86] The reason sentences can be seen as being composed of phrases is because each phrase would be moved around The shared features of languages which belong to the as a single element if syntactic operations were carried same typological class type may have arisen completely out. For example, “the cat” is one phrase, and “on the independently. Their co-occurrence might be due to uni- mat” is another, because they would be treated as single versal laws governing the structure of natural languages, units if a decision was made to emphasize the location “language universals”, or they might be the result of by moving forward the prepositional phrase: "[And] on languages evolving convergent solutions to the recurring the mat, the cat sat”.[81] There are many different for- communicative problems that humans use language to malist and functionalist frameworks that propose theories solve.[18] for describing syntactic structures, based on different assumptions about what language is and how it should be described. Each of them would analyze a sentence such 3.6 Social contexts of use and as this in a different manner.[17] transmission

3.5.4 Typology and universals

Main articles: Linguistic typology and Linguistic universal

Languages can be classified in relation to their grammatical types. Languages that belong to different families nonetheless often have features in common, and these shared features tend to correlate.[82] For example, languages can be classified on the basis of their basic word order, the relative order of the verb, and its constituents in a normal indicative sentence. In English, the basic order is SVO: “The snake(S) bit(V) the man(O)", whereas for example, the corresponding sentence in the Australian language Gamilaraay would be d̪uyugu n̪ama d̪ayn yiːy The Wall of Love in Paris, where the phrase “I love you” is fea- (snake man bit), SOV.[83] Word order type is relevant as tured in 250 languages of the world.[87] a typological parameter, because basic word order type corresponds with other syntactic parameters, such as the While humans have the ability to learn any language, relative order of nouns and adjectives, or of the use of they only do so if they grow up in an environment in prepositions or postpositions. Such correlations are called which language exists and is used by others. Language is implicational universals.[84] For example, most (but not therefore dependent on communities of speakers in which all) languages that are of the SOV type have postposi- children learn language from their elders and peers and tions rather than prepositions, and have adjectives before themselves transmit language to their own children. Lan- nouns.[85] guages are used by those who speak them to communicate All languages structure sentences into Subject, Verb, and and to solve a plethora of social tasks. Many aspects of language use can be seen to be adapted specifically Object, but languages differ in the way they classify the [18] relations between actors and actions. English uses the to these purposes. Due to the way in which language nominative-accusative word typology: in English transi- is transmitted between generations and within communi- tive clauses, the subjects of both intransitive sentences (“I ties, language perpetually changes, diversifying into new run”) and transitive sentences (“I love you”) are treated languages or converging due to language contact. The in the same way, shown here by the nominative pronoun process is similar to the process of evolution, where the process of descent with modification leads to the forma- I. Some languages, called ergative, Gamilaraay among [88] them, distinguish instead between Agents and Patients. tion of a phylogenetic tree. In ergative languages, the single participant in an intran- However, languages differ from a biological organisms 3.6. SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF USE AND TRANSMISSION 27 in that they readily incorporate elements from other lan- utterances are to be understood in relation to their con- guages through the process of diffusion, as speakers of text vary between communities, and learning them is a different languages come into contact. Humans also fre- large part of acquiring communicative competence in a quently speak more than one language, acquiring their language.[92] first language or languages as children, or learning new languages as they grow up. Because of the increased language contact in the globalizing world, many small lan- 3.6.2 Language acquisition guages are becoming endangered as their speakers shift to other languages that afford the possibility to participate Main articles: Language acquisition, Second-language [89] in larger and more influential speech communities. acquisition, Second language and Language education

3.6.1 Usage and meaning All healthy, normally developing human beings learn to use language. Children acquire the language or lan- Main article: Pragmatics guages used around them: whichever languages they re- ceive sufficient exposure to during childhood. The development is essentially the same for children acquiring The semantic study of meaning assumes that meaning is sign or oral languages.[93] This learning process is referred located in a relation between signs and meanings that are to as first-language acquisition, since unlike many other firmly established through social convention. However, kinds of learning, it requires no direct teaching or spe- semantics does not study the way in which social conven- cialized study. In The Descent of Man, naturalist Charles tions are made and affect language. Rather, when study- Darwin called this process “an instinctive tendency to ac- ing the way in which words and signs are used, it is often quire an art”.[10] the case that words have different meanings, depending on the social context of use. An important example of this is the process called deixis, which describes the way in which certain words refer to entities through their relation between a specific point in time and space when the word is uttered. Such words are, for example, the word, “I” (which designates the person speaking), “now” (which designates the moment of speaking), and “here” (which designates the time of speaking). Signs also change their meanings over time, as the conventions governing their usage gradually change. The study of how the meaning of linguistic expressions changes depending on context is called pragmatics. Deixis is an important part of All normal children acquire language if they are exposed the way that we use language to point out entities in the to it in their first years of life, even in cultures where world.[90] Pragmatics is concerned with the ways in which adults rarely address infants and toddlers directly. language use is patterned and how these patterns contribute to meaning. For example, in all languages, linguistic expressions can be used not just to transmit information, but to perform actions. Certain actions are made only through language, but nonetheless have tangible effects, e.g. the act of “naming”, which creates a new name for some entity, or the act of “pronouncing someone man and wife”, which creates a social contract of marriage. These types of acts are called speech acts, although they A lesson at Kituwah Academy on the Qualla Boundary can of course also be carried out through writing or hand in North Carolina, where the Cherokee language is signing.[91] the medium of instruction from pre-school on up and The form of linguistic expression often does not corre- students learn it as a first language. spond to the meaning that it actually has in a social context. For example, if at a dinner table a person asks, “Can First language acquisition proceeds in a fairly regular se- you reach the salt?", that is, in fact, not a question about quence, though there is a wide degree of variation in the the length of the arms of the one being addressed, but a timing of particular stages among normally developing request to pass the salt across the table. This meaning is infants. From birth, newborns respond more readily to implied by the context in which it is spoken; these kinds human speech than to other sounds. Around one month of effects of meaning are called conversational implica- of age, babies appear to be able to distinguish between tures. These social rules for which ways of using language different speech sounds. Around six months of age, a are considered appropriate in certain situations and how child will begin babbling, producing the speech sounds or 28 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE handshapes of the languages used around them. Words sociolinguists, ethnolinguists, and linguistic anthropolo- appear around the age of 12 to 18 months; the average gists have specialized in studying how ways of speaking vocabulary of an eighteen-month-old child is around 50 vary between speech communities.[96] words. A child’s first utterances are holophrases (literally Linguists use the term "varieties" to refer to the differ- “whole-sentences”), utterances that use just one word to ent ways of speaking a language. This term includes ge- communicate some idea. Several months after a child be- ographically or socioculturally defined dialects as well as gins producing words, she or he will produce two-word the jargons or styles of subcultures. Linguistic anthropol- utterances, and within a few more months will begin to ogists and sociologists of language define communicative produce telegraphic speech, or short sentences that are style as the ways that language is used and understood less grammatically complex than adult speech, but that do within a particular culture.[97] show regular syntactic structure. From roughly the age of three to five years, a child’s ability to speak or sign is re- Because norms for language use are shared by members fined to the point that it resembles adult language.[94][95] of a specific group, communicative style also becomes a way of displaying and constructing group identity. Lin- Acquisition of second and additional languages can come guistic differences may become salient markers of divi- at any age, through exposure in daily life or courses. sions between social groups, for example, speaking a lan- Children learning a second language are more likely to guage with a particular accent may imply membership of achieve native-like fluency than adults, but in general, an ethnic minority or social class, one’s area of origin, or it is very rare for someone speaking a second language status as a second language speaker. These kinds of dif- to pass completely for a native speaker. An important ferences are not part of the linguistic system, but are an difference between first language acquisition and addi- important part of how people use language as a social tool tional language acquisition is that the process of addi- for constructing groups.[98] tional language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows. However, many languages also have grammatical conventions that signal the social position of the speaker in relation to others through the use of registers that are 3.6.3 Language and culture related to social hierarchies or divisions. In many languages, there are stylistic or even grammatical differ- See also: Culture and Speech community ences between the ways men and women speak, between Languages, understood as the particular set of speech age groups, or between social classes, just as some languages employ different words depending on who is lis- tening. For example, in the Australian language Dyirbal, a married man must use a special set of words to refer to everyday items when speaking in the presence of his mother-in-law.[99] Some cultures, for example, have elaborate systems of “social deixis", or systems of signalling social distance through linguistic means.[100] In English, social deixis is shown mostly through distinguishing between addressing some people by first name and others by surname, and in titles such as “Mrs.”, “boy”, “Doctor”, or “Your Honor”, but in other languages, such systems may be highly complex and codified in the entire grammar and vocabulary of the language. For instance, in languages of east Asia such as Thai, Burmese, and Javanese, different words are used according to whether a speaker is addressing someone of higher or lower rank than one- self in a ranking system with animals and children rank- Arnold Lakhovsky, The Conversation (circa 1935) ing the lowest and gods and members of royalty as the highest.[100] norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speaks them. Lan- guages do not differ only in pronunciation, vocabulary, or 3.6.4 Writing, literacy and technology grammar, but also through having different “cultures of speaking”. Humans use language as a way of signalling Main articles: Writing and Literacy identity with one cultural group and difference from oth- Throughout history a number of different ways of rep- ers. Even among speakers of one language, several dif- resenting language in graphic media have been invented. ferent ways of using the language exist, and each is used These are called writing systems. to signal affiliation with particular subgroups within a The use of writing has made language even more useful to larger culture. Linguists and anthropologists, particularly humans. It makes it possible to store large amounts of in- 3.6. SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF USE AND TRANSMISSION 29

An inscription of Swampy Cree using Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, an abugida developed by Christian missionaries for In- digenous Canadian languages

formation outside of the human body and retrieve it again, and it allows communication across distances that would otherwise be impossible. Many languages conventionally employ different genres, styles, and registers in written and spoken language, and in some communities, writing traditionally takes place in an entirely different language than the one spoken. There is some evidence that the use of writing also has effects on the cognitive development of humans, perhaps because acquiring literacy generally requires explicit and formal education.[101] The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late 4th millennium BC. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered to be the earliest writing systems, both emerg- ing out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400–3200 BC with the earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC. It is generally agreed that Sumerian writ- The first page of the poem Beowulf, written in Old English in ing was an independent invention; however, it is debated the early medieval period (800 – 1100 AD). Although Old En- whether Egyptian writing was developed completely in- glish is the direct ancestor of modern English, it is unintelligible dependently of Sumerian, or was a case of cultural dif- to contemporary English speakers. fusion. A similar debate exists for the Chinese script, which developed around 1200 BC. The pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems (including among others in which case a sound is changed only if it occurs in the Olmec and Maya scripts) are generally believed to have vicinity of certain other sounds. Sound change is usually [66] had independent origins. assumed to be regular, which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural conditions are met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors. On the 3.6.5 Language change other hand, sound changes can sometimes be sporadic, af- fecting only one particular word or a few words, without Main articles: Language change and Grammaticalization any seeming regularity. Sometimes a simple change trig- All languages change as speakers adopt or invent new gers a chain shift in which the entire phonological system ways of speaking and pass them on to other members of is affected. This happened in the Germanic languages their speech community. Language change happens at all when the sound change known as Grimm’s law affected levels from the phonological level to the levels of vocab- all the stop consonants in the system. The original con- ulary, morphology, syntax, and discourse. Even though sonant *bʰ became /b/ in the Germanic languages, the language change is often initially evaluated negatively by previous *b in turn became /p/, and the previous *p be- speakers of the language who often consider changes to came /f/. The same process applied to all stop consonants be “decay” or a sign of slipping norms of language usage, and explains why Italic languages such as Latin have p in it is natural and inevitable.[102] words like pater and pisces, whereas Germanic languages, [103] Changes may affect specific sounds or the entire like English, have father and fish. phonological system. Sound change can consist of the Another example is the Great Vowel Shift in English, replacement of one speech sound or phonetic feature by which is the reason that the spelling of English vowels do another, the complete loss of the affected sound, or even not correspond well to their current pronunciation. This the introduction of a new sound in a place where there is because the vowel shift brought the already established previously was none. Sound changes can be conditioned orthography out of synchronization with pronunciation. 30 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE

Another source of sound change is the erosion of words ing to some 6000 languages, which means that most coun- as pronunciation gradually becomes increasingly indis- tries are multilingual and most languages therefore exist tinct and shortens words, leaving out syllables or sounds. in close contact with other languages.[109] This kind of change caused Latin mea domina to eventu- When speakers of different languages interact closely, ally become the French madame and American English [104] it is typical for their languages to influence each other. ma'am. Through sustained language contact over long periods, Change also happens in the grammar of languages as dis- linguistic traits diffuse between languages, and languages course patterns such as idioms or particular constructions belonging to different families may converge to become become grammaticalized. This frequently happens when more similar. In areas where many languages are in close words or morphemes erode and the grammatical system is contact, this may lead to the formation of language areas unconsciously rearranged to compensate for the lost ele- in which unrelated languages share a number of linguis- ment. For example, in some varieties of Caribbean Span- tic features. A number of such language areas have been ish the final /s/ has eroded away. Since Standard Span- documented, among them, the Balkan language area, the ish uses final /s/ in the morpheme marking the second Mesoamerican language area, and the Ethiopian language person subject “you” in verbs, the Caribbean varieties area. Also, larger areas such as South Asia, Europe, and now have to express the second person using the pro- Southeast Asia have sometimes been considered language noun tú. This means that the sentence “what’s your areas, because of widespread diffusion of specific areal name” is ¿como te llamas? ['komo te 'jamas] in Stan- features.[110][111] dard Spanish, but ['komo 'tu te 'jama] in Caribbean Span- Language contact may also lead to a variety of other ish. The simple sound change has affected both mor- [105] linguistic phenomena, including language convergence, phology and syntax. Another common cause of gram- borrowing, and relexification (replacement of much of matical change is the gradual petrification of idioms into the native vocabulary with that of another language). In new grammatical forms, for example, the way the English situations of extreme and sustained language contact, it “going to” construction lost its aspect of movement and may lead to the formation of new mixed languages that in some varieties of English has almost become a full- cannot be considered to belong to a single language fam- fledged future tense (e.g. I'm gonna). ily. One type of mixed language called pidgins occurs Language change may be motivated by “language inter- when adult speakers of two different languages internal” factors, such as changes in pronunciation motivated act on a regular basis, but in a situation where neither by certain sounds being difficult to distinguish aurally or group learns to learn to speak the language of the other to produce, or through patterns of change that cause some group fluently. In such a case, they will often construct rare types of constructions to drift towards more common a communication form that has traits of both languages, types.[106] Other causes of language change are social, but which has a simplified grammatical and phonolog- such as when certain pronunciations become emblematic ical structure. The language comes to contain mostly of membership in certain groups, such as social classes, or the grammatical and phonological categories that exist in with ideologies, and therefore are adopted by those who both languages. Pidgin languages are defined by not hav- wish to identify with those groups or ideas. In this way, ing any native speakers, but only being spoken by people issues of identity and politics can have profound effects who have another language as their first language. But on language structure.[107] if a Pidgin language becomes the main language of a speech community, then eventually children will grow up learning the pidgin as their first language. As the gen- 3.6.6 Language contact eration of child learners grow up, the pidgin will often be seen to change its structure and acquire a greater de- Main article: language contact gree of complexity. This type of language is generally called a creole language. An example of such mixed languages is Tok Pisin, the official language of Papua New- One important source of language change is contact and Guinea, which originally arose as a Pidgin based on En- resulting diffusion of linguistic traits between languages. glish and Austronesian languages; others are Kreyòl ay- Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more isyen, the French-based creole language spoken in Haiti, [108] languages or varieties interact on a regular basis. and Michif, a mixed language of Canada, based on the Multilingualism is likely to have been the norm through- Native American language Cree and French.[112] out human history and most people in the modern world are multilingual. Before the rise of the concept of the ethno-national state, monolingualism was characteristic mainly of populations inhabiting small islands. But with 3.7 Linguistic diversity the ideology that made one people, one state, and one language the most desirable political arrangement, monolin- See also: Lists of languages and List of languages by gualism started to spread throughout the world. Nonethe- total number of speakers less, there are only 250 countries in the world correspond- 3.7. LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY 31

A “living language” is simply one which is in wide use as a primary form of communication by a specific group of living people. The exact number of known living languages varies from 6,000 to 7,000, depending on the precision of one’s definition of “language”, and in particular, on how one defines the distinction between languages and dialects. As of 2015, SIL Ethnologue cata- loged 7,102 living human languages.[114] The Ethnologue establishes linguistic groups based on studies of mutual Principal language families of the world (and in some cases ge- intelligibility, and therefore often include more categories ographic groups of families). For greater detail, see Distribution than more conservative classifications. For example, the of languages in the world. Danish language that most scholars consider a single language with several dialects is classified as two distinct lan- [113] guages (Danish and Jutish) by the Ethnologue. be grouped into larger units as more evidence becomes The Ethnologue is also sometimes criticized for using available and in-depth studies are carried out. At present, cumulative data gathered over many decades, meaning there are also dozens of language isolates: languages that that exact speaker numbers are frequently out of date, cannot be shown to be related to any other languages in and some languages classified as living may have already the world. Among them are Basque, spoken in Europe, become extinct. According to the Ethnologue, 389 (or Zuni of New Mexico, P'urhépecha of Mexico, Ainu of nearly 6%) languages have more than a million speak- Japan, Burushaski of Pakistan, and many others.[117] ers. These languages together account for 94% of the The language family of the world that has the most world’s population, whereas 94% of the world’s languages speakers is the Indo-European languages, spoken by 46% account for the remaining 6% of the global population. of the world’s population.[118] This family includes ma- To the right is a table of the world’s 10 most spoken jor world languages like English, Spanish, Russian, and languages with population estimates from the Ethnologue Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu). The Indo-European family [113] (2009 figures). achieved prevalence first during the Eurasian Migration Period (c. 400–800 AD), and subsequently through the European colonial expansion, which brought the Indo- 3.7.1 Languages and dialects European languages to a politically and often numerically dominant position in the Americas and much of Africa. Main article: Dialect § Dialect or language The Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken by 20%[118] of the world’s population and include many of the languages There is no clear distinction between a language and a of East Asia, including Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese, dialect, notwithstanding a famous aphorism attributed to and hundreds of smaller languages.[119] linguist Max Weinreich that "a language is a dialect with Africa is home to a large number of language families, an army and navy".[115] For example, national bound- the largest of which is the Niger-Congo language fam- aries frequently override linguistic difference in deter- ily, which includes such languages as Swahili, Shona, and mining whether two linguistic varieties are languages or Yoruba. Speakers of the Niger-Congo languages account dialects. Cantonese and Mandarin are, for example, for 6.9% of the world’s population.[118] A similar number often classified as “dialects” of Chinese, even though of people speak the Afroasiatic languages, which include they are more different from each other than Swedish is the populous Semitic languages such as Arabic, Hebrew from Norwegian. Before the Yugoslav civil war, Serbo- language, and the languages of the Sahara region, such as Croatian was considered a single language with two di- the Berber languages and Hausa.[119] alects, but now Croatian and Serbian are considered different languages and employ different writing systems. In The Austronesian languages are spoken by 5.5% of other words, the distinction may hinge on political con- the world’s population and stretch from Madagascar to siderations as much as on cultural differences, distinctive maritime Southeast Asia all the way to Oceania.[118] It writing systems, or degree of mutual intelligibility.[116] includes such languages as Malagasy, Māori, Samoan, and many of the indigenous languages of Indonesia and Taiwan. The Austronesian languages are consid- 3.7.2 Language families of the world ered to have originated in Taiwan around 3000 BC and spread through the Oceanic region through island- Main articles: Language family, Dialectology, Historical hopping, based on an advanced nautical technology. linguistics and List of language families Other populous language families are the Dravidian lan- The world’s languages can be grouped into language fam- guages of South Asia (among them Kannada Tamil and ilies consisting of languages that can be shown to have Telugu), the Turkic languages of Central Asia (such common ancestry. Linguists recognize many hundreds as Turkish), the Austroasiatic (among them Khmer), of language families, although some of them can possibly and Tai–Kadai languages of Southeast Asia (including 32 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE

Thai).[119] world’s population, whereas many of the other languages are spoken by small communities, most of them with less The areas of the world in which there is the greatest [120] linguistic diversity, such as the Americas, Papua New than 10,000 speakers. Guinea, West Africa, and South-Asia, contain hundreds The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural of small language families. These areas together ac- Organization (UNESCO) operates with five levels of lan- count for the majority of the world’s languages, though guage endangerment: “safe”, “vulnerable” (not spoken by not the majority of speakers. In the Americas, some of children outside the home), “definitely endangered” (not the largest language families include the Quechumaran, spoken by children), “severely endangered” (only spoken Arawak, and Tupi-Guarani families of South Amer- by the oldest generations), and “critically endangered” ica, the Uto-Aztecan, Oto-Manguean, and Mayan of (spoken by few members of the oldest generation, often Mesoamerica, and the Na-Dene and Algonquian lan- semi-speakers). Notwithstanding claims that the world guage families of North America. In Australia, most in- would be better off if most adopted a single common digenous languages belong to the Pama-Nyungan family, lingua franca, such as English or Esperanto, there is a whereas Papua-New Guinea is home to a large number of consensus that the loss of languages harms the cultural small families and isolates, as well as a number of Aus- diversity of the world. It is a common belief, going back tronesian languages.[117] to the biblical narrative of the tower of Babel, that linguistic diversity causes political conflict,[27] but this is contradicted by the fact that many of the world’s ma- 3.7.3 Language endangerment jor episodes of violence have taken place in situations with low linguistic diversity, such as the Yugoslav and Main articles: Endangered language, Language loss, American Civil War, or the genocide of Rwanda, whereas Language shift and Language death many of the most stable political units have been highly Language endangerment occurs when a language is at multilingual.[122] Many projects aim to prevent or slow this loss by revitalizing endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages. Across the world, many countries have enacted specific legislation to protect and stabilize the language of indigenous speech communities. A minority of linguists have argued that language loss is a natural process that should not be counteracted, and that documenting endangered languages for posterity is sufficient.[123] Together, the eight countries in red contain more than 50% of the world’s languages. The areas in blue are the most linguistically diverse in the world, and the locations of most of the world’s 3.8 See also endangered languages. • risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to Category:Lists of languages speaking another language. Language loss occurs when • Human communication the language has no more native speakers, and becomes a dead language. If eventually no one speaks the language • International auxiliary language at all, it becomes an extinct language. While languages have always gone extinct throughout human history, they • List of language regulators have been disappearing at an accelerated rate in the twen- tieth and twentyfirst centuries due to the processes of • List of official languages globalization and neo-colonialism, where the economi- [120] cally powerful languages dominate other languages. • Outline of linguistics The more commonly spoken languages dominate the • less commonly spoken languages, so the less commonly Problem of religious language spoken languages eventually disappear from populations. • The total number of languages in the world is not known. Psycholinguistics Estimates vary depending on many factors. The consen- • Speech-language pathology sus is that there are between 6,000[121] and 7,000 languages currently spoken (as of 2010), and that between 50–90% of those will have become extinct by the year 2100.[120] The top 20 languages, those spoken by more 3.9 Notes than 50 million speakers each, are spoken by 50% of the 3.9. NOTES 33

3.9.1 Commentary notes [18] Evans & Levinson (2009)

[1] The gorilla Koko reportedly uses as many as 1000 words in [19] Van Valin (2001) American Sign Language, and understands 2000 words of [20] Nerlich 2010, p. 192. spoken English. There are some doubts about whether her use of signs is based on complex understanding or simple [21] Hockett (1960); Deacon (1997) conditioning; Candland (1993). [22] Trask (1999:1–5) [2] “Functional grammar analyzes grammatical structure, as do formal and structural grammar; but it also analyzes the [23] Trask (1999:9) entire communicative situation: the purpose of the speech [24] Tomasello (2008) event, its participants, its discourse context. Functional- ists maintain that the communicative situation motivates, [25] Deacon (1997) constrains, explains, or otherwise determines grammatical structure, and that a structural or formal approaches [26] Trask (2007:165–66) not merely limited to an artificially restricted data base, [27] Haugen (1973) but is inadequate even as a structural account. Functional grammar, then, differs from formal and structural gram- [28] Ulbaek (1998) mar in that it purports not to model but to explain; and the explanation is grounded in the communicative situation"; [29] Chomsky 2000, p. 4. Nichols (1984) [30] Fitch 2010, pp. 466–507. [3] The prefixed asterisk * conventionally indicates that the sentence is ungrammatical, i.e. syntactically incorrect. [31] Anderson (2012:107)

[4] Ethnologue’s ﬁgure is based on numbers from before 1995. [32] Anderson (2012:104) A more recent ﬁgure is 420 million; “Primer estudio con- [33] Fitch 2010, pp. 250–92. junto del Instituto Cervantes y el British Council sobre el peso internacional del español y del inglés”. Instituto Cer- [34] Foley 1997, pp. 70–74. vantes (www.cervantes.es). [35] Fitch 2010, pp. 292–3.

[36] Newmeyer (2005) 3.9.2 Citations [37] Trask (2007) [1] Tomasello (1996) [38] Campbell (2001:82–83) [2] Hauser, Chomsky & Fitch (2002) [39] Bloomﬁeld 1914, p. 310 [3] “language”. The American Heritage Dictionary of the En- glish Language (3rd ed.). Boston: Houghton Miﬄin Com- [40] Clarke (1990:143–144) pany. 1992. [41] Foley (1997:82–83)

[4] Lyons (1981:2) [42] Croft & Cruse (2004:1–4)

[5] Lyons (1981:1–8) [43] Trask (1999:11–14; 105–113)

[6] Trask (2007:129–31) [44] Fisher, Lai & Monaco (2003)

[7] Bett 2010. [45] Lesser (1989:205–6)

[8] Devitt & Sterelny 1999. [46] Trask (1999:105–7)

[9] Hauser & Fitch (2003) [47] Trask (1999:108)

[10] Pinker (1994) [48] Sandler & Lillo-Martin (2001:554)

[11] Trask 2007, p. 93. [49] MacMahon (1989:2)

[12] Saussure (1983) [50] MacMahon (1989:3)

[13] Campbell (2001:96) [51] International Phonetic Association (1999:3–8)

[14] Trask 2007, p. 130. [52] MacMahon (1989:11–15)

[15] Chomsky (1957) [53] MacMahon (1989:6–11)

[16] Trask (2007:93, 130) [54] Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996)

[17] Newmeyer (1998:3–6) [55] Lyons (1981:17–24) 34 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE

[56] Trask (1999:35) [93] Bonvillian, John D.; Michael D. Orlansky and Leslie Lazin Novack (December 1983). “Developmental mile- [57] Lyons (1981:218–24) stones: Sign language acquisition and motor development”. Child Development 54 (6): 1435–1445. [58] Levinson (1983) doi:10.2307/1129806. PMID 6661942. [59] Goldsmith (1995) [94] O'Grady, William; Cho, Sook Whan (2001). “First lan- [60] International Phonetic Association (1999) guage acquisition”. Contemporary Linguistics: An Intro- duction (fourth ed.). Boston: Bedford St. Martin’s. [61] International Phonetic Association (1999:27) [95] Kennison (2013) [62] Trask (2007:214) [96] Duranti (2003) [63] International Phonetic Association (1999:4) [97] Foley (1997) [64] Sandler & Lillo-Martin (2001:539–40) [98] Agha (2006) [65] Trask (2007:326) [99] Dixon (1972:32–34) [66] Coulmas (2002) [100] Foley (1997:311–28) [67] Trask (2007:123) [101] Olson (1996) [68] Lyons (1981:103) [102] Aitchison (2001); Trask (1999:70) [69] Allerton (1989) [103] Clackson (2007:27–33) [70] Payne (1997)

[71] Trask (2007:208) [104] Aitchison (2001:112)

[72] Trask (2007:305) [105] Zentella (2002:178)

[73] Senft (2008) [106] Labov (1994)

[74] Aronoﬀ & Fudeman (2011:1–2) [107] Labov (2001)

[75] Bauer (2003); Haspelmath (2002) [108] Thomason (2001:1)

[76] Payne (1997:28–29) [109] Romaine (2001:513)

[77] Trask (2007:11) [110] Campbell (2002)

[78] Baker (2001:265) [111] Aikhenvald (2001)

[79] Trask (2007:179) [112] Thomason & Kaufman (1988); Thomason (2001); Matras & Bakker (2003) [80] Baker 2001, pp. 269–70. [113] Lewis (2009) [81] Trask (2007:218–19) [114] “Ethnologue statistics”. Summary by world area | Ethno- [82] Nichols (1992);Comrie (1989) logue. SIL.

[83] Croft (2001:340) [115] Rickerson, E.M. “What’s the diﬀerence between dialect [84] Greenberg (1966) and language?". The Five Minute Linguist. College of Charleston. Retrieved 17 July 2011. [85] Comrie (2009:45); MacMahon (1994:156) [116] Lyons (1981:26) [86] Croft (2001:355) [117] Katzner (1999) [87] “Wall of Love – Mur des Je t’aime – Montmartre”. Travel France Online. Retrieved 30 Nov 2014. [118] Lewis (2009), "Summary by language family"

[88] Campbell (2004) [119] Comrie (2009); Brown & Ogilvie (2008)

[89] Austin & Sallabank (2011) [120] Austin & Sallabank (2011)

[90] Levinson (1983:54–96) [121] Moseley (2010): "Statistics"

[91] Levinson (1983:226–78) [122] Austin & Sallabank (2011:10–11)

[92] Levinson (1983:100–169) [123] Ladefoged (1992) 3.10. WORKS CITED 35

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Crystal, David (1997). The Cam- Haspelmath, Martin (2002). Un- bridge Encyclopedia of Language. derstanding morphology. London: Cambridge: Cambridge University Arnold, Oxford University Press. Press. (pbk) Deacon, Terrence (1997). The Haugen, Einar (1973). “The Curse Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Babel”. Daedalus 102 (3, Lan- of Language and the Brain. New guage as a Human Problem): 47– York: W.W. Norton & Company. 57. ISBN 978-0-393-31754-1. Hauser, Marc D.; Chomsky, Devitt, Michael; Sterelny, Kim Noam; Fitch, W. Tecumseh (1999). Language and Reality: An (2002). “The Faculty of Lan- Introduction to the Philosophy of guage: What Is It, Who Has It, Language. Boston: MIT Press. and How Did It Evolve?". Sci- Dixon, Robert M. W. (1972). The ence 22 298 (5598): 1569–1579. Dyirbal Language of North Queens- doi:10.1126/science.298.5598.1569. land. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- PMID 12446899. versity Press. ISBN 0-521-08510- Hauser, Marc D.; Fitch, W. Tecum- 1. seh (2003). “What are the uniquely Duranti, Alessandro (2003). “Lan- human components of the language guage as Culture in U.S. Anthro- faculty?". In M.H. Christiansen pology: Three Paradigms”. Cur- and S. Kirby. Language Evolution: rent Anthropology 44 (3): 323–348. The States of the Art (PDF). Oxford doi:10.1086/368118. University Press. Evans, Nicholas; Levinson, Hockett, Charles F. (1960). “Log- Stephen C. (2009). “The myth ical considerations in the study of of language universals: Language animal communication”. In W.E. diversity and its importance for Lanyon; W.N. Tavolga. Animals cognitive science” 32 (5). Be- sounds and animal communication. havioral and Brain Sciences. pp. pp. 392–430. 429–492. International Phonetic Association Fisher, Simon E.; Lai, Ce- (1999). Handbook of the Inter- cilia S.L.; Monaco, Anthony national Phonetic Association: A P. (2003). “Deciphering the guide to the use of the International Genetic Basis of Speech and Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Language Disorders”. Annual Cambridge University Press. ISBN Review of Neuroscience 26: 57–80. 0-521-65236-7. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131144. Katzner, Kenneth (1999). The PMID 12524432. Languages of the World. New Fitch, W. Tecumseh (2010). The York: Routledge. Evolution of Language. Cam- Kennison, Shelia (2013). Intro- bridge: Cambridge University duction to Language Development. Press. SAGE. Foley, William A. (1997). Anthro- Labov, William (1994). Principles pological Linguistics: An Introduc- of Linguistic Change vol.I Internal tion. Blackwell. Factors. Blackwell. Goldsmith, John A (1995). Labov, William (2001). Principles “Phonological Theory”. In John of Linguistic Change vol.II Social A. Goldsmith. The Handbook Factors. Blackwell. of Phonological Theory. Black- Ladefoged, Peter (1992). “An- well Handbooks in Linguistics. other view of endangered lan- Blackwell Publishers. ISBN guages”. Language 68 (4): 809– 1-4051-5768-2. 811. doi:10.1353/lan.1992.0013. Greenberg, Joseph (1966). Lan- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian guage Universals: With Special Ref- (1996). The sounds of the world’s erence to Feature Hierarchies. The languages. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. Hague: Mouton & Co. 329–330. ISBN 0-631-19815-6. 3.10. WORKS CITED 37

Lesser, Ruth (1989). “Language writing does to Language and in the Brain: Neurolinguistics”. Mind”. Annual Review of In Collinge, N.E. An Encyclopedia Applied Linguistics 16: 3–13. of Language. London:NewYork: doi:10.1017/S0267190500001392. Routledge. Payne, Thomas Edward (1997). Levinson, Stephen C. (1983). Describing morphosyntax: a guide Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cam- for field linguists. Cambridge Uni- bridge University Press. versity Press. pp. 238–241. ISBN Lewis, M. Paul (ed.) (2009). 978-0-521-58805-8. “Ethnologue: Languages of the Pinker, Steven (1994). The Lan- World, Sixteenth edition”. Dallas, guage Instinct: How the Mind Cre- Tex.: SIL International. ates Language. Perennial. Lyons, John (1981). Language and Romaine, Suzanne (2001). “Mul- Linguistics. Cambridge University tilingualism”. In Mark Aronoff; Press. ISBN 0-521-29775-3. Janie Rees-Miller. The Handbook MacMahon, April M.S. (1994). of Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 512– Understanding Language Change. 533. Cambridge University Press. ISBN Saussure, Ferdinand de (1983) 0-521-44119-6. [1913]. Bally, Charles; Sechehaye, MacMahon, M.K.C. (1989). Albert, eds. Course in General Lin- “Language as available guistics. Translated by Roy Har- sound:Phonetics". In Collinge, ris. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court. N.E. An Encyclopedia of Language. ISBN 0-8126-9023-0. London:NewYork: Routledge. Matras, Yaron; Bakker, Peter, eds. Sandler, Wendy; Lillo-Martin, Di- (2003). The Mixed Language De- ane (2001). “Natural Sign Lan- bate: Theoretical and Empirical Ad- guages”. In Mark Aronoff; Janie vances. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Rees-Miller. The Handbook of ISBN 3-11-017776-5. Linguistics. Blackwell. pp. 533– Moseley, Christopher, ed. (2010). 563. Atlas of the World’s Languages in Senft, Gunter, ed. (2008). Systems Danger, 3rd edition. Paris: UN- of Nominal Classification. Cam- ESCO Publishing. bridge University Press. ISBN 978- Nerlich, B. (2010). “History of 0-521-06523-8. pragmatics”. In L. Cummings. The Swadesh, Morris (1934). “The Pragmatics Encyclopedia. Lon- phonemic principle”. Lan- don/New York: Routledge. pp. guage 10 (2): 117–129. 192–93. doi:10.2307/409603. JSTOR Newmeyer, Frederick J. (2005). 409603. The History of Linguistics. Linguis- Tomasello, Michael (1996). “The tic Society of America. ISBN 0- Cultural Roots of Language”. In 415-11553-1. B. Velichkovsky and D. Rumbaugh. Newmeyer, Frederick J. (1998). Communicating Meaning: The Evo- Language Form and Language lution and Development of Lan- Function (PDF). Cambridge, MA: guage. Psychology Press. pp. 275– MIT Press. 308. ISBN 978-0-8058-2118-5. Nichols, Johanna (1992). Linguistic Tomasello, Michael (2008). Origin diversity in space and time. of Human Communication. MIT Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Press. ISBN 0-226-58057-1. Thomason, Sarah G.; Kaufman, Nichols, Johanna (1984). “Func- Terrence (1988). Language Con- tional Theories of Gram- tact, Creolization and Genetic Lin- mar”. Annual Review of guistics. University of California Anthropology 13: 97–117. Press. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.13.100184.000525. Thomason, Sarah G. (2001). Lan- Olson, David R. (1996). “Lan- guage Contact – An Introduction. guage and Literacy: what Edinburgh University Press. 38 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE

Trask, Robert Lawrence (1999). Language: The Basics (2nd ed.). Psychology Press. Trask, Robert Lawrence (2007). Stockwell, Peter, ed. Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts (2nd ed.). Routledge. Ulbaek, Ib (1998). “The Origin of Language and Cognition”. In J. R. Hurford & C. Knight. Approaches to the evolution of language. Cam- bridge University Press. pp. 30– 43. Van Valin, jr, Robert D. (2001). “Functional Linguistics”. In Mark Aronoﬀ; Janie Rees-Miller. The Handbook of Linguistics. Black- well. pp. 319–337. Zentella, Ana Celia (2002). “Span- ish in New York”. In García, Ofe- lia; Fishman, Joshua. The Multilin- gual Apple: Languages in New York City. Walter de Gruyter.

3.11 External links

• World Atlas of Language Structures: a large database of structural (phonological, grammatical, lexical) properties of languages

• Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a compre- hensive catalog of all of the world’s known living languages Chapter 4

Language family

See also: List of language families a branch or group within a language family is estab- A language family is a group of languages related lished by shared innovations, that is, common features of those languages that are not found in the common ancestor of the entire family. For example, Germanic languages are “Germanic” in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, a descendant of Proto-Indo-European that was the source of all Germanic languages.

Principal language families of the world (and in some cases geographic groups of families). For greater detail, see Distribution of languages in the world.

through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. The term 'family' reflects 4.1 Structure of a family the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a biological family tree, or in a sub- Language families can be divided into smaller phyloge- sequent modification, to species in a phylogenetic tree of netic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the evolutionary taxonomy. No actual biological relationship family because the history of a language family is often between speakers is implied by the metaphor. represented as a tree diagram. A family is a monophyletic Estimates of the number of living languages vary from unit; that is, all its members derive from a common ances- 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of one’s def- tor, and all attested descendants of that ancestor are in- inition of “language”, and in particular on how one clas- cluded in the family. (In this way, the term family is anal- sifies dialects. The 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs ogous to the biological term clade.) Some taxonomists just over 7,000 living human languages.[1] A “living lan- restrict the term family to a certain level, but there is lit- guage” is simply one that is used as the primary form tle consensus in how to do so. Those who affix such la- of communication of a group of people. There are also bels also subdivide branches into groups, and groups into many dead and extinct languages, as well as some that complexes. A top-level (largest) family is often called a are still insufficiently studied to be classified, or even un- phylum or stock. The term macrofamily or superfamily known outside their respective speech communities. is sometimes applied to proposed groupings of language Membership of languages in a language family is estab- families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally lished by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted historical said to have a “genetic” or “genealogical” relationship. linguistic methods. The latter is older,[2] but has been revived in recent years For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, and to better distinguish the relationships between languages Indo-Iranian language families are branches of a larger from the genetic relationships between people. The ev- Indo-European language family. There is a remarkably idence of linguistic relationship is found in observable similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic shared characteristics that are not attributed to contact tree of human ancestry[3] that was verified statistically.[4] or borrowing. Genealogically related languages present Languages interpreted in terms of the putative phyloge- shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language netic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great (or reflexes of such features) that cannot be explained extent vertically (i.e. by ancestry) as opposed to horizon- by chance or borrowing (convergence). Membership in tally (i.e. by spatial diffusion).[5]

39 40 CHAPTER 4. LANGUAGE FAMILY

4.1.1 Dialect continua The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly, since most languages have a relatively Main article: Dialect continuum short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the comparative method—a reconstructive procedure Some closely knit language families, and many branches worked out by 19th century linguist August Schleicher. within larger families, take the form of dialect continua, This can demonstrate the validity of many of the pro- in which there are no clear-cut borders that make it pos- posed families in the list of language families. For ex- sible to unequivocally identify, define, or count individ- ample, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo- ual languages within the family. However, when the dif- European language family is called Proto-Indo-European. ferences between the speech of different regions at the Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records, extremes of the continuum are so great that there is no and so it is conjectured to have been spoken before the mutual intelligibility between them, as occurs for Arabic, invention of writing. the continuum cannot meaningfully be seen as a single language. A speech variety may also be considered ei- Sometimes, however, a proto-language can be identified ther a language or a dialect depending on social or po- with a historically known language. For instance, di- litical considerations. Thus different sources give some- alects of Old Norse are the proto-language of Norwegian, times wildly different accounts of the number of lan- Swedish, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic. Likewise, the guages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic Appendix Probi depicts Proto-Romance, a language al- family, for example, range from one language (a language most unattested due to the prestige of Classical Latin, a isolate) to nearly twenty. highly stylised literary register not representative of the speech of ordinary people.

4.1.2 Isolates

Main article: Language isolate 4.2 Other classifications of languages Most of the world’s languages are known to be related to others. Those that have no known relatives (or for which family relationships are only tentatively proposed) 4.2.1 Sprachbund are called language isolates, essentially language families consisting of a single language. An example is Basque. Main article: Sprachbund In general, it is assumed that language isolates have relatives, or had relatives at some point in their history, but Shared innovations, acquired by borrowing or other at a time depth too great for linguistic comparison to re- means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing cover them. with the language family concept. It has been asserted, A language isolated in its own branch within a family, for example, that many of the more striking features such as Armenian within Indo-European, is often also shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) called an isolate, but the meaning of isolate in such cases might well be "areal features". However, very similar- is usually clarified. For instance, Armenian may be re- looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the ferred to as an “Indo-European isolate”. By contrast, so West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible far as is known, the Basque language is an absolute iso- notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily late: It has not been shown to be related to any other lan- be regarded as “areal”, either, since English and continen- guage despite numerous attempts. A language may be tal West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar said to be an isolate currently but not historically if related vein, there are many similar unique innovations in Ger- but now extinct relatives are attested. The Aquitanian lan- manic, Baltic and Slavic that are far more likely to be areal guage, spoken in Roman times, may have been an ances- features than traceable to a common proto-language. But tor of Basque, but it could also have been a sister language legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations to the ancestor of Basque. In the latter case, Basque and are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a Aquitanian would form a small family together. (Ances- common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper tors are not considered to be distinct members of a fam- subdivisions of any large language family. ily.) A sprachbund is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures. The similarities between those languages are caused by lan- 4.1.3 Proto-languages guage contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family. Main article: Proto-language An example of a sprachbund would be the Indian Sub- continent. 4.5. FURTHER READING 41

4.2.2 Contact languages [3] Henn, B. M.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.; Feldman, M. W. (17 October 2012). “The great human expansion”. Main articles: Mixed language and Creole language Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (44): 17758–17764. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10917758H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1212380109. PMC 3497766. PMID The concept of language families is based on the histor- 23077256. ical observation that languages develop dialects, which over time may diverge into distinct languages. However, [4] Sforza, LL; Minch; Mountain; Minch, E; Moun- linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than familiar biolog- tain, JL (Jun 15, 1992). “Coevolution of genes ical ancestry, in which species do not crossbreed. It is and languages revisited”. Proceedings of the National more like the evolution of microbes, with extensive lateral Academy of Sciences of the United States of Amer- ica 89 (12): 5620–4. Bibcode:1992PNAS...89.5620C. gene transfer: Quite distantly related languages may af- doi:10.1073/pnas.89.12.5620. PMC 49344. PMID fect each other through language contact, which in ex- 1608971. treme cases may lead to languages with no single ancestor, whether they be creoles or mixed languages. In addition, [5] Gell-Mann, M.; Ruhlen, M. (10 October 2011). a number of sign languages have developed in isolation “The origin and evolution of word order”. Pro- and appear to have no relatives at all. Nonetheless, such ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 cases are relatively rare and most well-attested languages (42): 17290–17295. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10817290G. can be unambiguously classiﬁed as belonging to one lan- doi:10.1073/pnas.1113716108. guage family or another, even if this family’s relation to other families is not known. 4.5 Further reading

4.3 See also • Boas, Franz (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin • Constructed language 40. Volume 1. Washington: Smithsonian Institu- tion, Bureau of American Ethnology. ISBN 0-8032- • Endangered language 5017-7. • • Extinct language Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, • Global language system Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Oﬃce (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Eth- • ISO 639-5 nology).

• Linguist List • Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials • List of language families collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.

• List of languages by number of native speakers • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. • Proto-language New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19- 509427-1. • Tree model • Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). • Unclassiﬁed language (1979). The languages of native America: Histori- cal and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. 4.4 Notes • Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Hand- book of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, [1] “Ethnologue: Languages of the world, Seventeenth edi- General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smith- tion”. sonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9. [2] Müller, Max (1862). Lectures on the science of language: • Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and lan- delivered at the Royal institution of Great Britain in April, May and June, 1861 (3rd ed.). London: Longman, Green, guage families of North America (rev. and enlarged Longman and Roberts. p. 216. The genealogical classi- ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lin- ﬁcation of the Aryan languages was founded, as we saw, coln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithso- on a close comparison of the grammatical characteristics nian Institution). (Updated version of the map in of each;.... Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6. 42 CHAPTER 4. LANGUAGE FAMILY

• Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethno- logue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (On- line version: http://www.ethnologue.com). • Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). The Languages of Africa (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University. • Harrison, K. David. (2007) When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World’s Languages and the Ero- sion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press. • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Na- tive North America. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0- 521-29875-X.

• Ross, Malcom. (2005). Pronouns as a prelimi- nary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages. In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples (PDF)

• Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). A guide to the world’s languages. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

• Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).

• Voegelin, C. F.; & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). Clas- siﬁcation and index of the world’s languages. New York: Elsevier.

4.6 External links

• Linguistic maps (from Muturzikin)

• Ethnologue

• The Multitree Project • Lenguas del mundo (World Languages)

• Comparative Swadesh list tables of various language families (from Wiktionary) Chapter 5

Writing

“Write” redirects here. For other uses, see Write (disam- 5.1 Means for recording informa- biguation). tion Writing is a medium of human communication that rep-

H.G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to “put agreements, laws, commandments on record. It made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death”.[2]

5.1.1 Writing systems

Main article: Writing system

The major writing systems—methods of inscription— Writing with a pen broadly fall into four categories: logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, and featural. Another category, ideographic (symbols for ideas), has never been developed sufficiently resents language through the inscription or recording of to represent language. A sixth category, pictographic, is signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a com- insufficient to represent language on its own, but often plement to speech or spoken language. Writing is not a forms the core of logographies. language but a form of technology. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar and semantics, Logographies with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols, usually in the form of a formal alphabet. The re- A logogram is a written character which represents a word sult of writing is generally called text, and the recipient or morpheme. A vast number of logograms are needed to of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing in- write Chinese characters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where clude publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary. a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both - Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, dissem- (“logoconsonantal” in the case of hieroglyphs). Many lo- ination of knowledge through the media and the forma- gograms have an ideographic component (Chinese “rad- tion of legal systems. icals”, hieroglyphic “determiners”). For example, in As human societies emerged, the development of writ- Mayan, the glyph for “fin”, pronounced “ka'", was also ing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchang- used to represent the syllable “ka” whenever the pronun- ing information, maintaining financial accounts, codify- ciation of a logogram needed to be indicated, or when ing laws and recording history. Around the 4th mil- there was no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of char- lennium BCE, the complexity of trade and administra- acters are compounds of a semantic (meaning) element tion in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writ- called a radical with an existing character to indicate the ing became a more dependable method of recording pronunciation, called a phonetic. However, such phonetic and presenting transactions in a permanent form.[1] In elements complement the logographic elements, rather both Ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica writing may have than vice versa. evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for The main logographic system in use today is Chinese recording historical and environmental events. characters, used with some modification for the various

43 44 CHAPTER 5. WRITING

languages of China, and for Japanese. Korean, even in ification of the shape of the consonant. These are called South Korea, today uses mainly the phonetic Hangul sys- abugidas. Some abugidas, such as Ethiopic and Cree, are tem. learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called “syllabics”. However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable. Syllabaries Sometimes the term “alphabet” is restricted to systems A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or with separate letters for consonants and vowels, such as approximate) syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically the Latin alphabet, although abugidas and abjads may also represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a be accepted as alphabets. Because of this use, Greek is vowel alone, though in some scripts more complex sylla- often considered to be the first alphabet. bles (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant- consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phoneti- Featural scripts cally related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable “ka” may look nothing like the A featural script notates the building blocks of the syllable “ki”, nor will syllables with the same vowels be phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all similar. sounds pronounced with the lips (“labial” sounds) may Syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other lan- is accidentally the case with the letters “b” and “p"; how- guages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script ever, labial “m” is completely dissimilar, and the similar- for Mycenaean Greek; Cherokee; Ndjuka, an English- looking “q” and “d” are not labial. In Korean hangul, based creole language of Surinam; and the Vai script of however, all four labial consonants are based on the same Liberia. Most logographic systems have a strong syllabic basic element, but in practice, Korean is learned by chil- component. Ethiopic, though technically an alphabet, has dren as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements fused consonants and vowels together to the point where tend to pass unnoticed. it is learned as if it were a syllabary. Another featural script is SignWriting, the most popular writing system for many sign languages, where the shapes Alphabets and movements of the hands and face are represented iconically. Featural scripts are also common in fictional See also: History of the alphabet or invented systems, such as J.R.R. Tolkien’s Tengwar.

An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents Historical significance of writing systems or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. Olin Levi Warner, tympanum representing Writing, above exte- rior of main entrance doors, Thomas Jefferson Building, Wash- Abjads In most of the writing systems of the Middle ington DC, 1896. East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may be indicated by the addi- Historians draw a sharp distinction between prehistory tion of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based and history, with history defined by the advent of writ- primarily on marking the consonant phonemes alone date ing. The cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric back to the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. Such systems peoples can be considered precursors of writing, but they are called abjads, derived from the Arabic word for “al- are not considered true writing because they did not rep- phabet”. resent language directly. Writing systems develop and change based on the needs Abugidas In most of the alphabets of India and South- of the people who use them. Sometimes the shape, ori- east Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or mod- entation, and meaning of individual signs changes over 5.2. HISTORY 45

time. By tracing the development of a script, it is possi- 5.2.2 Mesopotamia ble to learn about the needs of the people who used the script as well as how the script changed over time. While neolithic writing is a current research topic, conventional history assumes that the writing process ﬁrst evolved from economic necessity in the ancient Near 5.1.2 Tools and materials East. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reli- See also: writing implements able means for transmitting information, maintaining ﬁ- nancial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the com- The many tools and writing materials used through- plexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of out history include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo memory, and writing became a more dependable method slats, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many form.[1] styles of lithography. It is speculated that the Incas might have employed knotted cords known as quipu (or khipu) as a writing system.[3] The typewriter and various forms of word processors have subsequently become widespread writing tools, and various studies have compared the ways in which writers have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil.[4][5][6][7][8]

5.2 History

Main article: History of writing

5.2.1 Neolithic writing

Globular envelope with a cluster of accountancy tokens, Uruk Szentgyörgyvölgy cow - 5500 B.C. period, from Susa. Louvre Museum

By deﬁnition, the modern practice of history begins Archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat determined with written records. Evidence of human culture with- the link between previously uncategorized clay “to- out writing is the realm of prehistory. The Dispilio kens”, the oldest of which have been found in the Tablet (Greece) and Tărtăria tablets (Romania), which Zagros region of Iran, and the ﬁrst known writing, have been carbon dated to the 6th millennium BC, are re- Mesopotamian cuneiform.[9] In approximately 8000 BC, cent discoveries of the earliest known neolithic writings. the Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their Szentgyörgyvölgy cow is a world model from B.C. 5500 agricultural and manufactured goods. Later they began (25) placing these tokens inside large, hollow clay containers 46 CHAPTER 5. WRITING

(bulla, or globular envelopes) which were then sealed. The Elamite cuneiform script was used from about The quantity of tokens in each container came to be ex- 2500 to 331 BC, and was adapted from the Akkadian pressed by impressing, on the container’s surface, one pic- cuneiform. The Elamite cuneiform script consisted of ture for each instance of the token inside. They next dis- about 130 symbols, far fewer than most other cuneiform pensed with the tokens, relying solely on symbols for the scripts. tokens, drawn on clay surfaces. To avoid making a picture for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 pictures of a hat to represent 100 hats), they 'counted' Cretan and Greek scripts the objects by using various small marks. In this way the Sumerians added “a system for enumerating objects to Main articles: Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A and Linear B their incipient system of symbols”. The original Mesopotamian writing system (believed to Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of Crete (early- be the world’s oldest) was derived around 3600 BC from to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to MM III, overlap- this method of keeping accounts. By the end of the ping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). Linear 4th millennium BC,[10] the Mesopotamians were using B, the writing system of the Mycenaean Greeks,[11] has a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to record been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. numbers. This system was gradually augmented with us- The sequence and the geographical spread of the three ing a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted overlapping, but distinct writing systems can be summa- by means of pictographs. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus rized as follows:[11][A 1] Cretan hieroglyphs were used in writing was gradually replaced by writing using a wedge- Crete from c. 1625 to 1500 BC; Linear A was used in shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only the Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and the for logograms, but by the 29th century BC also for pho- Greek mainland (Laconia) from c. 18th century to 1450 netic elements . Around 2700 BC, cuneiform began BC; and Linear B was used in Crete (Knossos), and main- to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. About that land (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) from c. 1375 to time, Mesopotamian cuneiform became a general pur- 1200 BC. pose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. This script was adapted to another Mesopotamian language, the East Semitic Akkadian (Assyrian and 5.2.4 China Babylonian) around 2600 BC, and then to others such as Elamite, Hattian, Hurrian and Hittite. Scripts sim- Further information: Oracle bone script and Bronzeware ilar in appearance to this writing system include those script for Ugaritic and Old Persian. With the adoption of Aramaic as the 'lingua franca' of the Neo-Assyrian Em- The earliest surviving examples of writing in China— pire (911-609 BC), Old Aramaic was also adapted to inscriptions on so-called "oracle bones", tortoise plastrons Mesopotamian cuneiform. The last cuneiform scripts in and ox scapulae used for divination—date from around Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st century 1200 BC in the late Shang dynasty. A small number AD. of bronze inscriptions from the same period have also survived.[12] Historians have found that the type of media 5.2.3 Elamite scripts used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it was used. Over the centuries, three distinct Elamite scripts devel- In 2003 archaeologists reported discoveries of isolated oped. Proto-Elamite is the oldest known writing sys- tortoise-shell carvings dating back to the 7th millen- tem from Iran. In use only for a brief time (c. 3200– nium BC, but whether or not these symbols are re- 2900 BC), clay tablets with Proto-Elamite writing have lated to the characters of the later oracle-bone script is been found at different sites across Iran. The Proto- disputed.[13][14] Elamite script is thought to have developed from early cuneiform (proto-cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite script consists of more than 1,000 signs and is thought to be 5.2.5 Egypt partly logographic. Linear Elamite is a writing system attested in a few mon- The earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are the umental inscriptions in Iran. It was used for a very brief Narmer Palette, dating to c. 3200 BC, and several recent period during the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. discoveries that may be slightly older, though these glyphs It is often claimed that Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing were based on a much older artistic rather than written system derived from Proto-Elamite, although this cannot tradition. The hieroglyphic script was logographic with be proven since Linear-Elamite has not been deciphered. phonetic adjuncts that included an effective alphabet. Several scholars have attempted to decipher the script, Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian most notably Walther Hinz and Piero Meriggi. empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated 5.2. HISTORY 47

modern-day Pakistan and North India) used between 2600 and 1900 BC. In spite of many attempts at deci- pherments and claims, it is as yet undeciphered. The term 'Indus script' is mainly applied to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhaps evolved from a few signs found in early Harappa after 3500 BC,[16] and was followed by the mature Harappan script. The script is written from right to left,[17] and sometimes follows a boustrophedonic style. Since the number of principal signs is about 400–600,[18] midway between typical logographic and syllabic scripts, many scholars accept the script to be logo-syllabic[19] (typically syllabic scripts have about 50–100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several scholars maintain that structural analysis indicates that an agglutinative language underlies the script.

5.2.7 Turkmenistan

Archaeologists have recently discovered that there was a civilization in Central Asia using writing c. 2000 BC. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that was used as a stamp seal.[20]

Narmer Palette, with the two serpopards representing unification 5.2.8 Phoenician writing system and de- of Upper and Lower Egypt, 3000 B. C. scendants elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds The Proto-Sinaitic script in which Proto-Canaanite is be- were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service lieved to have been first written, is attested as far back as of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hi- the 19th century BC. The Phoenician writing system was eroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime be- centuries was purposely made even more so, as this pre- fore the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed princi- served the scribes’ status. ples of representing phonetic information from Hieratic, Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphics. This writing sys- The world’s oldest known alphabet appears to have been tem was an odd sort of syllabary in which only conso- developed by Canaanite turquoise miners in the Sinai nants are represented. This script was adapted by the [15] desert around the mid-19th century BC. Around 30 Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to rep- crude inscriptions have been found at a mountainous resent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. This the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan al- site was also home to a temple of Hathor, the “Mis- phabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alpha- tress of turquoise”. A later, two line inscription has bet and Runes. Other descendants from the Greek alpha- also been found at Wadi el-Hol in Central Egypt. Based bet include Cyrillic, used to write Bulgarian, Russian and on hieroglyphic prototypes, but also including entirely Serbian among others. The Phoenician system was also new symbols, each sign apparently stood for a consonant adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew rather than a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It script and also that of Arabic are descended. was not until the 12th to 9th centuries, however, that the alphabet took hold and became widely used. The Tifinagh script (Berber languages) is descended from the Libyco-Berber script which is assumed to be of Phoenician origin. 5.2.6 Indus Valley 5.2.9 Mesoamerica Main article: Indus script A stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing was discov- Indus script refers to short strings of symbols associ- ered in the Mexican state of Veracruz and is an exam- ated with the Indus Valley Civilization (which spanned ple of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, pre- 48 CHAPTER 5. WRITING ceding the oldest Zapotec writing by approximately 500 years.[21][22][23] It is thought to be Olmec. Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC.[24] Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing.

5.2.10 South America

The Incas had no known script. Their quipu system of recording information—based on knots tied along one or many linked cords—was apparently used for inventory and accountancy purposes and could not encode textual information.

5.2.11 Dacia (Romania)

Three stone slabs were found by Romanian archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa, in the mid-20th century (1961) in Tărtăria (present-day Alba county, Transylvania), Romania, ancient land of Dacia, inhabited by Dacians, which were a population who may have been related to the Getaes and Thracians. One of the slabs contains St. Augustine writing, revising, and re-writing: Sandro Botticelli's 4 groups of pictographs divided by lines. Some of the St. Augustine in His Cell characters are also found in ancient Greek, as well as in Phoenician, Etruscan, Old Italic and Iberian. The origin and the timing of the writings are disputed, because there 5.3.3 Author are no precise evidence in situ, the slabs cannot be carbon dated, because of the bad treatment of the Cluj museum. Main article: Author There are indirect carbon dates found on a skeleton discovered near the slabs, that certiﬁes the 5300–5500 BC period. 5.3.4 Writer

5.3 Creation of textual or written Main article: Writer information

Further information: Literature 5.3.5 Critiques

Main article: Peer critique 5.3.1 Composition

Main article: Composition (language) 5.4 See also

5.3.2 Creativity 5.5 Notes

Main articles: Creativity and Creative writing [1] Beginning date refers to ﬁrst attestations, the assumed origins of all scripts lie further back in the past. 5.7. FURTHER READING 49

5.6 References [21] “Writing May Be Oldest in Western Hemisphere.”. New York Times. 2006-09-15. Retrieved 2008-03-30. A [1] Robinson, 2003, p. 36 stone slab bearing 3,000-year-old writing previously unknown to scholars has been found in the Mexican state of [2] Wells, H.G. (1922). A Short History Of The World. p. 41. Veracruz, and archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest script ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere. [3] “The Khipu Database Project”. [22] "'Oldest' New World writing found”. BBC. 2006-09-14. [4] Chandler, Daniel (1990). “Do the write thing?". Electric Retrieved 2008-03-30. Ancient civilisations in Mexico Word 17: 27–30. developed a writing system as early as 900 BC, new evidence suggests. [5] Chandler, Daniel (1992). “The phenomenology of writing by hand”. Intelligent Tutoring Media 3 (2/3): 65–74. [23] “Oldest Writing in the New World”. Science. Retrieved doi:10.1080/14626269209408310. 2008-03-30. A block with a hitherto unknown system of writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of Ve- [6] Chandler, Daniel (1993). “Writing strategies and racruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the block writers’ tools”. English Today: the International places it in the early ﬁrst millennium before the common Review of the English Language 9 (2): 32–8. era, the oldest writing in the New World, with features doi:10.1017/S0266078400000341. that ﬁrmly assign this pivotal development to the Olmec [7] Chandler, Daniel (1994). “Who needs suspended inscrip- civilization of Mesoamerica. tion?". Computers and Composition 11 (3): 191–201. doi:10.1016/8755-4615(94)90012-4. [24] Saturno, William A.; David Stuart; Boris Beltrán (3 March 2006). “Early Maya Writing at San Bar- [8] Chandler, Daniel (1995). The Act of Writing: A Media tolo, Guatemala”. Science 311 (5765): 1281–1283. Theory Approach. Aberystwyth: Prifysgol Cymru. doi:10.1126/science.1121745. PMID 16400112.

[9] Rudgley, Richard (2000). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 48–57. 5.7 Further reading [10] The Origin and Development of the Cuneiform System of Writing, Samuel Noah Kramer, Thirty Nine Firsts In • A History of Writing: From Hieroglyph to Multi- Recorded History pp 381–383 media, edited by Anne-Marie Christin, Flammarion [11] Olivier 1986, pp. 377f. (in French, hardcover: 408 pages, 2002, ISBN 2-08- 010887-5) [12] Boltz, William (1999). “Language and Writing”. In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. The Cambridge • In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Lan- History of Ancient China. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- guage. By Joel M. Hoﬀman, 2004. Chapter 3 covers versity Press. pp. 74–123. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. the invention of writing and its various stages. [13] “Archaeologists Rewrite History”. China Daily. 12 June • 2003. Retrieved 4 January 2012. Origins of writing on AncientScripts.com

[14] "'Earliest writing' found in China.”. BBC News. 17 April • Museum of Writing: UK Museum of Writing with 2003. Retrieved 4 January 2012. Signs carved into 8,600- information on writing history and implements year-old tortoise shells found in China may be the earliest written words, say archaeologists. • On ERIC Digests: Writing Instruction: Current Practices in the Classroom; Writing Development; [15] Goldwasser, Orly. “How the Alphabet Was Born from Hi- Writing Instruction: Changing Views over the Years eroglyphs”, Biblical Archaeology Review, Mar/Apr 2010 • Angioni, Giulio, La scrittura, una fabrilità semiot- [16] Whitehouse, David (1999) 'Earliest writing' found BBC ica, in Fare, dire, sentire. L'identico e il diverso nelle [17] (Lal 1966) culture, il Maestrale, 2011, 149–169. ISBN 978-88- 6429-020-1 [18] (Wells 1999) • Children of the Code: The Power of Writing – On- [19] (Bryant 2000) line Video [20] “Ancient writing found in Turkmenistan.”. BBC. 2001- • 05-15. Retrieved 2008-03-30. A previously unknown Powell, Barry B. 2009. Writing: Theory and History civilisation was using writing in Central Asia 4,000 years of the Technology of Civilization, Oxford: Black- ago, hundreds of years before Chinese writing developed, well. ISBN 978-1-4051-6256-2 archaeologists have discovered. An excavation near Ash- gabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription • Reynolds, Jack 2004. Merleau-Ponty And Derrida: on a piece of stone that seems to have been used as a stamp Intertwining Embodiment And Alterity, Ohio Univer- seal. sity Press 50 CHAPTER 5. WRITING

• Rogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A Linguistic • Vlassa, N. 1976 Neoliticul Transilvaniei. Studii, ar- Approach. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23463- ticole, note. Bibliotheca Musei Napocensis 3. Cluj- 2 (hardcover); ISBN 0-631-23464-0 (paperback) Napoca

• Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communica- • Winn, Sham M. M. 1973 The Sings of the Vinca tion without universal civilization. INU societal re- Culture search. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civiliza- • tions : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and West- Winn, Sham M. M. 1981 Pre-writing in Southeast ern. Geneva: INU Press. pp. 59–66, 235s. ISBN Europe: The Sign System of the Vinca culture. 2-88155-004-5. BAR • • Robinson, Andrew “The Origins of Writing” in Merlini, Marco 2004 La scrittura è natta in Europa?, David Crowley and Paul Heyer (eds) Communica- Roma (2004) tion in History: Technology, Culture, Society (Allyn • Merlini, Marco and Gheorghe Lazarovici 2008 and Bacon, 2003). Luca, Sabin Adrian ed. “Settling discovery cir- • Falkenstein, A. 1965 Zu den Tafeln aus Tartaria. cumstances, dating and utilization of the Tărtăria Germania 43, 269–273 Tablets” • • Haarmann, H. 1990 Writing from Old Europe. The Merlini, Marco and Gheorghe Lazarovici 2005 Journal of Indo-European Studies 17 “New archaeological data referring to Tărtăria tablets”, in Documenta Praehistorica XXXII, De- • Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim 2000 partment of Archeology Faculty of Arts, University The Eagle – the Bird of death, regeneration resur- of Ljubljana. Ljubljana:205-2019. rection and mesenger of Godds. Archaeological and ethnological problems. Tibiscum, 57–68 5.8 External links • Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim 2000 The Eye – Symbol, Gesture, Expression.Tibiscum, • 115–128 Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico Damqatum 3 (2007) • Makkay, J. 1969 The Late Neolithic Tordos Group • of Signs. Alba Regia 10, 9–50 “Signs - Books - Networks”, virtual exhibition of the German Museum of Books and Writing i.a. with a • Makkay, J. 1984 Early Stamp Seals in South-East thematic module on sounds, symbols and script Europe. Budapest • Pictopen: Modern written communication based on • Masson, E. 1984 L' écriture dans les civilisations pictograms danubiennes néolithiques. Kadmos 23, 2, 89–123. Berlin & New York.

• Maxim, Z. 1997 Neo-eneoliticul din Transilvania. Bibliotheca Musei Napocensis 19. Cluj-Napoca

• Milojcic, Vl. 1963 Die Tontafeln von Tartaria (Siebenbürgen), und die Absolute Chronologie des mitteleeuropäischen Neolithikums.Germania 43, 266–268

• Paul, I. 1990 Mitograma de acum 8 milenii. Atheneum 1, p. 28

• Paul, I. 1995 Vorgeschichtliche untersuchungen in Siebenburgen. Alba Iulia

• Vlassa, N. 1962 --- (Studia UBB 2), 23–30.

• Vlassa, N. 1962 --- (Dacia 7), 485–494;

• Vlassa, N. 1965 --- (Atti UISPP, Roma 1965), 267– 269

• Vlassa, N. 1976 Contribuții la Problema racordării Neoliticul Transilvaniei, p. 28–43, ﬁg. 7-8 Chapter 6

Chaldea

For the asteroid, see 313 Chaldaea. For other uses, see Χαλδαία, Chaldaia; Akkadian: māt Ḫaldu; Hebrew: Kaśdim;[1] Aramaic: , Kaldo) was a small , כשדים .Chaldean Chaldea or Chaldaea (/kælˈdiːə/), from Ancient Greek: Semitic nation which emerged between the late 10th and early 9th century BC, surviving until the mid 6th century BC, after which it disappeared, and the Chaldean tribes were absorbed into the native population of Babylonia.[2] It was located in the marshy land of the far south eastern corner of Mesopotamia, and briefly came to rule Babylon. During a period of weakness in the East Semitic speaking kingdom of Babylonia, new tribes of West Semitic- speaking migrants[3] arrived in the region from The Lev- ant between the 11th and 10th centuries BC. The earliest waves consisted of Suteans and Arameans, followed a century or so later by the Kaldu, a group who became known later as the Chaldeans or the Chaldees. The Kaśdim) and this) כשדים Hebrew Bible uses the term is translated as Chaldaeans in the Septuagint, although The countries around Chaldea there is some dispute as to whether Kasdim in fact means Chaldean. These migrations did not affect Assyria to the north, which repelled these incursions. The short-lived 11th dynasty of the Kings of Babylon (6th century BC) is conventionally known to historians as the Chaldean Dynasty, although only the first four rulers of this dynasty were positively known to be Chaldeans, and the last rulers, Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar, were known to be from Assyria.[4] The region in which these migrant Chaldeans settled was in the far south eastern portion of Babylonia, lying chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. Though the name later came to be commonly used to refer to the whole of southern Mesopotamia for a short time, this was a misnomer, and Chaldea proper was in fact only the plain in the far south east formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris, extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and about a hundred miles in average width.

6.1 Land

Chaldea is a name that is used in two diﬀerent senses. In the early period, between the early 800’s BC and late Chaldea and neighboring countries 600’s BC, it was the name of a small sporadically inde-

51 52 CHAPTER 6. CHALDEA

pendent territory under the domination of the Neo Assyr- and migrating from the same Levantine regions as the ear- ian Empire, in south eastern Babylonia extending to the lier arriving Arameans, they are to be differentiated from western shores of the Persian Gulf.[1] At some point after them; and the Assyrian king Sennacherib, for example, is the Chaldean tribes settled in the region it eventually be- careful in his inscriptions to distinguish them. came called mat Kaldi “land of Chaldeans” by the native When they came to briefly possess the whole of south- Mesopotamian Assyrians and Babylonians. The expres- ern Mesopotamia, the name “Chaldean” became synony- sion mat Bit Yakin is also used, apparently synonymously. mous with “Babylonian” for a short time, particularly to Bit Yakin was likely the chief or capital city of the land. the Greeks and Jews, this despite the Chaldeans not be- The king of Chaldea was also called the king of Bit Yakin, ing Babylonians, and their tenure as rulers of Southern just as the kings of Babylonia and Assyria are regularly Mesopotamia lasting a mere five decades or so. styled simply king of Babylon or Assur, the capital city. In the same way, the Persian Gulf was sometimes called Though foreign immigrants, and for a brief period rulers “the Sea of Bit Yakin, instead of “the Sea of the Land of of Babylonia, the Chaldeans were rapidly and completely Chaldea.” assimilated into the dominant East Semitic Akkadian Assyro-Babylonian culture, as the Amorites, Kassites, The boundaries of the early lands settled by Chaldeans Suteans and Arameans before them had been. By the in the early 800’s BC are not identified with preci- time Babylon fell in 539 BC, the Chaldean tribes had sion by historians. Chaldea generally referred to the already disappeared as a distinct race, becoming com- low, marshy, alluvial land around the estuaries of the pletely absorbed into the general population of southern Tigris and Euphrates, which then discharged their waters Mesopotamia, and the term “Chaldean” was no longer through separate mouths into the sea. In a later time, be- used or relevant in describing a specific ethnicity. How- tween 608 BC and 557 BC, when the Chaldean tribe had ever the term lingered for a while, but being used specif- burst their narrow bonds and obtained their short lived pe- ically and only in relation to describing a socio-economic riod of ascendency over all Babylonia, they briefly gave class of astrologers, and not a race of men. The na- their name to the whole land of Babylonia, which was tion of Chaldea in south east Mesopotamia seems to have then somewhat inaccurately called Chaldea by some peo- disappeared even before the fall of Babylon (whose fi- ples, particularly the Jews, for a short time, although this nal two rulers were not Chaldeans), and the succeeding term eventually fell out of use. Achaemenid Empire did not retain a province or land Chaldea, like the rest of Mesopotamia and much of the called Chaldea, and makes no mention of a Chaldean race ancient Near East and Asia Minor, from the 10th to in its annals. late 7th centuries BC, came to be dominated by the The Chaldeans originally spoke a West Semitic language Neo Assyrian Empire (911-608 BC), based in northern similar to Aramaic, however they eventually adopted the Mesopotamia. Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, the same East Semitic The Old Testament book of the prophet Habbakuk de- language, save for slight peculiarities in sound and in scribes the Chaldeans as “a bitter and swift nation”.[5] characters, as Assyrian Akkadian. During the Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III introduced an Akkadian infused Eastern Aramaic as the lingua franca of his empire. In late periods both the Babylo- 6.2 Chaldean people nian and Assyrian dialects of Akkadian ceased to be spoken, and Mesopotamian Aramaic took its place across Unlike the East Semitic Akkadian-speaking Akkadians, Mesopotamia, including among the Chaldeans. The still Assyrians and Babylonians whose ancestors had been es- Akkadian influenced language remains the mother tongue tablished in Mesopotamia since the 30th century BC, the of the Assyrian (also known as Chaldo-Assyrian) Chris- Chaldeans (not to be confused with the unrelated modern tians of northern Iraq and its surrounds to this day. One Chaldean Catholics of northern Iraq) were certainly not a form of this widespread language is used in Daniel and native Mesopotamian people, but were late 10th or early Ezra, but the use of the name “Chaldee” to describe it, 9th century BC West Semitic migrants from the south first introduced by Jerome, is incorrect and a misnomer. eastern Levant to the far south eastern corner of the re- In the Hebrew Bible, the prophet Abraham is stated gion, and thus had played no part in the previous 3,000 to have originally been from "Ur of the Chaldees"(Ur years of Mesopotamian civilisation and history.[6][7] They Kaśdim); if this city is to be identified with the ancient seem to have appeared there some time between c. 940 - Sumerian city state of Ur, it would be within what would 860 BC, a century or so after other new Semitic peoples, many centuries later become the Chaldean homeland the Arameans and the Suteans appeared in Babylonia, c. south of the Euphrates, although it must be pointed out 1100 BC. This was a period of weakness in Babylonia, that the Chaldeans certainly did not exist in Mesopotamia and its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent (or anywhere else in historical record) at the time that new waves of semi-nomadic foreign peoples invading and Abraham is believed to have existed (circa 1800-1700 settling in the land.[8] BC), arriving some eight or nine hundred years later.[9] Though belonging to the same West Semitic ethnic group, 6.3. HISTORY 53

This fact casts serious doubt on the chronological ac- It is noteworthy that term Chaldeans already had a history curacy and historicity of the Abrahamic story. On the of being used in an ethnically and geographically inaccu- other hand, the traditional identification with a site in rate sense by Rome,[13] having been previously officially Assyria (a nation in Upper Mesopotamia both predating used by the Council of Florence in 1445 as a new name Chaldea by well over one thousand three hundred years, for a group of Greek Nestorians of Cyprus who entered and one which was never recorded in historical annals in Full Communion with the Catholic Church. Rome fol- as ever having been inhabited by the much later arriving lowed to use the term Chaldeans to indicate the mem- Chaldeans) would then imply the later sense of “Babylo- bers of the Church of the East in Communion with Rome nia”. Some interpreters have additionally identified Abra- (mainly not to use the term Nestorian that was theolog- ham’s birthplace with Chaldia in Asia Minor on the Black ically unacceptable) also in 1681 for Joseph I and later Sea, a distinct region utterly unrelated geographically, in 1830 when Yohannan Hormizd, of the line of Alqosh, culturally and ethnically to the south east Mesopotamian became the first so called “Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldea. According to the Book of Jubilees, Ur Kaśdim Chaldeans” of the modern Chaldean Catholic Church. (and Chaldea) took their name from Ura and Kesed, de- In addition, Rome had also long misapplied the name scendants of Arpachshad. However, by the beginning Chaldea to the completely unrelated Chaldia in Asia Mi- of the 21st century, and despite sporadic attempts by nor on the Black Sea. more conservative theologically minded scholars such as Kenneth Kitchen to save these Biblical patriarchal narra- tives as actual true history, many modern archaeologists, orientalists and historians had “given up hope of recover- 6.3 History ing any context that would make Abraham, Isaac or Jacob credible or realistic 'historical figures’"[10] Further information: Neo-Babylonian Empire The term “Chaldean” has fairly recently been revived, being used (historically, ethnically and geographically The region that the Chaldeans settled in, and eventually wholly inaccurately) to describe those Assyrians who made their homeland, was in the relatively poor country broke from the Church of the East in the 16th and 17th in the far south east of Mesopotamia, at the head of the centuries AD, and entered communion with the Roman Persian Gulf. They appear to have migrated into south- Catholic Church. After pointedly initially calling it “The ern Babylonia from The Levant at some unknown point Church of Assyria and Mosul” in 1553 AD, and its first between the end of the reign of Ninurta-kudurri-usur II (a leader Patriarch of the East Assyrians. it was much later contemporary of Tiglath-Pileser II) circa 940 BC, and the renamed as the Chaldean Catholic Church, in 1683 AD. start of the reign of Marduk-zakir-shumi I in 855 BC, al- However this line too reverted to the Assyrian church, and though there is no historical proof of their existence prior the modern Chaldean Catholic Church was only founded to the late 850’s BC.[14] in 1830 AD. The term Chaldean Catholic is inaccurate For perhaps a century or so after settling in the area, in ethnic, historical and geographic senses, and should be these semi nomadic migrant Chaldean tribes had no im- taken purely as a Christian denominational rather than a pact upon the pages of history, seemingly remaining sub- racial term, as the modern Chaldean Catholics are in fact jugated by the native Akkadian speaking kings of Baby- [11] ethnically Assyrian people, converts to Catholicism, lon, or perhaps regionally influential Aramean tribes. The long indigenous to the Assyrian homeland in the North main players in southern Mesopotamia during this period of Mesopotamia, rather than the long extinct Chaldeans were the indigenous Babylonians and Assyrians, together who hailed from The Levant, and settled in the far South- with the Elamites to the east, and Aramean tribes which east of Mesopotamia before wholly disappearing during had already settled in the region a century or so prior to the 6th century BC. There has been no accredited aca- the arrival of the Chaldeans. demic study nor historical evidence which links the modern Chaldean Catholics to the ancient Chaldeans, in other The very first historical attestation of the Chaldeans oc- [15] words no Chaldean continuity. The evidence conclusively curs in 852 BC, in the annals of the Assyrian king points to them being one and the same people as, and hail- Shalmaneser III who mentions invading the south eastern ing from the same region as the Assyrians, in other words extremes of Babylonia and subjugating one Mushallim- they are in fact a part of the Assyrian continuity. The Marduk, the chief of the Amukani tribe and overall leader [16] naming by Rome is believed to be due to the misinterpre- of the Kaldu tribes, together with capturing the town tation of Ur Kasdim the supposed north Mesopotamian of Baqani, extracting tribute from Adini, chief of the Bet- birthplace of Abraham in Hebraic tradition as Ur of the Dakkuri, another Chaldean tribe. Chaldees, and an unwillingness to use the original and Shalmanesser III had invaded Babylonia at the request of earlier terms the Catholic Church had used such as As- its own king, Marduk-zakir-shumi I. The Babylonian king syrians, East Assyrians, East Syrians and Nestorians due being threatened by his own rebellious relations, together to their connotations with the Assyrian Church of the East with powerful Aramean tribes. The subjugation of the and Syriac Orthodox Church.[12] Chaldean tribes appears to have been an aside, as they were not at that time a powerful force, or a threat to the 54 CHAPTER 6. CHALDEA

native Babylonian king. However, when Sargon II (722-705 BC) ascended the Important Kaldu regions in south eastern Babylonia throne of the Assyrian Empire in 722 BC after the death were; Bit-Yâkin (the original area the Chaldeans settled of Shalmaneser V, he was forced to launch a major cam- in, on the Persian Gulf), Bet-Dakuri, Bet-Adini, Bet- paign in Persia and Media in Ancient Iran, defeating and Amukkani, and Bet-Shilani. driving out the Scythians and Cimmerians who had attacked Assyria’s Persian and Median vassal colonies in Chaldean leaders had by this time already adopted native the region, whilst at the same time Egypt began encour- Assyro-Babylonian names, religion, language and cus- aging and supporting rebellion against Assyria in Israel toms, indicating that they had become firmly Akkadian- and Canaan. ized to a great degree. These events allowed the Chaldeans to once more attempt The Chaldeans remained quietly ruled by the native Baby- to assert themselves. While the Assyrian king was other- lonians (who were in turn subjugated by their Assyr- wise occupied defending his Iranian colonies, Marduk- ian relations) for the next seventy two years, only com- apla-iddina II (the Biblical Merodach-Baladan) of Bit- ing to historical prominence in Babylonia in 780 BC, Yâkin, allied himself with the powerful Elamite king- when a previously unknown Chaldean named Marduk- dom and the native Babylonians, briefly seizing control apla-usur usurped the throne from the native Babylonian of Babylon between 721 and 710 BC. With the Scythi- king Marduk-bel-zeri (790-780 BC), the latter being a ans and Cimmerians vanquished and the Egyptians de- vassal of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser IV (783-773 feated and ejected from southern Canaan, Sargon II was BC), who was otherwise occupied quelling a civil war in free at last to deal with the Chaldeans, Babylonians and Assyria at the time. Elamites. He attacked and deposed Marduk-apla-iddina This was to set a precedent for all future Chaldean as- II in 710 BC, also defeating his Elamite allies in the pro- pirations on Babylon during the Neo Assyrian Empire; cess. After defeat by the Assyrians, Merodach-Baladan always too weak to confront a strong Assyria alone and fled to his protectors in Elam. directly, the Chaldeans would await periods when Assyr- In 703 Merodach-Baladan very briefly regained the ian kings were distracted elsewhere, or engaged in inter- throne from a native Akkadian-Babylonian ruler Marduk- nal conflicts, then, in alliance with other powers stronger zakir-shumi II who was a puppet of the new Assyrian than themselves (usually Elam), they would make a bid king, Sennacherib (705-681 BC). He was once more for control over Babylonia. soundly defeated at Kish, and once again fled to Elam Shalmaneser IV attacked and defeated Marduk-apla- where he died in exile after one final failed attempt to usur, retaking northern Babylonia, and forcing a border raise a revolt against Assyria in 700 BC, this time not treaty in Assyria’s favour upon him. However he was al- in Babylon, but in the Chaldean tribal land of Bit-Yâkin. lowed to remain on the throne by the Assyrians, though A native Babylonian king named Bel-ibni (703-701 BC) subjected to Assyria. Eriba-Marduk, another Chaldean, was placed on the throne as a puppet of Assyria. succeeded him in 769 BC and his son, Nabu-shuma- The next challenge to Assyrian domination was to come ishkun in 761 BC, with both also being dominated by the from the Elamites in 694 BC, with Nergal-ushezib de- new Assyrian king Ashur-Dan III (772-755 BC). Baby- posing and murdering Ashur-nadin-shumi (700-694 BC), lonia appears to have been in a state of chaos during this the Assyrian prince who was king of Babylon, and son of time, with the north occupied by Assyria, its throne oc- Sennacherib. The Chaldeans and Babylonians again al- cupied by foreign Chaldeans, and continual civil unrest lied themselves with their more powerful Elamite neigh- extant throughout the land. bours in this endeavour. This led to the infuriated Assyr- However, Chaldean rule proved short lived. A na- ian king Sennacherib invading and subjugating Elam and tive Babylonian king named Nabonassar (748-734 BC) Chaldea, and sacking Babylon, laying waste to and largely defeated and overthrew the Chaldean usurpers in 748 destroying the city. Babylon was regarded as a sacred city BC, restored indigenous rule, and successfully stabilised by all Mesopotamians, including the Assyrians, and this Babylonia. The Chaldeans once more faded into obscu- act eventually led Sennacherib to be murdered by his own rity for the next three decades. During this time both sons while praying to the god Nisroch in Nineveh. the Babylonians and the Chaldean and Aramean migrant Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) succeeded Sennacherib as groups settled within their land once more fell completely ruler of the Assyrian Empire, and completely rebuilt under the yoke of the powerful Assyrian king Tiglath- Babylon and brought peace to the region, allowing him to Pileser III (745-727 BC), a ruler who introduced Imperial conquer Egypt, Nubia and Libya and entrench his mas- Aramaic as the lingua franca of his empire. The Assyr- tery over the Persians, Medes, Scythians and Cimmeri- ian king at first made Nabonassar and his successor na- ans. For the next 60 or so years Babylon and Chaldea tive Babylonian kings Nabu-nadin-zeri, Nabu-suma-ukin remained under direct Assyrian control. The Chaldeans II and Nabu-mukin-zeri his subjects, but decided ruled remained subjugated and quiet during this period, and the Babylonia directly from 729 BC. He was followed by next major revolt in Babylon against the Assyrian empire Shalmaneser V (727-722 BC), who also ruled Babylon was fermented not by a Chaldean, Babylonian or Elamite, in person. 6.3. HISTORY 55

but by Shamash-shum-ukin, who was an Assyrian king of However, his position was still far from secure, and bit- Babylon, and elder brother of Ashurbanipal, the ruler of ter fighting continued in the Babylonian heartlands from the Neo Assyrian Empire. 620 to 615 BC, with Assyrian forces encamped in Baby- Shamash-shum-ukin (668-648 BC) had become infused lonia in an attempt to eject Nabopolassar. Nabopolassar with Babylonian nationalism after sixteen years peace- attempted a counterattack, he marched his army into As- fully subject to his brother, and despite being Assyrian syria proper in 616 BC and tried to besiege Assur and himself, declared that the city of Babylon and not Nin- Arrapha (Kirkuk), but was defeated by Sin-shar-ishkun eveh should be the seat of empire. and chased back into Babylonia. A stalemate seemed to have ensued, with Nabopolassar unable to make any in- In 652 BC he raised a powerful coalition of peo- roads into Assyria despite its greatly weakened state, and ples, resentful of their subjugation to Assyria, against Sin-shar-ishkun unable to eject Nabopolassar from Baby- his own brother Ashurbanipal. The alliance included lonia due to constant fighting and civil war among his own the Babylonians, Persians, Chaldeans, Medes, Elamites, people. Suteans, Arameans, Israelites, Arabs and Canaanites, together with some disaffected Assyrian elements. Af- Nabopolassar’s position, and the fate of the Assyrian em- ter a bitter struggle lasting five years the Assyrian king pire, was sealed when he entered into an alliance with triumphed over his rebellious brother in 648 BC, Elam another of Assyria’s former vassals, the Medes, the now was destroyed, and the Babylonians, Persians, Chaldeans, dominant people of what was to become Persia. The Arabs and others were savagely punished. An Assyrian Median Cyaxares had also recently taken advantage of governor named Kandalanu was then placed on the throne the anarchy in the Assyrian Empire to free the Iranian of Babylon to rule on behalf of Ashurbanipal. The next peoples, the Medes, Persians and Parthians, from Assyr- 22 years were peaceful, and neither the Babylonians nor ian rule, moulding them into a large and powerful Me- Chaldeans posed any threat to the dominance of Ashur- dian dominated force. The Medes, Persians, Parthians, banipal. Chaldeans and Babylonians formed an alliance, which also included the Scythians and Cimmerians to the north. However, after the death of Ashurbanipal (and Kan- dalanu) in 627 BC, the Neo Assyrian Empire descended While Sin-shar-ishkun was fighting both the rebels in Assyria and the Chaldeans and Babylonians in southern into a series of bitter internal dynastic civil wars which were to be the cause its downfall. Mesopotamia, Cyaxares (hitherto a vassal of Assyria), in an alliance with the Scythians and Cimmerians, launched Ashur-etil-ilani (626-623 BC) ascended to the throne of a surprise attack on the civil war bleaguered Assyria in the empire in 626 BC, but was immediately engulfed in 615 BC, sacking Kalhu (the Biblical Calah/Nimrud) and rebellions from rival claimants, being deposed in 623 BC taking Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk). Nabopolassar, still by a rebellious Assyrian general (turtanu) named Sin- pinned down in southern Mesopotamia, was completely shumu-lishir (623-622 BC), who was also declared king uninvolved in this major breakthrough against Assyria. of Babylon. Sin-shar-ishkun (622-612 BC), the brother of Ashur-etil-ilani, took the throne of empire from Sin- However, from this point, the alliance of Medes, Per- shumu-lishir in 622 BC, but was then himself faced with sians, Chaldeans, Babylonians, Scythians and Cimmeri- unremitting rebellions against his rule by his own people. ans fought in unison against Assyria. The continual brutal and draining conflicts among the As- Despite the sorely depleted state of Assyria, bitter fighting syrians led to a myriad of subject peoples from Cyprus ensued; throughout 614 BC the alliance of powers con- to Persia and The Caucasus to Egypt, quietly reasserting tinued to make inroads into Assyria itself, however in 613 their independence, and ceasing to pay tribute to Assyria. BC the Assyrians somehow rallied against the odds and scored a number of counterattacking victories over the Nabopolassar, a previously obscure and unknown Chaldean chieftain, following the opportunistic tactics Medes-Persians, Babylonians-Chaldeans and Scythians- Cimmerians. This led to the coalition of forces ranged laid down by previous Chaldean leaders, took advantage of the violent chaos and anarchy gripping Assyria and against it to unite and launch a massive combined attack Babylonia, and seized the city of Babylon in 620 BC, with in 612 BC, finally besieging and sacking Nineveh in late the help of its native Babylonian inhabitants. 612 BC, killing Sin-shar-ishkun in the process. Sin-shar-ishkun amassed a powerful army and marched However, a new Assyrian king Ashur-uballit II (612-605 into Babylon to regain control of the region. However, BC) took the crown amidst the house to house fighting in Nabopolassar was saved from likely destruction, as yet Nineveh, and refused a request to bow in vassalage to the another massive Assyrian rebellion broke out in Assyria rulers of the alliance. He somehow managed to fight his proper, including the capital Nineveh, and the Assyrian way out of Nineveh, and battle his way to the northern king was forced to turn back in order to quell the revolt. Assyrian city of Harran where he founded a new capital. Nabopolassar once more took advantage of this situation, Assyria resisted for another seven years, until 605 BC, seizing the ancient city of Nippur in 619 BC, a mainstay when the remnants of the Assyrian Army and the army of of pro-Assyrianism in Babylonia, and thus Babylonia as a the Egyptians (whose dynasty had also been installed as whole. puppets by the Assyrians) were defeated at Karchemish. 56 CHAPTER 6. CHALDEA

Nabopolassar and his Median, Scythian and Cimmerian In 601 BC Nebuchadnezzar II was involved in a major, allies were now in possession of much of the huge Neo but inconclusive battle, against the Egyptians. In 599 BC Assyrian Empire. The Egyptians had belatedly come to he invaded Arabia and routed the Arabs at Qedar. In 597 the aid of Assyria, fearing that without Assyrian protec- BC he invaded Judah, captured Jerusalem, and deposed tion they would be next to succumb to the new powers, its king Jehoiachin. Egyptian and Babylonian armies having already been raided by the Scythians. fought each other for control of the near east through- The Chaldean king of Babylon now ruled all of southern out much of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign, and this encour- Mesopotamia (although Assyria in the north was ruled by aged king Zedekiah of Judah to revolt. After an eighteen- month siege Jerusalem was captured in 587 BC, thou- the Medes as Athura), and the former Assyrian posses- sions of Aram (Syria), Phoenicia, Israel, Cyprus, Edom, sands of Jews were deported to Babylon and Solomon’s Temple was razed to the ground. Philistia, and parts of Arabia, while the Medes took control of the former Assyrian colonies in Iran, Asia Minor Nebuchadnezzar successfully fought the Pharaohs and the Caucasus. Psammetichus II and Apries throughout his reign, and Nabopolassar, was not able to enjoy his success for during the reign of Pharaoh Amasis in 568 BC it is long, dying in 604 BC, only one year after the vic- rumoured that he may have briefly invaded Egypt itself. tory at Carchemish. He was succeeded by his son, By 572 Nebuchadnezzar was in full control of Babylonia, who took the name Nebuchadnezzar II, after the un- Chaldea, Aramea (Syria), Phonecia, Israel, Judah, related 12th century BC native Akkadian-Babylonian Philistia, Samarra, Jordan, northern Arabia, and parts of king Nebuchadnezzar I, indicating the extent to which Asia Minor. Nebuchadnezzar died of illness in 562 BC the migrant Chaldeans had become infused with native after a one-year co-reign with his son, Amel-Marduk, Mesopotamian culture. who was deposed in 560 BC after a reign of only two years. Nebuchadnezzar II and his allies may well have been forced to deal with remnants of Assyrian resistance based in and around Dur-Katlimmu, as Assyrian imperial records continue in this region between 604 and 599 6.3.1 End of the Chaldean dynasty BC,[17] in addition the Egyptians remained in the region, possibly in an attempt to aid their former masters, and to Neriglissar succeeded Amel-Marduk. It is unclear as to carve out an empire of their own. whether he was in fact an ethnic Chaldean or a native Nebuchadnezzar II was to prove himself to be the greatest Babylonian nobleman, as he was not related by blood of the Chaldean rulers, rivaling another non-native ruler, to Nabopolassar’s descendants, having married into the the 18th century BC Amorite king Hammurabi, as the ruling family. He conducted successful military cam- greatest king of Babylon. He was a patron of the cities and paigns against the Hellenic inhabitants of Cilicia, which a spectacular builder. He rebuilt all of Babylonia’s major had threatened Babylonian interests. cities on a lavish scale. His building activity at Babylon, Neriglissar however reigned for only four years, being expanding on the earlier major and impressive rebuild- succeeded by the youthful Labashi-Marduk in 556 BC. ing of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon, helped in turning Again it is unclear as to whether he was a Chaldean or a it into the immense and beautiful city of legend. Baby- native Babylonian. lon covered more than three square miles, surrounded by Labashi-Marduk reigned only for a matter of months, be- moats and ringed by a double circuit of walls. The Eu- ing deposed by Nabonidus in late 556 BC. Nabonidus, phrates flowed through the center of the city, spanned by was certainly not a Chaldean, ironically he was an a beautiful stone bridge. At the center of the city rose the Assyrian from Harran, the last capital of Assyria. giant ziggurat called Etemenanki, “House of the Frontier Nabonidus proved to be the final native Mesopotamian Between Heaven and Earth,” which lay next to the Tem- king of Babylon, he and his son, the regent Belshazzar, ple of Marduk. He is also believed by many historians being deposed by the Persians under Cyrus II in 539 BC. to have built The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (although many others believe these gardens were in fact built much When the Babylonian Empire was absorbed into the earlier, by an Assyrian king in Nineveh), for his wife, a Persian Achaemenid Empire, the name “Chaldean” com- Median princess from the mountains so that she would pletely lost its meaning in reference a particular eth- feel at home. nicity, and came to be applied only to a socioeco- nomic class of astrologers and astronomers. The ac- A capable leader, Nabuchadnezzar II, conducted suc- tual Chaldean tribe had long ago became Akkadianized, cessful military campaigns, cities like Tyre, Sidon and adopting Assyro-Babylonian culture, religion, language Damascus were also subjugated. He also conducted nu- and customs, blending into the majority native popula- merous campaigns in Asia Minor against the Scythians, tion, and they eventually wholly disappeared as a dis- Cimmerians, and Lydians. Like their Assyrian relations, tinct race of people, much as other fellow preceding mi- the Babylonians had to campaign yearly in order to con- grant peoples, such as the Amorites, Kassites, Suteans trol their colonies. and Arameans of Babylonia had also done. 6.4. SEE ALSO 57

The Persians found this so-called Chaldean societal class 6.4 See also masters of reading and writing, and especially versed in all forms of incantation, in sorcery, witchcraft, and the • Babylonia magical arts. They spoke of astrologists and astronomers as Chaldeans; consequently, Chaldean came to mean sim- • Assyria ply astrologist rather than an ethnic Chaldean. It is used with this specific meaning in the Book of Daniel (Dan. i. • Neo Assyrian Empire 4, ii. 2 et seq.) and by classical writers such as Strabo. • Sealand Dynasty The disappearance of the Chaldeans as an ethnicity and Chaldea as a land is evidenced by the fact that the Per- • Neo-Babylonian Empire sian rulers of the Achaemenid Empire (539 - 330 BC) • did not retain a province called Chaldea, nor did they re- Median Empire fer to Chaldeans as a race of people in their written an- • Achaemenid Empire nals. This is in contrast to Assyria, and for a time Babylo- nia also, where the Persians retained Assyria and Babylo- • Sumer nia as distinct and named geo-political entities within the Achaemenid Empire, and in the case of the Assyrians in • Elam particular, Achaemenid records show Assyrians holding important positions within the empire, particularly with • Arameans regards to the military and civil administration.[18] • Suteans This complete absence of Chaldeans from historical record also continues throughout the Seleucid Empire, • Scythians Parthian Empire, Roman Empire, Sassanid Empire, • Byzantine Empire and after the Arab Islamic conquest Assyrian people and Mongol Empire. • Semitic people By the time of Cicero in the 2nd century BC, Chaldean appears to have completely disappeared even as a societal • Assyrian Church of the East term for Babylonian astronomers and astrologers; Cicero • Chaldean Catholic Church refers to “Babylonian astrologers” rather than Chaldean [19] astrologers. Horace does the same, referring to “Baby- • Chaldean Oracles lonian horoscopes” rather than Chaldean[20] in his famous Carpe Diem ode; Cicero views the Babylonian astrologers • Names of Syriac Christians as holding obscure knowledge, while Horace thinks that they are wasting their time and would be happier “going • Mesopotamian Marshes with the flow”. The terms Chaldee and Chaldean were henceforth only found only in Hebraic and Biblical sources dating from 6.5 References the 6th and 5th centuries BC, and referring specifically to the period of the Chaldean Dynasty of Babylon. [1] “Chaldea”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-02-02.

After an absence from history of two thousand two hun- [2] George Roux - Ancient Iraq - p281 dred and thirty six years, the name was revived by the Roman Catholic Church, in the form of the Chaldean [3] Nordhoﬀ, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Catholic Church in the 1683 AD, as the new name for Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). “West the Church of Assyria and Mosul (so named in 1553 Semitic”. Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute AD). However, this was a church founded and popu- for Evolutionary Anthropology. lated not by the long extinct Chaldean tribe of south east- [4] Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq ern extremes Mesopotamia who had disappeared from the pages of history over twenty two centuries previ- [5] “Douay-Rheims Catholic Bible”. ously, but founded in northern Mesopotamia by a break- away group of ethnic Assyrians long indigenous to Upper [6] F Leo Oppenheim - Ancient Mesopotamia Mesopotamia (Assyria) who had hitherto been members [7] Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq of the Assyrian Church of the East before entering communion with Rome.[21][22] [8] F. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia

[9] Moore & Kelle 2011, p. 18-19.

[10] Dever 2002, p. 98 and fn.2. 58 CHAPTER 6. CHALDEA

[11] From a lecture by J. A. Brinkman: “There is no reason to believe that there would be no racial or cultural continuity in Assyria, since there is no evidence that the population of Assyrians were removed.” Quoted in Efram Yildiz’s “The Assyrians” Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies, 13.1, pp. 22, ref 24

[12] Biblical Archaeology Review May/June 2001: Where Was Abraham’s Ur?.

[13] Council of Florence, Bull of union with the Chaldeans and the Maronites of Cyprus Session 14, 7 August 1445 [1]

[14] Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq p.298

[15] A. K. Grayson (1996). Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC II (858-745 B.C.) (RIMA 3). Toronto University Press. pp. 31, 26–28. iv 6

[16] Door ﬁtting from the Balawat Gates, BM 124660.

[17] Assyria 1995: Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary Symposium of the Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project / Helsinki, September 7–11, 1995.

[18] “Assyrians after Assyria”. Nineveh.com. 4 September 1999. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Re- trieved 19 June 2011.

[19] Cicero, Pro Murena, ch. 21

[20] Horace, Odes 1.11

[21] George V. Yana (Bebla), “Myth vs. Reality” JAA Studies, Vol. XIV, No. 1, 2000 p. 80

[22] O’Mahony, Anthony (2006). “Syriac Christianity in the modern Middle East”. In Angold, Michael. Eastern Christianity. Cambridge History of Christianity 5. Cam- bridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81113-2.

Lenorman, Francois. Chaldean Magic: Its Origin and Development. London, England: Samuel Bagster and Sons [1877]

6.6 External links

• Zénaïde A. Ragozin, Chaldea – from the earliest times to the rise of Assyria, 1893, from Project Gutenberg

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Jewish Encyclopedia. 1901–1906. Chapter 7

Scythia

sia, and western Kazakhstan (inhabited by Scythians from at least the 8th century BC)[6]

• The Kazakh steppe: northern Kazakhstan and the adjacent portions of Russia

• Sarmatia, corresponding to eastern Poland, Ukraine, southwestern Russia, and the northeastern Balkans,[7] ranging from the Vistula River in the west to the mouth of the Danube, and eastward to the Volga

• Saka tigrakhauda, corresponding to parts of Cen- Approximate extent of Scythia within the area of distribution of tral Asia, including Kyrgyzstan, southeastern Kaza- Eastern Iranian languages (shown in orange) in the 1st century khstan, and the Tarim Basin BC. • Sistan or Sakastan, corresponding to southern Scythia (/ˈsiθiə/; Ancient Greek: Σκυθική) was a re- Afghanistan, eastern Iran, and southwestern Pak- gion of Central Eurasia in classical antiquity, occupied istan, extending from the Sistan Basin to the Indus by the multinational but predominantly Eastern Iranian River Scythians,[1] encompassing parts of Eastern Europe east of the Vistula River and Central Asia, with the eastern • Parama Kamboja, corresponding to northern edges of the region vaguely deﬁned by the Greeks. The Afghanistan and parts of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan Ancient Greeks gave the name Scythia (or Great Scythia) • to all the lands north-east of Europe and the northern Alania, corresponding to the northern Caucasus re- coast of the Black Sea.[2] gion The Scythians – the Greeks’ name for this initially no- • Scythia Minor, corresponding to the lower Danube madic people – inhabited Scythia from at least the 11th river area west of the Black Sea, with a part in century BC to the 2nd century AD.[3] Its location and ex- Romania and a part in Bulgaria tent varied over time but usually extended farther to the west than is indicated on the map opposite.[4] Scythia was a loose state that originated as early as 8th 7.2 First Scythian kingdom century BC. Little is known of them and their rulers. The most detailed western description is by Herodotus, In the 7th century BC Scythians penetrated from the ter- though it is uncertain he ever went to Scythia. He says ritories north of the Black Sea across the Caucasus. The the Scythians own name for themselves was “Scoloti”.[5] early Scythian kingdoms were dominated by inter-ethnic The Scythians became increasingly settled and wealthy forms of dependency based on subjugation of agricultural on their western frontier with Greco-Roman civilization. populations in eastern South Caucasia, plunder and taxes (occasionally, as far as Syria), regular tribute (Media), tribute disguised as gifts (Egypt), and possibly also pay- 7.1 Geography ments for military support (Assyria). It is possible that the same dynasty ruled in Scythia during The region known to classical authors as Scythia included: most of its history. The name of Koloksai, a legendary founder of a royal dynasty, is mentioned by Alcman in the • The Pontic-Caspian steppe: Ukraine, southern Rus- 7th century BC. Prototi and Madis, Scythian kings in the

59 60 CHAPTER 7. SCYTHIA

Near Eastern period of their history, and their successors are "the most able to power, and are the peoples with the in the north Pontic steppes belonged to the same dynasty. greatest might.” In the 4th century BC, under king Ateas, Herodotus lists five generations of a royal clan that prob- the tribune structure of the state was eliminated, and the ably reigned at the end of the 7th to 6th centuries BC: ruling power became more centralized. The later sources prince Anacharsis, Saulius, Idanthyrsus, Gnurus (Гнур ), do not mention three basileuses any more. Strabo tells[10] Lycus, and Spargapithes.[8] that Ateas ruled over majority of the North Pontic bar- After being defeated by the Chinese and driven from the barians. Near East, in the first half of the 6th century BCE, Scythi- Written sources tell that expansion of the Scythian state ans had to re-conquer lands north of the Black Sea. In before the 4th century BC was mainly to the west. In the second half of that century, Scythians succeeded in this respect Ateas continued the policy of his predeces- dominating the agricultural tribes of the forest-steppe and sors in the 5th century BC. During western expansion, placed them under tribute. As a result their state was re- Ateas fought the Triballi.[11] An area of Thrace was sub- constructed with the appearance of the Second Scythian jugated and levied with severe duties. During the 90 Kingdom which reached its zenith in the 4th century BC. year life of Ateas, the Scythians settled firmly in Thrace (see further: History of Xinjiang) and became an important factor in political games in the Balkans. At the same time, both the nomadic and agricultural Scythian populations increased along the Dniester 7.3 Second Scythian kingdom river. A war with the Bosporian Kingdom increased Scythian pressure on the Greek cities along the North Pontic littoral. Scythia’s social development at the end of the 5th century BC and in the 4th century BC was linked to its privi- Materials from the site near Kamianka-Dniprovska, pur- leged status of trade with Greeks, its efforts to control this portedly the capital of the Ateas’ state, show that met- trade, and the consequences partly stemming from these allurgists were free members of the society, even if bur- two. Aggressive external policy intensified exploitation dened with imposed obligations. Metallurgy was the most of dependent populations and progressed the stratifica- advanced and the only distinct craft speciality among the tion among the nomadic rulers. Trading with Greeks also Scythians. From the story of Polyaenus and Frontin, it stimulated sedentarization processes. follows that in the 4th century BC Scythia had a layer of dependent population, which consisted of impoverished The proximity of the Greek city-states on the Black Sea Scythian nomads and local indigenous agricultural tribes, coast (Pontic Olbia, Cimmerian Bosporus, Chersonesos, socially deprived, dependent and exploited, who did not Sindica, Tanais) was a powerful incentive for slavery in participate in the wars, but were engaged in servile agri- the Scythian society, but only in one direction: the sale culture and cattle husbandry. of slaves to Greeks, instead of use in their economy. Ac- cordingly, the trade became a stimulus for capture of The year 339 BC was a culminating year for the Second slaves as war spoils in numerous wars. Scythian Kingdom, and the beginning of its decline. The war with Philip II of Macedon ended in a victory by the father of Alexander the Great, the Scythian king Ateas 7.3.1 Scythia at the end of the 5th to 3rd fell in battle well into his nineties.[12] Many royal kurgans centuries BC (Chertomlyk, Kul-Oba, Aleksandropol, Krasnokut) are dated from after Ateas’s time and previous traditions were continued, and life in the settlements of Western Scythia show that the state survived until the 250s BC. When in 331 BC Zopyrion, Alexander’s viceroy in Thrace, “not wishing to sit idle”, invaded Scythia and besieged Pontic Olbia, he suffered a crushing defeat from the Scythians and lost his life.[13] The fall of the Second Scythian Kingdom came about in the second half of the 3rd century BC under the onslaught of Celts and Thracians from the west and Sarmatians from the east. With their increased forces, the Sarmatians dev- astated significant parts of Scythia and, “annihilating the defeated, transformed a larger part of the country into a desert”.[14] Scythia et Serica, 18th century map. The dependent forest-steppe tribes, subjected to exaction burdens, freed themselves at the first opportunity. The The Scythian state reached its greatest extent in the 4th Dnieper and Buh populace ruled by the Scythians did not century BC during the reign of Ateas. Isocrates[9] be- become Scythians. They continued to live their original lieved that Scythians, and also Thracians and Persians, 7.4. LATER SCYTHIAN KINGDOMS 61 life which was alien to Scythian ways. From the 3rd cen- aristocracy. After the defeat of Athens in the tury BC for many centuries the histories of the steppe and Peloponnesian war, Attican agriculture was ruined. forest-steppe zones of North Pontic diverged. The mate- Demosthenes wrote that about 400,000 medimns rial culture of the populations quickly lost their common (63,000 tonne) of grain was exported annually from features. And in the steppe, reflecting the end of nomad the Bosporus to Athens. The Scythian nomadic aris- hegemony in Scythian society, the royal kurgans were no tocracy not only served a middleman role, but also longer built. Archeologically, late Scythia appears first of actively participated in the trade of grain (produced all as a conglomerate of fortified and non-fortified settle- by dependent farmers as well as slaves), skins, and ments with abutting agricultural zones. other goods. The development of the Scythian society was marked by the following trends: Scythia’s later history is mainly dominated by sedentary agrarian and city elements. As a result of the defeats suf- • An intensified settlement process, evidenced by fered by Scythians two separate states were formed, two the appearance of numerous kurgan burials in the Lesser Scythias, one in Thrace (Dobrudja), and the other [15] steppe zone of North Pontic, some of them dated in the Crimea and the Lower Dnieper area. to the end of the 5th century BC, but the majority belonging to the 4th or 3rd centuries BC, reflecting the establishment of permanent pastoral coach- 7.4 Later Scythian kingdoms ing routes and a tendency to semi-nomadic pas- turing. The Lower Dnieper area contained mostly unfortified settlements, while in Crimea and West- Having settled this Scythia Minor in Thrace, the for- ern Scythia the agricultural population grew. The mer Scythian nomads (or rather their nobility) abandoned Dnieper settlements developed in what were previ- their nomadic way of life, retaining their power over the ously nomadic winter villages, and in uninhabited agrarian population. This little polity should be distin- lands. guished from the Third Scythian Kingdom in Crimea and Lower Dnieper area, whose inhabitants likewise under- went a massive sedentarization. The interethnic depen- • Tendency for social inequality, ascent of the nobil- dence was replaced by developing forms of dependence ity, and further stratification among free Scythian within the society. nomads. The majority of royal kurgans are dated from the 4th century BC. The enmity of the Third Scythian Kingdom, centred on Scythian Neapolis, towards the Greek settlements of the • Increase in subjugation of the forest-steppe popula- northern Black Sea steadily increased. The Scythian tion, archeologically traced. In the 4th century BC king apparently regarded the Greek colonies as unnec- in the Dnieper forest-steppe zone, steppe-type buri- essary intermediaries in the wheat trade with mainland als appear. In addition to the nomadic advance in Greece. Besides, the settling cattlemen were attracted the north in search of the new pastures, they show by the Greek agricultural belt in Southern Crimea. The an increase of pressure on the farmers of the forest- later Scythia was both culturally and socio-economically steppe belt. The Boryspil kurgans belong almost en- far less advanced than its Greek neighbors such as Olvia tirely to soldiers and sometimes even women war- or Chersonesos. riors. The bloom of steppe Scythia coincides with The continuity of the royal line is less clear in the Lesser decline of forest-steppe. From the second half of Scythias of Crimea and Thrace than it had been previ- the 5th century BC, importing of antique goods to ously. In the 2nd century BC, Olvia became a Scythian the Middle Dnieper decreased because of the pau- dependency. That event was marked in the city by perization of the dependent farmers. In the forest- minting of coins bearing the name of the Scythian king steppe, kurgans of the 4th century BC are poorer Skilurus. He was a son of a king and a father of a king, but than during previous times. At the same time, the the relation of his dynasty with the former dynasty is not cultural influence of the steppe nomads grew. The known. Either Skilurus or his son and successor Palakus Senkov kurgans in the Kiev area, left by the local were buried in the mausoleum of Scythian Neapol that agricultural population, are low and contain poor fe- was used from c. 100 BC to c. 100 AD. However, the male and empty male burials, in a striking contrast last burials are so poor that they do not seem to be royal, with the nearby Boryspil kurgans of the same era left indicating a change in the dynasty or royal burials in an- by the Scythian conquerors. other place. Later, at the end of the 2nd century BC, Olvia was freed • Beginning of city life in Scythia. from the Scythian domination, but became a subject to Mithridates I of Parthia. By the end of the 1st century • Growth of trade with Northern Black Sea Greek BC, Olbia, rebuilt after its sack by the Getae, became a cities, and increase in Hellenization of the Scythian dependency of the Dacian barbarian kings, who minted 62 CHAPTER 7. SCYTHIA

their own coins in the city. Later from the 2nd century • Amyrgians AD Olbia belonged to the Roman Empire. Scythia was • the ﬁrst state north of the Black Sea to collapse with the Budini invasion of the Goths in the 2nd century AD (see Oium). • Dahae

• Geloni 7.5 Scythian kings • Gargarii

• Haraiva

• Legae

• Mathura

• Parni

• Saka

• Sakā Haumavargā[16]

• Saka Tigrakhauda

• Suren

7.7 See also

• Maeotian marshes

• Sarmatia Scythian king Skilurus, relief from Scythian Neapolis, Crimea, 2nd century BC 7.8 Art and literature

• Scylas (c. 500 BC) – Herodotus describes him as a • In his later years, Ovid wrote the poems Tristia and Scythian whose mother was Greek, he was expelled Epistulae ex Ponto about his exile in Tomis. by his people • Alekseev, A. Yu. et al., “Chronology of Eurasian • Octamasadas (c. 450 BC) – was put on the throne Scythian Antiquities Born by New Archaeological after Scylas and 14C Data”. Radiocarbon, Vol. 43, No 2B, • Ateas (c. 429–339 BC) – defeated by the 2001, pp. 1085–1107. Macedonians; his empire fell apart • Bunker, Emma C. (2002). Nomadic art of the east- • Skilurus (c. 125–110 BC) – died during a war ern Eurasian steppes: the Eugene V. Thaw and other against Mithridates VI of Pontus New York collections. New York: The Metropoli- tan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780300096880. • Palacus (c. 100 BC) – the last Scythian ruler, defeated by Mithridates • Khazanov, A.M., Social history of Scythians, Moscow, 1975 (in Russian).

• Morgan Llewelyn's novel The Horse Goddess is a 7.6 Scythian tribes story of Celts and Scythians.

Many diﬀerent groupings of Scythian tribes include the • Wolfgang Jaedtke's German novel Steppenkind, following: Piper Verlag, Munich 2008. ISBN 978-3-492- 25146-4, describes the life of nomadic Scythians • Androphagi around 700 BC. • • Agathyrsi Max Overton's novels Lion of Scythia and The Golden King follow the life of a Macedonian oﬃcer • Agrippaeans captured by a Scythian tribe in about 323 BC. 7.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 63

• Andrew Bird's song, “Scythian Empires”, references 7.10 External links Scythians. • An Introductory Bibliography on Scythia (French) • Hate Forest's demo album, Scythia was a black metal album released in 1999. • Pyotr O. Karyshkovskij-Ikar Coins of Olbia: Essay • Christopher Marlowe's semi-historical play, of Monetary Circulation of the North-western Black Tamburlaine the Great, is based on the life of a Sea Region in Antique Epoch. Киев, 1988. ISBN 'Scythian shepherd'. 5-12-000104-1. • • The videogame, Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones, Bagnall, R., J. Drinkwater, A. Esmonde-Cleary, W. portrays the Scythians as powerful warriors who take Harris, R. Knapp, S. Mitchell, S. Parker, C. Wells, control of the Persian capital city, Babylon. J. Wilkes, R. Talbert, M. E. Downs, M. Joann Mc- Daniel, B. Z. Lund, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. “Places: • The videogame, Superbrothers: Sword & Sworcery 991379 (Scythia)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, EP, is set within a fantastical version of Scythia. 2012. The nameless protagonist is informally referred to as 'The Scythian.' • In the turn-based strategy game Rome: Total War, Scythia is featured as an unplayable barbarian fac- tion.

7.9 References

[1]

[2] “Scythia”, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), William Smith, LLD, Ed.

[3] Lessman, Thomas. “World History Maps”. 2004. Thomas Lessman. Retrieved 23 October 2013.

[4] Giovanni Boccaccio’s Famous Women translated by Vir- ginia Brown 2001, p. 25; Cambridge and London, Har- vard University Press; ISBN 0-674-01130-9 ".....extending from the Black Sea in a northerly direction towards Ocean.” In Boccaccio’s time the Baltic Sea was known also as Oceanus Sarmaticus.

[5] Σκώλοτοι (Scōloti, Herodotus 4.6)

[6] Sinor, Denis (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University. ISBN 0521243041. Retrieved 21 August 2014.

[7] Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898) Oceanus Sarmaticus

[8] Herodotus IV, 76

[9] Isocrates 436–338 BC, Panegyricus 67

[10] Strabo VII, 3, 18

[11] Polyaenus, Stratagems VII, 44, 1

[12] Trogus, Prologue, IX

[13] Justin, XII, 1, 4

[14] Diodorus, 11, 43, 7

[15] Strabo VII, 4, 5

[16] “Regal Chronologies”. 14 March 2014. obsidianrex. Re- trieved 18 April 2014. 64 CHAPTER 7. SCYTHIA

7.11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.11.1 Text

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bot, MauritsBot, Deide, RibotBOT, AlimanRuna, FrescoBot, Zero Thrust, Girlwithgreeneyes, DrilBot, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Adlerbot, BRUTE, MastiBot, Irbisgreif, FoxBot, TobeBot, Jonkerz, Satdeep Gill, EmausBot, Efficiency Kasai 327, WikitanvirBot, Syn- categoremata, Winner 42, Thedarknight666, ZéroBot, RaptureBot, Telugujoshi, Ollyoxenfree, Orange Suede Sofa, Acsacal, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, IfYouDoIfYouDon't, Linguistatlunch, ComtesseDeMingrelie, Widr, Cognate247, Kutsuit, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Kyoakoa, Wiki13, BattyBot, Sminthopsis84, Krakkos, JustAMuggle, C5st4wr6ch, JamesMoose, Nera456, Serzone, Josh35787, Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi, Monkbot, Xcvbnm21, Mnipšua Qeleuxšeom Titašqausipolaiut, NostraticABDL, Gamer- gate is a bunch of nazi misandrists and Anonymous: 209 • Writing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing?oldid=661349394 Contributors: Marj Tiefert, Mav, Stephen Gilbert, Pinkunicorn, William Avery, Daniel C. 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Noor Umarisa, BattyBot, Miszatomic, Riley Huntley, Pratyya Ghosh, Stausifr, Spkoh1, GoShow, Khazar2, Pschintee, Mhatab, Dexbot, Cwobeel, Thermocycler, Lugia2453, Shuvo931, Frosty, RAIDENRULES123, , NanxiGG, Reatlas, Dpaj, Kaykaybad, Krodonoghue, NIKOLAOS1988, Taniquab2014, Ugog Nizdast, Puthoni, Sagamisailor, Junothan the biligerent, Joancdocyogen, TimLAdotnet, Afro-Eurasian, Leonardo the Florentine, JaconaFrere, Joe chidiac, Kevinsonnier, TheRedJay37, Klnasy, Bonikbarta, Monkbot, Rzulu, Richardjones05, KH-1, Michlap, StopStealingUsernamesYouAssSal- ads, Weegeerunner, Wademick, Robincharlton, Oscarinfante, Bappydon, BlurpAlpha, Amg240, Lolzor2003, Wikivite and Anonymous: 478 • Chaldea Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaldea?oldid=659137226 Contributors: XJaM, Olivier, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Jackymac, IZAK, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, TUF-KAT, Poor Yorick, Jiang, John K, Tom Peters, Emperorbma, Itai, Wet- man, Zestauferov, Naddy, Rursus, Everyking, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Zinnmann, Tagishsimon, Golbez, Andycjp, Tothebarricades.tk, Sam Hocevar, Discospinster, EliasAlucard, Dbachmann, El C, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, MrSmart~enwiki, Jojit fb, Jakew, Hashar- Bot~enwiki, Eric Kvaalen, Pedro Aguiar, Wtmitchell, Garzo, Jheald, , Woohookitty, Briangotts, Tabletop, Lestrike, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Sargonious, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Hottentot, Gurch, EeZbub, LeCire~enwiki, The One True Fred, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Kordas, Russ- Bot, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Grafen, Pylambert, MSJapan, Phandel, Ribbentrop, LeonardoRob0t, SmackBot, Unschool, Hftf, Hmains, 68 CHAPTER 7. SCYTHIA

Chris the speller, Bluebot, Hibernian, RedHillian, Magnamax, Khoikhoi, Kntrabssi, DMacks, Lambiam, Wikiolap, CFLeon, Barthimaeus, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Breno, Onlim, RandomCritic, Agathoclea, Chrisch59, Norm mit, Iridescent, Majora4, Ko'oy, Iraqii, ,Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Andrew.hermiz, King kong922, Oliver202 ,הסרפד ,Neelix, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Llort, Dougweller, DumbBOT Kathovo, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Jj137, Myanw, JAnDbot, Deflective, V. Szabolcs, PhilKnight, Faizhaider, Lucas(CA), Mtd2006, All- starecho, Asm cc, MartinBot, Ben MacDui, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Rgoodermote, Hippasus, Tilla, Leandero, AA, Cmichael, 2help, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Thedjatclubrock, Baumfreund-FFM, GcSwRhIc, Anna Lincoln, LeaveSleaves, Crazy dude17, Monty845, Nagy, StAnselm, WereSpielChequers, Hertz1888, Til Eulenspiegel, Astrale01, Iaroslavvs, Vonones, Squash Racket, ImageRemovalBot, Clue- Bot, Neptunes2007, Balder Odinson, Wysprgr2005, SuperHamster, Burchseymour, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Jbluberry, Ex- cirial, Eeekster, Arjayay, Peter.C, Sasukeofsnake, SchreiberBike, Kakofonous, Thingg, Bearsona, JacquiNorman, Sumerophile, Avoided, WikHead, NellieBly, AlexFekken, Ploversegg, WestAssyrian, G E Enn, NjardarBot, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, SamatBot, AgadaUrbanit, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Mohsenkazempur, Leovizza, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Gobbleswoggler, Anypodetos, Angel ivanov angelov, Matanya, AnomieBOT, Chaldeans, Materialscientist, Saintchang~enwiki, Fatepur, Xqbot, Wikisuxx, Polemyx, J04n, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Ashrf1979, Aturaya, Propagator, Tuleytula, Peanutcactus, A.amitkumar, C0rona305, FrescoBot, Tjsalisbury, WikiDisam- biguation, Izzedine, I dream of horses, Haithamsitto, , FoxBot, Yunshui, BassamAllen, Zoeperkoe, Hiturface, Rainwalker9592, FrankDev, BenyaminMoshe, BCtl, EmausBot, Sir Arthur Williams, John of Reading, Domesticenginerd, WikitanvirBot, Laszlovszky An- ,Dffgd, EddieDrood, Jay-Sebastos, Donner60 ,פארוק ,drás, GoingBatty, Sinharib99, , ZéroBot, Tisqupnaia2010, Bongoramsey FeatherPluma, Petrb, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, -sche, Oddbodz, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Bristol7, AvocatoBot, JohnThorne, Minsbot, Suryoye85, Alvaro1717, Hergilei, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, I am One of Many, Josh bark, Ur of the chaldean, Hfountain, Penguins53, Recordstraight83, Pengolodhlerner, Sam Sailor, TCMemoire, Katastrof1967, Prodrop, Jayakumar RG, Lawrence- goriel, Smootify, Nebuchadnezzar III, ChaldeanEthnicity, Suraya90, Amircantdothis, Ellyschmol, MLODROB, Matt mina, Habusas and Anonymous: 287 • Scythia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythia?oldid=649750424 Contributors: Leandrod, EALacey, Altenmann, Orpheus, Utcursch, Mzajac, Dbachmann, Mani1, Kwamikagami, Bastique, Giraffedata, Caeruleancentaur, Danielduende~enwiki, Mysdaao, Ghirlan- dajo, Woohookitty, Chekaz, Ev, Codex Sinaiticus, RussBot, Pigman, Theelf29, Alex Bakharev, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Thane, Irishguy, SFGiants, Nikkimaria, Tajik, The Way, SmackBot, Brianski, Hmains, Diewelt, Armeria, Cattus, Ioscius, OrphanBot, Thomas Graves, Superjordo, Citizenabc, Nepaheshgar, Clicketyclack, Ceoil, Nasz, ChrisCork, Galassi, Dougweller, Chrislk02, Mibelz, Picus viridis, Mousebelt, Wayiran, JAnDbot, MER-C, Barefact, Cynwolfe, Roger2909, Mrld, Doug Coldwell, Taamu, Roberth Edberg, Agri- colae, Kevinsam, Wiki Raja, Trusilver, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Inportland, Johnbod, Trilobitealive, Kansas Bear, Aminullah, Jmrowland, I'mDown, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Wikintern-MM, ClueBot, Urbanus Secundus, Soaringbear, Athang1504, Unbanned, RayquazaDi- algaWeird2210, Mleusink, Asmith44, Pirags, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, J293339, Mjr162006, The Shadow-Fighter, Bahamut Star, ,Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Iroony, AnomieBOT, Савелий В А, Chell and the cake ,ماني ,Raayen, Lightbot, Jan eissfeldt, John Belushi -Jasdeep ,روخو ,Ellipi, Omnipaedista, Auréola, FrescoBot, Brian426uk, Misigon, Massagetae, Mehlauge, Aerosoldier, J-Scythian, Lotje ,BG19bot ,آرش ,syan, EmausBot, Alagos, Italia2006, Raosaab7, Sergii.Fiot, Erianna, Obotlig, WorldWarTwoEditor, Khestwol, Navops47 BattyBot, LarryVlad, Serge-kazak, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, WilliamDigiCol, Krakkos, Zyma, HistoryofIran, Lifeglider, EvergreenFir, Par- sia2013, Interpréteur, Prestigiouzman, Nhinkle9, Alinematzadeh and Anonymous: 106

7.11.2 Images

• File:ASL_family.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/ASL_family.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Natural American Sign Language Original artist: David Fulmer from Pittsburgh • File:Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Accountancy_ clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marie-Lan Nguyen • File:Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Ancient Tamil Script Original artist: Symphoney Symphoney from New York, US • File:Angers_Cathedral_South_Rose_Window_of_Christ_with_Zodiac.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/4c/Angers_Cathedral_South_Rose_Window_of_Christ_with_Zodiac.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chiswick Chap • File:Aquarius.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Aquarius.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Aries.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Aries.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Arnold_Lakhovsky_Conversation.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Arnold_Lakhovsky_ Conversation.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sothebys.com/content/dam/stb/lots/N08/N08338/N08338-214-lr-1. jpg Original artist: Arnold Lakhovsky • File:Astrologia-tynkä.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Astrologia-tynk%C3%A4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Astrologyproject.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Astrologyproject.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Chris Brennan on en.wikipedia Original artist: User Chris Brennan on en.wikipedia • File:BBC-artefacts.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/BBC-artefacts.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contrib- utors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Chenshilwood at English Wikipedia • File:Beit_Alpha.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Beit_Alpha.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Botticelli_Sant'Agostino.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/76/Botticelli_Sant%27Agostino.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? 7.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 69

• File:Braille_house09.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Braille_house09.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kou07kou • File:Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG License: GFDL Contributors: self-made - reproduction of combined images Surfacegyri.JPG by Reid Oﬀringa and Ventral-dorsal streams.svg by Selket Original artist: James.mcd.nz • File:Cancer.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Cancer.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Orig- inal artist: ? • File:Capricorn.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Capricorn.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Chaldea_-_Map_-_Chaldea_and_Neighboring_Countries.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/ Chaldea_-_Map_-_Chaldea_and_Neighboring_Countries.png License: Public domain Contributors: The Project Gutenberg eBook, Chaldea. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24654/24654-h/24654-h.htm Original artist: Zénaïde A. Ragozin. No Map Credit. Published by T. FISHER UNWIN, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS. MDCCCXCIII • File:Chaldea_-_Map_-_The_Countries_around_Chaldea.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/ Chaldea_-_Map_-_The_Countries_around_Chaldea.png License: Public domain Contributors: The Project Gutenberg eBook, Chaldea. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24654/24654-h/24654-h.htm Original artist: Zénaïde A. Ragozin. No Map Credit. Publisher T. FISHER UNWIN, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS. MDCCCXCIII • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Constellations_ecliptic_equirectangular_plot.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Constellations_ ecliptic_equirectangular_plot.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003500/a003572 Original artist: Cmglee, Timwi, NASA • File:Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/ Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chiswick Chap • File:Cuneiform_script2.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png License: Public domain Contributors: This ﬁle was derived from: Cuneiform script2.jpg Original artist: Cuneiform_script2.jpg: • File:Cylinder_seal_lions_Louvre_MNB1167_n2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Cylinder_seal_ lions_Louvre_MNB1167_n2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2010) Original artist: ? • File:Dendera.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Dendera.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Earth_precession.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Earth_precession.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized by Mysid in Inkscape after a NASA Earth Observatory image in Milutin Milankovitch Precession. Original artist: NASA, Mysid • File:Ecliptic_path.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Ecliptic_path.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Tauʻolunga • File:Equinox_path.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Equinox_path.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Kevin Heagen • File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure_by_Jullien.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Ferdinand_de_Saussure_ by_Jullien.png License: Public domain Contributors: Indogermanisches Jahrbuch Original artist: “F. 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Author: Janos Korom Dr. (Hungary), 24 August 2002. Original artist: Anonymous • File:Gyroscope_precession.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Gyroscope_precession.gif License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: LucasVB • File:Gyroscopic_precession_256x256.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Gyroscopic_precession_ 256x256.png License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Image created with the help of POV-ray ray-tracing software. Original artist: Cleonis at en.wikipedia • File:Hangul_wi.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Hangul_wi.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kjoonlee 70 CHAPTER 7. SCYTHIA

• File:Hungarian_Hieroglyph_Writing_-_Szentgyörgyvölgy_cow_(1).JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 2/2b/Hungarian_Hieroglyph_Writing_-_Szentgy%C3%B6rgyv%C3%B6lgy_cow_%281%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Derzsi Elekes Andor • File:Illu01_head_neck.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Illu01_head_neck.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://training.seer.cancer.gov/head-neck/anatomy/overview.html Original artist: Arcadian • File:KSL_wi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/KSL_wi.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Common Good using CommonsHelper. 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Original artist: Xavier Snelgrove • File:Precession_N.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Precession_N.gif License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contrib- utors: self, 4 bit GIF Original artist: Tauʻolunga • File:Primary_Human_Language_Families_Map.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Primary_ Human_Language_Families_Map.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PiMaster3 • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 7.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 71

• File:Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_(Chinese).ogv Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Real-time_MRI_-_ Speaking_%28Chinese%29.ogv License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.biomednmr.mpg.de Original artist: Biomedizinische NMR Forschungs GmbH • File:Sagittarius.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Sagittarius.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Satellite_image_of_Crimea.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Satellite_image_of_Crimea.png License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Original artist: ? • File:Scorpio.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Scorpio.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Orig- inal artist: ? • File:Scythia-Parthia_100_BC.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Scythia-Parthia_100_BC.png Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? 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